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diff --git a/39353.txt b/39353.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bbbc550 --- /dev/null +++ b/39353.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19662 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4 + "Hero" to "Hindu Chronology" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 2, 2012 [EBook #39353] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HERO: "... Arthur's foster-brother and seneschal, the type + of the bluff and boastful warrior, and Bedivere (Bedwyr), ..." + 'seneschal' amended from 'sensechal'. + + ARTICLE HERWEGH, GEORG: "He next studied law, but having gained the + interest of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he + returned to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic + post." 'journalistic' amended from 'journalisitic'. + + ARTICLE HESSE-CASSEL: "The regent, without his father's coarseness, + had a full share of his arbitrary and avaricious temper." + 'arbitrary' amended from 'arbitary'. + + ARTICLE HIEL, EMMANUEL: "... Jakoba van Beieren ('Jacqueline of + Bavaria,' a poetic drama, 1880); ..." 'Jacqueline' amended from + 'Jacquelein'. + + ARTICLE HILL, JOHN: "Hill's botanical labours were undertaken at + the request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the + order of Vasa from the king of Sweden in 1774." 'undertaken' + amended from 'underaken'. + + ARTICLE HILLEL: "The duty of considering oneself part of common + humanity, of not differing from others by any peculiarity of + behaviour, he sums up in the words:" 'common' amended from + 'comman'. + + ARTICLE HILLEL: "The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's + consciousness of God is shown in the words spoken by him on the + occasion of a feast in the Temple ..." 'consciousness' amended from + 'conciousness'. + + ARTICLE HINDOSTANI: "In the article Prakrit it is shown that the + same construction is obtained in that language." added 'is'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIII, SLICE IV + + HERO to HINDU CHRONOLOGY + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HERO HIAWATHA + HERO AND LEANDER HIBBING + HERO OF ALEXANDRIA HIBERNACULUM + HERO (the Younger) HIBERNATION + HEROD HIBERNIA + HERODAS HICKERINGILL, EDMUND + HERODIANS HICKES, GEORGE + HERODIANUS HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS + HERODIANUS, AELIUS HICKORY + HERODOTUS HICKS, ELIAS + HEROET, ANTOINE HICKS, HENRY + HEROIC ROMANCES HICKS, WILLIAM + HEROIC VERSE HIDALGO (state of Mexico) + HEROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND HIDALGO (Spanish title) + HERON HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL + HERPES HIDDENITE + HERRERA, FERNANDO DE HIDE + HERRERA, FRANCISCO HIEL, EMMANUEL + HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE HIEMPSAL + HERRICK, ROBERT HIERAPOLIS + HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES HIERARCHY + HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL HIERATIC + HERRING HIERAX + HERRING-BONE HIERO + HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE HIERO II. + HERRNHUT HIEROCLES + HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA + HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM HIEROGLYPHICS + HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN WILLIAM HIERONYMITES + HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA + HERSENT, LOUIS HIERRO + HERSFELD HIGDON, RANULF + HERSTAL HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES + HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH + HERTFORD (Hertfordshire, England) HIGHAM FERRERS + HERTFORDSHIRE HIGHGATE + HERTHA HIGHLANDS, THE + HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF HIGHNESS + HERTZ, HENRIK HIGH PLACE + HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH HIGH SEAS + HERTZEN, ALEXANDER HIGHWAY + HERULI HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE + HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO HILARION, ST + HERVEY, JAMES HILARIUS, ST (bishop of Pictavium) + HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, JEAN LEON HILARIUS (bishop of Rome) + HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY HILARIUS (Latin poet) + HERVIEU, PAUL HILARIUS, ST (bishop of Arles) + HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, EBERHARD HILDA, ST + HERWEGH, GEORG HILDBURGHAUSEN + HERZBERG (town in Hanover) HILDEBERT + HERZBERG (town in Saxony) HILDEBRAND, LAY OF + HERZL, THEODOR HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD + HERZOG, HANS HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR + HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB HILDEGARD, ST + HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG HILDEN + HESILRIGE, SIR ARTHUR HILDESHEIM + HESIOD HILDRETH, RICHARD + HESPERIDES HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH + HESPERUS HILL, AARON + HESS (family of German artists) HILL, AMBROSE POWELL + HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF HILL, DANIEL HARVEY + HESSE HILL, DAVID BENNETT + HESSE-CASSEL HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN + HESSE-DARMSTADT HILL, JAMES J. + HESSE-HOMBURG HILL, JOHN + HESSE-NASSAU HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT + HESSE-ROTENBURG HILL, OCTAVIA and MIRANDA + HESSIAN HILL, ROWLAND + HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS HILL, SIR ROWLAND + HESTIA HILL, ROWLAND HILL + HESYCHASTS HILL (elevation) + HESYCHIUS (Alexandrian grammarian) HILLAH + HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN + HETAERISM HILLEBRAND, KARL + HETEROKARYOTA HILLEL (Jewish rabbi) + HETERONOMY HILLER, FERDINAND + HETMAN HILLER, JOHANN ADAM + HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR HILLIARD, LAWRENCE + HETTSTEDT HILLIARD, NICHOLAS + HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON HILLSDALE + HEULANDITE HILL TIPPERA + HEUSCH, WILLEM HILTON, JOHN + HEVELIUS, JOHANN HILTON, WILLIAM + HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER HILVERSUM + HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS HIMALAYA + HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY HIMERA + HEXAMETER HIMERIUS + HEXAPLA HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE + HEXAPODA HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY + HEXASTYLE HINCKLEY + HEXATEUCH HINCKS, EDWARD + HEXHAM HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS + HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER HINCMAR + HEYLYN, PETER HIND + HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON + HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB HINDI, EASTERN + HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG HINDI, WESTERN + HEYSHAM HINDKI + HEYWOOD, JOHN HINDLEY + HEYWOOD, THOMAS HINDOSTANI + HEYWOOD (Lancashire, England) HINDOSTANI LITERATURE + HEZEKIAH HINDU CHRONOLOGY + HIATUS + + + + +HERO (Gr. [Greek: heros]), a term specially applied to warriors of +extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who were +distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical or +intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the word has been +suggested. + + +_Ancient Greek Heroes._ + +In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult, and as +such were intimately connected with its religious life. Various theories +have been put forward as to the nature of these heroes. According to +some authorities, they were idealized historical personages; according +to others, symbolical representations of the forces of nature. The view +most commonly held is that they were degraded or "depotentiated" gods, +occupying a position intermediate between gods and men. According to E. +Rohde (in _Psyche_) they are souls of the dead, which after separation +from the body enter upon a higher, eternal existence. But it is only a +select minority who attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the +distinguished men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality +an ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was +preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being +degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real heroes, the +heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes were all persons +who had lived the life of man on earth, and it was necessary for the +degraded gods to pass through this stage. They did not at once become +cult-heroes, but only after they had undergone death like other mortals. +Only one who has been a man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of +the dead, not demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods +and men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class. + +In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to kings and +kings' sons, even to distinguished persons of lower rank, and free men +generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly confined to those who fought before +Troy and Thebes; in view of their supposed divine origin, he calls them +demi-gods ([Greek: hemitheoi]). This name is also given them in an +interpolated passage in the _Iliad_ (xii. 23), which is quite at +variance with the general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more +than men, even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess. +But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea that +the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over the lives of +those who survived them; and consequently, no cult. Nevertheless, traces +of an earlier ancestor worship appear, e.g. in funeral games in honour +of Patroclus and other heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five +ages of man is a reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence +of souls in a higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a +time obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry (_De +abstinentia_, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica to honour +the gods and heroes of their country "in accordance with the usage of +their fathers" with offerings of first fruits and sacrificial cakes +every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom of high antiquity. +Solon also ordered that the tombs of the heroes should be treated with +the greatest respect, and Cleisthenes (q.v.) sought to create a +pan-Athenian enthusiasm by calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and +setting up their statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first +bestowed upon the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of +families; if their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In +many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the supposed +ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica and elsewhere +(Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus Ceryces at Eleusis), of the +eponymi of the tribes and demes. Again, side by side with gods of +superior rank, certain heroes were worshipped as protecting spirits of +the country or state; such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans, +Ajax son of Oileus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at +Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be +responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes, while, on +the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was equally +beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic oracle, which was +largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship and keeping alive its due +observance. Special importance was attached to the grave of the hero and +to his bodily remains, with which the spirit of the departed was +inseparably connected. The grave was regarded as his place of abode, +from which he could only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones +were fetched from abroad (e.g. Cimon brought those of Theseus from +Scyros), or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was +erected in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the +house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone on +which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special shrines ([Greek: +heroa]) were also erected in their honour, usually over their graves. In +these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in accordance with the +idea that the hero was essentially a warrior, who on occasion came forth +from his grave and fought at the head of his countrymen, putting the +enemy to flight as during his lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes +were supposed to exercise an influence on human affairs, though not to +the same extent, their sphere of action being confined to their own +localities. Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the +elevation of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of +Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton and +Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local Athenian hero +Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank of a hero became far +more common, and was even accorded to the living, such as Lysimachus in +Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene +instituted an order of priests to celebrate the anniversary of his birth +and coronation in a special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed +divine honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime. The +birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month sacrifice was +offered to him and games held in his honour. In addition to persons of +high rank, poets, legendary and others (Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus +and Sophocles), legislators and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the +patrons of various trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers, +potters), the heads of philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus, +Epicurus) received the honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered +before the statue of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some +countries the honour became so general that every man after death was +described as a hero in his epitaph--in Thessaly even slaves. + +The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that of the +chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that of the +ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not "depotentiated" +gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at night or in the evening; +not on a high, but on a low altar ([Greek: eschara]), surrounded by a +trench to receive the blood of the victim, which was supposed to make +its way through the ground to the occupant of the grave; the victims +were black male animals, whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards; +their blood was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed +([Greek: haimakouria]); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no +mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the +sacrifice was not [Greek: thuein] but [Greek: enagizein] (less commonly +[Greek: entemnein]). The chthonian aspect of the hero is further shown +by his attribute the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form +himself. On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set +out for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake. The +fullest description of such a festival is the account given by Plutarch +(_Aristides_, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans in honour +of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of Plataea. On the 16th +of the month Maimacterion, a long procession, headed by a trumpeter +playing a warlike air, set out for the graves; wagons decked with myrtle +and garlands of flowers followed, young men (who must be of free birth) +carried jars of wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull +destined for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who +wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand, in the +other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew some water with +which he washed the gravestones, afterwards anointing them with perfume; +he then sacrificed the bull on the altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and +Hermes Psychopompos, and inviting them in company with the heroes to the +festival of blood. Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words: +"I drink to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes." + + See especially E. Rohde, _Psyche_ (1905) and in _Rheinisches Museum_, + li. (1895), 28; P. Stengel, _Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer_ + (Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schomann, _Griechische Altertumer_, ii. + (1897), 159; J. Wassner, _De heroum apud Graecos cultu_ (Kiel, 1883); + article by F. Deneken in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, in which + a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild, _Etude sur les + demons_ (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_. + + +_Teutonic Legend._ + +Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek heroes are +reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the parallel being in some +cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance, like Achilles, is +vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith, like Hephaestus, is +lame. Superhuman qualities and powers, too, are commonly ascribed to +both, an important difference, however, being that whatever worship may +have been paid to the Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult. +This applies equally to those who have a recognized historical origin +and to those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the +number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship. The +fashion during the 19th century set strongly in the other direction, and +the "degraded gods" theory was applied not only to such conspicuous +heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and Beowulf, but to a host of minor +characters, such as the good marquis Rudeger of the Nibelungenlied and +our own Robin Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The +reaction from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until +not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being traced to +very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus M. Henri de Tourville, +in his_ Histoire de la formation particulariste_ (1903), basing his +argument on the _Ynglinga Saga_, interpreted in the light of "Social +Science," reveals Odin, "the traveller," as a great "caravan-leader" and +warrior, who, driven from Asgard--a trading city on the borders of the +steppes east of the Don--by "the blows that Pompey aimed at +Mithridates," brought to the north the arts and industries of the East. +The argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be +doubted whether it has permanently "rescued Odin from the misty +dreamland of mythology and restored him to history." It is now, however, +admitted that, whatever influence the one may have from time to time +exercised on the other, Teutonic myth and Teutonic heroic legend were +developed on independent lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main, +historical personages, never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they +are sometimes endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as +symbolical representations of natural forces. + +The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded as including +that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians, is to be +looked for in the period of the so-called migration of nations (A.D. +350-650). It consequently rests upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga +(in the older and wider sense of any story said or sung) being indeed +the oldest form of historical tradition; though this of course does not +exclude the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round +persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the heroic +sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds of Arminius +were still celebrated in song a hundred years after his death (_Annals_, +ii. 88) and in the _Germania_ he speaks of "old songs" as the only kind +of "annals" which the ancient Germans possessed; but, whatever relics of +the old songs may be embedded in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no +recognizable mark on the heroic poetry of the German peoples. The +attempt to identify Arminius with Siegfried is now generally abandoned. +Teutonic heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions +connected with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are +found in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus +and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of Cassiodorus's +_History of the Goths_) at the funeral of Attila his vassals, as they +rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds. The next step in the +development of epic narrative was the single lay of an episodic +character, sung by a single individual, who was frequently a member of a +distinguished family, not merely a professional minstrel. Then, as +different stories grew up round the person of a particular hero, they +formed a connected cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person +of the hero (e.g. Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these +cycles are the following. + +(1) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its present +form was probably brought from the continent by the Angles. It is an +amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the slayer of the water-demon and the +dragon, with the historical legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of +Hygelac (Chochilaicus), king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain +(c. 520) while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel and +the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally wounded, have been +supposed to represent the powers of autumn and darkness, the floods +which at certain seasons overflow the low-lying countries on the coast +of the North Sea and sweep away all human habitations; Beowulf is the +hero of spring and light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging +waters, finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others +regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours of the +fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf-Scyld (i.e. Scyld +Scefing, "the protector with the sheaf") lands on the Anglian or +Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudderless ship, asleep on a sheaf +of grain, symbolical of the means whereby his kingdom shall become +great; the son indicates the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured +against the attacks of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest +German epic. A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when +threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty years' +absence, he returns to his home In Italy; his son Hadubrand, believing +his father to be dead, suspects treachery and refuses to accept presents +offered by the father in token of good-will. A fight takes place, in +which the son is slain by the father. In a later version, recognition +and reconciliation take place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and +Telegonis, Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths, +who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (c. 375) in terror at +the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected the old German Dioscuri +myth of the Harlungen. (4) Dietrich of Bern (Verona), the legendary name +of Theodoric the Great. Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is +supposed to have been his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been +deprived by Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a +typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes refuge in +Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally recovers his +kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented as fighting with +giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears on a black horse. +Some attempts have been made to identify him as a kind of Donar or god +of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H. Ger. Sivrit), the hero of the +_Niebelungenlied_, the Sigurd of the related northern sagas, is usually +regarded as a purely mythical figure, a hero of light who is ultimately +overcome by the powers of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He +is, however, closely associated with historical characters and events, +e.g. with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the +overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars have +exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify him with +various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (_Das Nibelungenlied_, +Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to three groups of Burgundian +legends, each based on fact: the Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the +murder of Segeric, son of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by +his father at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian +story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. 11), of the defeat of the +Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity and murder of +Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation of their mother +Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her father Chilperich and of +her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish-Burgundian story of the ruin of +Gundahari's kingdom by Attila's Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried +(Sigurd) with Segeric, while--according to him--the heroine of the +Nibelung sagas, Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two +historical persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde), +the wife of Attila. (See also the articles KRIEMHILD, NIBELUNGENLIED). + +(6) Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like that of +Siegfried, is of Frankish origin. It is preserved in four versions, the +best of which is the oldest, and has an historical foundation. +Hugdietrich is the "Frankish Dietrich" (= Hugo Theodoric), king of +Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and successor Theodebert, was +illegitimate; both had to fight for their inheritance with relatives. +The transference of the scene to Constantinople is a reminiscence of the +events of the Crusades and Theodebert's projected campaign against that +city. The version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife +by disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As the +myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so another Dioscuri +myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend. +The Hartungen are probably identical with the divine youths (mentioned +in Tacitus as worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from +whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent. Asdingi +([Greek: Astiggoi]) would be represented in Gothic by Hazdiggos, "men +with women's hair" (cf. _muliebri ornatu_ in Tacitus), and in middle +high German by Hartungen. (7) Rother, king of Lombardy. Desiring to wed +the daughter of Constantine, king of Constantinople, he sends twelve +envoys to ask her in marriage. They are arrested and thrown into prison +by the king. Rother, who appears under the name of Dietrich, sets out +with an army, liberates the envoys and carries off the princess. One +version places the scene in the land of the Huns. The character of +Constantine in many respects resembles that of Alexius Comnenus; the +slaying of a tame lion by one of the gigantic followers of Rother is +founded on an incident which actually took place at the court of Alexius +during the crusade of 1101 under duke Welf of Bavaria, when _King +Rother_ was composed about 1160 by a Rhenish minstrel. Rother may be the +Lombard king Rothari (636-650), transferred to the period of the +Crusades. (8) Walther of Aquitaine, chiefly known from the Latin poem +_Waltharius_, written by Ekkehard of St Gall at the beginning of the +10th century, and fragments of an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Epic +_Waldere_. Walther is not an historical figure, although the legend +undoubtedly represents typical occurrences of the migration period, such +as the detention and flight of hostages of noble family from the court +of the Huns, and the rescue of captive maidens by abduction. (9) Wieland +(Volundr), Wayland the Smith, the only Teutonic hero (his original home +was lower Saxony) who firmly established himself in England. There is +absolutely no historical background for his legend. He is a fire-spirit, +who is pressed into man's service, and typifies the advance from the +stone age to a higher stage of civilization (working in metals). As the +lame smith he reminds us of Hephaestus, and in his flight with wings of +Daedalus escaping from Minos. (10) Hogni (Hagen) and Hedin (Hetel), +whose personalities are overshadowed by the heroines Hilde and Gudrun +(Kudrun, Kutrun). In one version occurs the incident of the never-ending +battle between the forces of Hagen and Hedin. Every night Hilde revives +the fallen, and "so will it continue till the twilight of the gods." The +battle represents the eternal conflict between light and darkness, the +alternation of day and night. Hilde here figures as a typical Valkyr +delighting in battle and bloodshed, who frustrates a reconciliation. +Hedin had sent a necklace as a peace-offering to Hagen, but Hilde +persuades her father that it is only a ruse. This necklace occurs in the +story of the goddess Freya (Frigg), who is said to have caused the +battle to conciliate the wrath of Odin at her infidelity, the price paid +by her for the possession of the necklace Brisnigamen; again, the light +god Heimdal is said to have fought with Loki for the necklace (the sun) +stolen by the latter. Hence the battle has been explained as the +necklace myth in epic form. The historical background is the raids of +the Teutonic maritime tribes on the coasts of England and Ireland. + +Famous heroes who are specially connected with England are Alfred the +Great, Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King Horn, Havelok the Dane, Guy of +Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton (or Southampton), Robin Hood and his +companions. + + +_Celtic Heroes._ + +The Celtic heroic saga in the British islands may be divided into the +two principal groups of Gaelic (Irish) and Brython (Welsh), the first, +excluding the purely mythological, into the Ultonian (connected with +Ulster) and the Ossianic. The Ultonianis grouped round the names of King +Conchobar and the hero Cuchulainn, "the Irish Achilles," the defender of +Ulster against all Ireland, regarded by some as a solar hero. The second +cycle contains the epics of Finn (Fionn, Fingal) mac Cumhail, and his +son Oisin (Ossian), the bard and warrior, chiefly known from the +supposed Ossianic poems of Macpherson. (See CELT, sec. _Celtic +Literature_.) + +Of Brython origin is the cycle of King Arthur (Artus), the adopted +national hero of the mixed nationalities of whom the "English" people +was composed. Here he appears as a chiefly mythical personality, who +slays monsters, such as the giant of St Michel, the boar Troit, the +demon cat, and goes down to the underworld. The original Welsh legend +was spread by British refugees in Brittany, and was thus celebrated by +both English and French Celts. From a literary point of view, however, +it is chiefly French and forms "the matter of Brittany." Arthur, the +leader (_comes Britanniae, dux bellorum_) of the Siluri or Dumnonii +against the Saxons, flourished at the beginning of the 6th century. He +is first spoken of in Nennius's _History of the Britons_ (9th century), +and at greater length in Geoffrey of Monmouth's _History of the Kings of +Britain_ (12th century), at the end of which the French Breton cycle +attained its fullest development in the poems of Chretien de Troyes and +others. + +Speaking generally, the Celtic heroes are differentiated from the +Teutonic by the extreme exaggeration of their superhuman, or rather +extra-human, qualities. Teutonic legend does not lightly exaggerate, and +what to us seems incredible in it may be easily conceived as credible to +those by whom and for whom the tales were told; that Sigmund and his son +Sinfiotli turned themselves into wolves would be but a sign of +exceptional powers to those who believed in werewolves; Fafnir assuming +the form of a serpent would be no more incredible to the barbarous +Teuton than the similar transformation of Proteus to the Greek. But in +the characterization of their heroes the Celtic imagination runs riot, +and the quality of their persons and their acts becomes exaggerated +beyond the bounds of any conceivable probability. Take, for instance, +the description of some of Arthur's knights in the Welsh tale of +_Kilhwch and Olwen_ (in the _Mabinogion_). Along with Kai and Bedwyr +(Bedivere), Peredur (Perceval), Gwalchmai (Gawain), and many others, we +have such figures as Sgilti Yscandroed, whose way through the wood lay +along the tops of the trees, and whose tread was so light that no blade +of grass bent beneath his weight; Sol, who could stand all day upon one +leg; Sugyn the son of Sugnedydd, who was "broad-chested" to such a +degree that he could suck up the sea on which were three hundred ships +and leave nothing but dry land; Gweyyl, the son of Gwestad, who when he +was sad would let one of his lips drop beneath his waist and turn up the +other like a cap over his head; and Uchtry Varyf Draws, who spread his +red untrimmed beard over the eight-and-forty rafters of Arthur's hall. +Such figures as these make no human impression, and criticism has busied +itself in tracing them to one or other of the shadowy divinities of the +Celtic pantheon. However this may be, remnants of their primitive +superhuman qualities cling to the Celtic heroes long after they have +been transfigured, under the influence of Christianity and chivalry, +into the heroes of the medieval Arthurian romance, types--for the most +part--of the knightly virtues as these were conceived by the middle +ages; while shadowy memories of early myths live on, strangely +disguised, in certain of the episodes repeated uncritically by the +medieval poets. So Merlin preserves his diabolic origin; Arthur his +mystic coming and his mystic passing; while Gawain, and after him +Lancelot, journey across the river, as the Irish hero Bran had done +before them to the island of fair women--the Celtic vision of the realm +of death. + +The chief heroes of the medieval Arthurian romances are the following. +Arthur himself, who tends however to become completely overshadowed by +his knights, who make his court the starting-point of their adventures. +Merlin (Myrddin), the famous wizard, bard and warrior, perhaps an +historical figure, first introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth, originally +called Ambrose from the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, under whom +he is said to have first served. Perceval (Parzival, Parsifal), the +Welsh Peredur, "the seeker of the basin," the most intimately connected +with the quest of the Grail (q.v.). Tristan (Tristram), the ideal lover +of the middle ages, whose name is inseparably associated with that of +Iseult. Lancelot, son of Ban king of Brittany, a creation of chivalrous +romance, who only appears in Arthurian literature under French +influence, known chiefly from his amour with Guinevere, perhaps in +imitation of the story of Tristan and Iseult. Gawain (Welwain, Welsh +Gwalchmai), Arthur's nephew, who in medieval romance remains the type of +knightly courage and chivalry, until his character is degraded in order +to exalt that of Lancelot. Among less important, but still conspicuous, +figures may be mentioned Kay (the Kai of the _Mabinogion_), Arthur's +foster-brother and seneschal, the type of the bluff and boastful +warrior, and Bedivere (Bedwyr), the type of brave knight and faithful +retainer, who alone is with Arthur at his passing, and afterwards +becomes "a hermit and a holy man." (See ARTHUR, MERLIN, PERCEVAL, +TRISTAN, LANCELOT, GAWAIN.) + + +_Heroes of Romance._ + +Another series of heroes, forming the central figures of stories +variously derived but developed in Europe by the Latin-speaking peoples, +may be conveniently grouped under the heading of "romance." Of these the +most important are Alexander of Macedon and Charlemagne, while alongside +of them Priam and other heroes of the Trojan war appear during the +middle ages in strangely altered guise. Of all heroes of romance +Alexander has been the most widely celebrated. His name, in the form of +Iskander, is familiar in legend and story all over the East to this day; +to the West he was introduced through a Latin translation of the +original Greek romance (by the pseudo-Callisthenes) to which the +innumerable Oriental versions are likewise traceable (see ALEXANDER +III., KING OF MACEDON; sec. _The Romance of Alexander_). More important +in the West, however, was the cycle of legends gathering round the +figure of Charlemagne, forming what was known as "the matter of France." +The romances of this cycle, of Germanic (Frankish) origin and developed +probably in the north of France by the French (probably in the north of +France) contain reminiscences of the heroes of the Merovingian period, +and in their later development were influenced by the Arthurian cycle. +Just as Arthur was eclipsed by his companions, so Charlemagne's vassal +nobles, except in the _Chanson de Roland_, are exalted at the expense of +the emperor, probably the result of the changed relations between the +later emperors and their barons. The character of Charlemagne himself +undergoes a change; in the _Chanson de Roland_ he is a venerable figure, +mild and dignified, while later he appears as a cruel and typical tyrant +(as is also the case with Ermanaric). The basis of his legend is mainly +historical, although the story of his journey to Constantinople and the +East is mythical, and incidents have been transferred from the reign of +Charles Martel to his. Charlemagne is chiefly venerated as the champion +of Christianity against the heathen and the Saracens. (See CHARLEMAGNE, +_ad fin._ "The Charlemagne Legends.") + +The most famous heroes who are associated with him are Roland, praefect +of the marches of Brittany, the Orlando of Ariosto, slain at Roncevaux +(Roncevalles) in the Pyrenees, and his friend and rival Oliver +(Olivier); Ogier the Dane, the Holger Danske of Hans Andersen, and Huon +of Bordeaux, probably both introduced from the Arthurian cycle; Renaud +(Rinaldo) of Montauban, one of the four sons of Aymon, to whom the +wonderful horse Bayard was presented by Charlemagne; the traitor Doon of +Mayence; Ganelon, responsible for the treachery that led to the death of +Roland; Archbishop Turpin, a typical specimen of muscular Christianity; +William Fierabras, William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and +William of Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of +the latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances +originated the legends, in English form, of _Sowdone of Babylone_, _Sir +Otnel_, _Sir Firumbras_ and _Huon of Bordeaux_ (in which Oberon, the +king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the Fay, was +first made known to England). + +The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems on the Cid, +on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fernan Gonzalez, count of Castile. +The legend of Charlemagne as told in the _Cronica general_ of Alfonso X. +created the desire for a national hero distinguished for his exploits +against the Moors, and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del +Carpio. Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of +romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish, although the +Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from their own language. +There is no trace of a French original. + +_Slavonic Heroes._--The Slavonic heroic saga of Russia centres round +Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), the first Christian ruler of that country, +whose personality is eclipsed by that of Ilya (Elias) of Mourom, the son +of a peasant, who was said to have saved the empire from the Tatars at +the urgent request of his emperor. It is not known whether he was an +historical personage; many of the achievements attributed to him border +on the miraculous. A much-discussed work is the _Tale of Igor_, the +oldest of the Russian medieval epics. Igor was the leader of a raid +against the heathen Polovtsi in 1185; at first successful, he was +afterwards defeated and taken prisoner, but finally managed to escape. +Although the Finns are not Slavs, on topographical grounds mention may +here be made of Wainamoinen, the great magician and hero of the Finnish +epic _Kalevala_ ("land of heroes"). The popular hero of the Servians and +Bulgarians is Marko Kralyevich (q.v.), son of Vukashin, characterized by +Goethe as a counterpart of the Greek Heracles and the Persian Rustem. +For the Persian, Indian, &c., heroes see the articles on the literature +and religions of the various countries. + + AUTHORITIES.--On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grasse, _Die + grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters_ (Dresden, 1842), forming part of + his _Lehrbuch einer Literargeschichte der beruhmtesten Volker des + Mittelalters_; W. P. Ker, _Epic and Romance_ (2nd ed., 1908). + TEUTONIC.--B. Symons, "Germanische Heldensage" in H. Paul's _Grundris + der germanischen Philologie_, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd revised + edition, separately printed (_ib._, 1905); W. Grimm, _Die deutsche + Heldensage_ (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most important + works; W. Muller, _Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage_ (Heilbronn, + 1886) and supplement, _Zur Mythologie der griechischen und deutschen + Heldensage_ (_ib._, 1889); O. L. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensagen_, i. + (Strassburg, 1898) and _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (3rd revised edition, + Leipzig, 1906); Chantepie de la Saussaye, _The Religion of the + Teutons_ (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902); J. G. Robertson, _History + of German Literature_ (1902). See also HELDENBUCH. + + CELTIC.--M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de litterature + celtique_ (12 vols., 1883-1902), one vol. trans. into English by R. I. + Best, _The Irish Mythological Cycle and Celtic Mythology_ (1903); L. + Petit de Julleville, _Hist. de la langue et de la litt. francaise_, i. + _Moyen age_ (1896); C. Squire, _The Mythology of the British Isles: an + Introduction to Celtic Myth and Romance_ (1905); J. Rhys, _Celtic + Britain_ (3rd ed., 1904). SLAVONIC.--A. N. Rambaud, _La Russie epique_ + (1876); W. Wollner, _Untersuchungen uber die Volksepik der + Grossrussen_ (1879); W. R. Morfill, _Slavonic Literature_ (1883). + + + + +HERO AND LEANDER, two lovers celebrated in antiquity. Hero, the +beautiful priestess of Aphrodite at Sestos, was seen by Leander, a youth +of Abydos, at the celebration of the festival of Aphrodite and Adonis. +He became deeply enamoured of her; but, as her position as priestess and +the opposition of her parents rendered their marriage impossible they +agreed to carry on a clandestine intercourse. Every night Hero placed a +lamp in the top of the tower where she dwelt by the sea, and Leander, +guided by it, swam across the dangerous Hellespont. One stormy night the +lamp was blown out and Leander perished. On finding his body next +morning on the shore, Hero flung herself into the waves. The story is +referred to by Virgil (_Georg._ iii. 258), Statius (_Theb._ vi. 535) and +Ovid (_Her._ xviii. and xix.). The beautiful little epic of Musaeus has +been frequently translated, and is expanded in the _Hero and Leander_ of +C. Marlowe and G. Chapman. It is also the subject of a ballad by +Schiller and a drama by F. Grillparzer. + + See M. H. Jellinek, _Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Dichtung_ + (1890), and G. Knaack "Hero und Leander" in _Festgabe fur Franz + Susemihl_ (1898). A careful collection of materials will be found in + F. Koppner, _Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Literatur und Kunst + des Altertums_ (1894). + + + + +HERO OF ALEXANDRIA, Greek geometer and writer on mechanical and physical +subjects, probably flourished in the second half of the 1st century. +This is the more modern view, in contrast to the earlier theory most +generally accepted, according to which he flourished about 100 B.C. The +earlier theory started from the superscription of one of his works, +[Greek: Heronos Ktesibiou belopoiika], from which it was inferred that +Hero was a pupil of Ctesibius. Martin, Hultsch and Cantor took this +Ctesibius to be a barber of that name who lived in the reign of Ptolemy +Euergetes II. (d. 117 B.C.) and is credited with having invented an +improved water-organ. But this identification is far from certain, as a +Ctesibius _mechanicus_ is mentioned by Athenaeus as having lived under +Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). Nor can the relation of master +and pupil be certainly inferred from the superscription quoted (observe +the omission of any article), which really asserts no more than that +Hero re-edited an earlier treatise by Ctesibius, and implies nothing +about his being an _immediate_ predecessor. Further, it is certain that +Hero used physical and mathematical writings by Posidonius, the Stoic, +of Apamea, Cicero's teacher, who lived until about the middle of the 1st +century B.C. The positive arguments for the more modern view of Hero's +date are (1) the use by him of Latinisms from which Diels concluded that +the 1st century A.D. was the earliest possible date, (2) the description +in Hero's _Mechanics_ iii. of a small olive-press with one screw which +is alluded to by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ viii.) as having been introduced +since A.D. 55, (3) an allusion by Plutarch (who died A.D. 120) to the +proposition that light is reflected from a surface at an angle equal to +the angle of incidence, which Hero proved in his _Catoptrica_, the words +used by Plutarch fitting well with the corresponding passage of that +work (as to which see below). Thus we arrive at the latter half of the +1st century A.D. as the approximate date of Hero's activity. + +The geometrical treatises which have survived (though not interpolated) +in Greek are entitled respectively _Definitiones_, _Geometria_, +_Geodaesia_, _Stereometrica_ (i. and ii.), _Mensurae_, _Liber +Geoponicus_, to which must now be added the _Metrica_ recently +discovered by R. Schone in a MS. at Constantinople. These books, except +the _Definitiones_, mostly consist of directions for obtaining, from +given parts, the areas or volumes, and other parts, of plane or solid +figures. A remarkable feature is the bare statement of a number of very +close approximations to the square roots of numbers which are not +complete squares. Others occur in the _Metrica_ where also a method of +finding such approximate square, and even approximate cube, roots is +shown. Hero's expressions for the areas of regular polygons of from 5 to +12 sides in terms of the squares of the sides show interesting +approximations to the values of trigonometrical ratios. Akin to the +geometrical works is that _On the Dioptra_, a remarkable book on +land-surveying, so called from the instrument described in it, which was +used for the same purposes as the modern theodolite. It is in this book +that Hero proves the expression for the area of a triangle in terms of +its sides. The _Pneumatica_ in two books is also extant in Greek as is +also the _Automatopoietica_. In the former will be found such things as +siphons, "Hero's fountain," "penny-in-the-slot" machines, a fire-engine, +a water-organ, and arrangements employing the force of steam. Pappus +quotes from three books of _Mechanics_ and from a work called +_Barulcus_, both by Hero. The three books on _Mechanics_ survive in an +Arabic translation which, however, bears a title "On the lifting of +heavy objects." This corresponds exactly to _Barulcus_, and it is +probable that _Barulcus_ and _Mechanics_ were only alternative titles +for one and the same work. It is indeed not credible that Hero wrote +two separate treatises on the subject of the mechanical powers, which +are fully discussed in the _Mechanics_, ii., iii. The _Belopoiica_ (on +engines of war) is extant in Greek, and both this and the _Mechanics_ +contain Hero's solution of the problem of the two mean proportionals. +Hero also wrote _Catoptrica_ (on reflecting surfaces), and it seems +certain that we possess this in a Latin work, probably translated from +the Greek by Wilhelm van Moerbeek, which was long thought to be a +fragment of Ptolemy's _Optics_, because it bore the title _Ptolemaei de +speculis_ in the MS. But the attribution to Ptolemy was shown to be +wrong as soon as it was made clear (especially by Martin) that another +translation by an Admiral Eugenius Siculus (12th century) of an optical +work from the Arabic was Ptolemy's _Optics_. Of other treatises by Hero +only fragments remain. One was four books on _Water Clocks_ ([Greek: +Peri hydrion horoskopeion]), of which Proclus (_Hypotyp. astron._, ed. +Halma) has preserved a fragment, and to which Pappus also refers. +Another work was a commentary on Euclid (referred to by the Arabs as +"the book of the resolution of doubts in Euclid") from which quotations +have survived in an-Nairizi's commentary. + + The _Pneumatica_, _Automatopoietica_, _Belopoiica_ and + _Cheiroballistra_ of Hero were published in Greek and Latin in + Thevenot's _Veterum mathematicorum opera graece et latine pleraque + nunc primum edita_ (Paris, 1693); the first important critical + researches on Hero were G. B. Venturi's _Commentari sopra la storia e + la teoria dell'ottica_ (Bologna, 1814) and H. Martin's "Recherches sur + la vie et les ouvrages d'Heron d'Alexandrie disciple de Ctesibius et + sur tous les ouvrages mathematiques grecs conserves ou perdus, publies + ou inedits, qui ont ete attribues a un auteur nomme Heron" (_Mem. + presentes a l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, i. serie, + iv., 1854). The geometrical works (except of course the _Metrica_) + were edited (Greek only) by F. Hultsch (_Heronis Alexandrini + geometricorum et stereometricorum reliquiae_, 1864), the _Dioptra_ by + Vincent (_Extraits des manuscrits relatifs a la geometrie pratique des + Grecs, Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque + Imperiale_, xix. 2, 1858), the treatises on _Engines of War_ by C. + Wescher (_Poliorcetique des Grecs_, Paris, 1867). The _Mechanics_ was + first published by Carra de Vaux in the _Journal asiatique_ (ix. + serie, ii., 1893). In 1899 began the publication in Teubner's series + of _Heronis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt omnia_. Vol. i. and + Supplement (by W. Schmidt) contains the _Pneumatica_ and _Automata_, + the fragment on _Water Clocks_, the _De ingeniis spiritualibus_ of + Philon of Byzantium and extracts on Pneumatics by Vitruvius. Vol. ii. + pt. i., by L. Nix and W. Schmidt, contains the _Mechanics_ in Arabic, + Greek fragments of the same, the _Catoptrica_ in Latin with appendices + of extracts from Olympiodorus, Vitruvius, Pliny, &c. Vol. iii. (by + Hermann Schone) contains the _Metrica_ (in three books) and the + _Dioptra_. A German translation is added throughout. The approximation + to square roots in Hero has been the subject of papers too numerous to + mention. But reference should be made to the exhaustive studies on + Hero's arithmetic by Paul Tannery, "L'Arithmetique des Grecs dans + Heron d'Alexandrie" (_Mem. de la Soc. des sciences phys. et math. de + Bordeaux_, ii. serie, iv., 1882), "La Stereometrie d'Heron + d'Alexandrie" and "Etudes Heroniennes" (_ibid._ v., 1883), "Questions + Heroniennes" (_Bulletin des sciences math._, ii. serie, viii., 1884), + "Un Fragment des Metriques d'Heron" (_Zeitschrift fur Math. und + Physik_, xxxix., 1894; _Bulletin des sciences math._, ii. serie, + xviii., 1894). A good account of Hero's works will be found in M. + Cantor's _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i.^2 (1894), chapters 18 and 19, + and in G. Loria's studies, _Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia_, + especially libro iii. (Modena, 1900), pp. 103-128. (T. L. H.) + + + + +HERO, THE YOUNGER, the name given without any sufficient reason to a +Byzantine land-surveyor who wrote (about A.D. 938) a treatise on +land-surveying modelled on the works of Hero of Alexandria, especially +the _Dioptra_. + + See "Geodesie de Heron de Byzance," published by Vincent in _Notices + et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Imperiale_, xix. 2 + (Paris, 1858), and T. H. Martin in _Memoires presentes a l' Academie + des Inscriptions_, 1st series, iv. (Paris, 1854). + + + + +HEROD, the name borne by the princes of a dynasty which reigned in +Judaea from 40 B.C. + +HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT), the son of Antipater, who supported Hyrcanus +II. against Aristobulus II. with the aid first of the Nabataean Arabs +and then of Rome. The family seems to have been of Idumaean origin, so +that its members were liable to the reproach of being half-Jews or even +foreigners. Justin Martyr has a tradition that they were originally +Philistines of Ascalon (_Dial._ c. 52), and on the other hand Nicolaus +of Damascus (_apud_ Jos. _Ant._ xiv. 1. 3) asserted that Herod, his +royal patron, was descended from the Jews who first returned from the +Babylonian Captivity. The tradition and the assertion are in all +probability equally fictitious and proceed respectively from the foes +and the friends of the Herodian dynasty. + +Antipas (or Antipater), the father of Antipater, had been governor of +Idumaea under Alexander Jannaeus. His son allied himself by marriage +with the Arabian nobility and became the real ruler of Palestine under +Hyrcanus II. When Rome intervened in Asia in the person of Pompey, the +younger Antipater realized her inevitable predominance and secured the +friendship of her representative. After the capture of Jerusalem in 63 +B.C. Pompey installed Hyrcanus, who was little better than a figurehead, +in the high-priesthood; and when in 55 B.C. the son of Aristobulus +renewed the civil war in Palestine, the Roman governor of Syria in the +exercise of his jurisdiction arranged a settlement "in accordance with +the wishes of Antipater" (Jos. _Ant._ xiv. 6. 4). To this policy of +dependence upon Rome Antipater adhered, and he succeeded in commending +himself to Mark Antony and Caesar in turn. After the battle of Pharsalia +Caesar made him procurator and a Roman citizen. + +At this point Herod appears on the scene as ruler of Galilee (Jos. +_Ant._ xiv. 9. 2) appointed by his father at the age of fifteen or, +since he died at seventy, twenty-five. In spite of his youth he soon +found an opportunity of displaying his mettle; for he arrested Hezekiah +the arch-brigand, who had overrun the Syrian border, and put him to +death. The Jewish nobility at Jerusalem seized upon this high-handed +action as a pretext for satisfying their jealousy of their Idumaean +rulers. Herod was cited in the name of Hyrcanus to appear before the +Sanhedrin, whose prerogative he had usurped in executing Hezekiah. He +appeared with a bodyguard, and the Sanhedrin was overawed. Only Sameas, +a Pharisee, dared to insist upon the legal verdict of condemnation. But +the governor of Syria had sent a demand for Herod's acquittal, and so +Hyrcanus adjourned the trial and persuaded the accused to abscond. Herod +returned with an army, but his father prevailed upon him to depart to +Galilee without wreaking his vengeance upon his enemies. About this time +(47-46 B.C.) he was created _strategus_ of Coelesyria by the provincial +governor. The episode is important for the light which it throws upon +Herod's relations with Rome and with the Jews. + +In 44 B.C. Cassius arrived in Syria for the purpose of filling his +war-chest: Antipater and Herod collected the sum of money at which the +Jews of Palestine had been assessed. In 43 B.C. Antipater was poisoned +at the instigation of one Malichus, who was perhaps a Jewish patriot +animated by hatred of the Herods and their Roman patrons. + +With the connivance of Cassius Herod had Malichus assassinated; but the +country was in a state of anarchy, thanks to the extortions of Cassius +and the encroachments of neighbouring powers. Antony, who became master +of the East after Philippi, was ready to support the sons of his friend +Antipater; but he was absent in Egypt when the Parthians invaded +Palestine to restore Antigonus to the throne of his father Aristobulus +(40 B.C.). Herod escaped to Rome: the Arabians, his mother's people, had +repudiated him. Antony had made him tetrarch, and now with the assent of +Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare him king of Judaea. + +In 39 B.C. Herod returned to Palestine and, when the presence of Antony +put the reluctant Roman troops entirely at his disposal, he was able to +lay siege to Jerusalem two years later. Secure of the support of Rome he +was concerned also to legitimize his position in the eyes of the Jews by +taking, for love as well as policy, the Hasmonaean princess Mariamne to +be his second wife. Jerusalem was taken by storm; the Roman troops +withdrew to behead Antigonus the usurper at Antioch. In 37 B.C. Herod +was king of Judaea, being the client of Antony and the husband of +Mariamne. + +The Pharisees, who dominated the bulk of the Jews, were content to +accept Herod's rule as a judgment of God. Hyrcanus returned from his +prison: mutilated, he could no longer hold office as high-priest; but +his mutilation probably gave him the prestige of a martyr, and his +influence--whatever it was worth--seems to have been favourable to the +new dynasty. On the other hand Herod's marriage with Mariamne brought +some of his enemies into his own household. He had scotched the faction +of Hasmonaean sympathizers by killing forty-five members of the +Sanhedrin and confiscating their possessions. But so long as there were +representatives of the family alive, there was always a possible +pretender to the throne which he occupied; and the people had not lost +their affection for their former deliverers. Mariamne's mother used her +position to further her plots for the overthrow of her son-in-law; and +she found an ally in Cleopatra of Egypt, who was unwilling to be spurned +by him, even if she was not weary of his patron, Antony. + +The events of Herod's reign indicate the temporary triumphs of his +different adversaries. His high-priest, a Babylonian, was deposed in +order that Aristobulus III., Mariamne's brother, might hold the place to +which he had some ancestral right. But the enthusiasm with which the +people received him at the Feast of Tabernacles convinced Herod of the +danger; and the youth was drowned by order of the king at Jericho. +Cleopatra had obtained from Antony a grant of territory adjacent to +Herod's domain and even part of it. She required Herod to collect +arrears of tribute. So it fell out that, when Octavian and the Senate +declared war against Antony and Cleopatra, Herod was preoccupied in +obedience to her commands and was thus prevented from fighting against +the future emperor of Rome. + +After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Herod executed Hyrcanus and +proceeded to wait upon the victorious Octavian at Rhodes. His position +was confirmed and his territories were restored. On his return he took +in hand to heal with the Hasmonaeans, and in 25 B.C. the old intriguers, +their victims like Mariamne, and all pretenders were dead. From this +time onwards Herod was free to govern Palestine, as a client-prince of +the Roman Empire should govern his kingdom. In order to put down the +brigands who still infested the country and to check the raids of the +Arabs on the frontier, he built or rebuilt fortresses, which were of +material assistance to the Jews in the great revolt against Rome. Within +and without Judaea he erected magnificent buildings and founded cities. +He established games in honour of the emperor after the ancient Greek +model in Caesarea and Jerusalem and revived the splendour of the Olympic +games. At Athens and elsewhere he was commemorated as a benefactor; and +as Jew and king of the Jews he restored the temple at Jerusalem. The +emperor recognized his successful government by putting the districts of +Ulatha and Panias under him in 20 B.C. + +But Herod found new enemies among the members of his household. His +brother Pheroras and sister Salome plotted for their own advantage and +against the two sons of Mariamne. The people still cherished a loyalty +to the Hasmonaean lineage, although the young princes were also the sons +of Herod. The enthusiasm with which they were received fed the +suspicion, which their uncle instilled into their father's mind, and +they were strangled at Sebaste. On his deathbed Herod discovered that +his eldest son, Antipater, whom Josephus calls a "monster of iniquity," +had been plotting against him. He proceeded to accuse him before the +governor of Syria and obtained leave from Augustus to put him to death. +The father died five days after his son in 4 B.C. He had done much for +the Jews, thanks to the favour he had won and kept in spite of all from +the successive heads of the Roman state; he had observed the Law +publicly--in fact, as the traditional epigram of Augustus says, "it was +better to be Herod's _swine_ than a _son_ of Herod." + + Josephus, _Ant._ xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8, _B.J._ i. 18-33; Schurer, + _Gesch. d. jud. Volk._, 4th ed., i. pp. 360-418. + +HEROD ANTIPAS, son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan Malthace, and +full brother of Archelaus, received as his share of his father's +dominions the provinces of Galilee and Peraea, with the title of +tetrarch. Like his father, Antipas had a turn for architecture: he +rebuilt and fortified the town of Sepphoris in Galilee; he also +fortified Betharamptha in Peraea, and called it Julias after the wife of +the emperor. Above all he founded the important town of Tiberias on the +west shore of the Sea of Galilee, with institutions of a distinctly +Greek character. He reigned 4 B.C.-A.D. 39. In the gospels he is +mentioned as Herod. He it was who was called a "fox" by Christ (Luke +xiii. 32). He is erroneously spoken of as a king in Mark vi. 14. It was +to him that Jesus was sent by Pilate to be tried. But it is in connexion +with his wife Herodias that he is best known, and it was through her +that his misfortunes arose. He was married first of all to a daughter of +Aretas, the Arabian king; but, making the acquaintance of Herodias, the +wife of his brother Philip (not the tetrarch), during a visit to Rome, +he was fascinated by her and arranged to marry her. Meantime his Arabian +wife discovered the plan and escaped to her father, who made war on +Herod, and completely defeated his army. John the Baptist condemned his +marriage with Herodias, and in consequence was put to death in the way +described in the gospels and in Josephus. When Herodias's brother +Agrippa was appointed king by Caligula, she was determined to see her +husband attain to an equal eminence, and persuaded him, though naturally +of a quiet and unambitious temperament, to make the journey to Rome to +crave a crown from the emperor. Agrippa, however, managed to influence +Caligula against him. Antipas was deprived of his dominions and banished +to Lyons, Herodias voluntarily sharing his exile. + +HEROD PHILIP, son of Herod the Great by Cleopatra of Jerusalem, received +the tetrarchate of Ituraea and other districts to E. and N.E. of the +Lake of Galilee, the poorest part of his father's kingdom. His subjects +were mainly Greeks or Syrians, and his coins bear the image of Augustus +or Tiberius. He is described as an excellent ruler, who loved peace and +was careful to maintain justice, and spent his time in his own +territories. He was also a builder of cities, one of which was Caesarea +Philippi, and another was Bethsaida, which he called Julias. He died +after a reign of thirty-seven years (4 B.C.-A.D. 34); and his dominions +were incorporated in the province of Syria. (J. H. A. H.) + + + + +HERODAS (Gr. [Greek: Herodas]), or HERONDAS (the name is spelt +differently in the few places where he is mentioned), Greek poet, the +author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written under the +Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century B.C. Apart from the intrinsic +merit of these pieces, they are interesting in the history of Greek +literature as being a new species, illustrating Alexandrian methods. +They are called [Greek: Mimiamboi], "Mimeiambics." Mimes were the Dorian +product of South Italy and Sicily, and the most famous of them--from +which Plato is said to have studied the drawing of character--were the +work of Sophron. These were scenes in popular life, written in the +language of the people, vigorous with racy proverbs such as we get in +other reflections of that region--in Petronius and the _Pentamerone_. +Two of the best known and the most vital among the _Idylls_ of +Theocritus, the 2nd and the 15th, we know to have been derived from +mimes of Sophron. What Theocritus is doing there, Herodas, his younger +contemporary, is doing in another manner--casting old material into +novel form, upon a small scale, under strict conditions of technique. +The method is entirely Alexandrian: Sophron had written in a peculiar +kind of rhythmical prose; Theocritus uses the hexameter and Doric, +Herodas the _scazon_ or "lame" iambic (with a dragging spondee at the +end) and the old Ionic dialect with which that curious metre was +associated. That, however, hardly goes beyond the choice and form of +words; the structure of the sentences is close-knit Attic. But the +grumbling metre and quaint language suit the tone of common life which +Herodas aims at realizing; for, as Theocritus may be called idealist, +Herodas is a realist unflinching. His persons talk in vehement +exclamations and emphatic turns of speech, with proverbs and fixed +phrases; and occasionally, where it is designed as proper to the part, +with the most naked coarseness of expression. + +The scene of the second and the fourth is laid at Cos, and the speaking +characters in each are never more than three. In Mime I. the old nurse, +now the professional go-between or bawd, calls on Metriche, whose +husband has been long away in Egypt, and endeavours to excite her +interest in a most desirable young man, fallen deeply in love with her +at first sight. After hearing all the arguments Metriche declines with +dignity, but consoles the old woman with an ample glass of wine, this +kind being always represented with the taste of Mrs Gamp. II. is a +monologue by the [Greek: Pornoboskos] ("Whoremonger") prosecuting a +merchant-trader for breaking into his establishment at night and +attempting to carry off one of the inmates, who is produced in court. +The vulgar blackguard, who is a stranger to any sort of shame, remarking +that he has no evidence to call, proceeds to a peroration in the regular +oratorical style, appealing to the Coan judges not to be unworthy of +their traditional glories. In fact, the whole oration is also a +burlesque in every detail of an Attic speech at law; and in this case we +have the material from which to estimate the excellence of the parody. +In III. a desperate mother brings to the schoolmaster a truant urchin, +with whom neither she nor his incapable old father can do anything. In a +voluble stream of interminable sentences she narrates his misdeeds and +implores the schoolmaster to flog him. The boy accordingly is hoisted on +another's back and flogged; but his spirit does not appear to be +subdued, and the mother resorts to the old man after all. IV. is a visit +of two poor women with an offering to the temple of Asclepius at Cos. +While the humble cock is being sacrificed, they turn, like the women in +the _Ion_ of Euripides, to admire the works of art; among them a small +boy strangling a vulpanser--doubtless the work of Boethus that we +know--and a sacrificial procession by Apelles, "the Ephesian," of whom +we have an interesting piece of contemporary eulogy. The oily sacristan +is admirably painted in a few slight strokes. V. brings us very close to +some unpleasant facts of ancient life. The jealous woman accuses one of +her slaves, whom she has made her favourite, of infidelity; has him +bound and sent degraded through the town to receive 2000 lashes; no +sooner is he out of sight than she recalls him to be branded "at one +job." The only pleasing person in the piece is the little +maidservant--permitted liberties as a _verna_ brought up in the +house--whose ready tact suggests to her mistress an excuse for +postponing execution of a threat made in ungovernable fury. VI. is a +friendly chat or a private conversation. The subject is an ugly one, but +the dialogue is as clever and amusing as the rest, with some delicious +touches. Our interest is engaged here in a certain Kerdon, the artistic +shoemaker, to whom we are introduced in VII. (the name had already +become generic for the shoemaker as the typical representative of retail +trade), a little bald man with a fluent tongue, complaining of hard +times, who bluffs and wheedles by turns. VII. opens with a mistress +waking up her maids to listen to her dream; but we have only the +beginning, and the other fragments are very short. + +Within the limits of 100 lines or less Herodas presents us with a highly +entertaining scene and with characters definitely drawn. Some of these +had been perfected no doubt upon the Attic stage, where the tendency in +the 4th century had been gradually to evolve accepted types--not +individuals, but generalizations from a class, an art in which +Menander's was esteemed the master-hand. The [Greek: Pornoboskos] and +the [Greek: Mastropos] we can piece together from succeeding literature, +and see how skilfully the established traits are indicated here. This is +achieved by true dramatic means, with touches never wasted and the more +delightful often because they do not clamour for attention. The +execution has the qualities of first-rate Alexandrian work in miniature, +such as the epigrams of Asclepiades possess, the finish and firm +outlines; and these little pictures bear the test of all artistic +work--they do not lose their freshness with familiarity, and gain in +interest as one learns to appreciate their subtle points. + + The papyrus MS., obtained from the Fayum, is in the possession of the + British Museum, and was first printed by F. G. Kenyon in 1891. + Editions by O. Crusius (1905, text only, in Teubner series) and J. A. + Nairn (1904), with introduction, notes and bibliography. There is an + English verse translation of the mimes by H. Sharpley (1906) under the + title _A Realist of the Aegean_. (W. G. H.) + + + + +HERODIANS ([Greek: Herodianoi]), a sect or party mentioned in Scripture +as having on two occasions--once in Galilee, and again in +Jerusalem--manifested an unfriendly disposition towards Jesus (Mark iii. +6, xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 6; cf. also Mark viii. 15). In each of these +cases their name is coupled with that of the Pharisees. According to +many interpreters the courtiers or soldiers of Herod Antipas ("Milites +Herodis," Jerome) are intended; but more probably the Herodians were a +public political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great +historical parties of post-exilian Judaism by the fact that they were +and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great and to his dynasty +(cf. such formations as "Caesariani," "Pompeiani"). It is possible that, +to gain adherents, the Herodian party may have been in the habit of +representing that the establishment of a Herodian dynasty would be +favourable to the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may +account for Tertullian's (_De praescr._) allegation that the Herodians +regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called by the Rabbis +Boethusians as being friendly to the family of Boethus, whose daughter +Mariamne was one of Herod the Great's wives. (J. H. A. H.) + + + + +HERODIANUS, Greek historian, flourished during the third century A.D. He +is supposed to have been a Syrian Greek. In 203 he was in Rome, where he +held some minor posts. He does not appear to have attained high official +rank; the statement that he was imperial procurator and legate of the +Sicilian provinces rests upon conjecture only. His historical work +([Greek: Herodianou tes meta Markon basileias historion biblia okto]) +narrates the events of the fifty-eight years between the death of Marcus +Aurelius and the proclamation of Gordianus III. (180-238). The narrative +is of special value as supplementing Dion Cassius, whose history ends +with Alexander Severus. His work has the value that attaches to a record +written by one chronicling the events of his own times, gifted with +ordinary powers of observation, indubitable candour and independence of +view. But while he gives a lively account of external events--such as +the death of Commodus and the assassination of Pertinax--the barbarian +invasions, the spread of Christianity, the extension of the franchise by +Caracalla are unnoticed. The dates are often wrong, and little attention +is paid to geographical details, which makes the narrative of military +expeditions beyond the borders of the empire difficult to understand. +Herodian has been accused of prejudice against Alexander Severus. His +style, modelled on that of Thucydides and unreservedly praised by +Photius, is on the whole pure, though somewhat rhetorical and showing a +fondness for Latinisms. + + Extensive use has been made of Herodianus by later chroniclers, + especially the "Scriptores historiae Augustae" and John of Antioch. + His history was first translated into Latin at the end of the 15th + century by Politian. The most complete edition is by G. W. Irmisch + (1789-1805), with elaborate indices, but the notes are very diffuse; + critical editions by I. Bekker (1855), L. Mendelssohn (1883); see also + C. Dandliker. + + + + +HERODIANUS, AELIUS, called [Greek: ho technikos], Alexandrian +grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He early took up his +residence at Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of Marcus Aurelius +(161-180), to whom he dedicated his great treatise on prosody. This work +in twenty-one books ([Greek: Katholike prosodia]) included also an +account of the etymological part of grammar. The work itself is lost, +but several epitomes of it have been preserved. His [Greek: +Hepimerismoi] dealt with difficult words and peculiar forms in Homer. +Herodianus also wrote numerous grammatical treatises, of which only one +has come down to us in a complete form ([Greek: Peri monerous lexeos], +on peculiar style), articles on exceptional or anomalous words. Numerous +quotations and fragments still exist, chiefly in the Homeric scholiasts +and Stephanus of Byzantium. Herodianus enjoyed a great reputation as a +grammarian, and Priscian styles him "maximus auctor artis grammaticae." + + The best edition is by A. Lentz, _Herodiani. Technici reliquiae_ + (1867-1870); a supplementary volume is included in Uhling's _Corpus + grammaticorum Graecorum_; for further bibliographical information see + W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898). + + + + +HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.), Greek historian, called the Father of +History, was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, then dependent upon +the Persians, in or about the year 484 B.C. Herodotus was thus born a +Persian subject, and such he continued until he was thirty or +five-and-thirty years of age. At the time of his birth Halicarnassus was +under the rule of a queen Artemisia (q.v.). The year of her death is +unknown; but she left her crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498 +B.C.), who was succeeded upon the throne by his son Lygdamis about the +time that Herodotus grew to manhood. The family of Herodotus belonged to +the upper rank of the citizens. His father was named Lyxes, and his +mother Rhaeo, or Dryo. He had a brother Theodore, and an uncle or cousin +Panyasis (q.v.), the epic poet, a personage of so much importance that +the tyrant Lygdamis, suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to +death. It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative's political +opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted it +voluntarily at the time of his execution. + +Of the education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it was +thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects essential to +a Greek liberal education--grammar, gymnastic training and music. His +studies would be regarded as completed when he attained the age of +eighteen, and took rank among the _ephebi_ or _eirenes_ of his native +city. In a free Greek state he would at once have begun his duties as a +citizen, and found therein sufficient employment for his growing +energies. But in a city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no +political life worthy of the name existed. Herodotus may thus have had +his thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory +career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the example +of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his writings when +Herodotus was still an infant. At any rate it is clear from the extant +work of Herodotus that he must have devoted himself early to the +literary life, and commenced that extensive course of reading which +renders him one of the most instructive as well as one of the most +charming of ancient writers. The poetical literature of Greece was +already large; the prose literature was more extensive than is generally +supposed; yet Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of +it. The _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ are as familiar to him as Shakespeare +to the educated Englishman. He is acquainted with the poems of the epic +cycle, the _Cypria_, the _Epigoni_, &c. He quotes or otherwise shows +familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, Bacis, +Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, Aesop, +Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Aeschylus and +Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the best of the prose +writers who had preceded him, and makes numerous allusions to other +authors of the same class. + +It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a mere +student. It is probable that from an early age his inquiring disposition +led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in foreign countries. +He traversed Asia Minor and European Greece probably more than once; he +visited all the most important islands of the Archipelago--Rhodes, +Cyprus, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and +Aegina. He undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the +Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western shores +of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he travelled in +Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna Graecia, explored the +antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores of Palestine, saw Gaza, +and made a long stay in Egypt. At the most moderate estimate, his +travels covered a space of thirty-one degrees of longitude, or 1700 +miles, and twenty-four of latitude, or nearly the same distance. At all +the more interesting sites he took up his abode for a time; he examined, +he inquired, he made measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in +his mind the scheme of his great work, he gave ample time to the +elaboration of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal +observation a full knowledge of the various countries. + +The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished between +his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 B.C.).[1] It was +probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject he visited Susa +and Babylon, taking advantage of the Persian system of posts which he +describes in his fifth book. His residence in Egypt must, on the other +hand, have been subsequent to 460 B.C., since he saw the skulls of the +Persians slain by Inarus in that year. Skulls are rarely visible on a +battlefield for more than two or three seasons after the fight, and we +may therefore presume that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454 +B.C.),[2] when the Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he +visited the country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and +therefore receiving favour and attention on the part of the Egyptians, +who were so much beholden to his countrymen (see ATHENS, CIMON, +PERICLES). On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the Syrian +shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence to have gone to +Thasos. His Scythian travels are thought to have taken place prior to +450 B.C. + +It is a question of some interest from what centre or centres these +various expeditions were made. Up to the time of the execution of +Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about the year 457 +B.C., there is every reason to believe that Herodotus lived at +Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European Greece, and among +the islands of the Aegean, probably belong to this period, as also his +journey to Susa and Babylon. We are told that when he quitted +Halicarnassus on account of the tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the +year 457 B.C., he took up his abode in Samos. That island was an +important member of the Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home +Herodotus would have put himself under the protection of Athens. The +fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian influence (see CIMON, +PERICLES) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or 456 B.C., to that +country. The stories that he had heard in Egypt of Sesostris may then +have stimulated him to make voyages from Samos to Colchis, Scythia and +Thrace. He was thus acquainted with almost all the regions which were to +be the scene of his projected history. + +After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in Samos, +events occurred in his native city which induced him to return thither. +The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from bad to worse, and at last he was +expelled. According to Suidas, Herodotus was himself an actor, and +indeed the chief actor, in the rebellion against him; but no other +author confirms this statement, which is intrinsically improbable. It is +certain, however, that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary +member of the Athenian confederacy. Herodotus would now naturally return +to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those rights of free +citizenship on which every Greek set a high value. He would also, if he +had by this time composed his history, or any considerable portion of +it, begin to make it known by recitation among his friends. There is +reason to believe that these first attempts were not received with much +favour, and that it was in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately +withdrew from his native town, and sought a refuge in Greece proper +(about 447 B.C.).[3] We learn that Athens was the place to which he +went, and that he appealed from the verdict of his countrymen to +Athenian taste and judgment. His work won such approval that in the year +445 B.C., on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted a sum of +ten talents (L2400) by decree of the people. At one of the recitations, +it was said, the future historian Thucydides was present with his +father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst into tears, whereupon +Herodotus remarked to the father--"Olorus, your son has a natural +enthusiasm for letters."[4] + +Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and could boast +an almost unique galaxy of talent--Pericles, Thucydides the son of +Melesias, Aspasia, Antiphon, the musician Damon, Pheidias, Protagoras, +Zeno, Cratinus, Crates, Euripides and Sophocles. Accepted into this +brilliant society, on familiar terms with all probably, as he certainly +was with Olorus, Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted, +like many another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home. It is to +his credit that he did not yield to this temptation. At Athens he must +have been a dilettante, an idler, without political rights or duties. As +such he would have soon ceased to be respected in a society where +literature was not recognized as a separate profession, where a Socrates +served in the infantry, a Sophocles commanded fleets, a Thucydides was +general of an army, and an Antiphon was for a time at the head of the +state. Men were not men according to Greek notions unless they were +citizens; and Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling, +was anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to +obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens the franchise, jealously guarded +at this period, was not to be attained without great expense and +difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following year he sailed +from Athens with the colonists who went out to found the colony of +Thurii (see PERICLES), and became a citizen of the new town. + +From this point of his career, when he had reached the age of forty, we +lose sight of him almost wholly. He seems to have made but few journeys, +one to Crotona, one to Metapontum, and one to Athens (about 430 B.C.) +being all that his work indicates.[5] No doubt he was employed mainly, +as Pliny testifies, in retouching and elaborating his general history. +He may also have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of +Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is quoted +by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that he lived to a great age, +and argued that "the never-to-be-mistaken fundamental tone of his +performance is the quiet talkativeness of a highly cultivated, tolerant, +intelligent, _old_ man" (Dahlmann). But the indications derived from the +later touches added to his work, which form the sole evidence on the +subject, would rather lead to the conclusion that his life was not very +prolonged. There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been +written as early as 430 B.C.; there is no touch which, even probably, +points to a later date than 424 B.C. As the author was evidently engaged +in polishing his work to the last, and even promises touches which he +does not give, we may assume that he did not much outlive the date last +mentioned, or in other words, that he died at about the age of sixty. +The predominant voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii, +where his tomb was shown in later ages. + +_The History._--In estimating the great work of Herodotus, and his +genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to conceive +aright what that work was intended to be. It has been called "a +universal history," "a history of the wars between the Greeks and the +barbarians," and "a history of the struggle between Greece and Persia." +But these titles are all of them too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits +wholly the histories of Phoenicia, Carthage and Etruria, three of the +most important among the states existing in his day, cannot have +intended to compose a "universal history," the very idea of which +belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object was to +record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians; but as he omits +the Trojan war, in which he fully believes, the expedition of the +Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace and Thessaly, the wars connected +with the Ionian colonization of Asia Minor and others, it is evident +that he does not really aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars +between Greeks and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it +even seem to have been his object to give an account of the entire +struggle between Greece and Persia. That struggle was not terminated by +the battle of Mycale and the capture of Sestos in 479 B.C. It continued +for thirty years longer, to the peace of Callias (but see CALLIAS and +CIMON). The fact that Herodotus ends his history where he does shows +distinctly that his intention was, not to give an account of the entire +long contest between the two countries, but to write the history of a +particular war--the great Persian war of invasion. His aim was as +definite as that of Thucydides, or Schiller, or Napier or any other +writer who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined to +treat it in a certain way. Every partial history requires an +"introduction"; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples, resolved to give +his history a magnificent introduction. Thucydides is content with a +single introductory book, forming little more than one-eighth of his +work; Herodotus has six such books, forming two-thirds of the entire +composition. + +By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in the _grand_ +way, which is so characteristic of him. Making it his main object in his +"introduction" to set before his readers the previous history of the two +nations who were the actors in the great war, he is able in tracing +their history to bring into his narrative some account of almost all the +nations of the known world, and has room to expatiate freely upon their +geography, antiquities, manners and customs and the like, thus giving +his work a "universal" character, and securing for it, without trenching +upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which are a principal +charm of the best histories, and of none more than his. In tracing the +growth of Persia from a petty subject kingdom to a vast dominant empire, +he has occasion to set out the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria, +Babylon, Egypt, Scythia, Thrace, and to describe the countries and the +peoples inhabiting them, their natural productions, climate, +geographical position, monuments, &c.; while, in noting the +contemporaneous changes in Greece, he is led to tell of the various +migrations of the Greek race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the +arts, revolutions, internal struggles, wars with one another, +legislation, religious tenets and the like. The greatest variety of +episodical matter is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion +and the mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made; the +episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly interrupt the +main narrative. + +It has been questioned, both in ancient and in modern times, whether the +history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite of +trustworthiness. Several ancient writers accuse him of intentional +untruthfulness. Moderns generally acquit him of this charge; but his +severer critics still urge that, from the inherent defects of his +character, his credulity, his love of effect and his loose and +inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the historian's +office, and has produced a work of but small historical value. Perhaps +it may be sufficient to remark that the defects in question certainly +exist, and detract to some extent from the authority of the work, more +especially of those parts of it which deal with remoter periods, and +were taken by Herodotus on trust from his informants, but that they only +slightly affect the portions which treat of later times and form the +special subject of his history. In confirmation of this view, it may be +noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances of the great +Persian war, and for all local and other details which come under his +immediate notice, is accepted by even the most sceptical of modern +historians, and forms the basis of their narratives. + +Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most prominent are +the diligence with which he collected his materials, the candour and +impartiality with which he has placed his facts before the reader, the +absence of party bias and undue national vanity, and the breadth of his +conception of the historian's office. On the other hand, he has no claim +to rank as a critical historian; he has no conception of the philosophy +of history, no insight into the real causes that underlie political +changes, no power of penetrating below the surface, or even of grasping +the real interconnexion of the events which he describes. He belongs +distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and picturesque +description, the lively presentation of scenes and actions, characters +and states of society, not the subtle analysis of motives, the power of +detecting the undercurrents or the generalizing faculty. + +But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most +conspicuous. "O that I were in a condition," says Lucian, "to resemble +Herodotus, if only in some measure! I by no means say in all his gifts, +but only in some single point; as, for instance, the beauty of his +language, or its harmony, or the natural and peculiar grace of the Ionic +dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by whatever name those thousand +beauties are called which to the despair of his imitator are united in +him." Cicero calls his style "copious and polished," Quintilian, "sweet, +pure and flowing"; Longinus says he was "the most Homeric of +historians"; Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucydides, and +regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree the excellences of +sublimity, beauty and the true historical method of composition. Modern +writers are almost equally complimentary. "The style of Herodotus," says +one, "is universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and +sweetness." "The charm of his style," argues another, "has so dazzled +men as to make them blind to his defects." Various attempts have been +made to analyse the charm which is so universally felt; but it may be +doubted whether any of them are very successful. All, however, seem to +agree that among the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be +admired are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of rhythm. +Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical, and +possessed of a delicate ear which instinctively suggested the most +musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences, without art or +effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt, never too diffuse, +much less prolix or wearisome, and being himself simple, fresh, _naif_ +(if we may use the word), honest and somewhat quaint, he delights us by +combining with this melody of sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts, +perspicuously expressed, often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and +always manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and +unsophisticated mind. Reminding us in some respects of the quaint +medieval writers, Froissart and Philippe de Comines, he greatly excels +them, at once in the beauty of his language and the art with which he +has combined his heterogeneous materials into a single perfect +harmonious whole. See also GREECE, section _History_, "Authorities." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The history of Herodotus has been translated by many + persons and into many languages. About 1450, at the time of the + revival of learning, a Latin version was made and published by + Laurentius Valla. This was revised in 1537 by Heusbach, and + accompanies the Greek text of Herodotus in many editions. The first + complete translation into a modern language was the English one of + Littlebury, published in 1737. This was followed In 1786 by the French + translation of Larcher, a valuable work, accompanied by copious notes + and essays. Beloe, the second English translator, based his work on + that of Larcher. His first edition, in 1791, was confessedly very + defective; the second, in 1806, still left much to be desired. A good + German translation, but without note or comment, was brought out by + Friedrich Lange at Berlin in 1811. Andrea Mustoxidi, a native of + Corfu, published an Italian version in 1820. In 1822 Auguste Miot + endeavoured to improve on Larcher; and in 1828-1832 Dr Adolf Scholl + brought out a German translation with copious notes (new ed., 1855), + which has to some extent superseded the work of Lange. About the same + time a new English version was made by Isaac Taylor (London, 1829). In + 1858-1860, the history of Herodotus was translated by Canon G. + Rawlinson, assisted in the copious notes and appendices accompanying + the work by Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Sir Henry Rawlinson. More + recently we have translations in English by G. C. Macaulay (2 vols., + 1890); in German by Bahr (Stuttgart, 1867) and Stein (Oldenburg, + 1875); in French by Giguet (1857) and Talbot (1864); in Italian by + Ricci (Turin, 1871-1876), Grandi (Asti, 1872) and Bertini (Naples, + 1871-1872). A Swedish translation by F. Carlstadt was published at + Stockholm in 1871. + + The best of the older editions of the Greek text are the + following:--_Herodoti historiae_, ed. Schweighauser (5 vols., + Strassburg, 1816); _Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX._ (ed. + Gaisford, Oxford, 1840); _Herodotus, with a Commentary_, by J. W. + Blakesley (2 vols. London, 1854); _Herodoti musae_ (ed. Bahr, 4 vols., + Leipzig, 1856-1861, 2nd ed.); and _Herodoti historiae_ (ed. Abicht, + Leipzig, 1869). + + The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with and + without commentaries are the following:--H. Stein, _Herodoti + Historiae_ (ed. Major, 2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1871, with _apparatus + criticus_; still the best edition of the text); H. Kellenberg, + _Historiarum libri IX._ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); van Herwerden, + [Greek: Historiai] (Leiden, 1885); H. Stein, _Herodotus, erklart_ + (Berlin, 1856-1861, and several editions since; the best short + commentary and introduction); A. H. Sayce, _The Ancient Empires of the + East, Herodotus I.-III., with introductions and appendices_ (1883; an + attempt to prove the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to + the extent of his travels, which has found little support amongst more + recent English or German writers); R. W. Macan, _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (2 + vols., 1895) and _Herodotus VII.-IX._ (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive + introduction, appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of + these books in English; E. Abbott, _Herodotus V. and VI._ (Oxford, + 1893); A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch mit sachlichen + Bemerkungen_ (Leipzig, 1890; the best and fullest commentary on book + ii.). + + Among works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned + Bouhier, _Recherches sur Herodote_ (Dijon, 1746); Rennell, _Geography + of Herodotus_ (London, 1800); Niebuhr, _Geography of Herodotus and + Scythia_ (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830); Dahlmann, _Herodot, aus seinem + Buche sein Leben_ (Altona, 1823); Eltz, _Quaestiones Herodoteae_ + (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, _Egypt of Herodotus_ (London, 1841); Mure, + _Literature of Greece_, vol. iv. (London, 1852); Abicht, _Ubersicht + uber den Herodoteischen Dialekt_ (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed., 1874), and + _De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctoritate_ (Naumburg, 1869); Melander, + _De anacoluthis Herodoteis_ (Lund, 1869); Matzat, "Uber die + Glaubenswurdigkeit der geograph. Angaben Herodots uber Asien," in + _Hermes_, vi.; Budinger, _Zur agyptischen Forschung Herodots_ (Vienna, + 1873, reprinted from the _Sitzungsber._ of the Vienna Acad.); + Merzdorf, _Quaestiones grammaticae de dialecto Herodotea_ (Leipzig, + 1875); A. Kirchhoff, _Uber die Entstehungszeit des Herodotischen + Geschichtswerkes_ (Berlin, 1878); Adolf Bauer, _Herodots Biographie_ + (Vienna, 1878); H. Delbruck, _Perser und Burgunderkriege_ (Berlin, + 1887; of great importance for the criticism of the Persian Wars); N. + Wecklein, _Uber die Tradition der Perserkriege_ (Munich, 1876); A. + Hauvette-Besnault, _Herodote historien des guerres mediques_ (Paris, + 1894); J. A. R. Munro, _Some Observations on the Persian Wars_ (in + various vols. of the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; acute and + suggestive); G. B. Grundy, _The Great Persian War_ (London, 1901); J. + P. Mahaffy, _History of Greek Classical Literature_, ii. 16 ff. + (London, 1880); E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, i. 151 + ff., and ii. 196 ff. (Halle, 1892-1899); Busolt, _Griechische + Geschichte_, ii. 602 ff. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1895); J. B. Bury, _Ancient + Greek Historians_ (1908), lecture 2. For notices of current literature + see Bursian's _Jahresbericht_. Students of the original may also + consult with advantage the lexicons of Aemilius Portus (Oxford, 1817) + and of Schweighauser (London, 1824). On Herodotus' debt to Hecataeus + see Wells, in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1909, pt. i. (G. R.; E. M. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The date of his travels is difficult to determine. E. Meyer + inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between + 440 and 430 B.C. The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by C. F. + Lehmann c. 450 B.C., and by H. Stein before 450. + + [2] Most recent critics (e.g. Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to + Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarus and Amyrtaeus + (i.e. after 449 B.C.), on the strength of Herod. 2. 30, which implies + the restoration of Persian authority. + + [3] Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his + departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, e.g. the ascendancy + of the anti-Athenian party in the state. + + [4] This story is on chronological grounds rejected by all recent + critics. + + [5] Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his + settlement at Thurii. Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his + work (especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after + 430 B.C. See further Wachsmuth, _Rheinisches Museum_, lvi. (1901) + 215-218. Macan, _Herodotus_ VII.-IX. (_Introduction_, pp. + xlv.-lxvi.), seeks to prove that the last three books were the first + part of the _Histories_ to be composed. He is followed in this view + by Bury. + + + + +HEROET, ANTOINE, surnamed LA MAISON-NEUVE (d. 1568), French poet, was +born in Paris of a family connected with the famous chancellor, Francois +Olivier. His poetry belongs to his early years, for after he had taken +orders he ceased to write profane poetry, no doubt because he considered +it out of keeping with his calling, in which he attained the dignity of +bishop of Digue. His chief work is _La Parfaicte Amye_ (Lyons, 1542) in +which he developed the idea of a purely spiritual love, based chiefly on +the reading of the Italian Neo-Platonists. The book aroused great +controversy. La Borderie replied in _L'Amye de cour_ with a description +of a very much more human woman, and Charles Fontaine contributed a +_Contr' amye de cour_ to the dispute. Heroet, in addition to some +translations from the classics, wrote the _Complainte d'une dame +nouvellement surprise d'amour_, an _Epistre a Francois I^er_, and some +pieces included in the now very rare _Opuscules d'amour par Heroet, La +Borderie et autres divins poetes_ (Lyons, 1547). Heroet belongs to the +Lyonnese school of which Maurice Sceve may be regarded as the leader. +Clement Marot praises him, and Ronsard was careful to exempt him with +one or two others from the scorn he poured on his immediate +predecessors. + + See H. F. Cary, _The Early French Poets_ (1846). + + + + +HEROIC ROMANCES, the name by which is distinguished a class of +imaginative literature which flourished in the 17th century, principally +in France. The beginnings of modern fiction in that country took a +pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated _Astree_ (1610) of Honore d'Urfe +(1568-1625), which is the earliest French novel, is properly styled a +pastoral. But this ingenious and diffuse production, in which all is +artificial, was the source of a vast literature, which took many and +diverse forms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and +sentimental, there was a side of the _Astree_ which encouraged that +extravagant love of glory, that spirit of "panache," which was now +rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which animated Marin +le Roy, sieur de Gomberville (1600-1674), who was the inventor of what +have since been known as the Heroical Romances. In these there was +experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of +romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible +beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere +of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to +the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they +were well-known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise. + +In the _Astree_ of Honore d'Urfe, which was a pure pastoral, in the +religious romances of Pierre Camus (1582-1653), in the comic _Francion_ +of Charles Sorel, piquancy had been given to the recital by this belief +that real personages could be recognized under the disguises. But in the +_Carithee_ of Gomberville (1621) we have a pastoral which is already +beginning to be a heroic romance, and a book in which, under a travesty +of Roman history, an appeal is made to an extravagantly chivalrous +enthusiasm. A further development was seen in the _Polyxene_ (1623) of +Francois de Moliere, and the _Endymion_ (1624) of Gombauld; in the +latter the elderly queen, Marie de' Medici, was celebrated under the +disguise of Diana, for whom a beautiful shepherd of Caria (the author +himself) nourishes a hopeless passion. The earliest of the Heroic +Romances, pure and simple, is, however, the celebrated _Polexandre_ +(1629) of Gomberville. The author began by intending his hero to +represent Louis XIII., but he changed his mind, and drew a portrait of +Cardinal Richelieu. In this novel, for the first time, the romantic +character proper to this class of books is seen undiluted; there is no +intrusion of a personage who is not celebrated for his birth, his beauty +or his exploits. The story deals with the adventures of a hero who +visits all the sea-coasts of the world, the most remote as well as the +most fabulous, in search of an ineffable princess, Alcidiane. This +absurd and pretentious, yet very original piece of invention enjoyed an +immense success, and historical romances of a similar class competed for +the favour of the public. There was an equal amount of geography and +more of ancient history in the _Ariane_ (1632) of Desmarets de +Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a book which, long neglected, has in late +years been rediscovered, and which has been greeted by M. Paul Morillot +as the most readable and the least tiresome of all the Heroic Romances. +The type of that class of literature, however, has always been found in +the highly elaborate writings of Gauthier de Coste de la Calprenede +(1609-1663), which enjoyed for a time a prodigious celebrity, and were +read and imitated all over Europe. La Calprenede was a Gascon soldier, +imbued with all the extravagance of his race, and in full sympathy with +the audacity and violence of the aristocratic society of France in his +day. His _Cassandre_, which appeared in ten volumes between 1642 and +1645, is perhaps the most characteristic of all the Heroic Romances. It +deals with a highly romantic epoch of ancient history, the decline of +the empire of Alexander the Great. The wars of the Persians and of the +Scythians are introduced, and among the characters are discovered such +personages as Artaxerxes, Roxana and Ephestion. It must not be supposed, +however, that la Calprenede makes the smallest effort to deal with the +subject accurately or realistically. The figures are those of his own +day; they are seigneurs and great ladies of the court of Louis XIII., +masquerading in Macedonian raiment. The passion of love is dominant +throughout, and it is treated in the most exalted and hyperbolical +spirit. The central heroes of the story, Oroondate and Lysimachus, are +dignified, eloquent and amorous; they undergo unexampled privations in +the quest of incomparable ladies whose beauty and whose nobility is only +equalled by their magnificent loyalty. These books were written with an +aim that was partly didactic. Their object was to entertain the ladies +and to gratify a taste for endlessly wire-drawn sentimentality, but it +was also to teach fortitude and grandeur of soul and to inculcate +lessons of practical chivalry. La Calprenede followed up the success of +his _Cassandre_ with a _Cleopatre_ (1647) in twelve volumes, and a +_Faramond_ (1661) which he did not live to finish. He became more +extravagant, more rhapsodical as he proceeded, and he lost all the +little hold on history which he had ever held. _Cleopatre_, +nevertheless, enjoyed a prodigious popularity, and it became the fashion +to emulate as far as possible the prowess of its magnificent hero, the +proud Artaban. It should be said that la Calprenede objected to his +books being styled romances, and insisted that they were specimens of +"history embellished with certain inventions." He may, in opposition to +his wishes, claim the doubtful praise of being, in reality, the creator +of the modern historical novel. He was immediately imitated or +accompanied by a large number of authors, of whom two have achieved a +certain immortality, which, unhappily, must be confessed to be partly of +ridicule. The vogue of the historical romance was carried to its height +by a brother and a sister, Georges de Scudery (1601-1667) and Madeleine +de Scudery (1608-1701), who represented in their own persons all the +extravagant, tempestuous and absurd elements of the age, and whose +elephantine romances remain as portents in the history of literature. +These novels--there are five of them--were signed by Georges de Scudery, +but it is believed that all were in the main written by Madeleine. The +earliest was _Ibrahim, ou l'Illustre Bassa_ (1641); it was followed by +_Le Grand Cyrus_ (1648-1653) and the final, and most preposterous member +of the series was _Clelie_ (1649-1654). The romances of Mlle de Scudery +(for to her we may safely attribute them) are much inferior in style to +those of la Calprenede. They are pretentious, affected and sickly. The +author abuses the element of analysis, and pushes a psychology, which +was beyond the age in penetration, to a wearisome and excessive extent. +Nothing, it is probable, in the whole evolution of the Historical +Romances has attracted so much attention as the "Carte de Tendre" which +occurs in the opening book of _Clelie_. This celebrated map, drawn by +the heroine in order to show the route from New Friendship to Tender, +and a geographical symbol, therefore, of the progress of love, with its +city of Tender-upon-Esteem, its sea of Enmity, its river of Inclination, +its rock-built citadel of Pride, its cold lake of Indifference, is a +miracle of elaborate and incongruous ingenuity. But, amusing as it is, +it shows into what depths of puerility the amorous casuistry of these +romances had fallen. These novels formed the chief topic of conversation +and of correspondence in the literary society which gathered at and +around the Hotel de Rambouillet, and in the personages of Mlle de +Scudery's romances could be recognized all the famous leaders of that +society. The mawkish love-making and the false heroism of these +monstrous novels went rapidly out of fashion in France soon after 1660, +when the epoch of the Heroic Romance came to an end. In England the +Heroic Romance had a period of flourishing popularity. All the principal +French examples were very promptly translated, and "he was not to be +admitted into the academy of wit who had not read _Astrea_ and _The +Grand Cyrus_." The great vogue of these books in England lasted from +about 1645 to 1660. It led, of course, to the composition of original +works in imitation of the French. The most remarkable and successful of +these was _Parthenissa_, published in 1654 by Roger Boyle, Lord Broghill +and afterwards Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), which was greatly admired by +Dorothy Osborne and her correspondents. Addison speaks in the +"Spectator" of the popularity of all these huge books, "the _Grand +Cyrus_, with a pin stuck in one of the middle leaves, _Clelie_, which +opened of itself in the place that describes two lovers in a bower." +When the drama, and in particular tragedy, was reinstituted in England, +sentimental readers found a field for their emotions on the stage, and +the heroic romances immediately began to go out of fashion. They +lingered, however, for a quarter of a century more, and M. Jusserand has +analysed what may be considered the very latest of the race, _Pandion +and Amphigenia_, published in 1665 by the dramatist, John Crowne. + + See Gordon de Percel, _De l'usage des romans_ (1734); Andre Le Breton, + _Le Roman au XVII^e siecle_ (1890); Paul Morillot, _Le Roman en France + depuis 1610_ (1894); J. J. Jusserand, _Le Roman anglais au XVII^e + siecle_ (1888). (E. G.) + + + + +HEROIC VERSE, a term exclusively used in English to Indicate the rhymed +iambic line or HEROIC COUPLET. In ancient literature, the heroic verse, +[Greek: heroikon metron], was synonymous with the dactylic hexameter. It +was in this measure that those typically heroic poems, the _Iliad_ and +_Odyssey_ and the _Aeneid_ were written. In English, however, it was +not enough to designate a single iambic line of five beats as heroic +verse, because it was necessary to distinguish blank verse from the +distich, which was formed by the heroic couplet. This had escaped the +notice of Dryden, when he wrote "The English Verse, which we call +Heroic, consists of no more than ten syllables." If that were the case, +then _Paradise Lost_ would be written in heroic verse, which is not +true. What Dryden should have said is "consists of two rhymed lines, +each of ten syllables." In French the alexandrine has always been +regarded as the heroic measure of that language. The dactylic movement +of the heroic line in ancient Greek, the famous [Greek: rhythmos heroos] +of Homer, is expressed in modern Europe by the iambic movement. The +consequence is that much of the rush and energy of the antique verse, +which at vigorous moments was like the charge of a battalion, is lost. +It is owing to this, in part, that the heroic couplet is so often +required to give, in translation, the full value of a single Homeric +hexameter. It is important to insist that it is the couplet, not the +single line, which constitutes heroic verse. It is interesting to note +that the Latin poet Ennius, as reported by Cicero, called the heroic +metre of one line _versum longum_, to distinguish it from the brevity of +lyrical measures. The current form of English heroic verse appears to be +the invention of Chaucer, who used it in his _Legend of Good Women_ and +afterwards, with still greater freedom, in the _Canterbury Tales_. Here +is an example of it in its earliest development:-- + + "And thus the longe day in fight they spend, + Till, at the last, as everything hath end, + Anton is shent, and put him to the flight, + And all his folk to go, as best go might." + +This way of writing was misunderstood and neglected by Chaucer's English +disciples, but was followed nearly a century later by the Scottish poet, +called Blind Harry (_c._ 1475), whose _Wallace_ holds an important place +in the history of versification as having passed on the tradition of the +heroic couplet. Another Scottish poet, Gavin Douglas, selected heroic +verse for his translation of the _Aeneid_ (1513), and displayed, in such +examples as the following, a skill which left little room for +improvement at the hands of later poets:-- + + "One sang, 'The ship sails over the salt foam, + Will bring the merchants and my leman home'; + Some other sings, 'I will be blithe and light, + Mine heart is leant upon so goodly wight.'" + +The verse so successfully mastered was, however, not very generally used +for heroic purposes in Tudor literature. The early poets of the revival, +and Spenser and Shakespeare after them, greatly preferred stanzaic +forms. For dramatic purposes blank verse was almost exclusively used, +although the French had adopted the rhymed alexandrine for their plays. +In the earlier half of the 17th century, heroic verse was often put to +somewhat unheroic purposes, mainly in prologues and epilogues, or other +short poems of occasion; but it was nobly redeemed by Marlowe in his +_Hero and Leander_ and respectably by Browne in his _Britannia's +Pastorals_. It is to be noted, however, that those Elizabethans who, +like Chapman, Warner and Drayton, aimed at producing a warlike and +Homeric effect, did so in shambling fourteen-syllable couplets. The one +heroic poem of that age written at considerable length in the +appropriate national metre is the _Bosworth Field_ of Sir John Beaumont +(1582-1628). Since the middle of the 17th century, when heroic verse +became the typical and for a while almost the solitary form in which +serious English poetry was written, its history has known many +vicissitudes. After having been the principal instrument of Dryden and +Pope, it was almost entirely rejected by Wordsworth and Coleridge, but +revised, with various modifications, by Byron, Shelley (in _Julian and +Maddalo_) and Keats (in _Lamia_). In the second half of the 19th century +its prestige was restored by the brilliant work of Swinburne in +_Tristram_ and elsewhere. (E. G.) + + + + +HEROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND (1791-1833), French musician, the son of +Francois Joseph Herold, an accomplished pianist, was born in Paris, on +the 28th of January 1791. It was not till after his father's death that +Herold in 1806 entered the Paris conservatoire, where he studied under +Catal and Mehul. In 1812 he gained the grand prix de Rome with the +cantata _La Duchesse de la Valliere_, and started for Italy, where he +remained till 1815 and composed a symphony, a cantata and several pieces +of chamber music. During his stay in Italy also Herold for the first +time ventured on the stage with the opera _La Gioventu di Enrico V._, +first performed at Naples in 1815 with moderate success. During a short +stay in Vienna he was much in the society of Salieri. Returning to Paris +he was invited by Boieldieu to collaborate with him on an opera called +_Charles de France_, performed in 1816, and soon followed by Herold's +first French opera, _Les Rosieres_ (1817), which was received very +favourably. Herold produced numerous dramatic works for the next fifteen +years in rapid succession. Only the names of some of the more important +need here be mentioned:--_La Clochette_ (1817), _L'Auteur mort et +vivant_ (1820), _Marie_ (1826), and the ballets _La Fille mal gardee_ +(1828) and _La Belle au bois dormant_ (1829). Herold also wrote a vast +quantity of pianoforte music, in spite of his time being much occupied +by his duties as accompanist at the Italian opera in Paris. In 1831 he +produced the romantic opera _Zampa_, and in the following year _Le Pre +aux clercs_ (first performance December 15, 1832), in which French +_esprit_ and French chivalry find their most perfect embodiment. These +two operas secured immortality for the name of the composer, who died on +the 18th of January 1833, of the lung disease from which he had suffered +for many years, and the effects of which he had accelerated by incessant +work. Herold's incomplete opera _Ludovic_ was afterwards printed by J. +F. F. Halevy. + + + + +HERON (Fr. _heron_; Ital. _aghirone_, _airone_; Lat. _ardea_; Gr. +[Greek: erodios]: A.-S. _hragra_; Icelandic, _hegre_; Swed. _hager_; +Dan. _heire_; Ger. _Heiger_, _Reiher_, _Heergans_; Dutch, _reiger_), a +long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical +representative of the group _Ardeidae_. It is difficult or even +impossible to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of +_Ardeidae_ which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863 enumerated +61, besides 5 of what he terms "conspecies," as contained in the +collection at Leyden (_Mus. des Pays-Bas_, Ardeae, 64 pp.),--on the +other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871 (_Handlist_, &c. iii. 26-34) admitted +above 90, while Dr Anton Reichenow (_Journ. fur Ornithologie_, 1877, pp. +232-275) recognizes 67 as known, besides 15 "subspecies" and 3 +varieties, arranging them in 3 genera, _Nycticorax_, _Botaurus_ and +_Ardea_, with 17 sub-genera. But it is difficult to separate the family, +with any satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have +to be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost +insensibly into each other--though in common language it is easy to +speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and boatbills. With the +exception of the last, Professor Schlegel retains all in the genus +_Ardea_, dividing it into _eight_ sections, the names of which may +perhaps be Englished--great herons, small herons, egrets, semi-egrets, +rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns and night-herons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heron.] + +The common heron of Europe, _Ardea cinerea_ of Linnaeus, is universally +allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also be regarded as +that of Professor Schlegel's first section. The species inhabits +suitable localities throughout the whole of Europe, Africa and Asia, +reaching Japan, many of the islands of the Indian Archipelago and even +Australia. Though by no means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is +still sufficiently common,[1] and there must be few persons who have not +seen it rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing +overhead in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its +daily haunts; while they are many who have been entertained by watching +it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly of fishes (especially eels +and flounders) and amphibians--though young birds and small mammals come +not amiss--wading midleg in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out +of its depth, or standing motionless to strike its prey with its +formidable and sure beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in +societies, known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by +law and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the sport +their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly owing to +the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and still more, it +would seem, from agricultural improvement, which, by draining meres, +fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding-places of a great population +of herons, many of the larger heronries have broken up--the birds +composing them dispersing to neighbouring localities and forming smaller +settlements, most of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of +heronry, though commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called +heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and Wales, +has become far greater than formerly, but no one can doubt that the +number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen by the heron for its +nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the top of a lofty tree, but +not unfrequently (and this seems to have been much more usual in former +days) near or on the ground among rough vegetation, on an island in a +lake, or again on a rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a +huge mass of sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs, +and in it are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are +clothed in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a +considerable time, therein differing remarkably from the "pipers" of the +crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched. The +first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way resemble those +of the adult, but the pure white breast, the black throat-streaks and +especially the long pendent plumes, which characterize only the very old +birds, and are most beautiful in the cocks, are subsequently acquired. +The heron measures about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the +expanse of its wings is sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs +only between 3 and 4 lb. + +Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in size by the +great blue heron of America (_Ardea herodias_), which generally +resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are smaller than the _A. +sumatrana_ or _A. typhon_ of India and the Malay Archipelago, while the +_A. goliath_, of wide distribution in Africa and Asia, is the largest of +all. The purple heron, _A. purpurea_, as a well-known European species +having a great range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The +species included in Professor Schlegel's second section inhabit the +tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets, forming +his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they are by their +pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by the beautiful +dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily droop over the tail, +and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by Oriental magnates. The +largest species is _A. occidentalis_, only known apparently from Florida +and Cuba; but one not much less, the great egret (_A. alba_), belongs to +the Old World, breeding regularly in south-eastern Europe, and +occasionally straying to Britain. A third, _A. egretta_, represents it +in America, while much the same may be said of two smaller species, _A. +garzetta_, the little egret of English authors, and _A. candidissima_; +and a sixth, _A. intermedia_, is common in India, China and Japan, +besides occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing +some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron (_A. +bubulcus_), is the only species that is known to have occurred in +Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except by +their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species with +slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons form +Professor Schlegel's next section, but it can scarcely be satisfactorily +differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its members have no +rail-like affinities, though the typical species, which inhabits the +south of Europe, and occasionally finds its way to England, has long +been known as _A. ralloides_.[2] Nearly all these birds are tropical or +subtropical. Then there is the somewhat better defined group of little +bitterns, containing about a dozen species--the smallest of the whole +family. One of them, _A. minuta_, though very local in its distribution, +is a native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England. It +has a close counterpart in the _A. exilis_ of North America, and is +represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world, the _A. +pusilla_ of Australia especially differing very slightly from it. Ranged +by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all remarkable for +their skulking habits, but more resembling the true herons in their +nature, are the common green bittern of America (_A. virescens_) and its +very near ally the African _A. atricapilla_, from which last it is +almost impossible to distinguish the _A. javanica_, of wide range +throughout Asia and its islands, while other species, less closely +related, occur elsewhere as _A. flavicollis_--one form of which, _A. +gouldi_, inhabits Australia. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bittern.] + +The true bitterns, forming the genus _Botaurus_ of most authors, seem to +be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their wholly +nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage than on strictly +structural grounds, though some differences of proportion are +observable. The common bittern (q.v.) of Europe (_B. stellaris_), is +widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere.[3] Australia and New +Zealand have a kindred species, _B. poeciloptilus_, and North America a +third, _B. mugitans_[4] or _B. lentiginosus_. Nine other species from +various parts of the world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some +of them should perhaps be excluded from the genus _Botaurus_. + +Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all of which +may be reasonably placed in the genus _Nycticorax_, characterized by a +shorter beak and a few other peculiarities, among which the large eyes +deserve mention. The first is _N. griseus_, a bird widely spread over +the Old World, and not unfrequently visiting England, where it would +undoubtedly breed if permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the +common night-heron of America; but this, though very closely allied, is +generally deemed distinct, and is the _N. naevius_ or _N. gardeni_ of +most writers. A clearly different American species, with a more southern +habitat, is the _N. violaceus_ or _N. cayennensis_, while others are +found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands and in +West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species, _N. pauper_, and +another, so far as is known, peculiar to Rodriguez, _N. megacephalus_, +existed in that island at the time of its being first colonized, but is +now extinct. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Boatbill.] + +The boatbill, of which only one species is known, seems to be merely a +night-heron with an exaggerated bill,--so much widened as to suggest its +English name,--but has always been allowed generic rank. This curious +bird, the _Cancroma cochlearia_ of most authors, is a native of tropical +America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are essentially +those of a _Nycticorax_.[5] + +Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in the peat of +the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and Langy in France have been +referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards to herons under the names of _Ardea +perplexa_ and _A. formosa_; a tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am +Albuch by Dr Fraas to an _A. similis_, while Sir R. Owen recognized a +portion of a sternum from the London Clay as most nearly approaching +this family. + +It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley's section +_Pelargomorphae_, belonging to his larger group _Desmognathae_, and to +draw attention to the singular development of the patches of +"powder-down" which in the family _Ardeidae_ attain a magnitude hardly +to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly unknown. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In many parts of England it is generally called a + "hernser"--being a corruption of "heronsewe," which, as Professor + Skeat states (_Etymol. Dictionary_, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct + word from "heronshaw," commonly confounded with it. The further + corruption of "hernser" into "handsaw," as in the well-known proverb, + was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was + unfamiliar. + + [2] It is the "Squacco-Heron" of modern British authors--the + distinctive name, given "Sguacco" by Willughby and Ray from + Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham. + + [3] The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England was + in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (_Birds of Norfolk_, ii. 164). + + [4] Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (_Fauna + Boreali-Americana_, ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet) + exactly resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American + ornithologists seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes + when disturbed. + + [5] The very wonderful shoe-bird (_Balaeniceps_) has been regarded by + many authorities as allied to _Cancroma_; but there can be little + doubt that it is more nearly related to the genus _Scopus_ belonging + to the storks. The sun-bittern (_Eurypyga_) forms a family of itself, + allied to the rails and cranes. + + + + +HERPES (from the Gr. [Greek: herpein], to creep) an inflammation of the +true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or its +ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped vesicles of +various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a clear fluid, and +either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked varieties of herpes are +frequently met with. (a) In _herpes labialis et nasalis_ the eruption +occurs about the lips and nose. It is seen in cases of certain acute +febrile ailments, such as fevers, inflammation of the lungs or even in a +severe cold. It soon passes off. (b) In the _herpes zoster, zona_ or +"shingles" the eruption occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous +nerves, often on one side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs +or other parts. It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently +met with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually +preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and, not +only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long after they +have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes continue and give +rise to great suffering. The disease seldom recurs. The most that can be +done for its relief is to protect the parts with cotton wool or some +dusting powder, while the pain may be allayed by opiates or bromide of +potassium. Quinine internally is often of service. + + + + +HERRERA, FERNANDO DE (c. 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical poet, was born at +Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed many impassioned poems +to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro Colon de Portugal; but it is +suggested that these should be regarded as Platonic literary exercises +in the manner of Petrarch. As is shown by his _Anotaciones a las obras +de Garcilaso de la Vega_ (1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for +the Italian poets, and continued the work of Boscan in naturalizing the +Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso involved +him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal innovations laid +him open to attack. But, even if his amatory sonnets are condemned as +insincere in sentiment, their workmanship is admirable, while his odes +on the battle of Lepanto, on Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King +Sebastian of Portugal entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian +poets and as the most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega +(see VEGA). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with +additions in 1619; they are reissued in the _Biblioteca de autores +espanoles_, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera's prose works only the _Vida y muerta +de Tomas Moro_ (1592) survives; it is a translation of the life in +Thomas Stapleton's _Tres Thomae_ (1588). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Bourciez, "Les Sonnets de Fernando de Herrera," + _Annales de la Faculte des Lettres de Bordeaux_ (1891); _Fernando de + Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones a les obras de Garcilaso + de la Vega_ (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, _L'Hymne sur Lepante_ + (Paris, 1893). + + + + +HERRERA, FRANCISCO (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the old), Spanish +historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis Fernandez in Seville, +his native city, where he spent most of his life. Although so rough and +coarse in manners that neither scholar nor child could remain with him, +the great talents of Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used +them, brought him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in +bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with coining +base money. From this accusation, whether true or false, he sought +sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermenegildo, which he adorned +with a fine picture of its patron saint. Philip IV., on his visit to +Seville in 1624, having seen this picture, and learned the position of +the artist, pardoned him at once, warning him, however, that such powers +as his should not be degraded. In 1650 Herrera removed to Madrid, where +he lived in great honour till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first +to relinquish the timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of +painting, and to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which +reached such perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his +pupil. His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of +execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is said to +have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also said that, +when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours on the canvas +with a broom under his directions, and that he worked them up into his +designs before they dried. The drawing in his pictures is correct, and +the colouring original and skilfully managed, so that the figures stand +out in striking relief. What has been considered his best easel-work, +the "Last Judgment," in the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an +original and striking composition, showing in its treatment of the nude +how ill-founded the common belief was that Spanish painters, through +ignorance of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his +best fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura; but +many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the weather +and others by the artist's own carelessness in preparing his surfaces. +He has, however, preserved several of his own designs in etchings. For +his easel-works Herrera often chose such humble subjects as fairs, +carnivals, ale-houses and the like. + +His son FRANCISCO HERRARA (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo (the young), was +also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to endure his father's +cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what money he could find, fled +from Seville to Rome. There, instead of devoting himself to the +antiquities and the works of the old Italian masters, he gave himself up +to the study of architecture and perspective, with the view of becoming +a fresco-painter. He did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became +renowned for his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his +skill in painting fish was called by the Italians _Lo Spagnuolo degli +pesci_. In later life he painted portraits with great success. He +returned to Seville on hearing of his father's death, and in 1660 was +appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo. His +vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and throwing up his +appointment he went to Madrid. There he was employed to paint a San +Hermenegildo for the barefooted Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco +the roof of the choir of San Felipe el Real. The success of this last +work procured for him a commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco +the roof of the Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the +Assumption of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title +of painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the royal +buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo was of a somewhat +similar temperament to his father, and offended many people by his +inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy. His pictures are inferior to +the older Herrera's both in design and in execution; but in some of them +traces of the vigour of his father, who was his first teacher, are +visible. He was by no means an unskilful colourist, and was especially +master of the effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund +Head in his _Handbook_ names his "San Francisco," in Seville Cathedral. +An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who died very +young, gave great promise as a painter. + + + + +HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE (1549-1625), Spanish historian, was +born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia in Spain. His father, +Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother, Agnes de Herrera, were both of +good family. After studying for some time in his native country, Herrera +proceeded to Italy, and there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago, +with whom, on his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to +Spain. Gonzago, sensible of his secretary's abilities, commended him to +Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first +historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of +Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary, Herrera +devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature, retaining his +offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was appointed +secretary of state very shortly before his death, which took place at +Madrid on the 29th of March 1625. Of Herrera's writings, the most +valuable is his _Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en +las islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano_ (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a +work which relates the history of the Spanish-American colonies from +1492 to 1554. The author's official position gave him access to the +state papers and to other authentic sources not attainable by other +writers, while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS., +especially from that of Bartolome de Las Casas. He used his facilities +carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on the whole +accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable to the student either +of the history of the early colonies, or of the institutions and +customs of the aboriginal American peoples. Although it is written in +the form of annals, mistakes are not wanting, and several glaring +anachronisms have been pointed out by M. J. Quintana. "If," to quote Dr +Robertson, "by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New +World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events in his +work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected and obscure that +it is an unpleasant task to collect from different parts of his book and +piece together the detached shreds of a story, he might justly have been +ranked among the most eminent historians of his country." This work was +republished in 1730, and has been translated into English by J. Stevens +(London, 1740), and into other European languages. + + Herrera's other works are the following: _Historia de lo sucedido en + Escocia e Inglaterra en quarenta y quatro anos que vivio la reyna + Maria Estuarda_ (Madrid, 1589); _Cinco libros de la historia de + Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Acores, 1582-1583_ (Madrid, + 1591); _Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594_ (Madrid, 1598); + _Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II, desde 1559 + hasta su muerte_ (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); _Tratado, relacion, y + discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon_ (Madrid, 1612); + _Comentarios de los hechos de los Espanoles, Franceses, y Venecianos + en Italia, &c., 1281-1559_ (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H. Prescott, + _History of the Conquest of Mexico_, vol. ii. + + + + +HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674), English poet, was born at Cheapside, +London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591. He belonged to an old +Leicestershire family which had settled in London. He was the seventh +child of Nicholas Herrick, goldsmith, of the city of London, who died in +1592, under suspicion of suicide. The children were brought up by their +uncle, Sir William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to +whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably been educated +at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to Cambridge; and it was +no doubt during his apprenticeship that the young poet was introduced to +that circle of wits which he was afterwards to adorn. He seems to have +been present at the first performance of _The Alchemist_ in 1610, and it +was probably about this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical +"son." He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John's +College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his degree, +he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen letters to his +uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beaumanoir, and shows that +Herrick suffered much from poverty at the university. He took his B.A. +in 1617, and in 1620 he became master of arts. From this date until 1627 +we entirely lose sight of him; it has been variously conjectured that he +spent these years preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much +looser pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by +the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in +Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when he was +ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed him at first; the +village was dull and remote, and he felt very bitterly that he was cut +off from all literary and social associations; but soon the quiet +existence in Devonshire soothed and delighted him. He was pleased with +the rural and semi-pagan customs that survived in the village, and in +some of his most charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances, +wakes and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night +revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick never +married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy family of pets, +and tended by an excellent old servant named Prudence Baldwin. His first +appearance in print was in some verses he contributed to _A Description +of the King and Queen of Fairies_, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of _Wit's +Recreations_ contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by +Herrick in the _Hesperides_, and one not reprinted until our own day. +These partial appearances make it probable that he visited London from +time to time. We have few hints of his life as a clergyman. Anthony Wood +says that Herricks's sermons were florid and witty, and that he was +"beloved by the neighbouring gentry." A very aged woman, one Dorothy +King, stated that the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation, +cursing them for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his +favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He was a +devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil War, and +immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his celebrated +collection of lyrical poems, entitled _Hesperides; or the Works both +Human and Divine of Robert Herrick_. The "divine works" bore the title +of _Noble Numbers_ and the date 1647. That he was reduced to great +poverty in London has been stated, but there is no evidence of the fact. +In August 1662 Herrick returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own +supplanter, Dr John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was +buried at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his +memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a descendant +of a collateral branch of the family. The _Hesperides_ (and _Noble +Numbers_) is the only volume which Herrick published, but he contributed +poems to _Lachrymae Musarum_ (1649) and to _Wit's Recreations_. + +As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets. His +genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious, but in its +own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems--and of the thirteen hundred +that he has left behind him not one is long--are like jewels of various +value, heaped together in a casket. Some are of the purest water, +radiant with light and colour, some were originally set in false metal +that has tarnished, some were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of +the unarranged, heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not +worth reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is +astonished at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains. +Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his sylvan +muse when he says:-- + + "I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers, + Of April, May, of June and July flowers, + I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes, + Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes." + +He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no one before him +had seen it, and he described it in his verse with a certain purple glow +of Arcadian romance over it, in tones of immortal vigour and freshness. +His love poems are still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour +and tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of modern +lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace and in the +poets of the Greek anthology. + + After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the fame + of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his poems to + the readers of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ of 1796 and 1797. Dr Drake + followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810 interest had so + far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured to print a + selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable notice of the + _Quarterly Review_. In 1823 the _Hesperides_ and the _Noble Numbers_ + were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland, afterwards Lord + Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick's have been too + numerous to be mentioned here; there are few English poets of the 17th + century whose writings are now more accessible. See F. W. Moorman, + _Robert Herrick_ (1910). (E. G.) + + + + +HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES (1778-1855), English politician, son of a London +merchant, began his career as a junior clerk in the treasury, and became +known for his financial abilities as private secretary to successive +ministers. He was appointed commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the +abolition of that office (1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he +entered parliament as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became +chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of +internal differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries, +the ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master of the +mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade, and for the +earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war. From 1841 to 1847 he was +out of parliament, but during 1852 he was president of the board of +control under Lord Derby. He was a consistent and upright Tory of the +old school, who carried weight as an authority on financial subjects. +His eldest son, SIR CHARLES JOHN HERRIES (1815-1882), was chairman of +the board of inland revenue. + + See the _Life_ by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880). + + + + +HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL, 4TH LORD (c. 1512-1583), Scottish politician, was +the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he +married Agnes (d. 1594), daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries +(d. 1543), a grandson of Herbert Herries (d. c. 1500) of Terregles, +Kirkcudbrightshire, who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament +about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries. But +before this event Maxwell had become prominent among the men who rallied +round Mary queen of Scots, although during the earlier part of his +public life he had been associated with the religious reformers and had +been imprisoned by the regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover--at +least until 1563--very friendly with John Knox, who calls him "a man +zealous and stout in God's cause." But the transition from one party to +the other was gradually accomplished, and from March 1566, when Maxwell +joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder of David Rizzio and her escape +from Holyrood, he remained one of her staunchest friends, although he +disliked her marriage with Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and +after this battle she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with +the queen into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of +Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York. He +continued to labour in Mary's cause after returning to Scotland, and was +imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also incurred Elizabeth's +displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard Dacres, but he soon made his +peace with the English queen. He showed himself in general hostile to +the regent Morton, but he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox +until his death on the 20th of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord +Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches. + +William's grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became 3rd earl of +Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell, the 2nd earl, in +1667. John's grandson was William, 5th earl of Nithsdale, the Jacobite +(see NITHSDALE). William was deprived of his honours in 1716, but in +1858 the House of Lords decided that his descendant William +Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In +1876 William's son Marmaduke Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became 12th +Lord Herries, and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom. + + + + +HERRING (_Clupea harengus_, _Haring_ in German, _le hareng_ in French, +_sill_ in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus _Clupea_, of which +more than sixty different species are known in various parts of the +globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad are species of the same +genus. Of all sea-fishes _Clupeae_ are the most abundant; for although +other genera may comprise a greater variety of species, they are far +surpassed by _Clupea_ with regard to the number of individuals. The +majority of the species of _Clupea_ are of greater or less utility to +man; it is only a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their +food, highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons +eating them. But no other species equals the common herring in +importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in incredible +numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the Atlantic and the seas +north of Asia. The herring inhabiting the corresponding latitudes of the +North Pacific is another species, but most closely allied to that of the +eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was the general belief that the herring +inhabits the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates +at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and America. +This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we know now that this +fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity of our shores, but at a +greater depth, and at a greater distance from the coast, than at the +time when it approaches land for the purpose of spawning. + +Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the other species +of _Clupea_ by having an ovate patch of very small teeth on the vomer +(that is, the centre of the palate). In the dorsal fin they have from 17 +to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from 16 to 18; there are from 53 to 59 +scales in the lateral line and 54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral +column. They have a smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of +bone which are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other _Clupeae_. The +sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth on the +vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line. + +The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on rough +gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and always in +comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning is different in +different places, and even in the same district, e.g. the east coast of +Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring and others in autumn. +These are not the same fish but different races. Those which breed in +winter or spring deposit their spawn near the coast at the mouths of +estuaries, and ascend the estuaries to a considerable distance at +certain times, as in the Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which +spawn in summer or autumn belong more to the open sea, e.g. the great +shoals that visit the North Sea annually. + +Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer's observations, +they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during the first month after +hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second, 45 to 50 mm. during the third, +55 to 61 mm. during the fourth, and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The +size which they finally attain and their general condition depend +chiefly on the abundance of food (which consists of crustaceans and +other small marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the +season at which they have been hatched, &c. Their usual size is about 12 +in., but in some particularly suitable localities they grow to a length +of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring 17 in. are on record. In +the Baltic, where the water is gradually losing its saline constituents, +thus becoming less adapted for the development of marine species, the +herring continues to exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not +growing either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring. +The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically +identical with that of Europe. A second species (_Clupea leachii_) has +been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises only +individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or late spawn. +Also the so-called "white-bait" is not a distinct species, but consists +chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings and sprats, and is obtained +"in perfection" at localities where these small fishes find an abundance +of food, as in the estuary of the Thames. + + Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published, as by + Valenciennes in the 20th vol. of the _Histoire naturelle des + poissons_, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, _The Herring, its + Natural History and National Importance_ (Edinburgh, 1864). Recent + investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery _Board for + Scotland_, and in the reports of the German _Kommission zur + Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere_ (published at Kiel). (J. T. C.) + + + + +HERRING-BONE, a term in architecture applied to alternate courses of +bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding courses above +and below: this is said to give a better bond to the wall, especially +when the stone employed is stratified, such as Stonefield stone, and too +thin to be laid in horizontal courses. Although it is only occasionally +found in modern buildings, it was a type of construction constantly +employed in Roman, Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is +regarded as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the +Byzantine walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed +decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the diagonal +courses are reversed one above the other. Examples in France exist in +the churches at Querqueville in Normandy and St Christophe at Suevres +(Loir et Cher), both dating from the 10th century, and in England +herring-bone masonry is found in the walls of castles, such as at +Guildford, Colchester and Tamworth. The term is also applied to the +paving of stable yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating +so that the head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the +effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses. + + + + +HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE, the name applied to the action of Rouvray, +fought in 1429 between the French (and Scots) and the English, who, +under Sir John Falstolfe (or Falstaff), were convoying Lenten +provisions, chiefly herrings, to the besiegers of Orleans. (See ORLEANS +and HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.) + + + + +HERRNHUT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 18 m. S.E. of +Bautzen, and situated on the Lobau-Zittau railway. Pop. 1200. It is +chiefly known as the principal seat of the Moravian or Bohemian +brotherhood, the members of which are called _Herrnhuter_. A colony of +these people, fleeing from persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut +in 1722 on a site presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the +society include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the +sisters and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an +ethnographical museum and other collections of interest. The town is +remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous cleanliness. +Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives its name), tobacco +and various minor articles are manufactured. The Hutberg, at the foot of +which the town lies, commands a pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village +about a mile distant, has been the seat of the directorate of the +community since about 1789. + + + + +HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848), English astronomer, sister of +Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and fourth daughter of her +parents, was born at Hanover on the 16th of March 1750. On account of +the prejudices of her mother, who did not desire her to know more than +was necessary for being useful in the family, she received, in youth +only the first elements of education. After the death of her father in +1767 she obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a +view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother in the +management of the household until the autumn of 1772, when she joined +her brother William, who had established himself as a teacher of music +at Bath. At once she became a valuable co-operator with him both in his +professional duties and in the astronomical researches to which he had +already begun to devote all his spare time. She was the principal singer +at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist +that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which, +however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office of +astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant in his +observations, and also executed the laborious calculations which were +connected with them. For these services she received from the king in +1787 a salary of L50 a year. Her chief amusement during her leisure +hours was sweeping the heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this +means she detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the +eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with unquestioned +priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal Society an Index to +Flamsteed's observations, together with a catalogue of 561 stars +accidentally omitted from the "British Catalogue," and a list of the +errata in that publication. Though she returned to Hanover in 1822 she +did not abandon her astronomical studies, and in 1828 she completed the +reduction, to January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother. +In 1828 the Astronomical Society, to mark their sense of the benefits +conferred on science by such a series of laborious exertions, +unanimously resolved to present her with their gold medal, and in 1835 +elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846 she received a +gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on the 9th of January +1848. + + See _The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel_, by Mrs John + Herschel (1876). + + + + +HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822), generally known as Sir +William Herschel, English astronomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th of +November 1738. His father was a musician employed as hautboy player in +the Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony in the +early part of the 17th century on account of religious troubles, they +themselves being Protestants. Herschel's earlier education was +necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly owing to the warlike +commotions of his country; but being at all times an indomitable +student, he, by his own exertions, more than repaired this deficiency. +He became a very skilful musician, both theoretical and practical; while +his attainments as a self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to +the prosecution of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently +advanced and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and +thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret of what +Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific success. + + +In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the Hanoverian +guard, and with his detachment visited England in 1755, accompanied by +his father and eldest brother; in the following year he returned to his +native country; but the hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years' +War imperilling his health, his parents privately removed him from the +regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to England. There, +as might have been expected, the earlier part of his career was attended +with formidable difficulties and much privation. We find him engaged in +several towns in the north of England as organist and teacher of music, +which were not lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began +to flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to the +Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth and +fashion of the city. + +During the next five or six years he became the leading musical +authority, and the director of all the chief public musical +entertainments at Bath. His circumstances having thus become easier, he +revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back with him his sister +Caroline, whose services he much needed in his multifarious +undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August 1772, being at that time in +her twenty-third year. She thus describes her brother's life soon after +her arrival: "He used to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass +of water, with Smith's _Harmonics_ and Ferguson's _Astronomy_, &c., and +so went to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first +thoughts on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those +objects himself of which he had been reading." It is not without +significance that we find him thus reading Smith's _Harmonics_; to that +study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a reward for his +thoroughness this led him to Smith's _Optics_; and this, by a natural +sequence, again led him to astronomy, for the purposes of which the +chief optical instruments were devised. It was in this way that he was +introduced to the writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to +those of Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer of +undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very expensive +and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet perfected even +their beautiful little achromatics of 2(3/4) in. aperture. So Herschel +was obliged to content himself with hiring a small Gregorian reflector +of about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen exposed for loan in a +tradesman's shop. Not satisfied with this implement, he procured a small +lens of about 18 ft. focal length, and set his sister to work on a +pasteboard tube to match it, so as to make him a telescope. This +unsatisfactory material was soon replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort +of vision was obtained of Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought +in London for a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such +instrument was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a +reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too +exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own. So he +was driven to the only alternative that remained; he must himself build +a large telescope. His first step in this direction was to purchase the +debris of an amateur's implements for grinding and polishing small +mirrors; and thus, by slow degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he +in 1774 had, as he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a +Newtonian telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he +was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary, he had from +the very first conceived the gigantic project of surveying the entire +heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining the plan of their general +structure by a settled mode of procedure, if only he could provide +himself with adequate instrumental means. For this purpose he, his +brother and his sister toiled for many years at the grinding and +polishing of hundreds of specula, always retaining the best and +recasting the others, until the most perfect of the earlier products had +been surpassed. This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of +the year when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place, +and had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774 every +available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped-for scrutiny +of the skies. In those days no machinery had been invented for the +construction of telescopic mirrors; the man who had the hardihood to +undertake polishing them doomed himself to walk leisurely and uniformly +round an upright post for many hours, without removing his hands from +the mirror, until his work was done. On these occasions Herschel +received his food from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward +was nigh. + +In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his +observations on the variable star "Mira" and the mountains of the moon +were communicated to the Royal Society through the influential +introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel had made his acquaintance in +a characteristic manner. In order to obtain a sight of the moon the +astronomer had taken his telescope into the street opposite his house; +the celebrated physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his +eye removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission to +take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversation which +ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a solid and enduring +regard. + +The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel as a guide to +what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun, he knew, rotated on its +axis, and he knew that dark spots often exist on its photosphere; the +questions that he put to himself were--Are there dark spots also on +variable stars? Do the stars also rotate on their axes? or are they +sometimes partially eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And +he went on to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and +have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet? To +these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts; and he +communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less than six +memoirs, occupying very many pages in the _Philosophical Transactions_, +and extending in date from 1780 to 1801. It was in the latter year that +these remarkable papers culminated in the inquiry whether any relation +could be traced in the recurrence of sun-spots, regarded as evidences of +solar activity, and the varying seasons of our planet, as exhibited by +the varying price of corn. Herschel's reply was inconclusive; nor has a +final solution of the related problems yet been obtained. + +In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a series of +papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several satellites. +The object which he had in view was not so much to ascertain the times +of their rotation as to discover whether those rotations are strictly +uniform. From the result he expected to gather, by analogy, the +probability of an alteration in the length of our own day. These +inquiries occupy the greater part of seven memoirs extending from 1781 +to 1797. While engaged on them he noticed the curious appearance of a +white spot near to each of the poles of the planet Mars. On +investigating the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and +finding that it differed little from that of the earth, he concluded +that its changes of climate also would resemble our own, and that these +white patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have confirmed +his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his observations +extended, the times of the rotations of the various satellites round +their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by equalling the times of +their revolution round their primaries. Here again we perceive that his +discoveries arose out of the systematic and comprehensive nature of his +investigation. Nothing with such a man is accidental. + +In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which completely +altered the character of his professional life. In the course of a +methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an object which at first +he supposed to be a comet, but which, by its subsequent motions and +appearance, averred itself to be a new planet, moving outside the orbit +of Saturn. The name of Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has +by general consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was +detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 6(1/2) in.; +subsequently, when he had provided himself with a much more powerful +telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he believed, no +less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations, while abolishing +four of these supposed attendants, have added two others apparently not +observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs on the subject were communicated by +him to the Royal Society, extending from the date of the discovery in +1781 to 1815. A noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel's mode of observation +led to the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious +diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magnifying +powers, but that the case is different with other celestial objects; +hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as unusual in +aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power in order to decide +its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered; and had a similar method been +applied to Neptune, that planet would have been found at Cambridge some +months before it was recognized at Berlin. + +We now come to the beginning of Herschel's most important series of +observations, culminating in what ought probably to be regarded as his +capital discovery. A material part of the task which he had set himself +embraced the determination of the relative distances of the stars from +our sun and from each other. Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the +heavens, he had observed many stars in apparently very close contiguity, +but often differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that, +on the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the smaller +enormously more distant; and considering that an astronomer on the +earth, in consequence of its immense orbital displacement of some 180 +millions of miles every six months, would see such a pair of stars under +different perspective aspects, he perceived that the measurement of +these changes should lead to an approximate determination of the stars' +relative distances. He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of +all the double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and 1785 +very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very last +scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in the year +1822, when he was its first president and already in the eighty-fourth +year of his age, related to these investigations. In the memoir of 1782 +he threw out the hint that these apparently contiguous stars might be +genuine pairs in mutual revolution; but he significantly added that the +time had not yet arrived for settling the question. Eleven years +afterwards (1793), he remeasured the relative positions of many such +couples, and we may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding +his prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars +circulated round each other, after the manner required by the laws of +gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the distant members +of the starry firmament of the same mechanical laws which bind together +the harmonious motions of our solar system. This sublime discovery, +announced in 1802, would of itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If +only he had lived long enough to learn the approximate distances of some +of these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to +calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the +quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would have +found another of his analogical conjectures realized. + +In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by George III., and +accepted the king's offer to become his private astronomer, and +henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific career. His salary was +fixed at L200 per annum, to which an addition of L50 per annum was +subsequently made for the astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr +Watson, to whom alone the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark, +"Never before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate." In +this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to Datchet and +soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy access of his royal +patron at Windsor. + +The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but with renewed +vigour and without the former professional interruptions. The greater +part, in fact, of the papers already referred to are dated from Datchet +and Slough; for the magnificent astronomical speculations in which he +was engaged, though for the most part conceived in the earlier portion +of his philosophical career, required years of patient observation +before they could be fully examined and realized. + +It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable paper on the +"Motion of the Solar System in Space,"--a sublime speculation, yet +through his genius realized by considerations of the utmost simplicity. +He returned to the same subject with fuller details in 1805. It was also +after his removal to Slough that he published his first memoir on the +construction of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring +idea of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers, +addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from the year +1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demonstrated the fact +that our sun is a star situated not far from the bifurcation of the +Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to us lie more or less in +clusters scattered throughout a comparatively thin, but immensely +extended stratum. At one time he imagined that his powerful instruments +had pierced through this stellar stratum, and that he had approximately +determined the form of some of its boundaries. In the last of his +memoirs, having convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his +telescopes the Milky Way was "fathomless." On either side of this +assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their common +centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of discrete nebulous +masses, such as those from the condensation of which he supposed the +whole stellar universe to have been formed,--a magnificent conception, +pursued with a force of genius and put to the practical test of +observation with an industry almost incredible. + +Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting telescope, of +40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction of which is +often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief performance. The full +description of this celebrated instrument will be found in the 85th +volume of the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society. On the day that it +was finished (August 28, 1789) Herschel saw at the first view, in a +grandeur not witnessed before, the Saturnian system with six satellites, +five of which had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D. +Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had, two +years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little telescope of +6(1/2) in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable brightness with the +towering giant he had just completed. On the 17th of September he +discovered a seventh, which proved to be the nearest to the globe of +Saturn. It has since received the name of Mimas. It is somewhat +remarkable that, notwithstanding his long and repeated scrutinies of +this planet, the eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should +have escaped him. + +Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr John Pitt, a +wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an only son, John Frederick +William. The prince regent conferred a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in +1816. But a far more valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley +medal assigned to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781. + +He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-fourth year +of his age, and was buried under the tower of St Laurence's Church, +Upton, within a few hundred yards of the old site of the 40-ft. +telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of the church bears a Latin +inscription from the pen of the late Dr Goodall, provost of Eton +College. + + See Mrs John Herschel, _Memoir of Caroline Herschel_ (1876); E. S. + Holden, _Herschel, his Life and Works_ (1881); A. M. Clerke, _The + Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895); E. S. Holden and C. S. + Hastings, _Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William + Herschel_ (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, _Eloge historique_, Paris + Memoirs (1823), p. lxi.; F. Arago, _Analyse historique, Annuaire du + Bureau des Longitudes_ (1842), p. 249; Arago, _Biographies of + Scientific Men_, p. 167; Madame d'Arblay's _Diary, passim; Public + Characters_ (1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, _William + Herschel and his Work_ (1900). Herschel's photometric Star Catalogues + were discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in _Harvard Annals_, + vols. xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv. (C. P.; A. M. C.) + + + + +HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BART. (1792-1871), English +astronomer, the only son of Sir William Herschel, was born at Slough, +Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792. His scholastic education commenced at +Eton, but maternal fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of +a private tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to +St John's College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the +mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material +influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In due time +the young student won the highest academical distinction of his year, +graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was during his +undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow-students who +subsequently attained to very high eminence, Dean Peacock and Charles +Babbage, entered into a compact that they would "do their best to leave +the world wiser than they found it,"--a compact loyally and successfully +carried out by all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable +attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in the +production of a work on the differential calculus, and on cognate +branches of mathematical science, which changed the style and aspect of +mathematical learning in England, and brought it up to the level of the +Continental methods. Two or three memoirs communicated to the Royal +Society on new applications of mathematical analysis at once placed him +in the front rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of +these his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the +others were presented in his own right as a fellow. + +With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his name at +Lincoln's Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed himself under the +guidance of an eminent special pleader. Probably this temporary choice +of a profession was inspired by the extraordinary success in legal +pursuits which had attended the efforts of some noted Cambridge +mathematicians. Be that as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr +Wollaston in London soon changed the direction of his studies. He +experimented in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820, +assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a mirror +of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subsequently improved +by his own hands, became the instrument which enabled him to effect the +astronomical observations forming the chief basis of his fame. In +1821-1823 we find him associated with Sir James South in the +re-examination of his father's double stars, by the aid of two excellent +refractors, of 7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he +was presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society's gold medal; and +with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825; while the Royal +Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the Copley medal for his +mathematical contributions to their _Transactions_. From 1824 to 1827 he +held the responsible post of secretary to that society; and was in 1827 +elected to the chair of the Astronomical Society, which office he also +filled on two subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to +the last-named society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote +obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their combination of +eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of knighthood was conferred on +him by William IV., and two years later he again received the +recognition of the Royal Society by the award of one of their medals for +his memoir "On the Investigation of the Orbits of Revolving Double +Stars." The award significantly commemorated his completion of his +father's discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of +a graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the two +component stars of the binary system revolving under the prescription of +the Newtonian law. + +Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years of age, +Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father's double stars and +nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his own lists; thus +accomplishing, under the conditions then prevailing, the full work of a +lifetime. For it should be remembered that astronomers were not as yet +provided with those valuable automatic contrivances which at present +materially abridge the labour and increase the accuracy of their +determinations. Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork, +electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena +observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had no +assistant. + +His scientific life now entered upon another and very characteristic +phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was wont to declare, was +towards chemistry and the phenomena of light, rather than towards +astronomy. Indeed, very shortly after taking his degree at Cambridge, he +proposed himself as a candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in +that university; but, as he said with some humour, the result of the +election was to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact +Herschel had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by +filial loyalty to his father's memory that he was now impelled to +undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough. William +Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John Herschel determined to +explore the southern, besides re-exploring northern skies. "I resolved," +he said, "to attempt the completion of a survey of the whole surface of +the heavens; and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere +the same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give a +unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to render them +comparable with each other." In accordance with this resolution, he and +his family embarked for the Cape on the 13th November 1833; they arrived +in Table Bay on the 15th January 1834; and proceedings, he says, "were +pushed forward with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was +enabled to gratify my curiosity by a view of [kappa] Crucis, the nebula +about [eta] Argus, and some other remarkable objects in the 20-ft. +reflector, and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular +course of sweeping." + + To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour completed + during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen would + require the transcription of a considerable portion of the _Cape + Observations_, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance; + although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from + Sir William's "Memoirs," now scattered through some thirty volumes of + the _Philosophical Transactions_. It was published, at the sole + expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till 1847, nine + years after the author's return to England, for the cogent reason, + that as he said, "The whole of the observations, as well as the entire + work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for the press, have + been executed by myself." There are 164 pages of catalogues of + southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then careful and + elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of the region + surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour and the thought + bestowed upon some of these objects are almost incredible; several + months were spent upon a minute spot in the heavens containing 1216 + stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held at a distance of an arm's + length, would eclipse. These catalogues and charts being completed, he + proceeded to discuss their significance. He confirmed his father's + hypothesis that these wonderful masses of glowing vapours are not + irregularly scattered over the visible heavens, but are collected in a + sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of that vast stratum of + stars in which our solar system finds itself buried, as Herschel + supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average distance + from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his catalogue of + the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern double stars, to + one of which, [gamma] Virginis, he applied the beautiful method of + orbital determination invented by himself, and he had the satisfaction + of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the components + would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up into a + single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next chapter + he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying and relative + brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed how his father + began his scientific career by similar observations on stellar + light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years afterwards in + the question whether the radiative changes of our sun, due to the + presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests and the price + of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther, pointing out that + variations to the extent of half a magnitude in the sun's brightness + would account for those strange alternations of semi-arctic and + semi-tropical climates which geological researches show to have + occurred in various regions of our globe. + +Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838. As was +natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic greeting. By the +queen at her coronation he was created a baronet; and, what to him was +better than all such rewards, other men caught the contagion of his +example, and laboured in fields similar to his own, with an adequate +portion of his success. + +Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery in 1819 of the +solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the otherwise insoluble salts +of silver was the prelude to its use as a fixing agent in photography; +and he invented in 1839, independently of Fox Talbot, the process of +photography on sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the +now well-known terms _positive_ and _negative_ to photographic images, +and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a sensitive +film. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes's discovery of +fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to the spectrum, and +by his announcement in 1845 of "epipolic dispersion," as exhibited by +sulphate of quinine. Several other important researches connected with +the undulatory theory of light are embodied in his treatise on "Light" +published in the _Encyclopaedia metropolitana_. + +Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or philosopher if +devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel possessed this endowment to a +large extent; and he solaced his declining years with the translation of +the _Iliad_ into verse, having earlier executed a similar version of +Schiller's _Walk_. But the main work of his later life was the +collection of all his father's catalogues of nebulae and double stars +combined with his own observations and those of other astronomers each +into a single volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to +the Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the +_Philosophical Transactions_, vol. cliv. The latter work he left +unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astronomical +Society. That society printed a portion of it, which serves as an index +to the observations of various astronomers on double stars up to the +year 1866. + +A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will be found +in the Royal Society's great catalogue, and from them may be gathered +most of the records of his busy scientific life. Sir John Herschel met +with an amount of public recognition which was unusual in the time of +his illustrious father. Naturally he was a member of almost every +important learned society in both hemispheres. For five years he held +the same office of master of the mint, which more than a century before +had belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose +him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of parliament +for the university of Cambridge, but neither position was desired by +him. + +In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active friend; he +had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds; he gladly lent a +helping hand to those who consulted him in scientific difficulties; he +never discouraged, and still less disparaged, men younger than or +inferior to himself; he was pleased by appreciation of his work without +being solicitous for applause; it was said of him by a discriminating +critic, and without extravagance, that "his was a life full of serenity +of the sage and the docile innocence of a child." + +He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in Kent, on the +11th of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his age, and his remains +are interred in Westminster Abbey close to the grave of Sir Isaac +Newton. + + Besides the laborious _Cape Observations_, Sir John Herschel was the + author of several books, one of which at least, _On the Study of + Natural Philosophy_ (1830), possesses an interest which no future + advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In 1849 + came the _Outlines of Astronomy_, a volume still replete with charm + and instruction. His articles, "Meteorology," "Physical Geography," + and "Telescope," contributed to the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia + Britannica_, were afterwards published separately. When he was at the + Cape he was more than once assisted in the attempts there made to + diffuse a love of knowledge among men not engaged in literary + pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his return to England, + published, in _Good Words_ and elsewhere, a series of papers on + interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently collected in a + volume called _Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects_. Another less + widely known volume is his _Collected Addresses_, in which he is seen + in his happiest and most instructive mood. + + See also Mrs John Herschel, "Memoir of Caroline Herschel," _Month. + Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); _Proceedings + Roy. Society_, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson); _Proceedings Roy. + Society of Edinburgh_ vii. 543 (P. G. Tait); _Nature_ iv. 69; E. + Dunkin, _Obituary Notices_, p. 47; _Report Brit. Association_ (1871), + p. lxxxv. (Lord Kelvin); _The Times_. (May 13, 1871); R. Grant, + _History of Phys. Astronomy_; A. M. Clerke, _Popular Hist. of + Astronomy_; A. M. Clerke, _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_; J. H. + Madler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, Bd. ii.; _Memoires de la + Societe Physique de Geneve_, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions, based + on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by Herschel in + sequences of relative brightness, were published by W. Doberck in the + _Astrophysical Journal_, xi. 192, 270, and in _Harvard Annals_, vol. + xli., No. viii. (C. P.; A. M. C.) + + + + + +HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL, 1ST BARON (1837-1899), lord chancellor of +England, was born on the 2nd of November 1837. His father was the Rev. +Ridley Haim Herschell, a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who, +when a young man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a +leading part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the +Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled down to the +charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware Road, in London, where +he ministered to a large congregation. His mother was a daughter of +William Mowbray, a merchant of Leith. He was educated at a private +school and at University College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A. +degree at the University of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in +the school debating society, and he displayed there the same command of +language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics during +his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed during his +school days was maintained after he became a law-student at Lincoln's +Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of Thomas Chitty, the famous common +law pleader, father of the late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils, +amongst whom were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and +Arthur Charles, afterwards judge of the queen's bench division, gave him +the sobriquet of "the chief baron" in recognition of his superiority. He +subsequently read with James Hannen, afterwards Lord Hannen. In 1860 he +was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy +days of undividedness. For four or five years he did not obtain much +work. Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced into +journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a living. Two +of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved great eminence, found +themselves in like case. One of these, Charles Russell, became lord +chief justice of England; the other, William Court Gully, speaker of the +House of Commons. It is said that these three friends, dining together +during a Liverpool assize some years after they had been called, agreed +that their prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that +about this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and +practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon made +himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the northern circuit, +and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff-gownsman. For the latter he +was content to note briefs and draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain +donned "silk," it was on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle +descended. + +In 1872 Herschell was made a queen's counsel. He had all the necessary +qualifications for a leader--a clear, though not resonant voice; a calm, +logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal principles; and (greatest gift +of all) an abundance of common sense. He never wearied the judges by +arguing at undue length, and he knew how to retire with dignity from a +hopeless cause. His only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a +hostile witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins +nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he made up for +all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts as told in his +client's favour with the most consummate skill. He very seldom made use +of notes, but trusted to his memory, which he had carefully trained. By +this means he was able to conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid +advocate than as an outsider interested in the case anxious to assist +the jury in arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell's business had +become so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February of +that year there was a general election, with the result that the +Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty. The usual +crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson and Henderson) +who had been returned for Durham city were unseated, and an attack was +then made on the seats of two other Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had +been returned for Durham county. For one of these last Herschell was +briefed. He made so excellent an impression on the local Radical leaders +that they asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight's +electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874 and 1880 +Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the House of Commons. +He was not a frequent speaker, but a few great efforts sufficed in his +case to gain for him a reputation as a debater. The best examples of his +style as a private member will be found in _Hansard_ under the dates +18th February 1876, 23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879. On the last occasion he +carried a resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of +promise of marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the +damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such loss. The +grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he acquitted himself +during these displays obtained for him the notice of Gladstone, who in +1880 appointed Herschell solicitor-general. + +Herschell's public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great value, +particularly in dealing with the "cases for opinion" submitted by the +Foreign Office and other departments. He was also very helpful in +speeding government measures through the House, notably the Irish Land +Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County +Franchise Act 1884 and the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last +was a bitter pill for Herschell, since it halved the representation of +Durham city, and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the +local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North Lonsdale +division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful influence of Lord +Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll, though Mr Gladstone again +obtained a majority in the country. Herschell now thought he saw the +solicitor-generalship slipping away from him, and along with it all +prospect of high promotion. Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however, +successively declined Gladstone's offer of the Woolsack, and in 1886 +Herschell, by a sudden turn of fortune's wheel, found himself in his +forty-ninth year lord chancellor. + +Herschell's chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in August 1886 +Gladstone's Home Rule Bill was rejected in the Commons and his +administration fell. In August 1892, when Gladstone returned to power, +Herschell again became lord chancellor. In September 1893, when the +second Home Rule Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords, +Herschell took advantage of the opportunity to justify the "sudden +conversion" to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by +comparing it to the duke of Wellington's conversion to Catholic +Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free Trade in +1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship came to an end with +the defeat of the Rosebery ministry. + +Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the judicial +committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords, Lord +Herschell's judgments were distinguished for their acute and subtle +reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and, whenever the +occasion arose, for their broad treatment of constitutional and social +questions. He was not a profound lawyer, but his quickness of +apprehension was such that it was an excellent substitute for great +learning. In construing a real property will or any other document, his +first impulse was to read it by the light of nature, and to decline to +be influenced by the construction put by the judges on similar phrases +occurring elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had +acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed without +fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield to the +established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He was perhaps +seen at his judicial best in _Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (1891) and +_Allen_ v. _Flood_ (1898). Latterly he showed a tendency, which seems to +grow on some judges, to interrupt counsel overmuch. The case last +mentioned furnishes an example of this. The question involved was what +constituted a molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling. +At the close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently +interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit, observed +that although there might be a doubt as to what amounted to such +molestation in point of law, the House could well understand, after that +day's proceedings, what it was in actual practice. In addition to his +political and judicial work, Herschell rendered many public services. In +1888 he presided over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with +regard to the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two +royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccination. He +took a great interest in the National Society for the Prevention of +Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts of 1889 and 1894, but +also bestowing a good deal of time in sifting the truth of certain +allegations which had been brought against the management of that +society. In June 1893 he was appointed chancellor of the university of +London in succession to the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new +duties with the usual thoroughness. "His views of reform," according to +Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university, "were +always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at first they were +not altogether popular with an important section of university opinion. +He disarmed opposition by his intellectual power, rather than +conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes was perhaps a little +masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his treatment of the various +burning questions that agitated the university during his tenure of +office. His characteristic power of detachment was well illustrated by +his treatment of the proposal to remove the university to the site of +the Imperial Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time +chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the +removal never questioned his absolute impartiality." With the Imperial +Institute Herschell had been officially connected from its inception. He +was chairman of the provisional committee appointed by the prince of +Wales to formulate a scheme for its organization, and he took an active +part in the preparation of its charter and constitution in conjunction +with Lord Thring, Lord James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He +was the first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in +India in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the +Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting. For his +special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in 1893, this +being the only instance of a lord chancellor being decorated with an +order. + +In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to +represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission, which +assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a business +involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study of maps and +historic documents. Not content with this, he accepted in 1898 a seat on +the joint high commission appointed to adjust certain boundary and other +important questions pending between Great Britain and Canada on the one +hand and the United States on the other hand. He started for America in +July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington. His +fellow commissioners elected him their president. In February 1899, +while the commission was in full swing, he had the misfortune to slip in +the street and in falling to fracture a hip bone. His constitution, +which at one time was a robust one, had been undermined by constant hard +work, and proved unequal to sustaining the shock. On the 1st of March, +only a fortnight after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel, +Washington, a _post-mortem_ examination revealing disease of the heart. +Mr Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the United +States ambassador in London, the "deep sorrow" felt by President +McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day, in the parliament +chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell's death "as a misfortune +to Canada and to the British Empire." A funeral service held in St +John's Episcopal Church, Washington, was attended by the president and +vice-president of the United States, by the cabinet ministers, the +judges of the Supreme Court, the members of the joint high commission, +and a large number of senators and other representative men. The body +was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second funeral +service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was conveyed to its +final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the parish church of which +he had been married. Herschell left a widow, granddaughter of +Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son, Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who +succeeded him as second baron; and two daughters. + + A "reminiscence" of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (Lord Selby) will be + found in _The Law Quarterly Review_ for April 1899. _The Journal of + the Society of Comparative Legislation_ (of which he had been + president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July + of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord + Davey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend), and + also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks (both of + the United States). (M. H. C.) + + + + +HERSENT, LOUIS (1777-1860), French painter, was born at Paris on the +10th of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David, obtained the Prix de +Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802 appeared his "Metamorphosis of +Narcissus," and he continued to exhibit with rare interruptions up to +1831. His most considerable works under the empire were "Achilles +parting from Briseis," and "Atala dying in the arms of Chactas" (both +engraved in Landon's _Annales du Musee_); an "Incident of the life of +Fenelon," painted in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and "Passage of +the Bridge at Landshut," which belongs to the same date, is now at +Versailles. Hersent's typical works, however, belong to the period of +the Restoration; "Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted" (Versailles) and +"Daphnis and Chloe" (engraved by Langier and by Gelee) were both in the +Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the "Abdication of Gustavus Vasa" brought +to Hersent a medal of honour, but the picture, purchased by the duke of +Orleans, was destroyed at the Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by +Henriquel-Dupont is now its sole record. "Ruth," produced in 1822, +became the property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent +rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him officer of +the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the Institute, where he +replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in favour under Charles X., for +whom was executed "Monks of Mount St Gotthard," exhibited in 1824. In +1831 Hersent made his last appearance at the Salon with portraits of +Louis Philippe, Marie-Amelie and the duke of Montpensier; that of the +king though good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Berlin), +which is probably Hersent's _chef-d'oeuvre_. After this date Hersent +ceased to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an +excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to the +rooms of the Societe d'Artistes, he could not be tempted from his usual +reserve even by the international contest of 1855. He died on the 2nd of +October 1860. + + + + +HERSFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, +is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the Geis and Haun with the +Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of +Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688. Some of the old fortifications of the town +remain, but the ramparts and ditches have been laid out as promenades. +The principal buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic +building, erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and +a large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the ruins +of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of the +cathedral in the beginning of the 12th century; it was built in the +Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761. Outside the +town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on both of which are +monastic ruins. Among the public institutions are a gymnasium and a +military school. The town has important manufactures of cloth, leather +and machinery; it has also dye-works, worsted mills and soap-boiling +works. + +Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see below). It +became a town in the 12th century and in 1370 the burghers, having +meanwhile shaken off the authority of the abbots, placed themselves +under the protection of the landgraves of Hesse. It was taken and +retaken during the Thirty Years' War and later it suffered from the +attacks of the French. + +The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus, afterwards +archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly endowed by Charlemagne and +became an ecclesiastical principality in the 12th century, passing under +the protection of the landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in +1648, having been previously administered for some years by a member of +the ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed to +Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in 1866. In the +middle ages the abbey was famous for its library. + + See Vigelius, _Denkwurdigkeiten von Hersfeld_ (Hersfeld, 1888); Demme, + _Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld_ (Hersfeld, + 1891-1901), and P. Hafner, _Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte des + 13ten Jahrhunderts_ (Hersfeld, 1889). + + + + + +HERSTAL, or HERISTAL, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N. of Liege and +practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed to be derived from +_Heerstelle_, i.e. "Permanent Camp." The second Pippin was born here, +and this mayor of the palace acquired the control of the kingdom of the +Franks. His grandson, Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in A.D. 768, and +it disputes with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of +Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and steel +manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and cannon foundry +are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114. + + + + +HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The English earldom of Hertford was +held by members of the powerful family of Clare from about 1138, when +Gilbert de Clare was created earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl +Gilbert was killed at Bannockburn. In 1537 EDWARD SEYMOUR, viscount +Beauchamp, a brother of Henry VIII.'s queen, Jane Seymour, was created +earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the dignity of duke +of Somerset and becoming protector of England. His son EDWARD (c. +1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from 1547 until the protector's +attainder and death in January 1552, when the title was forfeited; in +1559, however, he was created earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly +married to Lady Catherine Grey (c. 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey, +duke of Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth greatly +disliked this union, and both husband and wife were imprisoned, while +the validity of their marriage was questioned. Catherine died on the +27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the 6th of April 1621. Their son +Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561-1612), who inherited his mother's title to +the English throne, predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded +in the earldom by his grandson WILLIAM SEYMOUR (1588-1660), who was +created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his ancestor's +dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess of Hertford became +extinct when JOHN, 4th duke of Somerset, died in 1675, and the earldom +when ALGERNON, the 7th duke, died in February 1750. + +In August 1750 FRANCIS SEYMOUR CONWAY, 2nd Baron Conway (1718-1794), who +was a direct descendant of the protector Somerset, was created earl of +Hertford; this nobleman was the son of Francis Seymour Conway +(1679-1732), who had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of +Seymour, and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway. +Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord-lieutenant +of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of the household from +1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his "decorum and piety" and +refers to him as a "perfect courtier," but says that he had "too great +propensity to heap emoluments on his children." In 1793 he became earl +of Yarmouth and marquess of Hertford, and he died on the 14th of June +1794. His son, FRANCIS INGRAM SEYMOUR CONWAY (1743-1822), who was known +during his father's lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a prominent part in +the debates of the House of Commons from 1766 until he succeeded to the +marquessate in 1794. He was sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in +1793 and from 1812 to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son FRANCIS +CHARLES, the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the +prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the +"Marquis of Steyne" in Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_ and of "Lord Monmouth" +in Disraeli's _Coningsby_. The 4th marquess was his son, RICHARD +(1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress, Maria Emily Fagniani, +and whose brother was Lord Henry Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the +Jockey Club at Paris. When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August +1870 his title passed to his kinsman, FRANCIS HUGH GEORGE SEYMOUR +(1812-1884), a descendant of the 1st marquess, whose son, HUGH DE GREY +(b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th marquess left his great +wealth and his priceless collection of art treasures to Sir Richard +Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half-brother, and Wallace's widow, who +died in 1897, bequeathed the collection to the British nation. It is now +in Hertford House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of +Hertford. + + + + + +HERTFORD, a market-town and municipal borough, and the county town of +Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parliamentary division of the +county, 24 m. N. from London, the terminus of branch lines of the Great +Eastern and Great Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly +situated in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the +modern churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old +ones, a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and the +old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating from the +Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque Jacobean building of +brick, largely modernized. There are several educational establishments, +including the preparatory school for Christ's Hospital, a picturesque +building (in great part, however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town, +Hale's grammar school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat +school for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of +the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the East +India Company for their civil service students, who were then +temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies high above the +Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a stretch of +finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable agricultural trade, +and there are maltings, breweries, iron foundries, and oriental printing +works. The town is governed by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors. +Area, 1134 acres. + +Hertford (_Herutford_, _Heorotford_, _Hurtford_) was the scene of a +synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the Lea and the +Thames gave it strategic importance during the Danish occupation of East +Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a royal garrison and burgh. It made +separate payments for aids to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331 +was governed by a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter +incorporated the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed under +Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor, aldermen and +commonalty was effective until the Municipal Corporation Act. Hertford +returned two burgesses to the parliament of 1298, and to others until, +after 1375/6, such right became abeyant, to be restored by order of +parliament in 1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation +Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution Act in +1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or confirmed those +held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and of St Simon and St +Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs were confirmed by Elizabeth +and Charles II. Another on the vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity +of the Virgin was granted by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day +under James I. Modern fairs are on the third Saturday before Easter, the +12th of May, the 5th of July and the 8th of November. Markets were held +in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on Thursday and Saturday; +and they returned to Wednesdays and Saturdays in 1680. + + + + +HERTFORDSHIRE [HERTS], a county of England, bounded N. by +Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex, S. by Middlesex, and +S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 634.6 sq. m., the county being the +sixth smallest in England. Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface +generally undulating, while in some parts, where these undulations form +a quick succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes +very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood of +Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and north +considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing +north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of the +county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and +Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills under the +name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft. near Dunstable, +sinking gradually north-eastward. These uplands are generally bare, and +in parts remarkably sparsely populated as compared with the home +counties at large. In the greater part of the county, however, rich +arable lands are intermingled with the parks and woodlands of numerous +fine country seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of +the principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire, +enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield, then +E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and passing along the +eastern boundary of the county falls into the Thames below London. It +receives in its course the Maran, or Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the +Stort, all joining on the north side; the Stort for some distance +forming the county boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the +south-western part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines. It +receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel, rising in the +N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the Great Ouse. To the south +of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two streams of moderate size are lost in +pot-holes, except in the highest floods. The New River, one of the water +supplies of London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel +with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout in +the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are carefully +preserved. + + _Geology._--The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow syncline + known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-easterly + direction. The two most important formations are the Chalk, which + forms the high ground in the north and west; and the Eocene Reading + beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part of the + county. On the northern boundary, at the foot of the chalk hills, a + small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand above it falls just + within the county. The lowest subdivision of the chalk is the Chalk + Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it, lies at the base of + the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and Miswell to Tring. Above + these beds, the Lower Chalk, without flints, rises up sharply to form + the downs which are the easterly continuation of the Chiltern Hills. + Next comes the Chalk Rock, which being a hard bed, lies near the + hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk + slopes southward towards the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The + Reading beds consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter + are frequently hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous + cement, known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay, + a stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon + the Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at + Micklefield Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by + the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of + Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a + great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been + disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was formerly + used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime. Reading beds + and London clay are dug for brick-making at Watford, Hertford and + Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated from the base of the + Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop; the Marl is worked for + cement. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is mild, dry and generally +healthy. On this account London physicians were formerly accustomed to +recommend the county to persons in weak health, and it was so much +coveted by the noble and wealthy as a place of residence that it was a +common saying that "he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years' +purchase for the air." Of the total area about four-fifths is under +cultivation, and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture. +The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of the +area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties mostly grown +are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of any English county. +Wheathampstead on the upper Lea receives its name from the fine quality +of the wheat grown in that district. Barley is largely used in the +county for malting purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables, +and the greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are +some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near +Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area occupied by +green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds, many cows being kept +for the supply of milk and butter to London. The quantity of stock is +generally small, but increasing except in the case of sheep, of which +the numbers have greatly decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the +Suffolk variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between +Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities of +cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London market; and +on the best soils near London vegetables are forced by the aid of +manure, and more than one crop is sometimes obtained in a year. A +considerable industry lies in the growth of watercresses in the pure +water of the upper parts of the rivers and the smaller streams. There +are a number of rose-gardens and nurseries. + +_Other Industries._--The manufacturing industries are slight; though the +great brewing establishments at Watford may be mentioned, and +straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building, tanning and brick-making +are carried on in various towns. + +_Communications._--Owing to its proximity to the metropolis, +Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the eastern +border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line) with branches to +Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line of the Great Northern passes +through the centre by Hatfield, Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches +from Hatfield to Hertford, to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and +from Hitchin to Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes +through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel Hempstead. The +London & North-Western traverses the south-west by Watford, +Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to Rickmansworth and to St +Albans. The Metropolitan & Great Central joint line serves +Rickmansworth, and suburban lines of the Great Northern the Barnet +district. The existence of these communications has combined with the +natural attractions of the county to cause many villages to become large +residential centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford, +Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the Lea and Stort +Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from London to the north-west +traverses the south-western corner of the county by Rickmansworth and +Berkhampstead. Three great highways from London to the north traverse +the county. The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and St +Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great North Road +branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and passes Potter's Bar, +Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a branch from Welwyn to Hitchin +and beyond. Another road follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs +to Royston, being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known +as the Old North Road. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162, and in 1901 of +250,152. The area of the administrative county is 404,518 acres. The +county comprises eight hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Hemel +Hempstead (11,264), Hertford (9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The +other urban districts are: Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead +(Great Berkhampstead, 5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564), +Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden (4725), +Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711), Rickmansworth (5627), Royston +(3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957), Tring (4349), Ware +(5573) and Watford (29,327). The county is in the home circuit, and +assizes are held at Hertford. It has two courts of quarter-sessions, and +is divided into 15 petty-sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hertford +and St Albans have separate commissions of the peace. The total number +of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of, or in +which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, London, are +included in the metropolitan police district. The county contains 170 +ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part; it is nearly +all in the diocese of St Albans, but small parts are in the dioceses of +Ely, Oxford and London. It is divided into four parliamentary +divisions--Northern or Hitchin, Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans, +Western or Watford, each returning one member. There is no parliamentary +borough within the county. + +_History._--Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in Hertfordshire +for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin. The diocesan limits show +that part of the shire was included in the West Saxon kingdom. The East +Saxons, as early as the 6th century, were settled about Hertford, which +in 673 was sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod +convened by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the +Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with +Hatfield. In the 9th century the district was frequently visited by the +Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east of the Lea was +included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the Elder erected forts on both +sides of the river at Hertford. + +After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertfordshire and +ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest received its formal +ratification. In the sweeping confiscation of estates which followed, +the church was generously endowed, the abbey of St Albans alone holding +172 hides, while Count Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a +vast fief in the north-east of the county. Large estates were held by +Geoffrey de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of +the county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east of +England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony. Berkhampstead +was the head of an honour carved from the fief of Robert of Mortain. The +Hertfordshire estates, however, for the most part changed hands very +frequently and the county is noticeably lacking in historic families. +Edmund Langley, fifth son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in +this county. + +During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of Salisbury +and Falkes de Breaute had the king's orders to ravage Hertfordshire, and +in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and Berkhampstead Castle besieged +by Louis of France, who had come over by invitation of the barons. At +the time of the rising of 1381 the abbot's tenants broke into the abbey +of St Albans and forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the +Wars of the Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the +second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen +Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the earl at Barnet. On +the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, Hertfordshire joined +with Bedfordshire and Essex in petitioning for peace, and St Albans +again played an important part in the struggle, being at different times +the headquarters of Essex and Fairfax. + +As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the +district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected at +Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1011. At the +time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were approximately those of +the present day, but part of Meppershall in Bedfordshire formed a +detached portion of the shire and is still assessed for land and income +tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and +Tring were consolidated about 1200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern +hundred of Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known +as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond approximately +both in name and extent with those of the present day. + +Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of London and +Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln diocese formed part +of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and comprised the deaneries of +Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and Baldock, and the archdeaconry and +deanery of St Albans; while that part within the London diocese formed +the deanery of Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535 +the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London +diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the whole +county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and archdeaconry of St +Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of Welwyn, Bennington, +Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware were created, and that of +Braughing abolished. In 1864 the archdeaconries of Rochester and St +Albans were united under the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and +St Albans. In 1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of +St Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries being +unchanged. + +Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time of its +first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and were united +under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held at Hertford. +The hundred of St Albans was at an early date constituted a separate +liberty, with independent courts and coroners under the control of the +abbot; it preserved a separate commission of the peace until 1874, when +by act of parliament the county was arranged in two divisions, the +eastern division being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of +St Albans. These divisions have since been abolished. + +Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few +manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth was +derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their water meadows, +woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and water-mills, the shire on +its eastern side being noticeably free from waste land. In Norman times +the woollen trade was considerable, and the great corn market at Royston +has been famous since the reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil +War the malting industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was +produced in the county. In the 17th century Hertfordshire was famous for +its horses, and the 18th century saw the introduction of several minor +industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making and silk weaving. + +In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament, and in 1298 +the borough of Hertford was represented. St Albans, Bishop Stortford and +Berkhampstead acquired representation in the 14th century, but from 1375 +to 1553 no returns were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained +representation in 1553 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of +1832 the county returned three members. St Albans was disfranchised on +account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one member in 1868, and was +disfranchised by the act of 1885. + +_Antiquities._--Among the objects of antiquarian interest may be +mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a hermitage; +Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where rested the body of +Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to Westminster for interment; +and the Great Bed of Ware referred to in Shakespeare's _Twelfth Night_ +and preserved at Rye House. The principal monastic buildings are the +noble pile of St Albans abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine +nunnery near St Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of +Ware, dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of +St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory at Hitchin +built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the more interesting +churches may be mentioned those of Abbots Langley and Hemel Hempstead, +both of Late Norman architecture; Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic +building supposed to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the +reign of Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons +regular; Hitchin of the 15th century; Hatfield, dating from the 13th +century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in the +Perpendicular style, with a tower of the 16th century. Sandridge church +shows good Norman work with the use of Roman bricks; Wheathampstead +church, mainly very fine Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains +of secular buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle, +Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight +traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey. Among the +numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in the reign of Henry +VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the principal agents in the plot to +assassinate Charles II. Moor Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of +St Albans abbey, was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of +Oxford, and was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who +built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently cased with +Portland stone and received various other additions. Knebworth, the seat +of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman fortress, rebuilt in the time of +Elizabeth in the Tudor style and restored in the 19th century. Hatfield +House is the seat of the marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history +is of great interest, as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger +House, until recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid +mansion in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the 19th century. +The manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was +formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was rebuilt in +the beginning of the 19th century from designs by Wyatt. Gorhambury +House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl of Verulam, formerly the +seat of the Bacons, and the residence of the great chancellor, was +rebuilt at the close of the 18th century. At Kings Langley and Hunsdon +were also former royal residences. + + See Sir H. Chauncy, _Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire_ (London, + 1700, 2nd ed., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, _History of + Hertfordshire_ (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, _History and + Antiquities of the County of Hertford_ (London, 1815-1827); W. Berry, + _Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families_ (London, 1844); J. E. + Cussans, _History of Hertfordshire_ (London, 1870-1881); _Victoria + County History, Hertfordshire_ (London, 1902, &c.); see also + "Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634," in _Harleian Society's + Publ._ vol. xvii., and various papers in _Middlesex and Hertfordshire + Notes and Queries_ (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incorporated + in the _Home Counties_ Magazine. + + + + +HERTHA, or NERTHUS, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess of fertility, +"Mother Earth." Tacitus states that many Teutonic tribes worshipped her +with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated at night. The chief seat of +her cult was an island which has not been identified. A single priest +performed the service. Her veiled statue was moved from place to place +by sacred cows on which none but the priest might lay hands. At the +conclusion of the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were +bathed in a lake. + + + + +HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857-1894), German physicist, was born at +Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving school he determined to +adopt the profession of engineering, and in the pursuance of this +decision went to study in Munich in 1877. But soon coming to the +conclusion that engineering was not his vocation he abandoned it in +favour of physical science, and in October 1878 began to attend the +lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In +preparation for these he spent the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up +original treatises like those of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and +mechanics, and in attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von +Jolly and J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few +days of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into +original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best +solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the +University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper which was +published in 1880 on the "Kinetic Energy of Electricity in Motion." His +next investigation, on "Induction in Rotating Spheres," he offered in +1880 as his dissertation for his doctor's degree, which he obtained with +the rare distinction of _summa cum laude_. Later in the same year he +became assistant to Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin +Institute. During the three years he held this position he carried out +researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation and +the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the special +commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel, becoming +_Privatdozent_, and there he began the studies in Maxwell's +electromagnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the +discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually made +between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics in the Carlsruhe +Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their origin is to be sought in a +prize problem proposed by the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1879, having +reference to the experimental establishment of some relation between +electromagnetic forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators. +Imagining that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by +him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised him the +assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the subject; but +Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time, because he could not +think of any procedure likely to prove effective. It was of course well +known, as a necessity of Maxwell's mathematical theory, that the +polarization and depolarization of an insulator must give rise to the +same electromagnetic effects in the neighbourhood as a voltaic current +in a conductor. The experimental proof, however, was still lacking, and +though several experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was +the first who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing +his inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the +progressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to +measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to show +that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their +susceptibility to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in +complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The result, +was in Helmholtz's words, to establish beyond doubt that ordinary light +consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading ether which +possesses the properties of an insulator and of a magnetic medium. Hertz +himself gave an admirable account of the significance of his discoveries +in a lecture on the relations between light and electricity, delivered +before the German Society for the Advancement of Natural Science and +Medicine at Heidelberg in September 1889. Since the time of these early +experiments, various other modes of detecting the existence of electric +waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which he first +employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest interest of +which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of an abstruse +mathematical theory, have been applied to the practical purposes of +signalling over considerable distances (see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). In +1889 Hertz was appointed to succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary +professor of physics in the university of Bonn. There he continued his +researches on the discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just +missing the discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Rontgen a few +years later, and produced his treatise on the _Principles of Mechanics_. +This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on the +1st of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one of her most +promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one of all his pupils who +had penetrated farthest into his own circle of scientific thought, and +looked to him with the greatest confidence for the further extension and +development of his work. + + Hertz's scientific papers were translated into English by Professor D. + E. Jones, and published in three volumes: _Electric Waves_ (1893), + _Miscellaneous Papers_ (1896), and _Principles of Mechanics_ (1899). + The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the + introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard + and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with + statements of the scope and significance of his investigations. + + + + +HERTZ, HENRIK (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of Jewish parents in +Copenhagen on the 25th of August 1798. In 1817 he was sent to the +university. His father died in his infancy, and the family property was +destroyed in the bombardment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his +relative, M. L. Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz +passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for polite +literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, _Mr +Burchardt and his Family_ and _Love and Policy_; in 1828 followed the +comedy of _Flyttedagen_. In 1830 he brought out what was a complete +novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in rhymed verse, _Amor's Strokes +of Genius_. In the same year Hertz published anonymously +_Gengangerbrevene_, or Letters from a Ghost, which he pretended were +written by Baggesen, who had died in 1826. The book was written in +defence of J. L. Heiberg, and was full of satirical humour and fine +critical insight. Its success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his +anonymity, and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832 +he published a didactic poem, _Nature and Art_, and _Four Poetical +Epistles_. _A Day on the Island of Als_ was his next comedy, followed in +1835 by _The Only Fault_. Hertz passed through Germany and Switzerland +into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and returned the +following autumn through France to Denmark. In 1836 his comedy of _The +Savings Bank_ enjoyed a great success. But it was not till 1837 that he +gave the full measure of his genius in the romantic national drama of +_Svend Dyrings Hus_, a beautiful and original piece. His historical +tragedy _Valdemar Atterdag_ was not so well received in 1839; but in +1845 he achieved an immense success with his lyrical drama _Kong Rene's +Datter_ (King Rene's Daughter), which has been translated into almost +every European language. To this succeeded the tragedy of _Ninon_ in +1848, the romantic comedy of _Tonietta_ in 1849, _A Sacrifice_ in 1853, +_The Youngest_ in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive +collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he edited a +literary journal entitled _Weekly Leaves_. His last drama, _Three Days +in Padua_, was produced in 1869, and he died on the 25th of February of +the next year. + +Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems are full of +colour and passion, his versification has more witchcraft in it than any +other poet's of his age, and his style is grace itself. He has all the +sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity to the antique. As a +romantic dramatist he is scarcely less original. He has bequeathed to +the Danish theatre, in _Svend Dyrings Hus_ and _King Rene's Daughter_, +two pieces which have become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he +has little or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best +when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing south. + + His _Dramatic Works_ (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in + 1854-1873; and his _Poems_ (4 vols.) in 1851-1862. + + + + +HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH, COUNT VON (1725-1795), Prussian statesman, +who came of a noble family which had been settled in Pomerania since the +13th century, was born at Lottin, in that province, on the 2nd of +September 1725. After 1739 he studied, chiefly classics and history at +the gymnasium at Stettin, and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as +a student of jurisprudence, becoming in due course a doctor of laws in +1745. In addition to this principal study, he was also interested while +at the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff) +studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled _Jus publicum +Brandenburgicum_, was not printed, because it contained a criticism of +the existing condition of the state. Shortly afterwards Hertzberg +entered the government service, in which he was first employed in the +department of the state archives (of which he became director in 1750), +soon after in the foreign office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister +(_Cabinetsminister_). In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen, +a marriage which was happy, but childless. + +For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part in the +Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive influence on +Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and Frederick William +II. At the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756) he took part as a +political writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg quarrel, both in his +_Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, sich wider die +Absichten des Wienerischen Hofes zu setzen und deren Ausfuhrung +zuvorzukommen_ ("Motives which have induced the king of Prussia to +oppose the intentions of the court of Vienna, and to prevent them from +being carried into effect"), and in his _Memoire raisonne sur la +conduite des cours de Vienne et de Saxe_, based on the secret papers +taken by Frederick the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the +defeat at Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the +national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the +protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the same year he +conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden, and was of great service +in bringing about the peace of Hubertsburg (1763), on the conclusion of +which the king received him with the words, "I congratulate you. You +have made peace as I made war, one against many." + +In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great's reign, Hertzberg +played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a memoir based +upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended the Prussian claims +to certain provinces of Poland. He also took part successfully as a +publicist in the negotiations concerning the question of the Bavarian +succession (1778) and those of the peace of Teschen (1779). But in 1780 +he failed to uphold Prussian interests at the election of the bishop of +Munster. In 1784 appeared Hertzberg's memoir containing a thorough study +of the _Furstenbund_. He championed this latest creation of Frederick +the Great's mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the empire, +though the idea of German unity was naturally still far from his mind. +In 1785 followed "An explanation of the motives which have led the king +of Prussia to propose to the other high estates of the empire an +association for the maintenance of the system of the empire" (_Erklarung +der Ursachen, welche S.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen +Mitstanden des Reichs eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems +anzutragen_). By upholding the Furstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies, +prominent among whom was the king's brother, Prince Henry. Though the +_Furstenbund_ failed to effect a reform of the empire, it at any rate +prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II.'s old desire for the +incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of state in which +Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great was the commercial treaty +concluded in 1785 between Prussia and the United States. + +With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood in very +intimate personal relations and was often the king's guest at +Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential position at the +court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king at once received him +with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertzberg's elevation to the rank +of count in 1786; and Mirabeau would never have attacked him with such +violence in his _Secret History of the Court of Berlin_, which appeared +in 1788, if he had not seen in him the most powerful man after the king. +In this attack Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg's +personal enemies at the court. Hertzberg's political system remained on +the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had been under his +predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a sharp opposition to the +house of Habsburg and by a desire to win for Prussia the support of +England, a policy supported by him in important memoirs of the years +1786 and 1787. His diplomacy was directed also against Austria's old +ally, France. Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in +spite of the king's unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in +Holland in support of the stadtholder William V. against the democratic +French party (see HOLLAND: _History_). The success of this intervention, +which was the practical realization of a plan very characteristic of +Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in his career. + +But the opposition between him and the new king, which had already +appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple alliance between +Holland, England and Prussia, became more marked in the following years, +when Hertzberg, relying upon this alliance, and in conscious imitation +of Frederick II.'s policy at the time of the first partition of Poland, +sought to take advantage of the entanglement of Austria with Russia in +the war with Turkey to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by +diplomatic intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her +mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments +that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and Thorn as her +portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the restoration of the +hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and secretly cherished the hope of +restoring Frederick the Great's Russian alliance. + +With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims even when, +owing to military and diplomatic events, they were already partly out of +date. His personal position became increasingly difficult, as +deep-rooted differences between him and the king were revealed during +these diplomatic campaigns. Hertzberg wished to effect everything by +peaceful means, while Frederick William II. was for a time determined on +war with Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into +conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the total +annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the attitude of +king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences at +Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition became more and more +acute, and Hertzberg was only with difficulty persuaded to come to an +agreement merely on the basis of the _status_ quo, as demanded by Pitt. +The king's renunciation of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's +eyes impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. A +letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which Hertzberg severely +criticized the king's foreign policy, and especially his plans for +attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on the 5th of July 1791. He +afterwards made several attempts to exert an influence over foreign +affairs, but in vain. The king showed himself more and more personally +hostile to the ex-minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now +quite embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering +his letters to be opened. + +Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in the +ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, made it so +difficult for him to use the archives that in the end Hertzberg entirely +gave up the attempt. He found, however, some recompense for all his +disillusionment and discouragement in learning, and, Wilhelm von +Humboldt excepted, he was the most learned of all the Prussian +ministers. As a member of the Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786 +onwards, as its curator, Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable +activity in the world of learning. His yearly reports dealt with +history, statistics and political science. The most interesting is that +of 1784: _Sur la forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure_. +This is directed exclusively against the absolute system (following +Montesquieu), upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending +to the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke for +the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages of +monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation, since +Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the financial situation, +which in the days of absolutism seemed an unprecedented innovation. +Besides this, Hertzberg exerted himself as an academician to change the +strongly French character of the Academy and make it into a truly German +institution. He showed a keen interest in the old German language and +literature. A special "German deputation" was set aside at the Academy +and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and dictionary. He +also stood in very close relations with many of the German poets of the +time, and especially with Daniel Schubart. Among the German historians +in whom he took a great interest, he had the greatest esteem for +Pufendorf. He was equally concerned in the improvement of the state of +education. In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature, +which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous writing +_De la litterature allemande_. + +Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be a +successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified many of +his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is honoured. He died at +Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795. + + AUTHORITIES.--(1) By Hertzberg himself: The _Memoires de l'Academie_ + from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most noteworthy of + them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: _Histoire de la + dissertation [du roi] sur la litterature allemande_; see also _Recueil + des deductions, &c., qui ont ete rediges ... pour la cour de Prusse + par le ministre_ (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Autobiographical + Sketch" published by Hopke in Schmidt's _Zeitschrift fur + Geschichtswissenschaft_, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with + Hertzberg: Mirabeau, _Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin_ (1788); + P. F. Weddigen, _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt, + _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Tubingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in _Neustettiner + Programm_ (1862); E. Fischer, in _Staatsanzeiger_ (1873); M. Duncker, + in _Historische Zeitschrift_ (1877); Paul Bailleu, in _Historische + Zeitschrift_ (1879); and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880); H. + Petrich, _Pommersche Lebensbilder_ i. (1880); G. Dressler, _Friedrich + II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den hollandischen Wirren_, + Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, _Hertzberg als Minister + Friedrich Wilhelms II_. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in + _Historische Vierteljahrschrift_, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, _Ewald + Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg_ (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F. + K. Wittichen, _Preussen und England, 1785-1788_ (Heidelberg, 1902); F. + Luckwaldt, _Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den + Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte_, Bd. 15, and + in the _Delbruckfestschrift_ (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, _System der + preussischen Geheimpolitik_ 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation, + 1903); P. Wittichen, _Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790_ + (Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, _Preussische und russische Politik in + Polen_ 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck, + _Deutschland vor 100 Jahren_ (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack, + _Geschichte der preussischen Akademie_ (4 vols., 1899); Consentius, + _Preussische Jahrbucher_ (1904); J. Hashagen, "Hertzbergs Verhaltnis + zur deutschen Literatur," in _Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie_ for + 1903. (J. Hn.) + + + + +HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was born at Moscow, a +very short time before the occupation of that city by the French. His +father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal interview with Napoleon, was +allowed to leave, when the invaders arrived, as the bearer of a letter +from the French to the Russian emperor. His family attended him to the +Russian lines. Then the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German +Protestant of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von +Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak Russian, +was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's hut. A year +later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen passed his +youth--remaining there, after completing his studies at the university, +till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a charge of having +assisted, with some other youths, at a festival during which verses by +Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary to the emperor, were sung. The +special commission appointed to try the youthful culprits found him +guilty, and in 1835 he was banished to Viatka. There he remained till +the visit to that city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards +Alexander II.), accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being +allowed to quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of +the official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the +ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of having +spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's violence, he +was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, with the title of +"state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father died, leaving him by +his will a very large property. Early in 1847 he left Russia, never to +return. From Italy, on hearing of the revolution of 1848, he hastened to +Paris, whence he afterwards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted +Geneva for London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned +to Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the 21st +of January 1870. + +His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an essay, in +Russian, on _Dilettantism in Science_, under the pseudonym of +"Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name--convicts, even when +pardoned, not being allowed in those days to publish under their own +names. His second work, also in Russian, was his _Letters on the Study +of Nature_ (1845-1846). In 1847 appeared, his novel _Kto Vinovat?_ +(Whose Fault?), and about the same time were published in Russian +periodicals the stories which were afterwards collected and printed in +London in 1854, under the title of _Prervannuie Razskazui_ (Interrupted +Tales). In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian +manuscript, _Vom anderen Ufer_ (From another Shore) and _Lettres de +France et d'Italie_. In French appeared also his essay _Du Developpement +des idees revolutionnaires en Russie_, and his _Memoirs_, which, after +being printed in Russian, were translated under the title of _Le Monde +russe et la Revolution_ (3 vols., 1860-1862), and were in part +translated into English as _My Exile to Siberia_ (2 vols., 1855). From a +literary point of view his most important work is _Kto Vinovat?_ a story +describing how the domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the +unacknowledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull, +ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the new +school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there being any +possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the tragic +termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen gained the +vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having founded in London +his "Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of which, during ten years, he +gave an interesting account in a book published (in Russian) in 1863, he +issued from it a great number of Russian works, all levelled against the +system of government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays, +such as his _Baptized Property_, an attack on serfdom; others were +periodical publications, the _Polyarnaya Zvyezda_ (or Polar Star), the +_Kolokol_ (or Bell), and the _Golosa iz Rossii_ (or Voices from Russia). +The _Kolokol_ soon obtained an immense circulation, and exercised an +extraordinary influence. For three years, it is true, the founders of +the "Free Press" went on printing, "not only without selling a single +copy, but scarcely being able to get a single copy introduced into +Russia"; so that when at last a bookseller bought ten shillings' worth +of _Baptized Property_, the half-sovereign was set aside by the +surprised editors in a special place of honour. But the death of the +emperor Nicholas in 1855 produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings, +and the journals he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and +their words resounded throughout that country, as well as all over +Europe. Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden, +evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into light and +disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly expressed the thoughts +which had long been secretly stirring Russian minds, and were now +beginning to find a timid utterance at home. For some years his +influence in Russia was a living force, the circulation of his writings +was a vocation zealously pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a +merchant, who had bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod, +found that they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at +another time a supposititious copy of the _Kolokol_ was printed for the +emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading +statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was omitted. At +length the sweeping changes introduced by Alexander II. greatly +diminished the need for and appreciation of Hertzen's assistance in the +work of reform. The freedom he had demanded for the serfs was granted, +the law-courts he had so long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury +was established, liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It +became clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish +insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents' cause, +his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From that time it was +only with the revolutionary party that he was in full accord. + + In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in Paris. A + volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published at Geneva in + 1870. His _Memoirs_ supply the principal information about his life, a + sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's _Zeitgenossen_, pt. + 7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the _Revue des deux mondes_ for July 15 and + Sept. 1, 1854. _Kto Vinovat?_ has been translated into German under + the title of _Wer ist schuld?_ in Wolffsohn's _Russlands + Novellendichter_, vol. iii. The title of _My Exile in Siberia_ is + misleading; he was never in that country. (W. R. S.-R.) + + + + +HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the history of the +migration period. The name does not occur in writings of the first two +centuries A.D. Where the original home of the Heruli was situated is +never clearly stated. Jordanes says that they had been expelled from +their territories by the Danes, from which it may be inferred that they +belonged either to what is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern +portion of the Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign +of Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths +ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly afterwards, +in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth of the Rhine. +During the 4th century they frequently served together with the Batavi +in the Roman armies. In the 5th century we again hear of piratical +incursions by the Heruli in the western seas. At the same time they had +a kingdom in central Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the +Elbe. Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by +Theodoric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form +an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly +afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. A +portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the Gotar, +while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, where +they are frequently mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars. +After the middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely +disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian +works they are never mentioned, and there can be little doubt that they +were known, especially among the western Teutonic peoples, by some other +name. Probably they are identical either with the North Suabi or with +the Iuti. The name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S. +_eorlas_ (nobles), O.S. _erlos_ (men), the singular of which (_erilaz_) +frequently occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a +title of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of +their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. When +threatened with death by disease or old age, they were required to call +in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. Suttee was also +customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare and served not only in +the Roman armies, but also in those of all the surrounding nations. They +disdained the use of helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves +only with shields. + + See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus _Paneg. Maximi_; Ammianus + Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, _Chronica_; Jordanes, _De origine + Getarum_; Procopius, esp. _Bellum Goticum_, ii. 14 f.; _Bellum + Persicum_, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, i. 20; K. + Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_, pp. 476 ff. (Munich, + 1837). (F. G. M. B.) + + + + + + +HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish philologist, was born at +Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May 1735. He joined the Jesuits on the +29th of September 1745 and in course of time became successively +professor of philosophy and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and +Murcia. When the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervas +settled at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his _Idea +dell' Universo_ (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, he +published his famous _Catalogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas_ +(6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological +peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up grammars of forty +languages. In 1802 he was appointed librarian of the Quirinal Palace in +Rome, where he died on the 24th of August 1809. Max Muller credits him +with having anticipated Humboldt, and with making "one of the most +brilliant discoveries in the history of the science of language" by +establishing the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of +speech. + + + + +HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at Hardingstone, +near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, and was educated at the +grammar school of Northampton, and at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he +came under the influence of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists; +ultimately, however, while retaining his regard for the men and his +sympathy with their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic +creed, and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken +orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded his +father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. He was +never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous writer. His +style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare appreciation of natural +beauty, and his simple piety made him many friends. His earliest work, +_Meditations and Contemplations_, said to have been modelled on Robert +Boyle's _Occasional Reflexions on various Subjects_, within fourteen +years passed through as many editions. _Theron and Aspasio, or a series +of Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects_, which +appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some +adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies which +were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly objected to +by Wesley in his _Preservative against unsettled Notions in Religion_. +Besides carrying into England the theological disputes to which the +_Marrow of Modern Divinity_ had given rise in Scotland, it also led to +what is known as the Sandemanian controversy as to the nature of saving +faith. Hervey died on the 25th of December 1758. + + A "new and complete" edition of his _Works_, with a memoir, appeared + in 1797. See also _Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, to which + is prefixed an account of his Life and Death_, by Dr Birch (1760). + + + + +HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LEON, MARQUIS D' (1823-1892), French +Orientalist and man of letters, was born in Paris in 1823. He devoted +himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1851 published his _Recherches +sur l'agriculture et l'horticulture des Chinois_, in which he dealt with +the plants and animals that might be acclimatized in the West. At the +Paris Exhibition of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese +exhibits; in 1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese +at the College de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of the +Academie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works include +_Poesies de l'epoque des T'ang_ (1862), translated from the Chinese; +_Ethnographie des peuples etrangers a la Chine_, translated from +Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); _Li-Sao_ (1870), from the Chinese; _Memoires +sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius et de l'ecole des lettres_ +(1887); and translations of some Chinese stories not of classical +interest but valuable for the light they throw on oriental custom. +Hervey de Saint Denys also translated some works from the Spanish, and +wrote a history of the Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of +November 1892. + + + + +HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696-1743), English statesman +and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl of Bristol, by his second +marriage, was born on the 13th of October 1696. He was educated at +Westminster school and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. +degree in 1715. In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to +Hanover to pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the +court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in 1720 he +married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's ladies-in-waiting, +and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received the courtesy title of Lord +Hervey on the death of his half-brother Carr, and in 1725 he was elected +M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He had been at one time on very friendly terms +with Frederick, prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him, +apparently because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These +differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws of the +prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William +Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole, but in 1730 he +definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he was thenceforward a +faithful adherent. He was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of +_Sedition and Defamation display'd with a Dedication to the patrons of +The Craftsman_ (1731). Pulteney, who, up to this time, had been a firm +friend of Hervey, replied with _A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous +Libel_, and the quarrel resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly +escaped with his life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of +both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth, +apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He was able +to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence over the queen. +Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George +II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of +the privy council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ +in virtue of his father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he +received no further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord +privy seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed (July +1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, _Miscellaneous +Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and Domestic Affairs_, shows +that he still retained his mental vigour, but he was liable to epilepsy, +and his weak appearance and rigid diet were a constant source of +ridicule to his enemies. He died on the 5th of August 1743. He +predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively earls +of Bristol. + +Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George +II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the king, +and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their family squabbles. For the +queen and her daughter, Princess Caroline, he had a genuine respect and +attachment, and the princess's affection for him was commonly said to be +the reason for the close retirement in which she lived after his death. +The MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son, +Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that they +should not be published until after the death of George III. In 1848 +they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, but the MS. +had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into +his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the +original. Hervey's bitter account of court life and intrigues resembles +in many points the memoirs of Horace Walpole, and the two books +corroborate one another in many statements that might otherwise have +been received with suspicion. + +Until the publication of the _Memoirs_ Hervey was chiefly known as the +object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works he figured +as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally +put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's friendship with Lady Mary +Wortley Montagu. In the first of the _Imitations of Horace_, addressed +to William Fortescue, "Lord Fanny" and "Sappho" were generally +identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal +intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the _Dunciad_ and the +_Bathos_, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a share +in the _Verses to the Imitator of Horace_ (1732) and it is possible that +he was the sole author. In the _Letter from a nobleman at Hampton Court +to a Doctor of Divinity_ (1733), he scoffed at Pope's deformity and +humble birth. Pope's reply was a _Letter to a Noble Lord_, dated +November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the _Epistle to Dr +Arbuthnot_ (1735), which forms the prologue to the satires. Many of the +insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteney's +libel. The malicious caricature of Sporus does Hervey great injustice, +and he is not much better treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting +his death in a letter (14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had +outlived his last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him +to have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics and +distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the weapons of +which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost adroitness. His wife +Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), of whom an account is to be +found in Lady Louisa Stuart's _Anecdotes_, was a warm partisan of the +Stuarts. She retained her wit and charm throughout her life, and has the +distinction of being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire. + + See Hervey's _Memoirs of the Court of George II._, edited by J. W. + Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the _Dict. + Nat. Biog._ (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the _Memoirs_ he wrote + numerous political pamphlets, and some occasional verses. + + + + +HERVIEU, PAUL (1857- ), French dramatist and novelist, was born at +Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He was called to the bar in +1877, and, after serving some time in the office of the president of the +council, he qualified for the diplomatic service, but resigned on his +nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship in the French legation in Mexico. +He contributed novels, tales and essays to the chief Parisian papers and +reviews, and published a series of clever novels, including _L'Inconnu_ +(1887), _Flirt_ (1890), _L'Exorcisee_ (1891), _Peints par eux-memes_ +(1893), an ironical study written in the form of letters, and +_L'Armature_ (1895), dramatized in 1905 by Eugene Brieux. But his most +important work consists of a series of plays: _Les Paroles restent_ +(Vaudeville, 17th of November 1892); _Les Tenailles_ (Theatre Francais, +28th of September 1895); _La Loi de l'homme_ (Theatre Francais, 15th of +February 1897); _La Course du flambeau_ (Vaudeville, 17th of April +1901); _Point de lendemain_ (Odeon, 18th of October 1901), a dramatic +version of a story by Vivaut Denon; _L'Enigme_ (Theatre Francais, 5th of +November 1901); _Theroigne de Mericourt_ (Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd +of September 1902); _Le Dedale_ (Theatre Francais, 19th of December +1903), and _Le Reveil_ (Theatre Francais, 18th of December 1905). These +plays are built upon a severely logical method, the mechanism of which +is sometimes so evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion. +The closing words of _La Course du flambeau_--"_Pour ma fille, j'ai tue +ma mere_"--are an example of his selection of a plot representing an +extreme theory. The riddle in _L'Engime_ (staged at Wyndham's Theatre, +London, March 1st 1902, as _Caesar's Wife_) is, however, worked out with +great art, and _Le Dedale_, dealing with the obstacles to the remarriage +of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces of the modern +French stage. He was elected to the French Academy in 1900. + + See A. Binet, in _L'Annee psychologique_, vol. x. Hervieu's _Theatre_ + was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904). + + + + +HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796-1884), Prussian general +field-marshal, came of an aristocratic family which had supplied many +distinguished officers to the Prussian army. He entered the Guard +infantry in 1811, and served through the War of Liberation (1813-15), +distinguishing himself at Lutzen and Paris. During the years of peace he +rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 he was on +duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. Major-general in +1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general +of infantry and the command of the VIIth (Westphalian) Army Corps in +1860. In the Danish War of 1864 he succeeded to the command of the +Prussians when Prince Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the +Allies, and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the +passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 Herwarth +commanded the "Army of the Elbe" which overran Saxony and invaded +Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. His troops won the actions +of Huhnerwasser and Munchengratz, and at Koniggratz formed the right +wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against +the Austrian left flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but +was in charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing and +forwarding all the reserves and material required for the armies in +France. In 1871 his great services were recognized by promotion to the +rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at +Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since 1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian) +Infantry has borne his name. + + See _G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld_ (Munster, 1896). + + + + +HERWEGH, GEORG (1817-1875), German political poet, was born at Stuttgart +on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant keeper. He was educated +at the gymnasium of his native city, and in 1835 proceeded to the +university of Tubingen as a theological student, where, with a view to +entering the ministry, he entered the protestant theological seminary. +But the strict discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was +expelled in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest of +August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned to +Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic post. Called out +for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment when he +committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled to Switzerland to +avoid punishment. Here he published his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_ +(1841), a volume of political poems, which gave expression to the +fervent aspirations of the German youth of the day. The work immediately +rendered him famous, and although confiscated, it soon ran through +several editions. The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions +of Prince Puckler-Muskau (q.v.) in his _Briefe eines Verstorbenen_. He +next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, visiting Jena, +Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin--a journey which was described as being a +"veritable triumphal progress." His military insubordination appears to +have been forgiven and forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William +IV. had him introduced to him and used the memorable words: "_ich liebe +eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition_" ("I admire an opposition, when +dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned to Paris, where he +published in 1844 the second volume of his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_, +which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the German police. At +the head of a revolutionary column of German working men, recruited in +Paris, Herwegh took an active part in the South German rising in 1848; +but his raw troops were defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in +Baden and, after a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to +escape to Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of +his literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to +Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th of April +1875. A monument was erected to his memory there in 1904. Besides the +above-mentioned works, Herwegh published _Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der +Schweiz_ (1843), and translations into German of A. de Lamartine's works +and of seven of Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared _Neue +Gedichte_ (1877). + + Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in 1898. See + also Johannes Scherr, _Georg Herwegh; literarische und politische + Blatter_ (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in the _Allgemeine + deutsche Biographie_. + + + + +HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, on the Sieber, +25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop. +(1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and +a botanical garden, and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and +weaving and dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively +carried on here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the +town lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession +of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of the +residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick. + + + + +HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the +Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Juterbog by the railway +Berlin-Roderau-Dresden. It has a church (Evangelical) dating from the +13th century and a medieval town hall. Its industries include the +founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making. +Pop. (1905) 4043. + + + + +HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political Zionism (q.v.), +was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860, and died at Edlach on the +3rd of July 1904. The greater part of his career was associated with +Vienna, where he acquired high repute as a literary journalist. He was +also a dramatist, and apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist +would have found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to +renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his work as +the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political autonomy. +Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of Jews under persecution, +but he was even more powerfully moved by the difficulties experienced +under conditions of assimilation. Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was +both like and unlike the medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews +continued in Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several +national groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl +believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the end of +the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries had failed. +The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but the Jews could find no +entry into the comity of nations. The new nationalism of 1848 did not +deprive the Jews of political rights, but it denied them both the +amenities of friendly intercourse and the opportunity of distinction in +the university, the army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this +diagnosis, and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (q.v.) which +spread over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against +the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl published +his famous pamphlet "Der Judenstaat." Holding that the only alternatives +for the Jews were complete merging by intermarriage or self-preservation +by a national re-union, he boldly advocated the second course. He did +not at first insist on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he +attach himself to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic +restoration to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent, in +the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject entirely on +its secular side, and his solution was economic and political rather +than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for the complete separation +of Church and State. The influence of Herzl's pamphlet, the progress of +the movement he initiated, the subsequent modifications of his plans, +are told at length in the article ZIONISM. + +His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm, and though +he almost completely failed to win to his cause the classes, he rallied +the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly gained the +accession of many Jews by race who were indifferent to the religious +aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed to convince the leaders of Jewish +thought, who from first to last remained (with such conspicuous +exceptions as Nordau and Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox +were at first cool because they had always dreamed of a nationalism +inspired by messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to +dissociate those universalistic ideals from all national limitations. +Herzl, however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel +(beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable +scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader. At all +these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: "the establishing for +the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine." +Herzl's personal charm was irresistible. Among his political opponents +he had some close personal friends. His sincerity, his eloquence, his +tact, his devotion, his power, were recognized on all hands. He spent +his whole strength in the furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic +interviews, exhausting journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant +literary propaganda--all these methods were employed by him to the +utmost limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the +pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The British +government was ready to grant land for an autonomous settlement in East +Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl's peace of mind. Even as a +temporary measure, the choice of an extra-Palestinian site for the +Jewish state was bitterly opposed by many Zionists; others (with whom +Herzl appears to have sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all +events momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement +elsewhere. Herzl's health had been failing and he did not long survive +the initiation of the somewhat embittered "territorial" controversy. He +died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation of supporters and the +deep grief of opponents of his Zionistic aims. + +Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality of the +19th century. He had no profound insight into the problem of Judaism, +and there was no lasting validity in his view that the problem--the +thousands of years' old mystery--could be solved by a retrogression to +local nationality. But he brought home to Jews the perils that +confronted them; he compelled many a "semi-detached" son of Israel to +rejoin the camp; he forced the "assimilationists" to realize their +position and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to "Jewish +culture," including the popularization of Hebrew as a living speech; and +he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an earnest and vital +interest in their present and their future. Herzl thus left an indelible +mark on his time, and his renown is assured whatever be the fate in +store for the political Zionism which he founded and for which he gave +his life. (I. A.) + + + + +HERZOG, HANS (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at Aarau. He became a +Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then spent six years in +travelling (visiting England among other countries), before he became a +partner in his father's business in 1846. In 1847 he saw his first +active service (as artillery captain) in the short Swiss _Sonderbund_ +war. In 1860 he abandoned mercantile pursuits for a purely military +career, becoming colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery. +In 1870 he was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the +Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and in +February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrieres with +General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the remains of +Bourbaki's army, when it took refuge in Switzerland. In 1875 he became +the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery, which he did much to +reorganize, helping also in the re-organization of the other branches of +the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at his native town of Aarau. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882), German Protestant theologian, was born +at Basel on the 12th of September 1805. He studied at Basel and Berlin, +and eventually (1854) settled at Erlangen as professor of church +history. He died there on the 30th of September 1882, having retired in +1877. His most noteworthy achievement was the publication of the +_Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche_ (1853-1868, +22 vols.), of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt +(1836-1880) in 1877, and after Plitt's death with Albert Hauck (b. +1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in 1896 +(completed in 22 vols., 1909). + + His other works include _Joh. Calvin_ (1843), _Leben Okolampads_ + (1843), _Die romanischen Waldenser_ (1853), _Abriss der gesamten + Kirchengeschichte_ (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig, + 1890-1892). + + + + +HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG (1819-1874), German author, was born on +the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his father, distinguished as a +writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran pastor. Hesekiel studied history +and philosophy in Halle, Jena and Berlin, and devoted himself in early +life to journalism and literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where +he lived until his death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a +considerable reputation as a writer and as editor of the _Neue +Preussische Zeitung_. He attempted many different kinds of literary +work, the most ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs +_Preussenlieder_, of which he published a volume during the +revolutionary excitement of 1848-1849. Another collection--_Neue +Preussenlieder_--appeared in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in +1870--_Gegen die Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Konigslieder_. Among +his novels may be mentioned _Unter dem Eisenzahn_ (1864) and _Der +Schultheiss vom Zeyst_ (1875). The best known of his works is his +biography of Prince Bismarck (_Das Buch vom Fursten Bismarck_) (3rd ed., +1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie). + + + + +HESILRIGE (or HESELRIG), SIR ARTHUR, 2nd Bart. (d. 1661), English +parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Hesilrige, 1st baronet +(c. 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a member of a very ancient +family settled in Northumberland and Leicestershire, and of Frances, +daughter of Sir William Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early +imbibed strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism +to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long Parliaments in +1640, and took a principal part in Strafford's attainder, the Root and +Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the 7th of December 1641, and was +one of the five members impeached on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed +much activity in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex, +fought at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed +his _fidus Achates_, and distinguished himself at the head of his +cuirassiers, "The Lobsters," at Lansdown on the 5th of July 1643, at +Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both of which battles he was +wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th 1644. On the occasion of the breach +between the army and the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former, +took Cromwell's part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on +the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and +became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament. On the +30th of December 1647 he was appointed governor of Newcastle, which he +successfully defended, besides defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of +July 1648 and regaining Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to +Scotland, and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in +1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king's execution, had +declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the leading men in +the Commonwealth, but Cromwell's expulsion of the Long Parliament threw +him into antagonism, and he opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay +taxes. He was returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656 +and 1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a seat in the +Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him, and succeeded in again +obtaining admission to the Commons in January 1658. On Cromwell's death +Hesilrige refused support to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting +his downfall. He was now one of the most influential men in the council +and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican parliamentary +administration, "to keep the sword subservient to the civil magistrate," +and opposed Lambert's schemes. On the latter succeeding in expelling the +parliament, Hesilrige turned to Monk for support, and assisted his +movements by securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched +to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the 2nd of +January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner for the army. +He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting to his assurance of +fidelity to "the good old cause" consented to the retirement of his +regiment from London. At the Restoration his life was saved by Monk's +intervention, but he was imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the +7th of January 1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as "an absurd, bold +man." He was rash, "hare-brained," devoid of tact and had little claim +to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field and in +parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary cause. He +exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his exactions and +appropriations of confiscated landed property, though the accusation +brought against him by John Lilburne was examined by a parliamentary +committee and adjudged to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances, +daughter of Thomas Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had +two sons and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville, +2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters. The +family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur Grey +Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet. + + AUTHORITIES.--Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the _Dict. of + Nat. Biography_, and authorities there quoted; _Early History of the + Family of Hesilrige_, by W. G. D. Fletcher; _Cal. of State Papers, + Domestic_, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important + references, as also in _Hist. MSS._, _Comm. Series_, _MSS. of Earl + Cowper_, _Duke of Leeds_ and _Duke of Portland_; _Egerton MSS._ 2618, + _Harleian_ 7001 f. 198, and in the _Sloane_, _Stowe_ and _Additional_ + collections in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, _Hist. of + England_, _Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth_; Clarendon's + _History, State Papers and Cal. of State Papers_, J. L. Sanford's + _Studies of the Great Rebellion_. His life is written by Noble in the + _House of Cromwell_, i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in + parliament see the catalogue of the British Museum. + + + + +HESIOD, the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably flourished during +the 8th century B.C. His father had migrated from the Aeolic Cyme in +Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod and his brother Perses were born at +Ascra, near mount Helicon (_Works and Days_, 635). Here, as he fed his +father's flocks, he received his commission from the Muses to be their +prophet and poet--a commission which he recognized by dedicating to them +a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at some funeral +games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at Helicon in the age of +Pausanias (_Theogony_, 20-34, _W. and D._, 656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3). +After the death of his father Hesiod is said to have left his native +land in disgust at the result of a law-suit with his brother and to have +migrated to Naupactus. There was a tradition that he was murdered by the +sons of his host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in +Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains were removed +for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to Orchomenus in Boeotia, +where the Ascraeans settled after the destruction of their town by the +Thespians, and where, according to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen. + +Hesiod's earliest poem, the famous _Works and Days_, and according to +Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the experiences of his +daily life and work, and, interwoven with episodes of fable, allegory, +and personal history, forms a sort of Boeotian shepherd's calendar. The +first portion is an ethical enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive +of strife and idleness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules +as to husbandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the +months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary for rural or +nautical employments. The connecting link of the whole poem is the +author's advice to his brother, who appears to have bribed the corrupt +judges to deprive Hesiod of his already scantier inheritance, and to +whom, as he wasted his substance lounging in the agora, the poet more +than once returned good for evil, though he tells him there will be a +limit to this unmerited kindness. In the _Works and Days_ the episodes +which rise above an even didactic level are the "Creation and Equipment +of Pandora," the "Five Ages of the World" and the much-admired +"Description of Winter" (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic). The poem +also contains the earliest known fable in Greek literature, that of "The +Hawk and the Nightingale." It is in the _Works and Days_ especially that +we glean indications of Hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a +stay-at-home farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea +was a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned +bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony have been +conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having a wife as extravagant +as himself. + +The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which has come down in +great part to modern times is _The Theogony_, a work of grander scope, +inspired alike by older traditions and abundant local associations. It +is an attempt to work into system, as none had essayed to do before, the +floating legends of the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This +task Herodotus (ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato +in the _Symposium_ (178 B) as the author of the _Theogony_. The first to +question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias, the geographer +(A.D. 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had no doubt on the subject; and +indications of the hand that wrote the _Works and Days_ may be found in +the severe strictures on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver +Plutus and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt, of +Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different +recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. The +_Theogony_ consists of three divisions--(1) a cosmogony, or creation; +(2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of the dynasties of Zeus +and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly terminated heroogony, the +starting-point not improbably of the supplementary poem, the [Greek: +katalogos], or "Lists of Women" who wedded immortals, of which all but +a few fragments are lost.[1] The proem (1-116) addressed to the +Heliconian and Pierian muses, is considered to have been variously +enlarged, altered and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has +interwoven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of Zeus +and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description of the +prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined, with the +Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors (735 seq.). + +The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod's name is the +_Shield of Heracles_, the opening verses of which are attributed by a +nameless grammarian to the fourth book of _Eoiai_. The theme of the +piece is the expedition of Heracles and Iolaus against the robber +Cycnus; but its main object apparently is to describe the shield of +Heracles (141-317). It is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of +the shield of Achilles (_Iliad_, xviii. 479) and is now generally +considered spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod +have come down to us: didactic, as the _Maxims of Cheiron_; +genealogical, as the _Aegimius_, describing the contest of that mythical +ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and mythical, as the +_Marriage of Ceyx_ and the _Descent of Theseus to Hades_. + +Recent editions of Hesiod include the [Greek: Agon Homerou kai +Hesiodou], the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the funeral +games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. This little tract +belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been +present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by +the sophist Alcidamas (q.v.). Quotations (old and new) are made from the +works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, +the judge decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of +Homer and Hesiod are also given. + +A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious and +proverbial philosophy (as in _Works and Days_, 24-25, 40, 218, 345, +371). There is naturally less of this in the _Theogony_, yet there too +not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. He has undying +fame as the first of didactic poets (see DIDACTIC POETRY), the +accredited systematizer of Greek mythology and the rough but not +unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which Virgil wrought out his +exquisitely finished Georgics. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: _Editio princeps_ (Milan, 1493); + Gottling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of + publication; C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and + explanatory notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902), + including the fragments. Separate works: _Works and Days_: Van Lennep + (1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, _Die Werke und Tage des + Hesiodos_ (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement + of the poem; G. Wlastoff, _Promethee, Pandore, et la legende des + siecles_ (1883). _Theogony_: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker (1865), + valuable edition; G. F. Schomann (1868), with text, critical notes and + exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, _Die Hesiodische Theogonie_ (1873), + with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma in Hesiod, _System + der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie_ (1874), and _Glossen und Scholien zur + Theogonie_ (1876); Meyer, _De compositione Theogoniae_ (1887). _Shield + of Heracles_: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van Lennep-Hullemann (1854); F. + Stegemann, _De scuti Herculis Hesiodei poeta Homeri carminum + imitatore_ (1904); the fragments were published by W. Marckscheffel in + 1840; for the [Greek: Agon Homerou] (ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F. + Nietzsche in _Rheinisches Museum_ (new series), xxv. p. 528. For + papyrus fragments of the "Catalogue," some 50 lines on the wooing of + Helen, and a shorter fragment in praise of Peleus, see + Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in _Sitzungsber. der konigl. preuss. Akad. der + Wissenschaften_, for 26th of July 1900; for fragments relating to + Meleager and the suitors of Helen, _Berliner Klassikertexte_, v. + (1907); of the _Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap._ vi. (1908). + + On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schomann, _Opuscula_, ii. + (1857); H. Flach, _Die Hesiodischen Gedichte_ (1874); A. Rzach, _Der + Dialekt des Hesiodos_ (1876); P. O. Gruppe, _Die griechischen Kulte + und Mythen_, i. (1887); O. Friedel, _Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods_ + (1879), from _Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie_ (10th suppl. Band, + 1879); J. Adam, _Religious Teachers of Greece_ (1908). There is a full + bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898) by A. + Rzach in Bursian's _Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der + klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, xxvii. (1900). + + There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke + (1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W. + Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of + Translations, 1908); in German (metrical version) with valuable + introductions and notes by R. Peppmuller (1896) and in other modern + languages. (J. Da.; J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of + each heroine began with [Greek: e oie], "or like as." (See + Bibliography.) + + + +HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded the golden apples +which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to Zeus. According to Hesiod +(_Theogony_, 215) they were the daughters of Erebus and Night; in later +accounts, of Atlas and Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on +Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to +be three in number--Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa); +according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away in the west +at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence the sun (according to +Mimnermus _ap._ Athenaeum xi. p. 470) sails in the golden bowl made by +Hephaestus from the abode of the Hesperides to the land where he rises +again. According to other accounts their home was among the +Hyperboreans. The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the +ever-watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian legends +described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the nightly heaven, +while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the light back from men till +some beneficent power takes it from him. Heracles is the hero who brings +back the golden apples to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies +to the Nymphs, who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there +he slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, like +Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, like the Sirens, +possessed of the gift of delightful song. The apples appear to have been +the symbol of love and fruitfulness, and are introduced at the marriages +of Cadmus and Harmonia and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the +gift of Aphrodite to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also +plucked from the garden of the Hesperides. + + + + +HESPERUS (Gr. [Greek: Hesperos], Lat. Vesper), the evening star, son or +brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii. 60, iv. 27), he +ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of the stars, and was +suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever afterwards he was honoured as a +god, and the most brilliant star in the heavens was called by his name. +Although as a mythological personality he is regarded as distinct from +Phosphoros or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of +light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars were +early identified by the Greeks. + + Diog. Laert. viii. 1. 14; Cicero, _De nat. deorum_, ii. 20; Pliny, + _Nat. Hist._ ii. 6 [8]. + + + + +HESS, the name of a family of German artists. + +HEINRICH MARIA HESS (1798-1863)--von Hess, after he received a patent of +personal nobility--was born at Dusseldorf and brought up to the +profession of art by his father, the engraver Karl Ernst Christoph Hess +(1755-1828). Karl Hess had already acquired a name when in 1806 the +elector of Bavaria, having been raised to a kingship by Napoleon, +transferred the Dusseldorf academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess +accompanied the academy to its new home, and there continued the +education of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently +master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian. He was +sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made of Raphael's +Parnassus, and the study of great examples of monumental design, +probably caused him to become a painter of ecclesiastical subjects on a +large scale. In 1828 he was made professor of painting and director of +all the art collections at Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the +Glyptothek and the Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his +cartoons were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne +and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the basilica of +St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture of the Virgin and +Child enthroned between the four doctors, and receiving the homage of +the four patrons of the Munich churches (now in the Pinakothek). His +last work, the "Lord's Supper," was found unfinished in his atelier +after his death in 1863. Before testing his strength as a composer +Heinrich Hess tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering +Rome, now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and twice +had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack collections). But +his fame rests on the frescoes representing scenes from the Old and New +Testaments in the Allerheiligencapelle, and the episodes from the life +of St Boniface and other German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here +he holds rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting, being +always true to nature though mindful of the traditions of Christian art, +earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and powerful in expression. +Through him and his pupils the sentiment of religious art was preserved +and extended in the Munich school. + +PETER HESS (1792-1871)--afterwards von Hess--was born at Dusseldorf and +accompanied his younger brother Heinrich Maria to Munich in 1806. Being +of an age to receive vivid impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of +the time and became a painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he +was allowed to join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the +Bavarians in the military operations which led to the abdication of +Napoleon; and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for +extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited +Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho's election to the Greek +throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather materials for +pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches which he then made were +placed, forty in number, in the Pinakothek, after being copied in wax on +a large scale (and little to the edification of German feeling) by +Nilsen, in the northern arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho's +entrance into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now +in the Pinakothek, which Hess executed in person. From these, and from +battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal Palace, as well as +from military episodes executed for the czar Nicholas, and the battle of +Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery, we gather that Hess was a clever +painter of horses. His conception of subject was lifelike, and his +drawing invariably correct, but his style is not so congenial to modern +taste as that of the painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully +with thin medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a +certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was not unaptly +compared. He died suddenly, full of honours, at Munich, in April 1871. +Several of his genre pictures, horse hunts, and brigand scenes may be +found in the gallery of Munich. + +KARL HESS (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess, born at +Dusseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped that he would +obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however, after engraving one +plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting under the guidance of +Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied under his elder brother Peter. +But historical composition proved to be as contrary to his taste as +engraving, and he gave himself exclusively at last to illustrations of +peasant life in the hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in +representing the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and +with constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood of +Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced anything that +was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly realism. Some of his +pictures in the museum of Munich will serve as examples of his manner. +He died at Reichenhall on the 16th of November 1874. + + + + +HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF, FREIHERR VON (1788-1870), Austrian +soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was soon employed as a staff +officer on survey work. He distinguished himself as a subaltern at +Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a captain, again served on the staff. +In 1815 he was with Schwarzenberg. He had in the interval between the +two wars been employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at +the peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved +invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky became +commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as his +chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two famous soldiers +which, like that of Blucher and Gneisenau, is a classical example of +harmonious co-operation of commander and chief-of-staff. Hess put into +shape Radetzky's military ideas, in the form of new drill for each arm, +and, under their guidance, the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a +war footing, became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was +employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of revolution +and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to Radetzky as +chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King Charles Albert which +followed, culminating in the victory of Novara, Hess's assistance to his +chief was made still more valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and +the old field-marshal acknowledged his services in general orders. +Lieut.-Fieldmarshal Hess was at once promoted _Feldzeugmeister_, made a +member of the emperor's council, and _Freiherr_, assuming at the same +time the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became chief +of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in missions to +various capitals, and he appeared in the field in 1854 at the head of +the Austrian army which intervened so effectually in the Crimean war. In +1859 he was sent to Italy after the early defeats. He became +field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on resigning his position as +chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the Trabant guard. He died in +Vienna in 1870. + + See "General Hess" in _Lebensgeschichtlichen Hinrissen_ (Vienna, + 1855). + + + + +HESSE (Lat. _Hessia_, Ger. _Hessen_), a grand duchy forming a state of +the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-Darmstadt, the +history of which is given under a separate heading below. It consists of +two main parts, separated from each other by a narrow strip of Prussian +territory. The northern part is the province of Oberhessen; the southern +consists of the contiguous provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen. +There are also eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg +to the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on the +north-west frontier of Wurttemberg. Oberhessen is hilly; though of no +great elevation it extends over the water-parting between the basins of +the Rhine and the Weser, and in the Vogelsberg it has as its culminating +point the Taufstein (2533 ft.). In the north-west it includes spurs of +the Taunus. Between these two systems of hills lies the fertile +undulating tract known as the Wetterau, watered by the Wetter, a +tributary of the Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main +and the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the ranges +of the Odenwald, the highest part being the Seidenbucher Hohe (1965 +ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by the Rhine, and has +that river as its northern as well as its eastern frontier, though it +extends across it at the north-east corner, where the Rhine, on +receiving the Main, changes its course abruptly from south to west. The +territory consists of a fertile tract of low hills, rising towards the +south-west into the northern extremity of the Hardt range, but at no +point reaching a height of more than 1050 ft. + +The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are as follow: + + +-------------+------+---------------------+ + | | Area.| Population. | + | +------+----------+----------+ + | |sq. m.| 1895. | 1905. | + | +------+----------+----------+ + | Oberhessen | 1267 | 271,524 | 296,755 | + | Starkenburg | 1169 | 444,562 | 542,996 | + | Rheinhessen | 530 | 322,934 | 369,424 | + +-------------+------+----------+----------+ + | Total | 2966 |1,039,020 |1,209,175 | + +-------------+------+----------+----------+ + +The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the capital) and +Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in Rheinhessen and Giessen in +Oberhessen. More than two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants; the +majority of the remainder are Roman Catholics, and there are about +25,000 Jews. The grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education +is compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by state +grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical high school at +Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than three-fifths of the total +area being under cultivation. The largest grain crops are rye and +barley, and nearly 40,000 acres are under vines. Minerals, in which +Oberhessen is much richer than the two other provinces, include iron, +manganese, salt and some coal. + +The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856, 1862, 1872 +and 1900. There are two legislative chambers. The upper consists of +princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of mediatized houses, the head +of the Roman Catholic and the superintendent of the Protestant church, +the chancellor of the university, two elected representatives of the +land-owning nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke. +The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large towns and forty +from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly elected, by +deputy electors (_Wahlmanner_) nominated by the electors, who must be +Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying direct taxes. The executive +ministry of state is divided into the departments of the interior, +justice and finance. The three provinces are divided for local +administration into 18 circles and 989 communes. The ordinary revenue +and expenditure amount each to about L4,000,000 annually, the chief +taxes being an income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public +debt, practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to +L19,097,468 in 1907. + +_History_.--The name of Hesse, now used principally for the grand duchy +formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a country which has had +different boundaries and areas at different times. The name is derived +from that of a Frankish tribe, the Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants +of the country were the Chatti, who lived here during the 1st century +A.D. (Tacitus, _Germania_, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the +Eder, was burned by the Romans about A.D. 15. "Alike both in race and +language," says Walther Schultze, "the Chatti and the Hessi are +identical." During the period of the _Volkerwanderung_ many of these +people moved westward, but some remained behind to give their name to +the country, although it was not until the 8th century that the word +Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was the district around the Fulda, the +Werra, the Eder and the Lahn, and was part of the Frankish kingdom both +during Merovingian and during Carolingian times. Soon _Hessegau_ is +mentioned, and this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during +his campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 it fell +to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly in the duchy +of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The Hessians were converted +to Christianity mainly through the efforts of St Boniface; their land +was included in the archbishopric of Mainz; and religion and culture +were kept alive among them largely owing to the foundation of the +Benedictine abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany +during the 9th century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central power, +and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great, several counts, +among whom were Giso and Werner, had made themselves practically +independent; but after the accession of Otto in 936 the land quietly +accepted the yoke of the medieval emperors. About 1120 another Giso, +count of Gudensberg, secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on +his death in 1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis, +landgrave of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the +Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of Thuringia. +The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of Thuringia, in 1247, +caused a long war over the disposal of his lands, and this dispute was +not settled until 1264 when Hesse, separated again from Thuringia, was +secured by his niece Sophia (d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of +Brabant. In the following year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry +(1244-1308), who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took +the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent rulers +of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the Empire, and with +him the history of Hesse properly begins. + +For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively uneventful. +The land, which fell into two main portions, upper Hesse round Marburg, +and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice divided between two members of +the ruling family, but no permanent partition took place before the +Reformation. A _Landtag_ was first called together in 1387, and the +landgraves were constantly at variance with the electors of Mainz, who +had large temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however, +to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden, +Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen were +acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself under the +protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the landgraves were perhaps +Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the German throne in 1440, and +William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of the German king, Maximilian I. In +1509 William's young son, Philip (q.v.), became landgrave, and by his +vigorous personality brought his country into prominence during the +religious troubles of the 16th century. Following the example of his +ancestors Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his +land, and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes to +him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided between his four +sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Marburg and +Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Marburg, +or upper Hesse, became extinct in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these +lands passed to the two remaining branches of the family. The small +landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt. +After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by Prussia in +1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent part of Hesse, and it +generally receives the common name. + +Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was founded in +1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave William VI. In 1909 the +representative of this family was the Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846). +Hesse-Barchfeld was founded in 1721 by Philip's son, William (d. 1761), +and in 1909 its representative was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The +lands of both these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a +province of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of +the duchy of Nassau. + + See H. B. Wenck, _Hessische Landesgeschichte_ (Frankfort, 1783-1803); + C. von Rommel, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Cassel, 1820-1858); F. + Munscher, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach, _Hesse + und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde_ (Marburg, 1899); Walther, _Literarisches + Handbuch fur Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse_ (Darmstadt, 1841; + Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann, _Bibliotheca Hessiaca_ (Cassel, + 1884-1899); Hoffmeister, _Historischgenealogisches Handbuch uber alle + Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse_ (Marburg, 1874), and the _Zeitschrift + des Vereins fur hessische Geschichte_ (1837-1904). + + + + +HESSE-CASSEL (in German _Kurhessen_, i.e. Electoral Hesse), now the +government district of Cassel in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. +It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate of Germany, consisting of +several detached masses of territory, to the N.E. of +Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial area of 3699 sq. m., +and its population in 1864 was 745,063. + +_History._--The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William IV., +surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous. On his father's +death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with Cassel as his capital; +and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel. Additions were made to +it by inheritance from his brother's possessions. His son, Maurice the +Learned (1592-1627), turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in +the Thirty Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his +territories to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son +William V. (1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which +created several cadet lines of the house, of which that of +Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg survived till 1834. On the death of William +V., whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his widow +Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI. (1637-1663), +reconquered the country and, with the aid of the French and Swedes, held +it, together with part of Westphalia. At the peace of Westphalia (1648), +accordingly, Hesse-Cassel was augmented by the larger part of the +countship of Schaumburg and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a +principality of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced +the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650, was an +enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son +William VII., an infant, who died in 1670, and was succeeded by his +brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles's chief claim to remembrance is +that he was the first ruler to adopt the system of hiring his soldiers +out to foreign powers as mercenaries, as a means of improving the +national finances. Frederick I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had +become by marriage king of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the +landgraviate by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an +ally of England during the Seven Years' War. From his successor +Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic, 22,000 +Hessian troops were hired by England for about L3,191,000, to assist in +the war against the North American colonies. This action, often bitterly +criticized, has of late years found apologists (cf. v. Werthern, _Die +hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerikanischen Unabhangigkeitskriege_, +Cassel, 1895). It is argued that the troops were in any case +mercenaries, and that the practice was quite common. Whatever opinion +may be held as to this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money +well: he did much for the development of the economic and intellectual +improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave, William IX. +(1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history of Hesse-Cassel. +Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part in the war against France a +few years later, but in 1795 peace was arranged by the treaty of Basel. +For the loss in 1801 of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he +was in 1803 compensated by some of the former French territory round +Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector +(_Kurfurst_) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality with +Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspecting William's +designs, occupied his country, and expelled him. Hesse-Cassel was then +added to Jerome Bonaparte's new kingdom of Westphalia; but after the +battle of Leipzig in 1813 the French were driven out and on the 21st of +November the elector returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty +concluded by him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to +receive back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the +same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country. This +treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried out by the +powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused, however, the elector's +request to be recognized as "King of the Chatti" (_Konig der Katten_), a +request which was again rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle +(1818). He therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with +the predicate of "royal highness." + +The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing with a stroke +of the pen all the reforms introduced under the French regime, +repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring null and void the sale of +the crown domains. Everything was set back to its condition on the 1st +of November 1806; even the officials had to descend to their former +rank, and the army to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails. +The estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt to +devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal diet at +Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of the debt and the +domains came to nothing owing to the intervention of Metternich; and in +May 1816 they were dissolved, never to meet again. William I. died on +the 27th of February 1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II. +Under him the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He +was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover shocked +public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular Prussian +princess, and his relations with his mistress, one Emilie Ortlopp, +created countess of Reichenbach, whom he loaded with wealth. The July +revolution in Paris gave the signal for disturbances; the elector was +forced to summon the estates; and on the 5th of January 1831 a +constitution on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now +retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent, and took +no further part in public affairs. + +The regent, without his father's coarseness, had a full share of his +arbitrary and avaricious temper. Constitutional restrictions were +intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with the diet was +aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (q.v.) was placed at the head of +the administration. The whole efforts of the elector and his minister +were directed to nullifying the constitutional control vested in the +diet; and the Opposition was fought by manipulating the elections, +packing the judicial bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of +political "suspects," and this policy continued after the retirement of +Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the +revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public discontent; +and Frederick William, who had become elector on his father's death +(November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss his reactionary ministry and +to agree to a comprehensive programme of democratic reform. This, +however, was but short-lived. After the breakdown of the Frankfort +National Parliament, Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern +Union, and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt +parliament. But as Austria recovered strength, the elector's policy +changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again placed at +the head of the administration and threw himself with renewed zeal into +the struggle against the constitution and into opposition to Prussia. On +the 2nd of September the diet was dissolved; the taxes were continued by +electoral ordinance; and the country was placed under martial law. It +was at once clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his +officers or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the +constitution. Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly +with him, and on the 15th of October appealed for aid to the +reconstituted federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of +"intervention." On the 1st of November an Austrian and Bavarian force +marched into the electorate. + +This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions with the +elector had the right to the use of the military roads through Hesse +that were her sole means of communication with her Rhine provinces. War +seemed imminent; Prussian troops also entered the country, and shots +were actually exchanged between the outposts. But Prussia was in no +condition to take up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that +followed issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmutz (1851). Hesse was +surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the federal +forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new order were +dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished the constitution of +1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and in April issued a new +provisional constitution. The new diet had, under this, very narrow +powers; and the elector was free to carry out his policy of amassing +money, forbidding the construction of railways and manufactories, and +imposing strict orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however, +Hassenpflug--who had returned with the elector--was dismissed; and five +years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new constitution was +granted with the consent of the federal diet (May 30, 1860). The new +chambers, however, demanded the constitution of 1831; and, after several +dissolutions which always resulted in the return of the same members, +the federal diet decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24, +1862). This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it +needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble the +chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposition; and he +revenged himself by refusing to transact any public business. In 1866 +the end came. The elector, full of grievances against Prussia, threw in +his lot with Austria; the electorate was at once overrun with Prussian +troops; Cassel was occupied (June 20); and the elector was carried a +prisoner to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed to +Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been, by the terms +of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed property of his house. +This was, however, sequestered in 1868 owing to his intrigues against +Prussia; part of the income was paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the +landgrave Frederick (d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles +and palaces, was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and +Philippsthal-Barchfeld. + + See K. W. Wippermann, _Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen_ (Cassel, + 1850); Roth, _Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel_ (Cassel, 1856; 2nd ed. + continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Grafe, _Der Verfassungskampf in + Kurhessen_ (Leipzig, 1851) and works under HESSE. + + + + +HESSE-DARMSTADT, a grand-duchy in Germany, the history of which begins +with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I. (1547-1597), the youngest +son of the landgrave Philip, received the upper county of +Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt as his residence, became the +founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt line. Additions to the landgraviate were +made both in the reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V. +(1577-1626), but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage +for George's youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis V., who +founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran, he and his +son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the imperialists in the Thirty +Years' War, during which Hesse-Darmstadt suffered very severely from the +ravages of the Swedes. In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other +side, and the rivalry between the two landgraviates was increased by a +dispute over Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become +extinct in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread of +the Thirty Years' War, and was not finally settled until 1648, when the +disputed territory was divided between the two claimants. Louis VI. (d. +1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed the policy of the three +previous landgraves, but the anxiety of his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739), +to emulate the French court under Louis XIV. led his country into debt. +Under Ernest Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768), +another dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time it was +over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was eventually +divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg. During the 18th century +the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War dealt heavy +blows at the prosperity of the landgraviate, which was always loyal to +the house of Austria. Louis IX. (1719-1790), who served in the Prussian +army under Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of +Caroline (1721-1774), "the great landgravine," who counted Goethe, +Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by Frederick the +Great as _femina sexu, ingenio vir_. In April 1790, just after the +outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X. (1753-1830), an educated +prince who shared the tastes and friendships of his mother, Caroline, +became landgrave. In 1792 he joined the allies against France, but in +1799 he was compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having +formally surrendered the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine +which had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution, Louis +received in return a much larger district which had formerly belonged to +the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz and the bishopric of +Worms. In 1806, being a member of the confederation of the Rhine, he +took the title of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse; he supported Napoleon +with troops from 1805 to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined +the allies. In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the +area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again a district +on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of Mainz and Worms, +but he made cessions of territory to Prussia and to Bavaria and he +recognized the independence of Hesse-Homburg, which had recently been +incorporated with his lands. However, his title of grand-duke was +confirmed, and as grand-duke of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the +Germanic confederation. Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself +felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land; +various forms were carried through; the system of government was +reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the Prussian +_Zollverein_. Louis I., who did a great deal for the welfare of his +country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was followed on the throne +by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This grand-duke had some trouble with +his _Landtag_, but, dying on the 16th of June 1848, he left his son, +Louis III. (1806-1877), to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848. +Many concessions were made to the popular will, but during the +subsequent reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850 +and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk +(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of +Hesse-Darmstadt, was one of repression, although some benefits were +conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia's enemies, and +during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on the Austrian side, the +result being that he was compelled to pay a heavy indemnity and to cede +certain districts, including Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just +acquired, to Prussia. In 1867 Louis entered the North German +Confederation, but only for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871 +Hesse-Darmstadt became one of the states of the new German empire. After +the withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more liberal +policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesiastical, +educational, financial and administrative matters were introduced, and +in general the grand-duchy may be said to have passed largely under the +influence of Prussia, which, by an arrangement made in 1896, controls +the Hessian railway system. The constitution of 1820, subject to four +subsequent modifications, is still the law of the land, the legislative +power being vested in two chambers and the executive power being +exercised by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the +annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy has been +known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the 13th of June 1877, and was +succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV. (1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen +Victoria; he died on the 13th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his +son, Ernest Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke's marriage with Victoria +(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was +dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently in 1902 a +law regulating the succession was passed. By this the landgrave +Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative of the family which +ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared the heir to Hesse in case +the grand-duke died without sons. However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married +Elenore, princess of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a +son George (b. 1906). + + See L. Baur, _Urkunden zur hessischen Landes-, Orts- und + Familiengeschichte_ (Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, _Geschichte des + Grossherzogtums Hesse_n (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, _Das + Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, _Historische Ubersicht + der Territorialveranderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des + Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, _Geschichte des + Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, _Kirchengeschichte + beider Hessen_ (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, _Geschichte von + Hessen_ (Cassel, 1891), and _Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde_ + (Marburg, 1904-1906); F. Kuchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber, + _Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen_ + (Darmstadt, 1894-1897); H. Kunzel, _Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Giessen, + 1893); and W. Zeller, _Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung im + Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also _Archiv fur + hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde_ (Darmstadt, 1894 fol.) and + _Hessisches Urkundenbuch_ (Leipzig, 1879 fol.). + + + + +HESSE-HOMBURG, formerly a small landgraviate in Germany. It consisted of +two parts, the district of Homburg on the right side of the Rhine, and the +district of Meisenheim, which was added in 1815, on the left side of the +same river. Its area was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was +27,374. Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, +and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-Homburg was formed into +a separate landgraviate in 1622 by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George +I., landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, although it did not become independent +of Hesse-Darmstadt until 1768. By two of Frederick's sons it was divided +into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but these parts were +again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick's third son, Frederick +II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign of the landgrave Frederick +V., which extended from 1751 to 1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and +incorporated with Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna +the latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of +Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisenheim. +Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a sovereign prince in +1817, and after his death his five sons in succession filled the throne. +The last of these, Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal +constitution to his people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852. +When he died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited by +Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim fell to +Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis was forced to cede +his new possession to Prussia, as he had supported Austria during the war +between these two powers. + + See R. Schwartz, _Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und seine + Familie_ (1878); and von Herget, _Das landgrafliche Haus Homburg_ + (Homburg, 1903). + + + + +HESSE-NASSAU (Ger. _Hessen-Nassau_), a province of Prussia, bounded, +from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia, Waldeck, Hanover, +the province of Saxony, the Thuringian States, Bavaria, Hesse and the +Rhine Province. There are small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia, +&c.; on the other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen +belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar +belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed in 1867-1868 +out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after the war of 1866, +namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and the duchy of Nassau, in +addition to the greater part of the territory of Frankfort-on-Main, +parts of the grand-duchy of Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the +countship of Hesse-Homburg, together with certain small districts which +belonged to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel +and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former +territory of Nassau (q.v.). + +The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population in 1905 of +2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated province in Prussia, +after Berlin, the Rhine Province and Westphalia. The east and north +parts lie in the basin of the river Fulda, which near the north-eastern +boundary joins with the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of +the southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the western part +of the province lies mostly in the basin of the Lahn, a tributary of the +Rhine. The province is generally hilly, the highest hills occurring in +the east and west. The Fulda rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an +eminence of the Rhongebirge, the highest in the province. In the +south-west are the Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west +of the Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser +Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The congeries of +small groups of lower hills in the north are known as the Hessische +Bergland. + +The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but in forests +it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is large. The chief +trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-breeding is extensively +practised. The vine is cultivated chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus, +in the south-west, where the names of several towns are well known for +their wines--Schierstein, Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg, +Geisenheim, Rudesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese +are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those at +Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlangenbad and Soden. +The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel, Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort, +Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and Hersfeld. The province is divided for +administration into 42 circles (_Kreise_), 24 in the government of +Cassel and 18 in that of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the +Reichstag. Marburg is the seat of a university. + + + + +HESSE-ROTENBURG, a German landgraviate which was broken up in 1834. In +1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son of Maurice, landgrave of +Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheinsfels and lower Katzenelnbogen as +his inheritance, and some years later, on the deaths of two of his +brothers, he added Eschwege, Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to +his possessions. Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, +was a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two sons, +William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their territories, and +founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and Hesse-Wanfried. The latter +family died out in 1755, when William's grandson, Constantine (d. 1778), +reunited the lands except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by +Hesse-Cassel in 1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At +the peace of Luneville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on the left +bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in 1815 other parts +were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor Amadeus being compensated +by the abbey of Corvey and the Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the +last male member of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he +bequeathed his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and +Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst (see HOHENLOHE). When +the landgrave died on the 12th of November 1834 the remaining parts of +Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-Cassel according to the +arrangement of 1627. It may be noted that Hesse-Rotenburg was never +completely independent of Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated +member of this family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son +of the landgrave Constantine, who was called "citoyen Hesse," and who +took part in the French Revolution. + + + + +HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, in various +degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, or standard, hessian +is 40 in. wide, weighs 10(1/2) oz. per yd., and in the finished state +contains about 12 threads and 12(1/2) picks per in. The name is probably +of German origin, and the fabric was originally made from flax and tow. +Small quantities of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but +the jute fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost +supplanted all others. + +This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for packing +all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different qualities, +are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, ore, manure, +sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made from one or other quality +of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging or tarpaulin, form the most +convenient, and at the same time the cheapest covering for any kind of +goods which are not damaged by being crushed. + +Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other colour, or +left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for paddings and +linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags and other articles. When +dyed in art shades the cloth forms an attractive decoration for stages +and platforms, and generally for any temporary erection, and in many +cases it is stencilled and then used for wall decoration. + +The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this fabric +for the foundation of its products, while large quantities are used for +the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the upholstery of +furniture. + +The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are Dundee and +Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all kinds of hand- and +machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are made in the former city. The +American name for hessian is burlap; this particular kind is 40 in. +wide, and is now largely made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other +places. + + + + +HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (1488-1540), German Latin poet, was born at +Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of January 1488. His family name +is said to have been Koch; Eoban was the name of a local saint; Hessus +indicates the land of his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on +Sunday. In 1504 he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his +graduation was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post +he soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop +of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great straits +owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length (in 1517) he was +appointed professor of Latin in the university. He was prominently +associated with the distinguished men of the time (Johann Reuchlin, +Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten, Conrad Mutianus), and took part in +the political, religious and literary quarrels of the period, finally +declaring in favour of Luther and the Reformation, although his +subsequent conduct showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The +university was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new +university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without success) +to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through the influence of +Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post at Nuremberg (1526), but, +finding a regular life distasteful, he again went back to Erfurt (1533). +But It was not the Erfurt he had known; his old friends were dead or had +left the place; the university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him +the favour of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536 +as professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the 5th +of October 1540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost Latin poet of +his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true poet. He wrote what he +thought was likely to pay or secure him the favour of some important +person. He wrote local, historical and military poems, idylls, epigrams +and occasional pieces, collected under the title of _Sylvae_. His most +popular works were translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which +reached forty editions) and of the _Iliad_ into hexameters. His most +original poem was the _Heroides_ in imitation of Ovid, consisting of +letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to Kunigunde, wife of +the emperor Henry II. + + His _Epistolae_ were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote + his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860), + G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss, + _Ulrich von Hutten_ (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg and + other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-century + illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and S. + Szamatolski's _Lateinische Literaturdenkmaler des XV. u. XVI. + Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1896). + + + + +HESTIA, in Greek mythology, the "fire-goddess," daughter of Cronus and +Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is not mentioned in Homer, +although the hearth is recognized as a place of refuge for suppliants; +this seems to show that her worship was not universally acknowledged at +the time of the Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of +the twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the +household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and Poseidon became +suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a maiden for ever; whereupon +Zeus bestowed upon her the honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To +her the opening sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal +the first and last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always +kept burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred +fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from the +sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of the family +union, the personification of the idea of home; and as the city union is +only the family union on a large scale, she was regarded as the goddess +of the state. In this character her special sanctuary was in the +prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire round which the magistrates meet +is ever burning, and where the sacred rites that sanctify the concord of +city life are performed. From this fire, as the representative of the +life of the city, intending colonists took the fire which was to be +kindled on the hearth of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected +with Zeus, the god of the family both in its external relation of +hospitality and its internal unity round its own hearth; in the +_Odyssey_ a form of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again, +Hestia is often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and +domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on the +other; or, according to others, the association is local--that of the +god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In later philosophy +Hestia became the hearth of the universe--the personification of the +earth as the centre of the universe, identified with Cybele and Demeter. +As Hestia had her home in the prytaneum, special temples dedicated to +her are of rare occurrence. She is seldom represented in works of art, +and plays no important part in legend. It is not certain that any really +Greek statues of Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta +in the Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is +represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her head, the +left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman deity corresponding to +the Greek Hestia is Vesta (q.v.). + + See A. Preuner, _Hestia-Vesta_ (1864), the standard treatise on the + subject, and his article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; J. G. + Frazer, "The Prytaneum," &c., in _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885); + G. Hagemann, _De Graecorum prytaneis_ (1881), with bibliography and + notes; _Homeric Hymns_, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes (1904); + Farnell, _Cults, the Greek States_, v. (1909). + + + + +HESYCHASTS ([Greek: hesychastai] or [Greek: hesychazontes], from [Greek: +hesychos], quiet, also called [Greek: omphalopsychoi], Umbilicanimi, and +sometimes referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a +quietistic sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine +empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at Mount Athos, +then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of +Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. Owing to various +adventitious circumstances the sect came into great prominence +politically and ecclesiastically for a few years about the middle of the +14th century. Their opinion and practice will be best represented in the +words of one of their early teachers (quoted by Gibbon, _Decline and +Fall_, c. 63): "When thou art alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat +thyself in a corner; raise thy mind above all things vain and +transitory; recline thy beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes +and thy thought towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel +([Greek: omphalos]); and search the place of the heart, the seat of the +soul. At first all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere +day and night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the +soul discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic +and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which is +obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental mysticism, +attracted the attention of the learned and versatile Barlaam, a +Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of abbot in the +Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople, and who had +visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of inspection. Amid +much that he disapproved, what he specially took exception to as +heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine entertained as to the nature +of this divine light, the fruition of which was the supposed reward of +hesychastic contemplation. It was maintained to be the pure and perfect +essence of God Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to +the disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam held +to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a +visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic side the controversy +was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards archbishop of Thessalonica, +who laboured to establish a distinction between eternal [Greek: ousia] +and eternal [Greek: energeia]. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod +held at Constantinople and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the +assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the +pseudo-Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, who +recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop of Hierace +in the Latin communion. One of his friends, Gregory Acindynus, continued +the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the +second of which the Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351 +under the presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated +light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for the +Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an additional +ground of separation from the Roman Church. The contemporary historians +Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this +subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. It may +be mentioned that in the time of Justinian the word hesychast was +applied to monks in general simply as descriptive of the quiet and +contemplative character of their pursuits. + + See article "Hesychasten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd + ed., 1900), where further references are given. + + + + +HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished in the 5th +century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the explanations of words from +Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian writers (_glossae sacrae_) are +interpolations of a later time. He has left a Greek dictionary, +containing a copious list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an +explanation of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author +who used them or to the district of Greece where they were current. +Hence the book is of great value to the student of the Greek dialects; +while in the restoration of the text of the classical authors generally, +and particularly of such writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used +many unusual words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The +explanations of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts +about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory +letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of +Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), but +that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, Heliodorus +and others. + + The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been + disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the + Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to us from a + single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the editio + princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt (1858-1868); + in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish the additions + made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus. + + + + +HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed +_Illustrius_, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople in the +5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian. According to Photius +(cod. 69) he was the author of three important works, (1) _A Compendium +of Universal History_ in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of +the Assyrian empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment +has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled [Greek: Patria +Konstantinoupoleos], a history of Byzantium from its earliest beginnings +till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) _A Biographical Dictionary_ +([Greek: Onomatologos] or [Greek: Pinax]) _of Learned Men_, arranged +according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief sources of which +were the [Greek: Mousike historia] of Aelius Dionysius and the works of +Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated in the lexicon of +Suidas, as we learn from that author. It is disputed, however, whether +the words in Suidas ("of which this book is an epitome") mean that +Suidas himself epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are +part of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas. The +second view is more generally held. The epitome referred to, in which +alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement in classes and some +articles on Christian writers added as a concession to the times, is +assigned from internal indications to the years 829-837. Both it and the +original work are lost, with the exception of the excerpts in Photius +and Suidas. A smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laertius and +Suidas, with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the +11th or 12th century. (3) A _History_ of the Reign of Justin I. +(518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost. Photius +praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with being a veracious +historian. + + Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in C. W. + Muller, _Frag. hist. Graec._ iv. 143 and in T. Preger's _Scriptores + originis Constantinopolitanae_, i. (1901); _Pseudo-Hesychius_, by J. + Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Literatur_ (1897). + + + + +HETAERISM (Gr. [Greek: hetaira] mistress), the term employed by +anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man in his sexual +relations. The earliest social organization of the human race was +characterized by the absence of the institution of marriage in any form. +Women were the common property of their tribe, and the children never +knew their fathers. + + + + +HETEROKARYOTA, a zoological name proposed by S. J. Hickson for the +Infusoria (q.v.) on the ground of the differentiation of their nuclear +apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus (or nuclei). + + See Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903). + + + + +HETERONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: heteros] and [Greek: nomos], the rule of +another), the state of being under the rule of another person. In ethics +the term is specially used as the antithesis of "autonomy," which, +especially in Kantian terminology, treats of the true self as will, +determining itself by its own law, the moral law. "Heteronomy" is +therefore applied by Kant to all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they +place the individual in subjection to external laws of conduct. + + + + +HETMAN (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger. _Hauptmann_, +head-man or captain; the Russian form is _ataman_), a military title +formerly in use in Poland; the _Hetman Wielki_, or Great Hetman, was the +chief of the armed forces of the nation, and commanded in the field, +except when the king was present in person. The office was abolished in +1792. From Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form +_ataman_, and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head, +who was practically an independent prince, when under the suzerainty of +Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule by the Cossacks in 1654, +the post was shorn of its power. The title of "ataman" or "hetman of all +the Cossacks" is held by the Cesarevitch. "Ataman" or "hetman" is also +the name of the elected elder of the _stanitsa_, the unit of Cossack +administration. (See COSSACKS.) + + + + +HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882), German literary historian and +writer on the history of art, was born at Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in +Silesia, on the 12th of March 1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle +and Heidelberg he devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but +in 1843 turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a +view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy, and, on +his return, published a _Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten_ (1848) +and an essay on _Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen_. He became +_Privatdozent_ for aesthetics and the history of art at Heidelberg and, +after the publication of his suggestive volume on _Die romantische Schule +in ihrem Zusammenhang mit Goethe und Schiller_ (1850), accepted a call as +professor to Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and +literature. In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of +antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which posts +were subsequently added that of director of the historical museum and a +professorship at the royal _Polytechnikum_. He died in Dresden on the +29th of May 1882. Hettner's chief work is his _Literaturgeschichte des +18ten Jahrhunderts_, which appeared in three parts, devoted respectively +to English, French and German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed. +of I. and II., revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III., +revised by O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the +political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, since +Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times losing sight of +the main issues of literary development over questions of social +evolution, this work belongs to the best histories that the 19th century +produced. Hettner's judgment is sound and his point of view always +original and stimulating. His other works include _Griechische +Reiseskizzen_ (1853), _Das moderne Drama_ (1852)--a book that arose from +a correspondence with Gottfried Keller--_Italienische Studien_ (1879), +and several works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His _Kleine +Schriften_ were collected and published in 1884. + + See A. Stern, _Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild_ (1885); H. Spitzer, + _H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfange und Literaturasthetik_ + (1903). + + + + +HETTSTEDT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Wipper, and at +the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim and Hettstedt-Halle, 23 +m. N.W. of the last town. Pop. (1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and +four Evangelical churches, and has manufactures of machinery, +pianofortes and artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of +argentiferous copper, and the surrounding district and villages are +occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric acid are +the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found in small +quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the first +steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August 1785. +Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it possessed a castle; +and in 1380 it received civic privileges. When the countship of Mansfeld +was sequestrated, Hettstedt came into the possession of Saxony, passing +to Prussia in 1815. + + + + +HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON (1824-1876), German traveller in north-east Africa, +was born on the 20th of March 1824 at Hirschlanden near Leonberg in +Wurttemberg. His father was a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to +be a mining engineer. He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific +investigator of unknown regions, and with that object studied the +natural sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where he +learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852 he +accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a journey to +Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed Dr Reitz's successor in +the consulate. While he held this post he travelled in Abyssinia and +Kordofan, making a valuable collection of natural history specimens. In +1857 he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the Red +Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen leader of an +expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions including Werner +Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the +party landed at Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and +thence to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin, +accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide detour through +Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence the leadership of +the expedition was taken from him. He and Steudner reached Khartum in +1862 and there joined the party organized by Miss Tinne. With her or on +their own account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and +explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner died of +fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to Europe at the end +of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable series of explorations in +Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but 1875 found him again in north-east +Africa, in the country of the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was +preparing for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at +Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by his +zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours that Heuglin +has taken rank as an independent authority. + + His chief works are _Systematische Ubersicht der Vogel + Nordost-Afrikas_ (1855); _Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853_ (Gotha, + 1857); _Syst. Ubersicht der Saugetiere Nordost-Afrikas_ (Vienna, + 1867); _Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Landern_, &c., _1861-1862_ + (Jena, 1868); _Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil_, &c. _1862-1864_ + (Leipzig, 1869); _Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871_ + (Brunswick, 1872-1874); _Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika_ (Cassel, + 1869-1875); _Reise in Nordost-Afrika_ (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A + list of the more important of his numerous contributions to + _Petermann's Mitteilungen_ will be found in that serial for 1877 at + the close of the necrological notice. + + + + +HEULANDITE, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous +calcium and aluminium silicate, H4CaAl2(SiO3)6 + 3H20. Small amounts of +sodium and potassium are usually present replacing part of the calcium. +Crystals are monoclinic, and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit. +They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (M in the +figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces the +lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is usually colourless or +white, sometimes brick-red, and varies from transparent to translucent. +The hardness is 3(1/2)-4, and the specific gravity 2.2. + +[Illustration] + +Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (q.v.) in appearance, and differs +from it chemically only in containing rather less water of +crystallization. The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished +by the fact that in heulandite the acute positive bisectrix of the optic +axes emerges perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was first +separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and named by him +euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently, in 1822, H. J. +Brooke arrived at the same result, giving the name heulandite, after the +mineral collector, Henry Heuland. + +Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the amygdaloidal +cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally in gneiss and +metalliferous veins. The best specimens are from the basalts of +Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, and the +Deccan traps of the Sahyadri mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a +brick-red colour are from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the +Fassathal in Tirol. A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small +yellow crystals on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland. + +Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and barium zeolite +brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster. The greyish monoclinic +crystals have the composition H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(SiO3)6 + 3H2O, and are +found in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with +harmotome in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire. (L. J. S.) + + + + +HEUSCH, WILLEM, or GUILLIAM DE, a Dutch landscape painter in the 17th +century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist's birth and death are +unknown. Nothing certain is recorded of him except that he presided over +the gild of Utrecht, whilst Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix +formed the council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of +historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan Both. But +each of these statements seems open to doubt; and although it is obvious +that the style of Heusch is identical with that of Both, it may be that +the two masters during their travels in Italy fell under the influence +of Claude Lorraine, whose "Arcadian" art they imitated. Heusch certainly +painted the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied +by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both. There is +little to distinguish one master from the other, except that of the two +Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist. The gild of Utrecht in the +middle of the 17th century was composed of artists who clung faithfully +to each other. Poelemburg, who painted figures for Jan Both, did the +same duty for Heusch. Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the +battlepieces of Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in +the galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at Vienna, +the Stadel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures are signed with the +full name, beginning with a monogram combining a G (for Guilliam), D and +H. Heusch's etchings, of which thirteen are known, are also in the +character of those of Both. + +After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew, Jacob de +Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an initial J for the +initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657, learnt drawing from his +uncle, and travelled early to Rome, where he acquired friends and +patrons for whom he executed pictures after his return. He settled for a +time at Berlin, but finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701. +Jacob was an "Arcadian," like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and +he chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now +scarce. Two of his canvases, the "Ponte Rotto" at Rome, in the Brunswick +Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the Lichtenstein collection +at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour with a tower and distant mountains, +in the Belvedere at Vienna, was executed in 1699. Other examples may be +found in English private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg +and the museums of Rouen and Montpellier. + + + + +HEVELIUS [HEVEL or HOWELCKE], JOHANN (1611-1687), German astronomer, was +born at Danzig on the 28th of January 1611. He studied jurisprudence at +Leiden in 1630; travelled in England and France; and in 1634 settled in +his native town as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief +interest became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his +life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an +observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental outfit, +including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal length, +constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th of January 1660, by +John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and queen of Poland. Hevelius made +observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645, devoted four years to charting the +lunar surface, discovered the moon's libration in longitude, and +published his results in _Selenographia_ (1647), a work which entitles +him to be called the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four +comets in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested the +revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun. On the 26th +of September 1679, his observatory, instruments and books were +maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe being described in the +preface to his _Annus climactericus_ (1685). He promptly repaired the +damage, so far as to enable him to observe the great comet of December +1680; but his health suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of +January 1687. Among his works were: _Prodromus cometicus_ (1665); +_Cometographia_ (1668); _Machina coelestis_ (first part, 1673), +containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is +extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the +conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius on the variable +star named by him "Mira" are included in _Annus climactericus_. His +catalogue of 1564 stars appeared posthumously in _Prodromus astronomiae_ +(1690). Its value was much impaired by his preference of the antique +"pinnules" to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an +acrimonious controversy with Robert Hooke. In an _Atlas_ of 56 sheets, +corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled _Firmamentum Sobiescianum_ +(1690), he delineated seven new constellations, still in use. Hevelius +had his book printed in his own house, at lavish expense, and himself +not only designed but engraved many of the plates. + + See J. H. Westphal, _Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen + Johann Hevelius_ (1820); C. B. Lengnich, _Anekdoten und Nachrichten_ + (1780); _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns); J. B. J. + Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler, + _Historia astronomiae_, p. 486; F. Baily's edition of the Catalogue of + Hevelius, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf, + _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit. + Handworterbuch_. For an account of the epistolary remains of Hevelius, + see C. G. Hecker, _Monatl. Correspondenz_, viii. 30; also _Astr. + Nachrichten_, vols. xxiii., xxiv. (A. M. C.) + + + + +HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER, Bart. (1812-1891), British surgeon, was +born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son of a Yorkshire country +gentleman. He lived for some years in early life in Paris, and started +on a career as an artist, but abandoned it for surgery. He entered St +George's Hospital, London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett, +was physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy and +curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate friend of Sir B. C. +Brodie, and helped him in much of his work. Eventually he rose to be +anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon and surgeon to the hospital. In +1876 he was president of the College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made +serjeant-surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884 +serjeant-surgeon, and in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very +good lecturer, but shrank from authorship; his lectures on _Surgical +Affections of the Head_ were, however, embodied in his treatise on the +subject in Holmes's _System of Surgery_. As a surgeon he was always +extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however severe, +when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect operator, and one of +the most trustworthy of counsellors. He died on the 19th of June 1891. + + + + +HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS (1822-1903), American manufacturer and political +leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York, on the 31st of July 1822. His +father, John, a Staffordshire man, was one of a party of four mechanics +who were sent by Boulton and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a +steam engine for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at +Belleville, N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America; +he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it by the +burning of his factories. The boy's mother was of Huguenot descent. He +graduated with high rank from Columbia College in 1842, having supported +himself through his course. He taught mathematics at Columbia, and in +1845 was admitted to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never +practised. With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt greatly +assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter he married) he +went into the manufacture of iron girders and beams under the firm name +of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study of the making of gun-barrel iron in +England enabled him to be of great assistance to the United States +government during the Civil War, when he refused any profit on such +orders. The men in his works never struck--indeed in 1873-1878 his plant +was run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat. In +1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany after the fall +of the "Tweed Ring"; from 1875 until the end of 1886 (except in +1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress; in 1876 he left Tammany +for the County Democracy; in the Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he +was chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and in Congress he +was one of the House members of the joint committee which drew up the +famous Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission. In +1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination having been +forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength of the other nominees, +Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt; his administration (1887-1888) was +thoroughly efficient and creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not +renominated, ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In +1896 and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself +with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of January +1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of sound money and civil +service reform; in municipal politics he was in favour of business +administrations and opposed to partisan nominations. He was a leader of +those who contended for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous +for his public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only +in New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous speech was +that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883. He was a terse, +able and lucid speaker, master of wit and sarcasm, and a fearless +critic. He gave liberally to Cooper Union, of which he was trustee and +secretary, and which owes much of its success to him; was a trustee of +Columbia University from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of +trustees of Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first +chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive +committee of the Carnegie Institution. + + + + +HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY (1861- ), English novelist, was born on the 22nd +of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall, +Addington, Kent. He was educated at the London International College, +Spring Grove, Isleworth, and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to +1900 he was keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He +published in 1895 two books on Italy, _Earthwork out of Tuscany_, and +(in verse) _The Masque of Dead Florentines_. _Songs and Meditations_ +followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate reputation by his +_Forest Lovers_, a romance of medieval England, full of rapid movement +and passion. In the same year he printed the pastoral and pagan drama of +_Pan and the Young Shepherd_, shortened for purposes of representation +and produced at the Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by +the _Youngest of the Angels_, dramatized from a chapter in his _Fool +Errant_. In _Little Novels of Italy_ (1899), a collection of brilliant +short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression together +with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and vivid portraits of +Richard Coeur de Lion in his _Richard Yea-and-Nay_ (1900), and of Mary, +queen of Scots, in _The Queen's Quair_ (1904) showed the combination of +fiction with real history at its best. _The New Canterbury Tales_ (1901) +was another volume of stories of English life, but he returned to +Italian subjects with _The Road in Tuscany_ (1904); in _Fond Adventures, +Tales of the Youth of the World_ (1905), two are Italian tales, and _The +Fool Errant_ (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis Antony +Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel _The Stooping +Lady_ (1907), and a volume of poems, _Artemision_ (1909). + + + + +HEXAMETER, the name of the earliest and most important form of classical +verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due to each line containing six +feet or measures ([Greek: metra]), the last of which must be a spondee +and the penultimate a dactyl, though occasionally, for some special +effect, a spondee may be allowed in the fifth foot, when the line is +said to be spondaic. The four other feet may be either spondees or +dactyls. All the great heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman +poets is in this metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in +Homer and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential to +this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the ear. The +most usual places for the caesura are at the middle of the third, or the +middle of the fourth foot: the former is known as the penthemimeral and +the latter as hepthemimeral caesura. There are several more or less +successful examples of English poems in this metre, for example +Longfellow's _Evangeline_, Kingsley's _Andromeda_ and Clough's _Bothie +of Tober-na-Vuoilich_, but it does not really suit the genius of the +English language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely felt, +even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek and Latin, on +the distinction between long and short syllables, but on that between +accented and unaccented syllables. The accent must always (or it sounds +very ugly) fall on the first syllable, whatever may have been the case +in Greek and Latin--Voss, Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter +poems of varying merit and the metre suits the German language +distinctly better than the English. The customary form of hexameter in +English verse is exemplified by Coleridge's descriptive line:-- + + "In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column." + +Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning, and Lord Bowen +(1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated hexameter consisting of +the usual verse deprived of its last syllable. Thus Browning:-- + + "Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared." + +It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek poets +introduced considerable variations into their treatment of the +hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in G. Hermann's _De +aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum_. The differences in the hexameters of +the Latin poets were not so remarkable, but even these varied, in +various epochs, their treatment of the separate feet, and the position +of the caesura. The satirists in particular allowed themselves an +extraordinary licence: these hexameters, from Persius, are as far +removed from the rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if +they are to remain hexameters:-- + + "Mane piger stertis. 'Surge!' inquit Avaritia, 'heia + Surge!' negas; instat 'Surge!' inquit 'Non queo.' 'Surge!' + 'Et quid agam?' 'Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.'" + +It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally +to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed and +repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived in later ages, +by writers who slavishly copied the most antique examples of the art of +verse. + + See Wilhelm Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und Romer_, 2te Aufl. (1879). + + + + +HEXAPLA (Gr. for "sixfold"), the term for an edition of the Bible in six +versions, and especially the edition of the Old Testament compiled by +Origen, which placed side by side (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek +character, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion. +See BIBLE: _Old Testament, Texts and Versions_. + + + + +HEXAPODA (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: pous], foot), a term used +in systematic zoology for that class of the ARTHROPODA, popularly known +as insects. Linnaeus in his _Systema naturae_ (1735) grouped under the +class Insecta all segmented animals with firm exoskeleton and jointed +limbs--that is to say, the insects, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans, +spiders, scorpions and their allies. This assemblage is now generally +regarded as a great division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal +kingdom and known by K. T. E. von Siebold's (1848) name of Arthropoda. +For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus's +old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J. Brisson +(1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others prefer the +name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its modern sense by P. A. +Latreille in 1825 (_Familles naturelles du regne animal_), since it has +the advantage of expressing, in a single word, an important +characteristic of the group. The terms "Hexapoda" and "hexapod" had +already been used by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th +century to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice, +fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings. + + +_Characters._ + +A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be known by the +grouping of its body-segments in three distinct regions--a head, a +thorax and an abdomen--each of which consists of a definite number of +segments. In the terminology proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement +is "nomomeristic" and "nomotagmic." The head of an insect carries +usually four pairs of conspicuous appendages--feelers, mandibles and two +pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive somites is +immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects resemble so closely +the similar organs in Crustaceans that there can hardly be reasonable +doubt of their homology, and the primitively appendicular nature of the +eyes in the latter class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they +represent the appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind +the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an "intercalary" or +tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M. Wheeler (1893) and +others in various insect embryos, while in the lowest insect order--the +Aptera--a pair of minute jaws--the maxillulae--in close association with +the tongue are present, as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J. +W. Folsom (1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the +earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Borner (1904), +and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The number of +limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus seen to be seven. All +of these are to be regarded as primitively post-oral, but in the course +of development the mouth moves back to the mandibular segment, so that +the first three somites--ocular, antennal and intercalary--lie in front +of it. In Lankester's terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is +"triprosthomerous." The maxillae of the hinder pair become more or less +fused together to form a "lower lip" or labium, and the segment of these +appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly united with the +head-capsule. + +The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair of jointed +legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost bear each a +pair of wings. From these three pairs of thoracic legs comes the +name--Hexapoda--which distinguishes the class. And the wings, though not +always present, are highly characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no +other group of the Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the +more generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments, +the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers, (cerci or +cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases, however, it can +be shown that the cerci really belong to an eleventh abdominal segment +which usually becomes fused with the tenth. With very few exceptions the +abdomen is without locomotor limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and +ninth abdominal segments may be specialized as external organs of +reproduction, but these are probably not appendages. The female genital +opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the male +duct opens on the ninth. + +In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda agree with +other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the class, however, is the +presence of a complex system of air-tubes (tracheae) for respiration, +usually opening to the exterior by a series of paired spiracles on +certain of the body segments. The possession of a variable number of +excretory tubes (Malpighian tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of +the hind-gut and pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a +distinctive character of the Hexapoda. + +The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching, the +younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in other +respects. In such cases the development of wings and the attainment of +the adult form depend upon a more or less profound transformation or +metamorphosis. + +With this brief summary of the essential characters of the Hexapoda, we +may pass to a more detailed account of their structure. + + + EXOSKELETON + + The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or "hypodermis") of insects as of + other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be + periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal. The + regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement, and the + definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are in close + contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united by + regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membranous, + so as to permit freedom of movement. + + _Head._--The head-capsule of an insect (figs. 1, 2) is composed of a + number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive + segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (_vertex_ or _epicranium_), + on which or on the "front" may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli). + Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a + very distinct upper lip (_labrum_) is usually jointed. Behind the + labrum arises a process--the _epipharynx_--which in some blood-sucking + insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a variable + amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye; in many insects + of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are very large and + sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the head. Below + each eye is a cheek area (_gena_), often divided into an anterior and + a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (_gula_) is often + developed behind the mouth. + + [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 1.--Head and Jaws of Cockroach (_Blatta_). Magnified 10 times. A, + Front; B, side; C, back; v, vertex; f, frons; cl, clypeus; lbr, + labrum; oc, compound eye; ge, gena; mn, mandible; ca, st, pa, ga, la, + cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; sm, m, pa', pg, + sub-mentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.] + + _Feelers._--Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are the + feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers + (antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are long + and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory and tactile + nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers, often a + secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from a distal + broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes serrate, or + from the development of processes bearing sensory organs, so that the + structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other hand, the number of + segments may be reduced, certain of them often becoming highly + modified in form. + + [Illustration: After Marlatt, _Entom. Bull._ 14, n. s. (U.S. Dept. + Agric.). + + FIG. 2.--Head of Cicad, front view. Ia, frons; b, clypeus (the pointed + labrum beneath it); II, mandible; III, first maxilla; (a, base; b, + sheath; c, piercer), III', inner view of sheath; IV, second maxillae + forming rostrum (b, mentum; c, ligula).] + + _Jaws._--The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws with + one or more teeth at the apex (fig. 1, A, B, mn), articulating at + their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles, and + provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which they can + be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or seize + objects which have to be carried about. They never bear segmented + limbs (palps) and only exceptionally (as in the chafers) is the + skeleton composed of more than one sclerite. The mandibles often + furnish a good example of "secondary sexual characters," being more + strongly developed in the male than in the female of the same species. + In most insects that feed by suction the mandibles are modified. In + bugs (Heteroptera) and many flies, for example, they are changed into + needle-like piercers (fig. 2, II), while in moths and caddis-flies + they are reduced to mere vestiges or altogether suppressed. + + As previously mentioned, a pair of minute jaws--the _maxillulae_--are + present in the lowest order of insects, between the mandibles and the + first maxillae. They usually consist of an inner and an outer lobe + arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a small + palp (see APTERA). + + In their typical state of development, the _first maxillae_ offer a + striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented + basal piece (_cardo_ and _stipes_, fig. 1, C, ca, st) bearing a + distinct inner and outer lobe (_lacinia_ and _galea_, fig. 1, C, la, + ga) and externally a jointed limb or palp (fig. 1, C, pa). Such + maxillae are found in most biting insects. In insects whose mouths are + adapted for sucking and piercing, remarkable modifications may occur. + In many blood-sucking flies, for example, the galea is absent, while + the lacinia becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well + developed. In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a slender needle-like + piercer (fig. 2, III), while the palp is wanting. In butterflies and + moths the lacinia is absent while the galea becomes a flexible + process, grooved on its inner face, so as to make with its fellow a + hollow sucking-trunk, and the palp is usually very small. + + The _second pair of maxillae_ are more or less completely fused + together to form what is known as the _labium_ or "lower lip." In + generalized biting insects, such as cockroaches and locusts + (Orthoptera), the parts of a typical maxilla can be easily recognized + in the labium. The fused cardines form a broad basal plate + (_sub-mentum_) and the stipites a smaller plate (_mentum_)--see fig. + 1, C, sm, m--jointed on to the sub-mentum, while the galeae, laciniae + and palps remain distinct. In specialized biting insects, such as + beetles (Coleoptera), the labium tends to become a hard transverse + plate bearing the pair of palps, a median structure--known as the + _ligula_--formed of the conjoined laciniae, and a pair of small + rounded processes--the reduced galeae--often called the "paraglossae," + a term better avoided since it has been applied also to the maxillulae + of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long sucking "tongue" of + bees is probably a modification of the ligula. In bugs and aphids + (Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form a jointed grooved beak or + rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender piercers (mandibles and + first maxillae) work to and fro. + + This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder or lower + boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth is bounded by the + labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae lie on either side of + it. A median process, known as the _hypopharynx_ or tongue, arises + from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium, and becomes most + variously developed or specialized in different insects. The salivary + duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not appear to represent a + pair of appendages, but the maxillulae of the Aptera become closely + associated with it. According to the view of R. Heymons, the + hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the jaw-bearing somites, but + other students consider that it belongs to the mandibular and first + maxillary segments, or entirely to the segment of the first maxillae. + + _Neck._--The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct + membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with + small chitinous plates (_cervical sclerites_). These have been + interpreted as indicating one or more primitive segments between the + head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H. Huxley + (_Anat. Invert. Animals_, 1877), they really belong to the labial + segment which has not become completely fused with the head-capsule. + It has been shown by C. Janet (1889), from careful studies of the + musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built up of + the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has the + mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main + supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock + and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904). + + _Thorax._--The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-trunk + are known as the _prothorax_, _mesothorax_ and _metathorax_ (see fig. + 3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single sclerite, + the _pronotum_ (fig. 3, d), which is large and conspicuous in those + insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles, which + have the prothorax free--i.e. readily movable on the segment + (mesothorax) immediately behind--smaller and of less importance where + the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies. The + dorsal area of the mesothorax, and also of the metathorax, may be made + up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the + other--_prescutum_, _scutum_, _scutellum_ and _post-scutellum_ (fig. + 3, e, f, g, h), the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially + conspicuous. Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a _sternum_ + with which a median _pre-sternum_ and paired _episterna_ and _epimera_ + are often associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W. + Verhoeff (1904) that the hexapodan thorax in reality contains six + primitive segments is entirely without embryological support. + + _Legs._--Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In most + insects the leg is built up of nine segments: (1) a broad triangular, + sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (_coxa_); (2) a small + _trochanter_; (3) an elongate stout thigh (_femur_); (4) a more + slender shin (_tibia_); and (5-9) a foot consisting of five _tarsal + segments_. The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive + pad--the _pulvillus_--on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus + is probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the + leg, while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles + are usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of + them so delicate as to be termed "hairs," others so stout and hard + that they are named "spines" or "spurs." In the relative development + and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless + variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and the + special function--walking, running, climbing, digging or swimming--for + which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects has been carefully + studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890), who find that the + legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first and third legs + of one side moving with the second leg of the other. One tripod thus + affords a firm base of support while the legs of the other tripod are + brought forward to their new positions. + + [Illustration: After Marlat, _Ent. Bull._ 3, n.s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.). + + FIG. 3.--Thorax of Saw-Fly (_Pachynematus_). + + I, Dorsal view. + II, Ventral view. + III, Lateral view. + IV, Lateral view with segments separated. _Prothorax_: + a, Episternum. + b, Sternum. + c, Coxa of fore-leg. + d, Pronotum. _Mesothorax_: + e, Prescutum. + f, Scutum. + g, Scutellum. + h, Post-scutellum. + i, Mesophragma. + j, _Epimeron_. + k, _Episternum_. + l, Coxa of middle leg. _Metathorax_: + m, Scutum. + o, Epimeron. + p, Coxa of hind leg. + n, _First Abdominal Segment_. + t, Tegula at base of fore-wing.] + + [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 4.--Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach + + (_Blatta_). + + I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the ventral + cervical sclerites (c). + cx, Coxa. tr, Trochanter. + fe, Thigh. tb, Shin. + ta, Tarsal segments. + II, Middle leg and mesosternum. + III, Hind-leg and metasternum. + In IIIA, the episternum (a) and epimeron (b) are slightly separated.] + + _Wings._--Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of + insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax. At the + base of the wing, i.e. its attachment to the trunk, we find a highly + complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied movements + necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata) have been + described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long axis of the + wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this position + the outer margin of the wing is the _costa_, the inner the _dorsum_, + and the hind-margin the _termen_. The angle between the costa and + termen is the _apex_. When the wing is spread, its long axis is more + or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth from + the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment that bears it, + and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a double layer of + cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact except where they + are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular nervures, which + serve as a supporting framework for the wing membrane, enclose + air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures consist of a series of + trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually branching as they + approach the wing-margins, the branches being often connected by short + transverse nervures, so that the wing-area is marked off into a number + of "cells" or areolets. + + [Illustration: After Quail, _Natural Science_, vol. xiii., J. M. Dent + & Co. + + FIG. 5.--Wing-Neuration in a Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3, radial; 4, + median; 5, cubital; 6, 7, 8, anal nervures.] + + The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders, + but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899) shown + that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal or + radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see fig. 5). + Along the costa runs a costal nervure. This is followed by a + sub-costal which sometimes shows two main branches. Then comes the + radial--usually the most important nervure of the wing--typically with + five branches, and the median with four. These sets arise from a main + trunk towards the front region of the wing-base. From another hinder + trunk arise the two-branched cubital nervure and three separate anal + nervures. In the hind-wing of many insects the number of radial + branches becomes reduced, while the anal area is especially well + developed and undergoes a fan-like folding when the wings are closed. + Great diversity exists in the texture and functions of fore and + hind-wings in different insects; these differences are discussed in + the descriptions of the various orders. The wings often afford + secondary sexual characters, being not infrequently absent or reduced + in the female when well developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the + male is the wingless sex. + + In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the + thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on + the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and + other insects there are small plates (tegulae)--see Fig. 3, t--on the + mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings. + + _Abdomen._--In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure is + very clearly marked, a series of sclerites--dorsal terga and abdominal + sterna--being connected by pale, feebly chitinized cuticle, so that + considerable freedom of movement between the segments is possible. The + first and second abdominal sterna are often suppressed or reduced, on + account of the strong development of the hind-legs. In many insects + ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal segments can be clearly + distinguished in addition to a small terminal anal segment. The female + genital opening usually lies between the seventh and eighth segments, + the male on the ninth. Prominent paired limbs are often borne on the + tenth segment, the elongate tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and + may-flies, or the forceps of earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a + family of Isoptera, it has been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that + these cerci clearly belong to a partially suppressed eleventh segment, + and R. Heymons (1895-1896) has proved by embryological study that in + all cases they really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the + course of development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages + (such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth + segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments + often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see + fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification + of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects, the + sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those of + the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments may + be altogether suppressed. + + [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 6.--Outline of Male ([Male sign]) and Female ([Female sign]) + Cockroaches (_Blatta_) from the side, showing Abdominal Segments + (numbered 1-10).] + + [Illustration: From Miall and Denny (after Newton), _The Cockroach_, + Lovell Reeve & Co. + + FIG. 7.--Brain of Cockroach from side. oe, Gullet; op, optic nerve; + sb, sub-oesophageal ganglion; mn, mx, mx', nerves to jaws; t, + tentorium.] + + + INTERNAL ORGANS + + _Nervous System._--The nervous system in the Hexapoda is built up on + the typical arthropodan plan of a double ventral nerve-cord with a + pair of ganglia in each segment, the cords passing on either side of + the gullet and connecting with an anterior nerve-centre or brain (fig. + 7) in the head. The brain innervates the eyes and feelers, and must be + regarded as a "syncerebrum" representing the ganglia of the three + foremost limb-bearing somites united with the primitive cephalic + lobes. Behind the gullet lies the sub-oesophageal nerve-centre (fig. + 7, sb), composed of the ganglia of the four hinder head-somites and + sending nerves to the jaws. A pair of ganglia in each thoracic segment + is usual (fig. 8), and as many as eight distinct pairs of abdominal + ganglia may often be distinguished, the hindmost of which represents + the fused ganglia of the last four segments. But in many highly + organized insects a remarkable concentration of the trunk-ganglia + takes place, all the nerve-centres of the thorax and abdomen in the + chafers and in the Hemiptera, for instance, being represented by a + single mass situated in the thorax. The legs, wings and other organs + of the trunk receive their nerves from the thoracic and abdominal + ganglia, and the fusion of several pairs of these ganglia may be + regarded as corresponding to a centralization of individuality. A + special "sympathetic" system arises by paired nerves from the + oesophageal connectives; these nerves unite, and send back a median + recurrent nerve associated with ganglia on the gullet and crop, whence + proceed cords to various parts of the digestive system. + + In connexion with the central nervous system there are usually + numerous organs of special sense. Most insects possess a pair of + compound eyes, and many have, in addition, three simple eyes or ocelli + on the vertex. The nature of these organs is described in the article + ARTHROPODA. The surface of a compound eye is seen to be covered with a + large number of hexagonal corneal facets, each of which overlies an + ommatidium or series of cell elements (fig. 9, A, B). There are over + 25,000 ommatidia in the eye of a hawk moth. + + [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 8.--Ventral Muscles and Nerve Cord of Cockroach.] + + Auditory organs of a simple type are present in most insects. These + consist of fine rods suspended between two points of the cuticle, and + connected with nerve-fibres; they are known as chordotonal organs. In + many cases a more complex ear is developed, which may be situated in + strangely diverse regions of the insect's body. In locusts + (_Acridiidae_) a large ovate, tympanic membrane (fig. 9, G) is + conspicuous on either side of the first abdominal segment; on the + inner surface of this membrane are two horn-like processes in contact + with a delicate sac containing fluid, connected with which are the + actual nerve-endings. In the nearly-related crickets and long-horned + grasshoppers (_Locustidae_) the ears are situated in the shins of the + fore-legs (see fig. 9, F). Just below the knee-joint there is a + swelling, along which two narrow slits run lengthwise. They lead into + chambers, formed by inpushing of the cuticle, whose delicate inner + walls are in contact with air-tubes; on the outer surface of these + latter are ridges, along which the special nerve-endings are arranged. + An ear of another type is found in the swollen second segment of the + feeler in many male gnats and midges, the cuticle between this segment + and the third forming an annular drum which is connected with numerous + nerve-endings, while the fine bristles on the more distal segments + vibrate in response to the note produced by the humming of the female. + + [Illustration: From Ridley, _Insect Life_, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. Agr.). + + FIG. 9.--Single Ommatidium of Cockroach's Eye (after Grenacher). B, + Section through compound eye (after Miall and Denny); C, organs of + smell in cockchafer (after Kraepelin); D, a, b, sensory pits on + cercopods of golden-eye fly; c, sensory pit on palp of stone-fly + (after Packard); E, sensory hair (after Miall and Denny); F, ear of + long-horned grasshopper; a, Front shin showing outer opening and + air-tube; b, section (after Graber); G, ear of locust from within + (after Graber). All highly magnified.] + + Many of the numerous hairs (fig. 9, E) that cover the body of an + insect have a tactile function. The sense of smell resides chiefly in + the feelers, on whose segments occur tiny pits, often guarded by + peg-like or tooth-like structures and containing rod-like cells (fig. + 9, C) in connexion with large nerve-cells. It is said that 13,000 such + olfactory organs are present on the feeler of a wasp, and 40,000 on + the complex antennae of a male cockchafer. Organs of similar type on + the maxillae and epipharynx appear to exercise the function of taste. + + [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 10.--Dorsal Muscles, Heart and Pericardial Tendons of Cockroach.] + + _Muscular System._--The muscles in the Hexapoda are striated, as in + Arthropods generally, the large fibres being associated in bundles + which are attached from point to point of the cuticle, so as to move + adjacent sclerites with respect to one another (see figs. 8, 10). For + example, the contraction of the tergo-sternal muscles, connecting the + dorsal with the ventral sclerites of the abdomen, lessens the capacity + of the abdominal region, while the contraction of the powerful muscles + arising from the thoracic walls, and inserted into the proximal ends + of the thighs, flexes or extends the legs. + + _Circulatory System._--Insects afford an excellent illustration of the + remarkable type of blood-system characterizing the Arthropoda. The + dorsal vessel is an elongate tube, whose abdominal portion is usually + chambered, forming a contractile heart (fig. 10). At the constrictions + between the chambers are paired slits, through which the blood passes + from the surrounding pericardial sinus. The dorsal vessel is prolonged + anteriorly into an aorta, through which the blood is propelled into + the great body-cavity or haemocoel. After bathing the various tissues + and organs, the blood returns dorsalwards into the pericardial sinus + through fine perforations of its floor, and so makes its way into the + heart again. Some water-bugs, e.g. of the families _Belostomatidae_, + _Nepidae_, _Corixidae_ and _Hydrometridae_ have a pulsating sac at + each knee-joint to assist the flow of blood through the legs, while in + dragon-flies and locusts (_Acridiidae_) there is a ventral pulsating + diaphragm, which forms the roof of a sinus enclosing the nerve-cords. + + [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 11.--Ventral Portion of Air-Tubes in Cockroach.] + + _Respiratory System._--As mentioned above, respiration by means of + air-tubes (tracheae) is a most characteristic feature of the Hexapoda. + An air-tube consists of an epithelium of large polygonal cells with a + thin basement-membrane externally and a chitinous layer internally, + the last-named being continuous with the outer cuticle. The chitinous + layer is usually strengthened by thread-like thickenings which, in the + region close to the outer opening of the tube, form a network + enclosing polygonal areas, but which, through most of the tracheal + system, are arranged spirally, the strengthening thread not forming a + continuous spiral, but being interrupted after a few turns around the + tube. The tracheal system in Hexapods is very complex, forming a + series of longitudinal trunks with transverse anastomosing connexions + (fig. 11), and extending by the finest sub-division and by repeated + branching into all parts of the body. In insects of active flight the + tubes swell out into numerous air-sacs, by which the breathing + capacity is much increased. + + Atmospheric air gains access to the air-tubes through paired + _spiracles_ or _stigmata_, which usually occur laterally on most of + the body-segments. These spiracles have firm chitinous edges, and can + be closed by valves moved by special muscles. When the spiracles are + open and the body contracts, air is expired. The subsequent expansion + of the body causes fresh air to enter the tracheal system, and if the + spiracles be then closed and the body again contracted, this air is + driven to the finest branches of the air-tubes, where a direct + oxygenation of the tissues takes place. The physiology of respiration + has been carefully studied by F. Plateau (1884). In aquatic insects + various devices for obtaining or entangling air are found; these + modifications are described in the special articles on the various + orders of insects (COLEOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, &c.). Many insects have + aquatic larvae, some of which take in atmospheric air at intervals, + while others breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills. These + modifications are mentioned below in the section on metamorphosis. + + [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 12.--Food Canal of Cockroach. + + s, Salivary glands and reservoir. + c, Crop (the gizzard below it). + coe, Caecal tubes (below them the stomach). + k, Kidney tubes. + i, Intestine. + r, Rectum.] + + _Digestive System._--A striking feature in the food-canal of the + Hexapoda, as in other Arthropods, is the great extent of the + "fore-gut" and "hind-gut," lined with a chitinous cuticle, continuous + with the exoskeleton. The fore-gut is composed of a tubular gullet, a + large sac-like crop (fig. 12, c) and a proventriculus or "gizzard," + whose function is to strain the food-substances before they pass on + into the tubular stomach, which has no chitinous lining. This organ, + usually regarded as a "mid-gut," gives off a number of secretory + caecal tubes (fig. 12, coe). At its hinder end it is continuous with + the hind-gut, which is usually differentiated into a tubular coiled + intestine (fig. 12, i) and a swollen rectum (fig. 12, r). From the + fore-end of the hind-gut arise the slender Malpighian tubes (fig. 12, + k), which have a renal function. + + On either side of the gullet are from one to ten pairs of salivary + glands (fig. 12, s) whose ducts open into the mouth. Some of these + glands may be modified for special purposes--as silk-producing glands + in caterpillars or as poison-glands in blood-sucking flies and bugs. + The food passing into the crop is there acted on by the saliva and + also by an acid gastric juice which passes forwards from the stomach + through the proventriculus. As the various portions of the food + undergo digestion, they are allowed to pass through the proventriculus + into the stomach, where the nutrient substances are absorbed. + + _Excretory System._--Nitrogenous waste-matter is removed from the body + by the Malpighian tubes which open into the food-canal, usually where + the hind-gut joins the stomach. These tubes vary in number from four + to over a hundred in different orders of insects. The cells which line + them and also the cavities of the tubes contain urates, which are + excreted from the blood in the surrounding body-cavity. This cavity + contains an irregular mass of whitish tissue, the fat-body, consisting + of fat-cells which undergo degradation and become more or less filled + with urates. When the worn-out cells are broken down, the urates are + carried dissolved in the blood to the Malpighian tubes for excretion. + The fat-body is therefore the seat of important metabolic processes in + the hexapod body. + + _Reproductive System._--All the Hexapoda are of separate sexes. The + ovaries (fig. 13) in the female are paired, each ovary consisting of a + variable number of tubes (one in the bristle-tail _Campodea_ and + fifteen hundred in a queen termite) in which the eggs are developed. + From each ovary an oviduct (fig. 13, od) leads, and in some of the + more primitive insects (bristle-tails, earwigs, may-flies) the two + oviducts open separately direct to the exterior. Usually they open + into a median vagina, formed by an ectodermal inpushing and lined with + chitin. The vagina usually opens in front of the eighth abdominal + sternite. Behind it is situated a spermatheca (fig. 14, sp) and the + ovipositor previously mentioned, with its three pairs of processes + (Fig. 14, G, g). + + [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 13.--Ovaries of Cockroach, with Oviducts Od and Colleterial + Glands CG.] + + [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve & + Co. + + FIG. 14.--Hinder Abdominal Segment and Ovipositor of Female Cockroach. + Magnified. + + T^8 &c. Tergites. + S^7, 7th Sternite. + S^8, Sclerite between 7th and 8th sterna. + S^9, 8th Sclerite. + Od, Vagina. + sp, Spermatheca. + G, Anterior, and g, posterior gonapophyses.] + + The paired testes of the male consist of a variable number of seminal + tubes, those of each testis opening into a _vas deferens_. In some + bristle-tails and may-flies, the two _vasa deferentia_ open + separately, but usually they lead into a sperm-reservoir, whence + issues a median ejaculatory duet. The male opening is on the ninth + abdominal segment, to which belong the processes that form the + claspers or genital armature. Accessory glands are commonly present in + connexion both with the male and the female reproductive organs. The + poison-glands of the sting in wasps and bees are well-known examples + of these. + + + EMBRYOLOGY + + _The Egg._--Among the Hexapoda, as in Arthropods generally, the egg is + large, containing an accumulation of yolk for the nourishment of the + growing embryo. Most insect eggs are of an elongate oval shape; some + are globular, others flattened, while others again are flask-shaped, + and the outer envelope (_chorion_) is often beautifully sculptured + (figs. 20, d; 21, a, b). Various devices are adopted for the + protection of the eggs from mechanical injury or from the attacks of + enemies, and for fixing them in appropriate situations. For example, + the egg may be raised above the surface on which it is laid by an + elongate stalk; the eggs may be protected by a secretion, which in + some cases forms a hard protective capsule or "purse"; or they may be + covered with shed hairs of the mother, while among water-insects a + gelatinous envelope, often of rope-like form, is common. In various + groups of the Hexapoda--aphids and some flesh-flies (_Sarcophaga_), + for example--the egg undergoes development within the body of the + mother, and the young insect is born in an active state; such insects + are said to be "viviparous." + + _Parthenogenesis._--A number of cases are known among the Hexapoda of + the development of young from the eggs of virgin females. In insects + so widely separated as bristle-tails and moths this occurs + occasionally. In certain gall-flies (_Cynipidae_) no males are known + to exist at all, and the species seems to be preserved entirely by + successive parthenogenetic generations. In other gall-flies and in + aphids we find that a sexual generation alternates with one or with + many virgin generations. The offspring of the virgin females are in + most of these instances females; but among the bees and wasps + parthenogenesis occurs normally and always results in the development + of males, the "queen" insect laying either a fertilized or + unfertilized egg at will. + + _Maturation, Fertilization and Segmentation._--Polar bodies were first + observed in the eggs of Hexapoda by F. Blochmann in 1887. The two + nuclei are successively divided from the egg nucleus in the usual way, + but they frequently become absorbed in the peripheral protoplasm + instead of being extruded from the egg-cell altogether. It appears + that in parthenogenetic eggs two polar nuclei are formed. According to + A. Petrunkevich (1901-1903), the second polar nucleus uniting with one + daughter-nucleus of the first polar body gives rise to the germ-cells + of the parthenogenetically-produced male. There is no reunion of the + second polar nucleus with the female pronucleus, but, according to the + recent work of L. Doncaster (1906-1907) on the eggs of sawflies, the + number of chromosomes is not reduced in parthenogenetic egg-nuclei, + while, in eggs capable of fertilization, the usual reduction-divisions + occur. Fertilization takes place as the egg is laid, the spermatozoa + being ejected from the spermatheca of the female and making their way + to the protoplasm of the egg through openings (micropyles) in its firm + envelope. The segmentation of the fertilized nucleus results in the + formation of a number of nuclei which arrange themselves around the + periphery of the egg and, the protoplasm surrounding them becoming + constricted, a blastoderm or layer of cells, enclosing the central + yolk, is formed. Within the yolk the nuclei of some "yolk cells" can + be distinguished. + + [Illustration: From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny's, _Cockroach_, + Lovell, Reeve & Co. + + FIG. 15.--Diagram showing Formation of Germinal Layers. E, ectoderm; + M, inner layer. Magnified.] + + _Germinal Layers and Food-Canal._--The embryo begins to develop as an + elongate, thickened, ventral region of the blastoderm which is known + as the ventral plate or germ band. Along this band a median furrow + appears, and a mass of cells sinks within, the one-layered germ band + thus becoming transformed into a band of two cell-layers (fig. 15). In + some cases the inner layer is formed not by invagination but by + proliferation or by delamination. The outer of these two layers (fig. + 15, E) is the ectoderm. With regard to the inner layer (_endoblast_ of + some authors, fig. 15, M) much difference of opinion has prevailed. It + has usually been regarded as representing both endoderm and mesoderm, + and the groove which usually leads to its formation has been compared + to the abnormally elongated blastopore of a typical gastrula. No doubt + can be entertained that the greater part of the inner layer + corresponds to the mesoderm of more ordinary embryos, for the coelomic + pouches, the germ-cells, the musculature and the vascular system all + arise from it. Further, there is general agreement that the + chitin-lined fore-gut and hind-gut, which form the greater part of + the digestive tract, arise from ectodermal invaginations (stomodaeum + and proctodaeum respectively) at the positions of the future mouth and + anus. The origin of the mid-gut (mesenteron), that has no chitinous + lining in the developed insect, is the disputed point. According to + the classical researches of A. Kowalevsky (1871 and 1887) on the + embryology of the water-beetle _Hydrophilus_ and of the muscid flies, + an anterior and a posterior endoderm-rudiment both derived from the + "endoblast" become apparent at an early stage, in close association + with the stomodaeum and the proctodaeum respectively. These two + endoderm-rudiments ultimately grow together and give rise to the + epithelium of the mid-gut. These results were confirmed by the + observations of K. Heider and W. M. Wheeler (1889) on the embryos of + two beetles--_Hydrophilus_ and _Doryphora_ respectively. V. Graber, + however (1889), stated that in the _Muscidae_, while the anterior + endoderm-rudiment arises as Kowalevsky had observed, the posterior + part of the "mid-gut" has its origin as a direct outgrowth from the + proctodaeum. The recent researches of R. Heymons (1895) on the + Orthoptera, and of A. Lecaillon (1898) on various leaf beetles, tend + to show that the whole of the "mid-gut" arises from the proliferation + of cells at the extremity of the stomodaeum and of the proctodaeum. On + this view the entire food-canal in most Hexapoda must be regarded as + of ectodermal origin, the "endoblast" represents mesoderm only, and + the median furrow whence it arises can be no longer compared with the + blastopore. According to Heymons, the yolk-cells must be regarded as + the true endoderm in the hexapod embryo, for he states (1897) that in + the bristle-tail _Lepisma_ and in dragon-flies they give rise to the + mid-gut. These views are not, however, supported by other recent + observers. J. Carriere's researches (1897) on the embryology of the + mason bee (_Chalicodoma_) agree entirely with the interpretations of + Kowalevsky and Heider, and so on the whole do those of F. Schwangart, + who has studied (1904) the embryonic development of Lepidoptera. He + finds that the endoderm arises from an anterior and a posterior + rudiment derived from the "endoblast," that many of the cells of these + rudiments wander into the yolk, and that the mesenteric epithelium + becomes reinforced by cells that migrate from the yolk. K. Escherich + (1901), after a new research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera, + claims that the fore and hind endodermal rudiments arise from the + blastoderm by invagination, and are from their origin distinct from + the mesoderm. On the whole it seems likely that the endoderm is + represented in part by the yolk, and in part by those anterior and + posterior rudiments which usually form the mesenteron, but that in + some Hexapoda the whole digestive tract may be ectodermal. It must be + admitted that some or the later work on insect embryology has + justified the growing scepticism in the universal applicability of the + "germ-layer theory." Heider has suggested, however, that the apparent + origin of the mid-gut from the stomodaeum and proctodaeum may be + explained by the presence of a "latent endoderm-group" in those + invaginations. + + [Illustration: From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, + Lovell Reeve & Co. + + FIG. 16.--Cross section of Embryo of German Cockroach + (_Phyllodromia_). S, serosa; A, amnion; E, ectoderm; N, rudiment of + nerve-cord; M, mesodermal pouches.] + + _Embryonic Membranes._--A remarkable feature in the embryonic + development of most Hexapoda is the formation of a protective membrane + analogous to the amnion of higher Vertebrates and known by the same + term. Usually there arises around the edge of the germ band a double + fold in the undifferentiated blastoderm, which grows over the surface + of the embryo, so that its inner and outer layers become continuous, + forming respectively the _amnion_ and the _serosa_ (fig. 16, A, S). + The embryo of a moth, a dragon-fly or a bug is invaginated into the + yolk at the head end, the portion of the blastoderm necessarily pushed + in with it forming the amnion. The embryo thus becomes transferred to + the dorsal face of the egg, but at a later stage it undergoes + reversion to its original ventral position. In some parasitic + Hymenoptera there is only a single embryonic membrane formed by + delamination from the blastoderm, while in a few insects, including + the wingless spring-tails, the embryonic membranes are vestigial or + entirely wanting. In the bristle-tails _Lepisma_ and _Machilis_, an + interesting transitional condition of the embryonic membranes has + lately been shown by Heymons. The embryo is invaginated into the yolk, + but the surface edges of the blastoderm do not close over, so that a + groove or pore puts the insunken space that represents the amniotic + cavity into communication with the outside. Heymons believes that the + "dorsal organ" in the embryos of the lower Arthropoda corresponds with + the region invaginated to form the serosa of the hexapod embryo. + Wheeler, however, compares with the "dorsal organ" the peculiar extra + embryonic membrane or indusium which he has observed between serosa + and amnion in the embryo of the grasshopper _Xiphidium_. + + _Metameric Segmentation._--The segments are perceptible at a very + early stage of the development as a number of transverse bands + arranged in a linear sequence. The first segmentation of the ventral + plate is not, however, very definite, and the segmentation does not + make its appearance simultaneously throughout the whole length of the + plate; the anterior parts are segmented before the posterior. In + Orthoptera and Thysanura, as well as some others of the lower insects, + twenty-one of these divisions--not, however, all similar--may be + readily distinguished, six of which subsequently enter into the + formation of the head, three going to the thorax and twelve to the + abdomen. In Hemiptera only eleven and in Collembola only six abdominal + segments have been detected. The first and last of these twenty-one + divisions are so different from the others that they can scarcely be + considered true segments. + + _Head Segments._--In the adult insect the head is insignificant in + size compared with the thorax or abdomen, but in the embryo it forms a + much larger portion of the body than it does in the adult. Its + composition has been the subject of prolonged difference of opinion. + Formerly it was said that the head consisted of four divisions, viz. + three segments and the procephalic or prae-oral lobes. It is now + ascertained that the procephalic lobes consist of three divisions, so + that the head must certainly be formed from at least six segments. The + first of these, according to the nomenclature of Heymons (see fig. + 17), is the mouth or oral piece; the second, the antennal segment; the + third, the intercalary or prae-mandibular segment; while the fourth, + fifth, and sixth are respectively the segments of the mandibles and of + the first and second maxillae. These six divisions of the head are + diverse in kind, and subsequently undergo so much change that the part + each of them takes in the formation of the head-capsule is not finally + determined. The labrum and clypeus are developed as a single + prolongation of the oral piece, not as a pair of appendages. The + antennal segment apparently entirely disappears, with the exception of + a pair of appendages it bears; these become the antennae; it is + possible that the original segment, or some part of it, may even + become a portion of the actual antennae. The intercalary segment has + no appendages, nor rudiments thereof, except, according to H. Uzel + (1897), in the thysanuran _Campodea_, and probably entirely + disappears, though J. H. Comstock and C. Kochi believe that the labrum + belongs to it. The appendages of the posterior three or trophal + segments become the parts of the mouth. The appendages of the two + maxillary segments arise as treble instead of single projections, thus + differing from other appendages. From these facts it appears that the + anterior three divisions of the head differ strongly from the + posterior three, which greatly resemble thoracic segments; hence it + has been thought possible that the anterior divisions may represent a + primitive head, to which three segments and their leg-like appendages + were subsequently added to form the head as it now exists. This is, + however, very doubtful, and an entirely different inference is + possible. Besides the five limb-bearing somites just enumerated, two + others must now be recognized in the head. One of these is the ocular + segment, in front of the antennal, and behind the primitive pre-oral + segment. The other is the segment of the maxillulae (see above, under + _Jaws_), behind the mandibular somite; the presence of this in the + embryo of the collembolan _Anurida_ has been lately shown (1900) by J. + W. Folsom (fig. 18, v. 5), who terms the maxillulae "superlinguae" on + account of their close association with the hypopharynx or lingua. In + reference to the structure of the head-capsule in the imago, it + appears that the clypeus and labrum represent, as already said, an + unpaired median outgrowth of the oral piece. According to W. A. Riley + (1904) the epicranium or "vertex," the compound eyes and the front + divisions of the genae are formed by the cephalic lobes of the embryo + (belonging to the ocular segment), while the mandibular and maxillary + segments form the hinder parts of the genae and the hypopharynx. + + [Illustration: After Heymons. + + FIG. 17.--Morphology of an Insect: the embryo of _Gryllotalpa_, + somewhat diagrammatic. The longitudinal segmented band along the + middle line represents the early segmentation of the nervous system + and the subsequent median field of each sternite; the lateral + transverse unshaded bands are the lateral fields of each segment; the + shaded areas indicate the more internally placed mesoderm layer. The + segments are numbered 1-21; 1-6 will form the head, 7-9 the thorax, + 10-21 the abdomen. A, anus; Abx1 Abx11, appendage of 1st and of 11th + abdominal segments; Ans, anal piece = telson or 12th abdominal + segment; Ant, antenna; De, deuterencephalon; Md, mandible; Mx1, first + maxilla; Mx2, second maxilla or labium; O, mouth; Obcl, rudimentary + labrum and clypeus; Pre, protencephalon; St1 St10, stigmata 1 and 10; + Terg, tergite; Thx1, appendage of first thoracic segment; Tre, + tritencephalon; Ul, a thickening at hinder margin of the mouth.] + + Great difference of opinion exists as to the hypopharynx, which has + even been thought to represent a distinct segment, or the pair of + appendages of a distinct segment. Heymons considers that it represents + the sternites of the three trophal segments, and that the gula is + merely a secondary development. Folsom looks on the hypopharynx as a + secondary development. Riley holds that the hypopharynx belongs to the + mandibular and maxillary segments, while the cervical sclerites or + gula represent the sternum of the labial segment. The ganglia of the + nervous system offer some important evidence as to the morphology of + the head, and are alluded to below. + + _Thoracic Segments._--These are always three in number. The three + pairs of legs appear very early as rudiments. Though the thoracic + segments bear the wings, no trace of these appendages exists till the + close of the embryonic life, nor even, in many cases, till much later. + The thoracic segments, as seen in an early stage of the ventral plate, + display in a well-marked manner the essential elements of the insect + segment. These elements are a central piece or sternite, and a lateral + field on each side bearing the leg-rudiment. The external part of the + lateral field subsequently grows up, and by coalescence with its + fellow forms the tergite or dorsal part of the segment. + + _Abdominal Segments and Appendages._--We have already seen that in + numerous lower insects the abdomen is formed from twelve divisions + placed in linear fashion. Eleven of these may perhaps be considered as + true segments, but the twelfth or terminal one is different, and is + called by Heymons a telson; in it is placed the anal orifice, and the + mass subsequently becomes the upper and lower laminae anales. In + Hemiptera this telson is absent, and the anal orifice is placed quite + at the termination of the eleventh segment. Moreover, in this order + the abdomen shows at first a division into only nine segments and a + terminal mass, which last subsequently becomes divided into two. The + appendages of the abdomen are called cerci, stylets and gonapophyses. + They differ much according to the kind of insect, and in the adult + according to sex. Difference of opinion as to the nature of the + abdominal appendages prevails. The cerci, when present, appear in the + mature insect to be attached to the tenth segment, but according to + Heymons they are really appendages of the eleventh segment, their + connexion with the tenth being secondary and the result of + considerable changes that take place in the terminal segments. It has + been disputed whether any true cerci exist in the higher insects, but + they are probably represented in the Diptera and in the scorpion-flies + (Mecaptera). In those insects in which a median terminal appendage + exists between the two cerci this is considered to be a prolongation + of the eleventh tergite. The stylets, when present, are placed on the + ninth segment, and in some Thysanura exist also on the eighth segment; + their development takes place later in life than that of the cerci. + The gonapophyses are the projections near the extremity of the body + that surround the sexual orifices, and vary extremely according to the + kind of insect. They have chiefly been studied in the female, and form + the sting and ovipositor, organs peculiar to this sex. They are + developed on the ventral surface of the body and are six in number, + one pair arising from the eighth ventral plate and two pairs from the + ninth. This has been found to be the case in insects so widely + different as Orthoptera and Aculeate Hymenoptera. The genital armature + of the male is formed to a considerable extent by modifications of the + segments themselves. The development of the armature has been little + studied, and the question whether there may be present gonapophyses + homologous with those of the female is open. + + [Illustration: A. After Wheeler, _Journ. Morph._ vol. viii., and + Folsom, _Bull. Mus. Harvard_, xxxvi. + + B. After Folsom. + + FIG. 18.--Embryos of Springtail (_Anuridamaritima_). Magnified. A, + Head-region of germ band. B, Section through head and thorax. The + neuromeres are shown in Arabic, the appendages in Roman numerals. + + 1, Ocular segment. + 2, Antennal. + 3, Trito-cerebral. + 4, Mandibular. + 5, Maxillular. + 6, Maxillary. + 7, Labial. + 8, Prothoracic. + 9, Mesothoracic. + 10, Metathoracic.] + + In the adult state no insect possesses more than six legs, and they + are always attached to the thorax; in many Thysanura there are, + however, processes on the abdomen that, as to their position, are + similar to legs. In the embryos of many insects there are projections + from the segments of the abdomen similar, to a considerable extent, to + the rudimentary thoracic legs. The question whether these projections + can be considered an indication of former polypody in insects has been + raised. They do not long persist in the embryo, but disappear, and the + area each one occupied becomes part of the sternite. In some embryos + there is but a single pair of these rudiments (or vestiges) situate on + the first abdominal segment, and in some cases they become + invaginations of a glandular nature. Whether cerci, stylets and + gonapophyses are developed from these rudiments has been much debated. + It appears that it is possible to accept cerci and stylets as + modifications of the temporary pseudopods, but it is more difficult to + believe that this is the case with the gonapophyses, for they + apparently commence their development considerably later than cerci + and stylets and only after the apparently complete disappearance of + the embryonic pseudopods. The fact that there are two pairs of + gonapophyses on the ninth abdominal segment would be fatal to the view + that they are in any way homologous with legs, were it not that there + is some evidence that the division into two pairs is secondary and + incomplete. But another and apparently insuperable objection may be + raised--that the appendages of the ninth segment are the stylets, and + that the gonapophyses cannot therefore be appendicular. The pseudopods + that exist on the abdomen of numerous caterpillars may possibly arise + from the embryonic pseudopods, but this also is far from being + established. + + _Nervous System._--The nervous system is ectodermal in origin, and is + developed and segmented to a large extent in connexion with the outer + part of the body, so that it affords important evidence as to the + segmentation thereof. The continuous layer of cells from which the + nervous system is developed undergoes a segmentation analogous with + that we have described as occurring in the ventral plate; there is + thus formed a pair of contiguous ganglia for each segment of the body, + but there is no ganglion for the telson. The ganglia become greatly + changed in position during the later life, and it is usually said that + there are only ten pairs of abdominal ganglia even in the embryo. In + Orthoptera, Heymons has demonstrated the existence of eleven pairs, + the terminal pair becoming, however, soon united with the tenth. The + nervous system of the embryonic head exhibits three ganglionic masses, + anterior to the thoracic ganglionic masses; these three masses + subsequently amalgamate and form the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which + supplies the trophal segments. In front of the three masses that will + form the sub-oesophageal ganglion the mass of cells that is to form + the nervous system is very large, and projects on each side; this + anterior or "brain" mass consists of three lobes (the prot-, deut-, + and tritencephalon of Viallanes and others), each of which might be + thought to represent a segmental ganglion. But the protocerebrum + contains the ganglia of the ocular segment in addition to those of the + procephalic lobes. These three divisions subsequently form the + supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain proper. There are other ganglia in + addition to those of the ventral chain, and Janet supposes that the + ganglia of the sympathetic system indicate the existence of three + anterior head-segments; the remains of the segments themselves are, in + accordance with this view, to be sought in the stomodaeum. Folsom has + detected in the embryo of _Anurida_ a pair of ganglia (fig. 18, 5) + belonging to the maxillular (or superlingual) segment, thus + establishing seven sets of cephalic ganglia, and supporting his view + as to the composition of the head. + + _Air-tubes._--The air-tubes, like the food-canal, are formed by + invaginations of the ectoderm, which arise close to the developing + appendages, the rudimentary spiracles appearing soon after the budding + limbs. The pits leading from these lengthen into tubes, and undergo + repeated branching as development proceeds. + + _Dorsal Closure._--The germ band evidently marks the ventral aspect of + the developing insect, whose body must be completed by the extension + of the embryo so as to enclose the yolk dorsally. The method of this + dorsal closure varies in different insects. In the Colorado beetle + (_Doryphora_), whose development has been studied by W. M. Wheeler, + the amnion is ruptured and turned back from covering the germ band, + enclosing the yolk dorsally and becoming finally absorbed, as the + ectoderm of the germ band itself spreads to form the dorsal wall. In + some midges and in caddis-flies the serosa becomes ruptured and + absorbed, while the germ band, still clothed with the amnion, grows + around the yolk. In moths and certain saw-flies there is no rupture of + the membranes; the Russian zoologists Tichomirov and Kovalevsky have + described the growth of both amnion and embryonic ectoderm around the + yolk, the embryo being thus completely enclosed until hatching time by + both amnion and serosa. V. Graber has described a similar method of + dorsal closure in the saw-fly _Hylotoma_. + + [Illustration: After Heymons, _Zeit. Wiss. Zoolog._ vol. 53. + + FIG. 19.--Cross sections through Abdomen of German Cockroach Embryo. A + (later than fig. 16) magnified. B (still more advanced, dorsal closure + complete) magnified. + + ec, Ectoderm. + en, Endoderm. + sp, Splanchnic layer of mesoderm. + y, Yolk. + h, Heart. + p, Pericardial septum. + c, Coelom. + g, Germ-cells surrounded by rudiment-cells of ovarian tubes. + m, Muscle-rudiment. + n, Nerve-chain. + f, Fat body. + s, Inpushing of ectoderm to form air-tubes. + x, Secondary body-cavity.] + + _Mesoderm, Coelom and Blood-System._--From the mesoderm most of the + organs of the body--muscular, circulatory, reproductive--take their + origin. The mass of cells undergoes segmentation corresponding with + the outer segmentation of the embryo, and a pair of cavities--the + coelomic pouches (fig. 16, M)--are formed in each segment. Each + coelomic pouch--as traced by Heymons in his study on the development + of the cockroach (_Phyllodromia_)--divides into three parts, of which + the most dorsal contains the primitive germ-cells, the median + disappears, and the ventral loses its boundaries as it becomes filled + up with the growing fat body (fig. 19). This latter, as well as the + heart and the walls of the blood spaces, arises by the modification of + mesodermal cells, and the body cavity is formed by the enlargement and + coalescence of the blood channels and by the splitting of the fat + body. It is therefore a haemocoel, the coelom of the developed insect + being represented only by the cavities of the genital glands and their + ducts. + + _Reproductive Organs._--In the cockroach embryo, before the + segmentation of the germ-band has begun, the primitive germ-cells can + be recognized at the hinder end of the mesoderm, from whose ordinary + cells they can be distinguished by their larger size. At a later stage + further germ-cells arise from the epithelium of the coelomic pouches + from the second to the seventh abdominal segments, and become + surrounded by other mesoderm cells which form the ovarian or + testicular tubes and ducts (fig. 19, g). In the male of _Phyllodromia_ + the rudiment of a vestigial ovary becomes separated from the + developing testis, indicating perhaps an originally hermaphrodite + condition. An exceedingly early differentiation of the primitive + germ-cells occurs in certain Diptera. E. Metchnikoff observed (1866) + in the development of the parthenogenetic eggs produced by the + precocious larva of the gall-midge _Cecidomyia_ that a large + "polar-cell" appeared at one extremity during the primitive + cell-segmentation. This by successive divisions forms a group of four + to eight cells, which subsequently pass through the blastoderm, and + dividing into two groups become symmetrically arranged and surrounded + by the rudiments of the ovarian tubes. E. G. Balbiani and R. Ritter + (1890) have since observed a similar early origin for the germ-cells + in the midge _Chironomus_ and in the _Aphidae_. + + The paired oviducts and vasa deferentia are, as we have seen, + mesodermal in origin. The median vagina, spermatheca and ejaculatory + duct are, on the other hand, formed by ectodermal inpushings. The + classical researches of J. A. Palmen (1884) on these ducts have shown + that in may-flies and in female earwigs the paired mesodermal ducts + open directly to the exterior, while in male earwigs there is a single + mesodermal duct, due either to the coalescence of the two or to the + suppression of one. In the absence of the external ectodermal ducts + usual in winged insects, these two groups resemble therefore the + primitive Aptera. The presence of rudiments of the genital ducts of + both sexes in the embryo of either sex is interesting and suggestive. + The ejaculatory duct which opens on the ninth abdominal sternum in the + adult male arises in the tenth abdominal embryonic segment and + subsequently moves forward. + + +GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS + +[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Ent. Bull._ 4, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.). + +FIG. 20.--a, Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularis_, Linn.); newly hatched young +from beneath; b, from above; d, egg, magnified; c, foot with claws; e, +serrate spine, more highly magnified.] + +[Illustration: From Mally, _Ent. Bull._ 24 (U.S. Dept. Agr.). + +FIG. 21.--e, f, Owl moth (_Heliothis armigera_); a, b, egg, highly +magnified; c, larva or caterpillar; d, pupa in earthen cell.] + +After hatching or birth an insect undergoes a process of growth and +change until the adult condition is reached. The varied details of this +post-embryonic development furnish some of the most interesting facts +and problems to the students of the Hexapoda. Wingless insects, such as +spring-tails and lice, make their appearance in the form of miniature +adults. Some winged insects--cockroaches, bugs (fig. 20) and earwigs, +for example--when young closely resemble their parents, except for the +absence of wings. On the other hand, we find in the vast majority of the +Hexapoda a very marked difference between the perfect insect (imago) and +the young animal when newly hatched and for some time after hatching. +From the moth's egg comes a crawling caterpillar (fig. 21, c), from the +fly's a legless maggot (fig. 25, a). Such a young insect is a _larva_--a +term used by zoologists for young animals generally that are decidedly +unlike their parents. It is obvious that the hatching of the young as a +larva necessitates a more or less profound transformation or +metamorphosis before the perfect state is attained. Usually this +transformation comes with apparent suddenness, at the penultimate stage +of the insect's life-history, when the passive pupa (fig. 21, d) is +revealed, exhibiting the wings and other imaginal structures, which have +been developed unseen beneath the cuticle of the larva. Hexapoda with +this resting pupal stage in their life-history are said to undergo "a +complete transformation," to be metabolic, or holometabolic, whereas +those insects in which the young form resembles the parent are said to +be ametabolic. Such insects as dragon-flies and may-flies, whose young, +though unlike the parent, develop into the adult form without a resting +pupal stage are said to undergo an "incomplete transformation" or to be +hemimetabolic. The absence of the pupal stage depends upon the fact that +in the ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda the wing-rudiments appear +as lateral outgrowths (fig. 22) of the two hinder thoracic segments and +are visible externally throughout the life-history, becoming larger +after each moult or casting of the cuticle. Hence, as has been pointed +out by D. Sharp (1898), the marked divergence among the Hexapoda, as +regards life-history, is between insects whose wings develop outside the +cuticle (Exopterygota) and those whose wings develop inside the cuticle +(Endopterygota), becoming visible only when the casting of the last +larval cuticle reveals the pupa. Metamorphosis among the Hexapoda +depends upon the universal acquisition of wings during post-embryonic +development--no insect being hatched with the smallest external +rudiments of those organs--and on the necessity for successive castings +or "moults" (ecdyses) of the cuticle. + +[Illustration: After Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. vii. + +FIG. 22.--Nymph of Locust (_Schistocera americana_), showing +wing-rudiments.] + +_Ecdysis._--The embryonic ectoderm of an insect consists of a layer of +cells forming a continuous structure, the orifices in it--mouth, +spiracles, anus and terminal portions of the genital ducts--being +invaginations of the outer wall. This cellular layer is called the +hypodermis; it is protected externally by a cuticle, a layer of matter +it itself excretes, or in the excretion of which it plays, at any rate, +an important part. The cuticle is a dead substance, and is composed in +large part of chitin. The cuticle contrasts strongly in its nature with +the hypodermis it protects. It is different in its details in different +insects and in different stages of the life of the same insect. The +"sclerites" that make up the skeleton of the insect (which skeleton, it +should be remembered, is entirely external) are composed of this +chitinous excretion. The growth of an insect is usually rapid, and as +the cuticle does not share therein, it is from time to time cast off by +moulting or ecdysis. Before a moult actually occurs the cuticle becomes +separated from its connexion with the underlying hypodermis. Concomitant +with this separation there is commencement of the formation of a new +cuticle within the old one, so that when the latter is cast off the +insect appears with a partly completed new cuticle. The new instar--or +temporary form--is often very different from the old one, and this is +the essential fact of metamorphosis. Metamorphosis is, from this point +of view, the sum of the changes that take place under the cuticle of an +insect between the ecdyses, which changes only become externally +displayed when the cuticle is cast off. The hypodermis is the immediate +agent in effecting the external changes. + +[Illustration: Adapted from Koerschelt and Herder and Lowne. + +FIG. 23.--Diagram showing position of imaginal buds in larva of fly. I., +II., III., the three thoracic segments of the larva; 1, 2, 3, buds of +the legs of the imago; h, bud of head-lobes; f, of feeler; e of eye; b, +brain.] + + The study of the physiology of ecdysis in its simpler forms has + unfortunately been somewhat neglected, investigators having directed + their attention chiefly to the cases that are most striking, such as + the transformation of a maggot into a fly, or of a caterpillar into a + butterfly. The changes have been found to be made up of two sets of + processes: histolysis, by which the whole or part of a structure + disappears: and histogenesis, or the formation of the new structure. + By histolysis certain parts of the hypodermis are destroyed, while + other portions of it develop into the new structures. The hypodermis + is composed of parts of two different kinds, viz. (1) the larger part + of the hypodermis that exists in the maggot or caterpillar and is + dissolved at the metamorphosis; (2) parts that remain comparatively + quiescent previously, and that grow and develop when the other parts + degenerate. These centres of renovation are called imaginal disks or + folds. The adult caterpillar may be described as a creature the + hypodermis of which is studded with buds that expand and form the + butterfly, while the parts around them degenerate. In some insects + (e.g. the maggots of the blowfly, _Calliphora vomitoria_) the imaginal + disks are to all appearance completely separated from the hypodermis, + with which they are, however, really organically connected by strings + or pedicels. This connexion was not at first recognized and the true + nature of imaginal disks was not at first perceived, even by Weismann, + to whom their discovery in Diptera is due. In other insects the + imaginal disks are less completely disconnected from the superficies + of the larval hypodermis, and may indeed be merely patches thereof. + The number of imaginal disks in an individual is large, upwards of + sixty having been discovered to take part in the formation of the + outer body of a fly. With regard to the internal organs, we need only + say that transformation occurs in an essentially similar manner, by + means of a development from centres distributed in the various organs. + The imaginal disks for the outer wall of the body, some of them, at + any rate, include mesodermal rudiments (from which the muscles are + developed) as well as hypodermis. The imaginal disks make their + appearance (that is, have been first detected) at very different + epochs in the life; their absolute origin has been but little + investigated. Pratt has traced them in the sheep-tick (_Melophagus_) + to an early stage of the embryonic life. + + _Histolysis and Histogenesis._--The process of destruction of the + larval tissues was first studied in the forms where metamorphosis is + greatest and most abrupt, viz. in the Muscid Diptera. It was found + that the tissues were attacked by phagocytic cells that became + enlarged and carried away fragments of the tissue; the cells were + subsequently identified as leucocytes or blood-cells. Hence the + opinion arose that histolysis is a process of phagocytosis. It has, + however, since been found that in other kinds of insects the tissues + degenerate and break down without the intervention of phagocytes. It + has, moreover, been noticed that even in cases where phagocytosis + exists a greater or less extent of degeneration of the tissue may be + observed before phagocytosis occurs. This process can therefore only + be looked on as a secondary one that hastens and perfects the + destruction necessary to permit of the accompanying histogenesis. This + view is confirmed by the fate of the phagocytic cells. These do not + take a direct part in the formation of the new tissue, but it is + believed merely yield their surplus acquisitions, becoming ordinary + blood-cells or disappearing altogether. As to the nature of + histogenesis, nothing more can be said than that it appears to be a + phenomenon similar to embryonic growth, though limited to certain + spots. Hence we are inclined to look on the imaginal disks as cellular + areas that possess in a latent condition the powers of growth and + development that exist in the embryo, powers that only become evident + in certain special conditions of the organism. What the more essential + of these conditions may be is a question on which very little light + has been thrown, though it has been widely discussed. + +Much consideration has been given to the nature of metamorphosis in +insects, to its value to the creatures and to the mode of its origin. +Insect metamorphosis may be briefly described as phenomena of +development characterized by abrupt changes of appearance and of +structure, occurring during the period subsequent to embryonic +development and antecedent to the reproductive state. It is, in short, a +peculiar mode of growth and adolescence. The differences in appearance +between the caterpillar and the butterfly, striking as they are to the +eye, do not sufficiently represent the phenomena of metamorphosis to the +intelligence. The changes that take place involve a revolution in the +being, and may be summarized under three headings: (1) The +food-relations of the individual are profoundly changed, an entirely +different set of mouth-organs appears and the kind and quantity of the +food taken is often radically different. (2) A wingless, sedentary +creature is turned into a winged one with superlative powers of aerial +movement. (3) An individual in which the reproductive organs and powers +are functionally absent becomes one in which these structures and powers +are the only reason for existence, for the great majority of insects die +after a brief period of reproduction. These changes are in the higher +insects so extreme that it is difficult to imagine how they could be +increased. In the case of the common drone-fly, _Eristalis tenax_, the +individual, from a sedentary maggot living in filth, without any +relations of sex, and with only unimportant organs for the ingestion of +its foul nutriment, changes to a creature of extreme alertness, with +magnificent powers of flight, living on the products of the flowers it +frequents, and endowed with highly complex sexual structures. + +[Illustration: After Westwood, _Modern Classification_. + +FIG. 24.--Campodeiform Larva of a Ground-Beetle (_Aepus marinus_). +Magnified.] + +[Illustration: After Howard, _Ent. Bull._ 4, n. s. (_U.S. Dept. Agr._). + +FIG. 25.--Vermiform Larva (maggot) of House-fly (_Musca domestica_). +Magnified. b, spiracle on prothorax; c, protruded head region; d, +tail-end with functional spiracles; e, f, head region with mouth hooks +protruded; g, hooks retracted; h, eggs. All magnified.] + +_Forms of Larva._--The unlikeness of the young insect to its parent is +one of the factors that necessitates metamorphosis. It is instructive, +further, to trace among metabolic insects an increase in the degree of +this dissimilarity. An adult Hexapod is provided with a firm, +well-chitinized cuticle and six conspicuous jointed legs. Many larval +Hexapods might be defined in similar general terms, unlike as they are +to their parents in most points of detail. Examples of such are to be +seen in the grubs of may-flies, dragon-flies, lacewing-flies and +ground-beetles (fig. 24). This type of active, armoured larva--often +bearing conspicuous feelers on the head and long jointed cercopods on +the tenth abdominal segment--was styled campodeiform by F. Brauer +(1869), on account of its likeness in shape to the bristle-tail +_Campodea_. As an extreme contrast to this campodeiform type, we take +the maggot of the house-fly (fig. 25)--a vermiform larva, with soft, +white, feebly-chitinized cuticle and without either head-capsule or +legs. Between these two extremes, numerous intermediate forms can be +traced: the grub (wireworm) of a click-beetle, with narrow elongate +well-armoured body, but with the legs very short; the grub of a chafer, +with the legs fairly developed, but with the cuticle of all the +trunk-segments soft and feebly chitinized; the well-known caterpillar of +a moth (fig. 21, e) or saw-fly, with its long cylindrical body, bearing +the six shortened thoracic legs and a variable number of pairs of +"pro-legs" on the abdomen (this being the eruciform type of larva); the +soft, white, wood-boring grub of a longhorn-beetle or of the saw-fly +_Sirex_, with its stumpy vestiges of thoracic legs; the large-headed but +entirely legless, fleshy grub of a weevil; and the legless larva, with +greatly reduced head, of a bee. The various larvae of the above series, +however, have all a distinct head-capsule, which is altogether wanting +in the degraded fly maggot. These differences in larval form depend in +part on the surroundings among which the larva finds itself after +hatching; the active, armoured grub has to seek food for itself and to +fight its own battles, while the soft, defenceless maggot is provided +with abundant nourishment. But in general we find that elaboration of +imaginal structure is associated with degradation in the nature of the +larva, eruciform and vermiform larvae being characteristic of the +highest orders of the Hexapoda, so that unlikeness between parent and +offspring has increased with the evolution of the class. + +_Hypermetamorphosis._--Among a few of the beetles or Coleoptera (q.v.), +and also in the neuropterous genus _Mantispa_, are found life-histories +in which the earliest instar is campodeiform and the succeeding larval +stages eruciform. These later stages, comprising the greater part of the +larval history, are adapted for an inquiline or a parasitic life, where +shelter is assured and food abundant, while the short-lived, active +condition enables the newly-hatched insect to make its way to the spot +favourable for its future development, clinging, for example, in the +case of an oil-beetle's larva, to the hairs of a bee as she flies +towards her nest. The presence of the two successive larval forms in the +life-history constitutes what is called hypermetamorphosis. Most +significant is the precedence of the eruciform by the campodeiform type. +In conjunction with the association mentioned above of the most highly +developed imaginal with the most degraded larval structure, it indicates +clearly that the active, armoured grub preceded the sluggish +soft-skinned caterpillar or maggot in the evolution of the Hexapoda. + +_Nymph._--The term nymph is applied by many writers on the Hexapoda to +all young forms of insects that are not sufficiently unlike their +parents to be called larvae. Other writers apply the term to a "free" +pupa (see _infra_). It is in wellnigh universal use for those instars of +ametabolous and hemimetabolous insects in which the external +wing-rudiments have become conspicuous (fig. 27). The mature dragon-fly +nymph, for example, makes its way out of the water in which the early +stages have been passed and, clinging to some water-plant, undergoes the +final ecdysis that the imago may emerge into the air. Like most +ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda, such nymphs continue to move and +feed throughout their lives. But examples are not wanting of a more or +less complete resting habit during the latest nymphal instar. In some +cicads the mature nymph ceases to feed and remains quiescent within a +pillar-shaped earthen chamber. The nymph of a thrips-insect +(Thysanoptera) is sluggish, its legs and wings being sheathed by a +delicate membrane, while the nymph of the male scale-insect rests +enclosed beneath a waxy covering. + +_Sub-imago._--Among the Hexapoda generally there is no subsequent +ecdysis nor any further growth after the assumption of the winged state. +The may-flies, however, offer a remarkable exception to this rule. After +a prolonged aquatic larval and nymphal life-history, the winged insect +appears as a sub-imago, whence, after the casting of a delicate cuticle, +the true imago emerges. + +_Pupa._--In the metabolic Hexapoda the resting pupal instar shows +externally the wings and other characteristic imaginal organs which have +been gradually elaborated beneath the larval cuticle. It is usual to +distinguish between the free pupae (fig. 26, b)--of Coleoptera and +Hymenoptera, for example--in which the wings, legs and other appendages +are not fixed to the trunk, and the obtect pupae (fig. 21, d)--such as +may be noticed in the majority of the Lepidoptera--whose appendages are +closely and immovably pressed to the body by a general hardening and +fusion of the cuticle. In the degree of mobility there is great +diversity among pupae. A gnat pupa swims through the water by powerful +strokes of its abdomen, while the caddis-fly pupa, in preparation for +its final ecdysis, bites its way out of its subaqueous protective case +and rises through the water, so that the fly may emerge into the air. +Some pupae are thus more active than some nymphs; the essential +character of a pupa is not therefore its passivity, but that it is the +instar in which the wings first become evident externally. The division +of the winged Hexapoda into Exopteryga and Endopteryga is thus again +justified. + +[Illustration: From Chittenden, _Bull._ 4 (n.s.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. +Agr._ + +FIG. 26.--a, Saw-toothed Grain-Beetle (_Silvanus surinamensis_); b, +pupa; c, larva, magnified--; d, feeler of larva.] + + If we admit that the larva has, in the phylogeny of insects, gradually + diverged from the imago, and if we recollect that in the ontogeny the + larva has always to become the imago (and of course still does so) + notwithstanding the increased difficulty of the transformation, we + cannot but recognize that a period of helplessness in which the + transformation may take place is to be expected. It is generally + considered that this is sufficient as an explanation of the existence + of the pupa. This, however, is not the case, because the greater part + of the transformation precedes the disclosure of the pupa, which, as + L. C. Miall remarks, is structurally little other "than the fly + enclosed in a temporary skin." Moreover, in many insects with + imperfect metamorphosis the change from larva or (as the later stage + of the larva is called in these cases) nymph to imago is about as + great as the corresponding change in the Holometabola, as the student + will recognize if he recalls the histories of _Ephemeridae_, Odonata + and male _Coccidae_. But in none of these latter cases have the wings + to be changed from a position inside the body to become external and + actively functional organs. The difference between the nymph or false + pupa and the true pupa is that in the latter a whole stage is devoted + to the perfecting of the wings and body-wall after the wings have + become external organs; the stage is one in which no food is or can be + taken, however prolonged may be its existence. Amongst insects with + imperfect metamorphosis the nearest approximations to the true pupa of + the Holometabola are to be found in the sub-imago of _Ephemeridae_ and + in the quiescent or resting stages of Thysanoptera, _Aleurodidae_ and + _Coccidae_. A much more thorough appreciation than we yet possess of + the phenomena in these cases is necessary in order completely to + demonstrate the special characteristics of the holometabolous + transformation. But even at present we can correctly state that the + true pupa is invariably connected with the transference of the wings + from the interior to the exterior of the body. It cannot but suggest + itself that this transference was induced by some peculiarity as to + formation of cuticle, causing the growth of the wings to be directed + inwards instead of outwards. We may remark that fleas possess no + wings, but are understood to possess a true pupa. This is a most + remarkable case, but unfortunately very little information exists as + to the details of metamorphosis in this group. + +_Life-Relations._--Only a brief reference can be made here to the +fascinating subject of the life-relations of the larva, nymph and pupa, +as compared with those of the imago. For details, the reader may consult +the special articles on the various orders and groups of insects. A +common result of metamorphosis is that the larva and imago differ +markedly in their habitat and mode of feeding. The larva may be aquatic, +or subterranean, or a burrower in wood, while the imago is aerial. It +may bite and devour solid food, while the imago sucks liquids. It may +eat roots or refuse, while the imago lives on leaves and flowers. The +aquatic habit of many larvae is associated with endless beautiful +adaptations for respiration. The series of paired spiracles on most of +the trunk-segments is well displayed, as a rule, in terrestrial +larvae--caterpillars and the grubs of most beetles, for example. In many +aquatic larvae we find that all the spiracles are closed up, or become +functionless, except a pair at the hinder end which are associated with +some arrangement--such as the valvular flaps of the gnat larva or the +telescopic "tail" of the drone-fly larva--for piercing the surface film +and drawing periodical supplies of atmospheric air. A similar +restriction of the functional spiracles to the tail-end (fig. 25, d) is +seen in many larvae of flies (Diptera) that live and feed buried in +carrion or excrement. Other aquatic larvae have the tracheal system +entirely closed, and are able to breathe dissolved air by means of +tubular or leaf-like gills. Such are the grubs of stone-flies, may-flies +(fig. 27) and some dragon-flies and midges. An interesting feature is +the difference often to be observed between an aquatic larva and pupa of +the same insect in the matter of breathing. The gnat larva, for example, +breathes at the tail-end, hanging head-downwards from the surface-film. +But the pupa hangs from the surface by means of paired respiratory +trumpets on the prothorax, the dorsal thoracic surface, where the +cuticle splits to allow the emergence of the fly, being thus directed +towards the upper air. + +[Illustration: From Miall and Denny (after Vayssiere), _The Cockroach_, +Lovell Reeve & Co. + +FIG. 27.--Nymph of May-fly (_Chloeon dipterum_), with wing rudiments (a) +and tracheal gill-plates (b, b). Magnified--. (The feelers and legs are +cut short.)] + +A marked disproportion between the life-term of larva and imago is +common; the former often lives for months or years, while the latter +only survives for weeks or days or hours. Generally the larval is the +feeding, the imaginal the breeding, stage of the life-cycle. The extreme +of this "division of labour" is seen in those insects whose jaws are +vestigial in the winged state, when, the need for feeding all behind +them, they have but to pair, to lay eggs and to die. The acquisition of +wings is the sign of developed reproductive power. + +_Paedogenesis._--Nevertheless, the function of reproduction is +occasionally exercised by larvae. In 1865 N. Wagner made his classical +observations on the production of larvae from unfertilized eggs +developed in the precociously-formed ovaries of a larval gall-midge +(Cecidomyid), and subsequent observers have confirmed his results by +studies on insects of the same family and of the related _Chironomidae_. +The larvae produced by this remarkable method (paedogenesis) of +virgin-reproduction are hatched within the parent larva, and in some +cases escape by the rupture of its body. + +_Polyembryony._--Occasionally the power of reproduction is thrown still +farther back in the life-history, and it is found that from a single egg +a large number of embryos may be formed. P. Marchal has (1904) described +this power in two small parasitic Hymenoptera--a Chalcid (_Encyrtus_) +which lays eggs in the developing eggs of the small moth _Hyponomeuta_, +and a Proctotrypid (_Polygnotus_) which infests a gall-midge +(Cecidomyid) larva. In the egg of these insects a small number of nuclei +are formed by the division of the nucleus, and each of these nuclei +originates by division the cell-layers of a separate embryo. Thus a mass +or chain of embryos is produced, lying in a common cyst, and developing +as their larval host develops. In this way over a hundred embryos may +result from a single egg. Marchal points out the analogy of this +phenomenon to the artificial polyembryony that has been induced in +Echinoderm and other eggs by separating the blastomeres, and suggests +that the abundant food-supply afforded by the host-larva is favourable +for this multiplication of embryos, which may be, in the first instance, +incited by the abnormal osmotic pressure on the egg. + +_Duration of Life._--The flour-moth (_Ephestia kuhniella_) sometimes +passes through five or six generations in a single year. Although one of +the characteristics of insects is the brevity of their adult lives, a +considerable number of exceptions to the general rule have been +discovered. These exceptions may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) +Certain larvae, provided with food that may be adequate in quantity but +deficient in nutriment, may live and go on feeding for many years; +(2) certain stages of the life that are naturally "resting stages" may +be in exceptional cases prolonged, and that to a very great extent; in +this case no food is taken, and the activity of the individual is almost +_nil_; (3) the life of certain insects in the adult state may be much +prolonged if celibacy be maintained; a female of _Cybister roeselii_ (a +large water-beetle) has lived five and a half years in the adult state +in captivity. In addition to these abnormal cases, the life of certain +insects is naturally more prolonged than usual. The females of some +social insects have been known to live for many years. In _Tibicen +septemdecim_ the life of the larva extends over from thirteen to +seventeen years. The eggs of locusts may remain for years in the ground +before hatching; and there may thus arise the peculiar phenomenon of +some species of insect appearing in vast numbers in a locality where it +has not been seen for several years. + + +CLASSIFICATION + +_Number of Species._--It is now considered that 2,000,000 is a moderate +estimate of the species of insects actually existing. Some authorities +consider this total to be too small, and extend the number to +10,000,000. Upwards of 300,000 species have been collected and +described, and at present the number of named forms increases at the +rate of about 8000 species per annum. The greater part by far of the +insects existing in the world is still quite unknown to science. Many of +the species are in process of extinction, owing to the extensive changes +that are taking place in the natural conditions of the world by the +extension of human population and of cultivation, and by the destruction +of forests; hence it is probable that a considerable proportion of the +species at present existing will disappear from the face of the earth +before we have discovered or preserved any specimens of them. +Nevertheless, the constant increase of our knowledge of insect forms +renders classification increasingly difficult, for gaps in the series +become filled, and while the number of genera and families increases, +the distinctions between these groups become dependent on characters +that must seem trivial to the naturalist who is not a specialist. + +_Orders of Hexapoda._--In the present article it is only possible to +treat of the division of the Hexapoda into orders and sub-orders and of +the relations of these orders to each other. For further classificatory +details, reference must be made to the special articles on the various +orders. As regards the vast majority of insects, the orders proposed by +Linnaeus are acknowledged by modern zoologists. His classification was +founded mainly on the nature of the wings, and five of his orders--the +Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps, &c.), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera +(two-winged flies), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), and Hemiptera +(bugs, cicads, &c.)--are recognized to-day with nearly the same limits +as he laid down. His order of wingless insects (Aptera) included +Crustacea, spiders, centipedes and other creatures that now form classes +of the Arthropoda distinct from the Hexapoda; it also included Hexapoda +of parasitic and evidently degraded structure, that are now regarded as +allied more or less closely to various winged insects. Consequently the +modern order Aptera comprises only a very small proportion of Linnaeus's +"Aptera"--the spring-tails and bristle-tails, wingless Hexapoda that +stand evidently at a lower grade of development than the bulk of the +class. The earwigs, cockroaches and locusts, which Linnaeus included +among the Coleoptera, were early grouped into a distinct order, the +Orthoptera. The great advance in modern zoology as regards the +classification of the Hexapoda lies in the treatment of a heterogeneous +assembly which formed Linnaeus's order Neuroptera. The characters of the +wings are doubtless important as indications of relationship, but the +nature of the jaws and the course of the life-history must be considered +of greater value. Linnaeus's Neuroptera exhibit great diversity in these +respects, and the insects included in it are now therefore distributed +into a number of distinct orders. The many different arrangements that +have been proposed can hardly be referred to in this article. Of special +importance in the history of systematic entomology was the scheme of F. +Brauer (1885), who separated the spring tails and bristle-tails as a +sub-class Apterygogenea from all the other Hexapoda, these forming the +sub-class Pterygogenea distributed into sixteen orders. Brauer in his +arrangement of these orders laid special stress on the nature of the +metamorphosis, and was the first to draw attention to the number of +Malpighian tubes as of importance in classification. Subsequent writers +have, for the most part, increased the number of recognized orders; and +during the last few years several schemes of classification have been +published, in the most revolutionary of which--that of A. Handlirsch +(1903-1904)--the Hexapoda are divided into four classes and thirty-four +orders! Such excessive multiplication of the larger taxonomic divisions +shows an imperfect sense of proportion, for if the term "class" be +allowed its usual zoological value, no student can fail to recognize +that the Hexapoda form a single well-defined class, from which few +entomologists would wish to exclude even the Apterygogenea. In several +recent attempts to group the orders into sub-classes, stress has been +laid upon a few characters in the imago. C. Borner (1904), for example, +considers the presence or absence of cerci of great importance, while F. +Klapalek (1904) lays stress on a supposed distinction between +appendicular and non-appendicular genital processes. A natural system +must take into account the nature of the larva and of the metamorphosis +in conjunction with the general characters of the imago. Hence the +grouping of the orders of winged Hexapoda into the divisions +Exopterygota and Endopterygota, as suggested by D. Sharp, is unlikely to +be superseded by the result of any researches into minute imaginal +structure. Sharp's proposed association of the parasitic wingless +insects in a group Anapterygota cannot, however, be defended as natural; +and recent researches into the structure of these forms enables us to +associate them confidently with related winged orders. The +classification here adopted is based on Sharp's scheme, with the +addition of suggestions from some of the most recent authors--especially +Borner and Enderlein. + + Class: HEXAPODA. + + Sub-class: APTERYGOTA. + + Primitively (?) wingless Hexapods with cumacean mandibles, distinct + maxillulae, and locomotor abdominal appendages. Without ectodermal + genital ducts. Young closely resemble adults. + + The sub-class contains a single + + Order: _Aptera_, + + which is divided into two sub-orders: + + 1. _Thysanura_ (Bristle-tails): with ten abdominal segments; number of + abdominal appendages variable. Cerci prominent. Developed tracheal + system. + + 2. _Collembola_ (Spring-tails): with six abdominal segments; + appendages of the first forming an adherent ventral tube, those of the + third a minute "catch," those of the fourth (fused basally) a + "spring." Tracheal system reduced or absent. + + Sub-class: EXOPTERYGOTA. + + Hexapoda mostly with wings, the wingless forms clearly degraded. + Maxillulae rarely distinct. No locomotor abdominal appendages. The + wing-rudiments develop visibly outside the cuticle. Young like or + unlike parents. + + Order: _Dermaptera_. + + Biting mandibles; minute but distinct-maxillulae; second maxillae + incompletely fused. When wings are present, the fore-wings are small + firm elytra, beneath which the delicate hind-wings are complexly + folded. Many forms wingless. Genital ducts entirely mesodermal. Cerci + always present; usually modified into unjointed forceps. Numerous (30 + or more) Malpighian tubes. Young resembling parents. + + Includes two families--the _Forficulidae_ or _earwigs_ (q.v.) and the + _Hemimeridae_. + + Order: _Orthoptera_. + + Biting mandibles; vestigial maxillulae; second maxillae incompletely + fused. Wings usually well developed, net-veined; the fore-wings of + firmer texture than the hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise + beneath them. Jointed cerci always present; ovipositor well developed. + Malpighian tubes numerous (100-150). Young resemble parents. + + Includes stick and leaf insects, cockroaches, mantids, grasshoppers, + locusts and crickets (see ORTHOPTERA). + + Order: _Plecoptera_. + + Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings + similar in texture to hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise. + Jointed, often elongate, cerci. Numerous (50-60) Malpighian tubes. + Young resembling parents, but aquatic in habit, breathing dissolved + air by thoracic tracheal gills. + + Includes the single family of the _Perlidae_ (Stone-flies), formerly + grouped with the Neuroptera. + + Order: _Isoptera_. + + Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings + similar in shape and texture to hind-wings, which do not fold. In most + species the majority of individuals are wingless. Short, jointed + cerci. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Young resembling adults; + terrestrial throughout life. + + Includes two families, formerly reckoned among the Neuroptera--the + _Embiidae_ and the _Termitidae_ or "White Ants" (see TERMITE). + + Order: _Corrodentia_. + + Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused; maxillulae often + distinct. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. + + Includes two sub-orders, formerly regarded as Neuroptera:-- + + 1. _Copeognatha_: Corrodentia with delicate cuticle. Wings usually + developed; the fore-wings much larger than the hind-wings. One family, + the _Psocidae_ (Book-lice). These minute insects are found amongst old + books and furniture. + + 2. _Mallophaga_: Parasitic wingless Corrodentia (Bird-lice). + + Order: _Ephemeroptera_. + + Jaws vestigial. Fore-wings much larger than hind-wings. Elongate, + jointed cerci. Genital ducts paired and entirely mesodermal. + Malpighian tubes numerous (40). Aquatic larvae with distinct + maxillulae, breathing dissolved air by abdominal tracheal gills. + Penultimate instar a flying sub-imago. [Includes the single family of + the _Ephemeridae_ or may-flies. See also NEUROPTERA, in which this + order was formerly comprised.] + + Order: _Odonata_. + + Biting mandibles. Wings of both pairs closely alike; firm and glassy + in texture. Prominent, unjointed cerci, male with genital armature on + second abdominal segment. Malpighian tubes numerous (50-60). Aquatic + larvae with caudal leaf-gills or with rectal tracheal system. + + Includes the three families of dragon-flies. Formerly comprised among + the Neuroptera. + + Order: _Thysanoptera_. + + Piercing mandibles, retracted within the head-capsule. First maxillae + also modified as piercers; maxillae of both pairs with distinct palps. + Both pairs of wings similar, narrow and fringed. Four Malpighian + tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor usually present. Young resembling + parents, but penultimate instar passive and enclosed in a filmy + pellicle. + + Includes three families of Thrips (see THYSANOPTERA). + + Order: _Hemiptera_. + + Mandibles and first maxillae modified as piercers; second maxillae + fused to form a jointed, grooved rostrum. Wings usually present. Four + Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor developed. + + Includes two sub-orders:-- + + 1. _Heteroptera_: Rostrum not in contact with haunches of fore-legs. + Fore-wings partly coriaceous. Young resembling adults. + + Includes the bugs, terrestrial and aquatic. + + 2. _Homoptera_: Rostrum in contact with haunches of fore-legs. + Fore-wings uniform in texture. Young often larvae. Penultimate instar + passive in some cases. + + Includes the cicads, aphides and scale-insects (see HEMIPTERA). + + Order: _Anoplura_. + + Piercing jaws modified and reduced, a tubular, protrusible + sucking-trunk being developed; mouth with hooks. Wingless, parasitic + forms. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. Young resembling adults. + + Includes the family of the Lice (_Pediculidae_), often reckoned as + Hemiptera (q.v.). See also LOUSE. + + Sub-class: ENDOPTERYGOTA. + + Hexapoda mostly with wings; the wingless forms clearly degraded or + modified. Maxillulae vestigial or absent. No locomotor abdominal + appendages (except in certain larvae). Young animals always unlike + parents, the wing-rudiments developing beneath the larval cuticle and + only appearing in a penultimate pupal instar, which takes no food and + is usually passive. + + Order: _Neuroptera_. + + Biting mandibles; second maxillae completely fused. Prothorax large + and free. Membranous, net-veined wings, those of the two pairs closely + alike. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Larva + campodeiform, usually feeding by suction (exceptionally + hypermetamorphic with subsequent eruciform instars). Pupa free. + + Includes the alder-flies, ant-lions and lacewing-flies. See + NEUROPTERA. + + Order: _Coleoptera_. + + Biting mandibles; second maxillae very intimately fused. Prothorax + large and free. Fore-wings modified into firm elytra, beneath which + the membranous hind-wings (when present) can be folded. Cerci absent. + Four or six Malpighian tubes. Larva campodeiform or eruciform. Pupa + free. + + Includes the beetles and the parasitic _Stylopidae_, often regarded as + a distinct order (_Strepsiptera_). (See COLEOPTERA.) + + Order: _Mecaptera_. + + Biting mandibles; first maxillae elongate; second maxillae completely + fused. Prothorax small. Two pairs of similar, membranous wings, with + predominantly longitudinal neuration. Six Malpighian tubes. Larva + eruciform. Pupa free. Cerci present. + + Includes the single family of _Panorpidae_ (scorpion-flies), often + comprised among the Neuroptera. + + Order: _Trichoptera_. + + Mandibles present in pupa, vestigial in imago; maxillae suctorial + without specialization; first maxillae with lacinia, galea and palp. + Prothorax small. Two pairs of membranous, hair-covered wings, with + predominantly longitudinal neuration. Larvae aquatic and eruciform. + Pupa free. Six Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. + + Includes the caddis-flies. See NEUROPTERA, among which these insects + were formerly comprised. + + Order: _Lepidoptera_. + + Mandibles absent in imago, very exceptionally present in pupa; first + maxillae nearly always without laciniae and often without palps, or + only with vestigial palps, their galeae elongated and grooved inwardly + so as to form a sucking trunk. Prothorax small. Wings with + predominantly longitudinal neuration, covered with flattened scales. + Fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Cerci absent. Four (rarely 6 or 8) + Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform, with rarely more than five pairs + of abdominal prolegs. Pupa free in the lowest families, in most cases + incompletely or completely obtect. + + Includes the moths and butterflies. See LEPIDOPTERA. + + Order: _Diptera_. + + Mandibles rarely present, adapted for piercing; first maxillae with + palps; second maxillae forming with hypopharynx a suctorial proboscis. + Prothorax small, intimately united to mesothorax. Fore-wings well + developed; hind-wings reduced to stalked knobs ("halteres"). Cerci + present but usually reduced. Four Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform + without thoracic legs, or vermiform without head-capsule. Pupa + incompletely obtect or free, and enclosed in the hardened cuticle of + the last larval instar (puparium). + + Includes the two-winged flies (see DIPTERA), which may be divided into + two sub-orders:-- + + 1. _Orthorrhapha_: Larva eruciform. Cuticle of pupa or puparium + splitting longitudinally down the back, to allow escape of imago. + + Comprises the midges, gnats, crane-flies, gad-flies, &c. + + 2. _Cyclorrhapha_: Larva vermiform (no head-capsule). Puparium opening + by an anterior "lid." + + Comprises the hover-flies, flesh-flies, bot-flies, &c. + + Order: _Siphonaptera_. + + Mandibles fused into a piercer; first maxillae developed as piercers; + palps of both pairs of maxillae present; hypopharynx wanting. + Prothorax large. Wings absent or vestigial. Larva eruciform, limbless. + + Includes the fleas. + + Order: _Hymenoptera_. + + Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely or completely fused; + often forming a suctorial proboscis. Prothorax small, and united to + mesothorax. First abdominal segment united to metathorax. Wings + membranous, fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Ovipositor always well + developed, and often modified into a sting. Numerous (20-150) + Malpighian tubes (in rare cases, 6-12 only). Larva eruciform, with + seven or eight pairs of abdominal prolegs, or entirely legless. Pupa + free. + + Includes two sub-orders:-- + + 1. _Symphyta_: Abdomen not basally constricted. Larvae caterpillars + with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs. + + Comprises the saw-flies. + + 2. _Apocrita_: Abdomen markedly constricted at second segment. Larvae + legless grubs. + + Comprises gall-flies, ichneumon-flies, ants, wasps, bees. See + HYMENOPTERA. + + +GEOLOGICAL HISTORY + +The classification just given has been drawn up with reference to +existing insects, but the great majority of the extinct forms that have +been discovered can be referred with some confidence to the same orders, +and in many cases to recent families. The Hexapoda, being aerial, +terrestrial and fresh-water animals, are but occasionally preserved in +stratified rocks, and our knowledge of extinct members of the class is +therefore fragmentary, while the description, as insects, of various +obscure fossils, which are perhaps not even Arthropods, has not tended +to the advancement of this branch of zoology. Nevertheless, much +progress has been made. Several Silurian fossils have been identified as +insects, including a Thysanuran from North America, but upon these +considerable doubt has been cast. + +The Devonian rocks of Canada (New Brunswick) have yielded several +fossils which are undoubtedly wings of Hexapods. These have been +described by S. H. Scudder, and include gigantic forms related to the +Ephemeroptera. + +In the Carboniferous strata (Coal measures) remains of Hexapods become +numerous and quite indisputable. Many European forms of this age have +been described by C. Brongniart, and American by S. H. Scudder. The +latter has established, for all the Palaeozoic insects, an order +Palaeodictyoptera, there being a closer similarity between the +fore-wings and the hind-wings than is to be seen in most living orders +of Hexapoda, while affinities are shown to several of these +orders--notably the Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Hemiptera. It +is probable that many of these Carboniferous insects might be referred +to the Isoptera, while others would fall into the existing orders to +which they are allied, with some modification of our present diagnoses. +Of special interest are cockroach-like forms, with two pairs of similar +membranous wings and a long ovipositor, and gigantic insects allied to +the Odonata, that measured 2 ft. across the outspread wings. A +remarkable fossil from the Scottish Coal-measures (_Lithomantis_) had +apparently small wing-like structures on the prothorax, and in allied +genera small veined outgrowths--like tracheal gills--occurred on the +abdominal segments. To the Permian period belongs a remarkable genus +_Eugereon_, that combines hemipteroid jaws with orthopteroid +wing-neuration. With the dawn of the Mesozoic epoch we reach Hexapods +that can be unhesitatingly referred to existing orders. From the Trias +of Colorado, Scudder has described cockroaches intermediate between +their Carboniferous precursors and their present-day descendants, while +the existence of endopterygotous Hexapods is shown by the remains of +Coleoptera of several families. In the Jurassic rocks are found +Ephemeroptera and Odonata, as well as Hemiptera, referable to existing +families, some representatives of which had already appeared in the +oldest of the Jurassic ages--the Lias. To the Lias also can be traced +back the Neuroptera, the Trichoptera, the orthorrhaphous Diptera and, +according to the determination of certain obscure fossils, also the +Hymenoptera (ants). The Lithographic stone of Kimmeridgian age, at +Solenhofen in Bavaria, is especially rich in insect remains, +cyclorrhaphous Diptera appearing here for the first time. In Tertiary +times the higher Diptera, besides Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, referable +to existing families, become fairly abundant. Numerous fossil insects +preserved in the amber of the Baltic Oligocene have been described by G. +L. Mayr and others, while Scudder has studied the rich Oligocene faunas +of Colorado (Florissant) and Wyoming (Green River). The Oeningen beds of +Baden, of Miocene age, have also yielded an extensive insect fauna, +described fifty years ago by O. Heer. Further details of the geological +history of the Hexapoda will be found in the special articles on the +various orders. Fragmentary as the records are, they show that the +Exopterygota preceded the Endopterygota in the evolution of the class, +and that among the Endopterygota those orders in which the greatest +difference exists between imago and larva--the Lepidoptera, Diptera and +Hymenoptera--were the latest to take their rise. + + +GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION + +The class Hexapoda has a world-wide range, and so have most of its +component orders. The Aptera have perhaps the most extensive +distribution of all animals, being found in Franz Josef Land and South +Victoria Land, on the snows of Alpine glaciers, and in the depths of the +most extensive caves. Most of the families and a large proportion of the +genera of insects are exceedingly widespread, but a study of the genera +and species in any of the more important families shows that faunas can +be distinguished whose headquarters agree fairly with the regions that +have been proposed to express the distribution of the higher +vertebrates. Many insects, however, can readily extend their range, and +a careful study of their distribution leads us to discriminate between +faunas rather than definitely to map regions. A large and dominant +Holoarctic fauna, with numerous subdivisions, ranges over the great +northern continents, and is characterized by the abundance of certain +families like the _Carabidae_ and _Staphylinidae_ among the Coleoptera +and the _Tenthredinidae_ among the Hymenoptera. The southern territory +held by this fauna is invaded by genera and species distinctly tropical. +Oriental types range far northwards into China and Japan. Ethiopian +forms invade the Mediterranean area. Neotropical and distinctively +Sonoran insects mingle with members of the Holoarctic fauna across a +wide "transition zone" in North America. "Wallace's line" dividing the +Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan sub-regions is frequently transgressed +in the range of Malayan insects. The Australian fauna is rich in +characteristic and peculiar genera, and New Zealand, while possessing +some remarkable insects of its own, lacks entirely several families with +an almost world-wide range--for example, the _Notodontidae_, +_Lasiocampidae_, and other families of Lepidoptera. Interesting +relationships between the Ethiopian and Oriental, the Neotropical and +West African, the Patagonian and New Zealand faunas suggest great +changes in the distribution of land and water, and throw doubt on the +doctrine of the permanence of continental areas and oceanic basins. +Holoarctic types reappear on the Andes and in South Africa, and even in +New Zealand. The study of the Hexapoda of oceanic islands is full of +interest. After the determination of a number of cosmopolitan insects +that may well have been artificially introduced, there remains a large +proportion of endemic species--sometimes referable to distinct +genera--which suggest a high antiquity for the truly insular faunas. + + +RELATIONSHIPS AND PHYLOGENY + +The Hexapoda form a very clearly defined class of the Arthropoda, and +many recent writers have suggested that they must have arisen +independently of other Arthropods from annelid worms, and that the +Arthropoda must, therefore, be regarded as an "unnatural," polyphyletic +assemblage. The cogent arguments against this view are set forth in the +article on Arthropoda. A near relationship between the Apterygota and +the Crustacea has been ably advocated by H. J. Hansen (1893). It is +admitted on all hands that the Hexapoda are akin to the Chilopoda. +Verhoeff has lately (1904) put forward the view that there are really +six segments in the hexapodan thorax and twenty in the abdomen--the +cerci belonging to the seventeenth abdominal segment thus showing a +close agreement with the centipede _Scolopendra_. On the other hand, G. +H. Carpenter (1899, 1902-1904) has lately endeavoured to show an exact +numerical correspondence in segmentation between the Hexapoda, the +Crustacea, the Arachnida, and the most primitive of the Diplopoda. On +either view it may be believed that the Hexapoda arose with the allied +classes from a primitive arthropod stock, while the relationships of the +class are with the Crustacea, the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda, rather +than with the Arachnida. + +_Nature of Primitive Hexapoda._--Two divergent views have been held as +to the nature of the original hexapod stock. Some of those zoologists +who look to _Peripatus_, or a similar worm-like form, as representing +the direct ancestors of the Hexapoda have laid stress on a larva like +the caterpillar of a moth or saw-fly as representing a primitive stage. +On the other hand, the view of F. Muller and F. Brauer, that the +Thysanura represent more nearly than any other existing insects the +ancestors of the class, has been accepted by the great majority of +students. And there can be little doubt that this belief is justified. +The caterpillar, or the maggot, is a specialized larval form +characteristic of the most highly developed orders, while the +campodeiform larva is the starting-point for the more primitive insects. +The occurrence in the hypermetamorphic Coleoptera (see _supra_) of a +campodeiform preceding an eruciform stage in the life-history is most +suggestive. Taken in connexion with the likeness of the young among the +more generalized orders to the adults, it indicates clearly a +thysanuroid starting-point for the evolution of the hexapod orders. And +we must infer further that the specialization of the higher orders has +been accompanied by an increase in the extent of the metamorphosis--a +very exceptional condition among animals generally, as has been ably +pointed out by L. C. Miall (1895). + +_Origin of Wings._--The post-embryonic growth of Hexapods with or +without metamorphosis is accompanied in most cases by the acquisition of +wings. These organs, thus acquired during the lifetime of the +individual, must have been in some way acquired during the evolution of +the class. Many students of the group, following Brauer, have regarded +the Apterygota as representing the original wingless progenitors of the +Pterygota, and the many primitive characters shown by the former group +lend support to this view. On the other hand, it has been argued that +the presence of wings in a vast majority of the Hexapoda suggests their +presence in the ancestors of the whole class. It is most unlikely that +wings have been acquired independently by various orders of Hexapoda, +and if we regard the Thysanura as the slightly modified representatives +of a primitively wingless stock, we must postulate the acquisition of +wings by some early offshoot of that stock, an offshoot whence the whole +group of the Pterygota took its rise. How wings were acquired by these +primitive Pterygota must remain for the present a subject for +speculation. Insect wings are specialized outgrowths of certain thoracic +segments, and are quite unrepresented in any other class of Arthropods. +They are not, therefore, like the wings of birds, modified from some +pre-existing structures (the fore-limbs) common to their phylum; they +are new and peculiar structures. Comparison of the tracheated wings with +the paired tracheated outgrowths on the abdominal segments of the +aquatic campodeiform larva of may-flies (see fig. 27) led C. Gegenbaur +to the brilliant suggestion that wings might be regarded as specialized +and transformed gills. But a survey of the Hexapoda as a whole, and +especially a comparative study of the tracheal system, can hardly leave +room for doubt that this system is primitively adapted for atmospheric +breathing, and that the presence of tracheal gills in larvae must be +regarded as a special adaptation for temporary aquatic life. The origin +of insect wings remains, therefore, a mystery, deepened by the +difficulty of imagining any probable use for thoracic outgrowths, +comparable to the wing-rudiments of the Exopterygota, in the early +stages of their evolution. + +_Origin of Metamorphosis._--In connexion with the question whether +metamorphosis has been gradually acquired, we have to consider two +aspects, viz. the bionomic nature of metamorphosis, and to what extent +it existed in primitive insects. Bionomically, metamorphosis may be +defined as the sum of adaptations that have gradually fitted the larva +(caterpillar or maggot) for one kind of life, the fly for another. So +that we may conclude that the factors of evolution would favour its +development. With regard to its occurrence in primitive insects, our +knowledge of the geological record is most imperfect, but so far as it +goes it supports the conclusion that holometabolism (i.e. extreme +metamorphosis) is a comparatively recent phenomenon of insect life. None +of the groups of existing Endopterygota have been traced with certainty +farther back than the Mesozoic epoch, and all the numerous Palaeozoic +insect-fossils seem to belong to forms that possessed only imperfect +metamorphosis. The only doubt arises from the existence of insect +remains, referred to the order Coleoptera, in the Silesian Culm of +Steinkunzendorf near Reichenbach. The oldest larva known, _Mormolucoides +articulatus_, is from the New Red Sandstone of Connecticut; it belongs +to the _Sialidae_, one of the lowest forms of Holometabola. It is now, +in fact, generally admitted that metamorphosis has been acquired +comparatively recently, and Scudder in his review of the earliest fossil +insects states that "their metamorphoses were simple and incomplete, the +young leaving the egg with the form of the parent, but without wings, +the assumption of which required no quiescent stage before maturity." + +It has been previously remarked that the phenomena of holometabolism are +connected with the development of wings inside the body (except in the +case of the fleas, where there are no wings in the perfect insect). Of +existing insects 90% belong to the Endopterygota. At the same time we +have no evidence that any Endopterygota existed amongst Palaeozoic +insects, so that the phenomena of endopterygotism are comparatively +recent, and we are led to infer that the Endopterygota owe their origin +to the older Exopterygota. In Endopterygota the wings commence their +development as invaginations of the hypodermis, while in Exopterygota +the wings begin--and always remain--as external folds or evaginations. +The two modes of growth are directly opposed, and at first sight it +appears that this fact negatives the view that Endopterygota have been +derived from Exopterygota. + +Only three hypotheses as to the origin of Endopterygota can be suggested +as possible, viz.:--(1) That some of the Palaeozoic insects, though we +infer them to have been exopterygotous, were really endopterygotous, and +were the actual ancestors of the existing Endopterygota; (2) that +Endopterygota are not descended from Exopterygota, but were derived +directly from ancestors that were never winged; (3) that the predominant +division--i.e. Endopterygota--of insects of the present epoch are +descended from the predominant--if not the sole--group that existed in +the Palaeozoic epoch, viz. the Exopterygota. The first hypothesis is not +negatived by direct evidence, for we do not actually know the ontogeny +of any of the Palaeozoic insects; it is, however, rendered highly +improbable by the modern views as to the nature and origin of wings in +insects, and by the fact that the Endopterygota include none of the +lower existing forms of insects. The second hypothesis--to the effect +that Endopterygota are the descendants of apterous insects that had +never possessed wings (i.e. the Apterygogenea of Brauer and others, +though we prefer the shorter term Apterygota)--is rendered improbable +from the fact that existing Apterygota are related to Exopterygota, not +to Endopterygota, and by the knowledge that has been gained as to the +morphology and development of wings, which suggest that--if we may so +phrase it--were an apterygotous insect gradually to develop wings, it +would be on the exopterygotous system. From all points of view it +appears, therefore, probable that Endopterygota are descended from +Exopterygota, and we are brought to the question as to the way in which +this has occurred. + +It is almost impossible to believe that any species of insect that has +for a long period developed the wings outside the body could change this +mode of growth suddenly for an internal mode of development of the +organs in question, for, as we have already explained, the two modes of +growth are directly opposed. The explanation has to be sought in another +direction. Now there are many forms of Exopterygota in which the +creatures are almost or quite destitute of wings. This phenomenon occurs +among species found at high elevations, among others found in arid or +desert regions, and in some cases in the female sex only, the male being +winged and the female wingless. This last state is very frequent in +_Blattidae_, which were amongst the most abundant of Palaeozoic insects. +The wingless forms in question are always allied to winged forms, and +there is every reason to believe that they have been really derived from +winged forms. There are also insects (fleas, &c.) in which metamorphosis +of a "complete" character exists, though the insects never develop +wings. These cases render it highly probable that insects may in some +circumstances become wingless, though their ancestors were winged. Such +insects have been styled anapterygotous. In these facts we have one +possible clue to the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism, +namely, by an intermediate period of anapterygotism. + +Although we cannot yet define the conditions under which exopterygotous +wings are suppressed or unusually developed, yet we know that such +fluctuations occur. There are, in fact, existing forms of Exopterygota +that are usually wingless, and that nevertheless appear in certain +seasons or localities with wings. We are therefore entitled to assume +that the suppressed wings of Exopterygota tend to reappear; and, +speaking of the past, we may say that if after a period of suppression +the wings began to reappear as hypodermal buds while a more rigid +pressure was exerted by the cuticle, the growth of the buds would +necessarily be inwards, and we should have incipient endopterygotism. +The change that is required to transform Exopterygota into Endopterygota +is merely that a cell of hypodermis should proliferate inwards instead +of outwards, or that a minute hypodermal evaginated bud should be forced +to the interior of the body by the pressure of a contracted cuticle. + +If it should be objected that the wings so developed would be +rudimentary, and that there would be nothing to encourage their +development into perfect functional organs, we may remind the reader +that we have already pointed out that imperfect wings of Exopterygota +do, even at the present time under certain conditions, become perfect +organs; and we may also add that there are, even among existing +Endopterygota, species in which the wings are usually vestiges and yet +sometimes become perfectly developed. In fact, almost every condition +that is required for the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism +exists among the insects that surround us. + +But it may perhaps be considered improbable that organs like the wings, +having once been lost, should have been reacquired on the large scale +suggested by the theory just put forward. If so, there is an alternative +method by which the endopterygotous may have arisen from the +exopterygotous condition. The sub-imago of the Ephemeroptera suggests +that a moult, after the wings had become functional, was at one time +general among the Hexapoda, and that the resting nymph of the +Thysanoptera or the pupa of the Endopterygota represents a formerly +active stage in the life-history. Further, although the wing-rudiments +appear externally in an early instar of an exopterygotous insect, the +earliest instars are wingless and wing-rudiments have been previously +developing beneath the cuticle, growing however outwards, not inwards as +in the larva of an endopterygote. The change from an exopterygote to an +endopterygote development could, therefore, be brought about by the +gradual postponement to a later and later instar of the appearance of +the wing-rudiments outside the body, and their correlated growth inwards +as imaginal disks. For in the post-embryonic development of the +ancestors of the Endopterygota we may imagine two or three instars with +wing-rudiments to have existed, the last represented by the sub-imago of +the may-flies. As the life-conditions and feeding-habits of the larva +and imago become constantly more divergent, the appearance of the +wing-rudiments would be postponed to the pre-imaginal instar, and that +instar would become predominantly passive. + +_Relationships of the Orders._--Reasons have been given for regarding +the Thysanura as representing, more nearly than any other living group, +the primitive stock of the Hexapoda. It is believed that insects of this +group are represented among Silurian fossils. We may conclude, +therefore, that they were preceded, in Cambrian times or earlier, by +Arthropods possessing well developed appendages on all the +trunk-segments. Of such Arthropods the living Symphyla--of which the +delicate little _Scutigerella_ is a fairly well-known example--give us +some representation. + +No indications beyond those furnished by comparative anatomy help us to +unravel the phylogeny of the Collembola. In most respects, the shortened +abdomen, for example, they are more specialized than the Thysanura, and +most of the features in which they appear to be simple, such as the +absence of a tracheal system and of compound eyes, can be explained as +the result of degradation. In their insunken mouth and their jaws +retracted within the head-capsule, the Collembola resemble the +entotrophous division of the Thysanura (see APTERA), from which they are +probably descended. + +From the thysanuroid stock of the Apterygota, the Exopterygota took +their rise. We have undoubted fossil evidence that winged insects lived +in the Devonian and became numerous in the Carboniferous period. These +ancient Exopterygota were synthetic in type, and included insects that +may, with probability, be regarded as ancestral to most of the existing +orders. It is hard to arrange the Exopterygota in a linear series, for +some of the orders that are remarkably primitive in some respects are +rather highly specialized in others. As regards wing-structure, the +Isoptera with the two pairs closely similar are the most primitive of +all winged insects; while in the paired mesodermal genital ducts, the +elongate cerci and the conspicuous maxillulae of their larvae the +Ephemeroptera retain notable ancestral characters. But the vestigial +jaws, numerous Malpighian tubes, and specialized wings of may-flies +forbid us to consider the order as on the whole primitive. So the +Dermaptera, which retain distinct maxillulae and have no ectodermal +genital ducts, have either specialized or aborted wings and a large +number of Malpighian tubes. The Corrodentia retain vestigial maxillulae +and two pairs of Malpighian tubes, but the wings are somewhat +specialized in the Copeognatha and absent in the degraded and parasitic +Mallophaga. The Plecoptera and Orthoptera agree in their numerous +Malpighian tubes and in the development of a folding anal area in the +hind-wing. As shown by the number and variety of species, the Orthoptera +are the most dominant order of this group. Eminently terrestrial in +habit, the differentiation of their fore-wings and hind-wings can be +traced from Carboniferous, isopteroid ancestors through intermediate +Mesozoic forms. The Plecoptera resemble the Ephemeroptera and Odonata in +the aquatic habits of their larvae, and by the occasional presence of +tufted thoracic gills in the imago exhibit an aquatic character unknown +in any other winged insects. The Odonata are in many imaginal and larval +characters highly specialized; yet they probably arose with the +Ephemeroptera as a divergent offshoot of the same primitive isopteroid +stock which developed more directly into the living Isoptera, +Plecoptera, Dermaptera and Orthoptera. + +All these orders agree in the possession of biting mandibles, while +their second maxillae have the inner and outer lobes usually distinct. +The Hemiptera, with their piercing mandibles and first maxillae and with +their second maxillae fused to form a jointed beak, stand far apart from +them. This order can be traced with certainty back to the early Jurassic +epoch, while the Permian fossil _Eugereon_, and the living +order--specially modified in many respects--of the Thysanoptera indicate +steps by which the aberrant suctorial and piercing mouth of the +Hemiptera may have been developed from the biting mouth of primitive +Isopteroids, by the elongation of some parts and the suppression of +others. The Anoplura may probably be regarded as a degraded offshoot of +the Hemiptera. + +The importance of great cardinal features of the life-history as +indicative of relationship leads us to consider the Endopterygota as a +natural assemblage of orders. The occurrence of weevils--among the most +specialized of the Coleoptera--in Triassic rocks shows us that this +great order of metabolous insects had become differentiated into its +leading families at the dawn of the Mesozoic era, and that we must go +far back into the Palaeozoic for the origin of the Endopterygota. In +this view we are confirmed by the impossibility of deriving the +Endopterygota from any living order of Exopterygota. We conclude, +therefore, that the primitive stock of the former sub-class became early +differentiated from that of the latter. So widely have most of the +higher orders of the Hexapoda now diverged from each other, that it is +exceedingly difficult in most cases to trace their relationships with +any confidence. The Neuroptera, with their similar fore- and hind-wings +and their campodeiform larvae, seem to stand nearest to the presumed +isopteroid ancestry, but the imago and larva are often specialized. The +campodeiform larvae of many Coleoptera are indeed far more primitive +than the neuropteran larvae, and suggest to us that the +Coleoptera--modified as their wing-structure has become--arose very +early from the primitive metabolous stock. The antiquity of the +Coleoptera is further shown by the great diversity of larval form and +habit that has arisen in the order, and the proof afforded by the +hypermetamorphic beetles that the campodeiform preceded the eruciform +larva has already been emphasized. + +In all the remaining orders of the Endopterygota the larva is eruciform +or vermiform. The Mecaptera, with their predominantly longitudinal +wing-nervuration, serve as a link between the Neuroptera and the +Trichoptera, their retention of small cerci being an archaic character +which stamps them as synthetic in type, but does not necessarily remove +them from orders which agree with them in most points of structure but +which have lost the cerci. The standing of the Trichoptera in a position +almost ancestral to the Lepidoptera is one of the assured results of +recent morphological study, the mobile mandibulate pupa and the +imperfectly suctorial maxillae of the Trichoptera reappearing in the +lowest families of the Lepidoptera. This latter order, which is not +certainly known to have existed before Tertiary times, has become the +most highly specialized of all insects in the structure of the pupa. +Diptera of the sub-order Orthorrhapha occur in the Lias and Cyclorrhapha +in the Kimmeridgian. The order must therefore be ancient, and as no +evidence is forthcoming as to the mode of reduction of the hind-wings, +nor as to the stages by which the suctorial mouth-organs became +specialized, it is difficult to trace the exact relationship of the +group, but the presence of cerci and a degree of correspondence in the +nervuration of the fore-wings suggest the Mecaptera as possible allies. +There seems no doubt that the suctorial mouth-organs of the Diptera have +arisen quite independently from those of the Lepidoptera, for in the +former order the sucker is formed from the second maxillae, in the +latter from the first. The eruciform larva of the Orthorrhapha leads on +to the headless vermiform maggot of the Cyclorrhapha, and in the latter +sub-order we find metamorphosis carried to its extreme point, the muscid +flies being the most highly specialized of all the Hexapoda as regards +structure, while their maggots are the most degraded of all insect +larvae. The Siphonaptera appear by the form of the larva and the nature +of the metamorphosis to be akin to the Orthorrhapha--in which division +they have indeed been included by many students. They differ from the +Diptera, however, in the general presence of palps to both pairs of +maxillae, and in the absence of a hypopharynx, so it is possible that +their relationship to the Diptera is less close than has been supposed. +The affinities of the Hymenoptera afford another problem of much +difficulty. They differ from other Endopterygota in the multiplication +of their Malpighian tubes, and from all other Hexapoda in the union of +the first abdominal segment with the thorax. Specialized as they are in +form, development and habit, they retain mandibles for biting, and in +their lower sub-order--the Symphyta--the maxillae are hardly more +modified than those of the Orthoptera. From the evidence of fossils it +seems that the higher sub-order--Apocrita--can be traced back to the +Lias, so that we believe the Hymenoptera to be more ancient than the +Diptera, and far more ancient than the Lepidoptera. They afford an +example--paralleled in other classes of the animal kingdom--of an order +which, though specialized in some respects, retains many primitive +characters, and has won its way to dominance rather by perfection of +behaviour, and specially by the development of family life and helpful +socialism, than by excessive elaboration of structure. We would trace +the Hymenoptera back therefore to the primitive endopterygote stock. The +specialization of form in the constricted abdomen and in the suctorial +"tongue" that characterizes the higher families of the order is +correlated with the habit of careful egg-laying and provision of food +for the young. In some way it is assured among the highest of the +Hexapoda--the Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera--that the larva finds +itself amid a rich food-supply. And thus perfection of structure and +instinct in the imago has been accompanied by degradation in the larva, +and by an increase in the extent of transformation and in the degree of +reconstruction before and during the pupal stage. The fascinating +difficulties presented to the student by the metamorphosis of the +Hexapoda are to some extent explained, as he ponders over the evolution +of the class. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the older classical writings on the + Hexapoda are given in the article on Entomology. At present about a + thousand works and papers are published annually, and in this place it + is possible to enumerate only a few of the most important among + (mostly) recent memoirs that bear upon the Hexapoda generally. Further + references will be found appended to the special articles on the + orders (APTERA, COLEOPTERA, &c.). + + General Works.--A. S. Packard, _Text-book of Entomology_ (London, + 1898); V. Graber, _Die Insekten_ (Munich, 1877-1879); D. Sharp, + _Cambridge Natural History_, vols. v., vi. (London, 1895-1899); L. C. + Miall and A. Denny, _Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach_ + (London, 1886); B. T. Lowne, _The Anatomy, Physiology, Morphology and + Development of the Blow-fly_ (2 vols., London, 1890-1895); G. H. + Carpenter, _Insects: their Structure and Life_ (London, 1899); L. F. + Henneguy, _Les Insectes_ (Paris, 1904); J. W. Folsom, _Entomology_ + (New York and London, 1906); A. Berlese, _Gli Insetti_ (Milan, 1906), + &c. (Extensive bibliographies will be found in several of the above.) + + Head and Appendages.--J. C. Savigny, _Memoires sur les animaux sans + vertebres_ (Paris, 1816); C. Janet, _Essai sur la constitution + morphologique de la tete de l'insecte_ (Paris, 1899); J. H. Comstock + and C. Kochi (_American Naturalist_, xxxvi., 1902); V. L. Kellogg + (ibid.); W. A. Riley (_American Naturalist_, xxxviii., 1904); F. + Meinert (_Entom. Tidsskr._ i., 1880); H. J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi., + 1893); J. B. Smith (_Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc._ xix., 1896); H. Holmgren + (_Zeitsch. wiss. Zoolog._ lxxvi., 1904); K. W. Verhoeff (_Abhandl. K. + Leop.-Carol. Akad._ lxxxiv., 1905). + + Thorax, Legs and Wings.--K. W. Verhoeff (_Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. + Akad._ lxxxii., 1903); F. Voss (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ lxxviii., 1905); + F. Dahl (_Arch. f. Naturgesch._ 1, 1884); J. Demoor (_Arch. de biol._ + x., 1890); J. Redtenbacher (_Ann. Kais. naturhist. Museum, Wien_, i., + 1886); R. von Lendenfeld (_S. B. Akad. Wissens., Wien_, lxxxiii., + 1881); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham (_Amer. Nat._, xxxii., + xxxiii., 1898-1899); C. W. Woodworth (_Univ. California Entom. Bull._ + i., 1906). + + Abdomen and Appendages.--E. Haase (_Morph. Jahrb._ xv., 1889); R. + Heymons (_Morph. Jahrb._ xxiv., 1896; _Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad._ + lxxiv., 1899); K. W. Verhoeff (_Zool. Anz._ xix., xx., 1896-1897); S. + A. Peytoureau, _Contribution a l'etude de la morphologie de l'armure + genitale des insectes_ (Bordeaux, 1895); H. Dewitz (_Zeits. wiss. + Zool._ xxv., xxviii., 1874, 1877); E. Zander (ibid. lxvi., lxvii., + 1899-1900). + + Nervous System.--H. Viallanes (_Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ [6], xvii., + xviii., xix., [7] ii., iv., 1884-1887); S. J. Hickson (_Quart. Journ. + Micr. Sci._ xxv., 1885); W. Patten (_Journ. Morph._ i., ii., + 1887-1888); F. Plateau (_Mem. Acad. Belg._ xliii., 1888); V. Graber + (_Arch. mikr. Anat._ xx., xxi., 1882). + + Respiratory System.--J. A. Palmen, _Zur Morphologie des + Tracheensystems_ (Leipzig, 1877); F. Plateau (_Mem. Acad. Belg._ xiv., + 1884); L. C. Miall, _Natural History of Aquatic Insects_ (London, + 1895). + + Digestive System, &c.--L. Dufour (_Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1824-1860); V. + Faussek (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlv., 1887). + + Malpighian Tubes.--E. Schindler (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xxx., 1878); W. + M. Wheeler (_Psyche_ vi., 1893); L. Cuenot (_Arch. de biol._ xiv., + 1895). + + Reproductive Organs.--H. V. Wielowiejski (Zool. Anz. ix., 1886); J. A. + Palmen, _Uber paarige Ausfuhrungsgange der Geschlechtsorgane bei + Insekten_ (Helsingfors, 1884); H. Henking (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlix., + li., liv., 1890-1892); F. Leydig (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ iii., 1889). + + Embryology.--F. Blochmann (_Morph. Jahrb._ xii., 1887); A. Kovalevsky + (_Mem. Acad. St-Petersbourg_, xvi., 1871; _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlv., + 1887); V. Graber (_Denksch. Akad. Wissens., Wien_, lvi., 1889); K. + Heider, _Die Embryonalentwicklung von Hydrophilus piceus_ (Jena, + 1889); W. M. Wheeler (_Journ. Morph._ iii., viii., 1889-1893); E. + Korschelt and K. Heider, _Handbook of the Comparative Embryology of + Invertebrates_ (trans. M. Bernard), (vol. iii., London, 1899); R. + Heymons, _Die Embryonalentwicklung von Dermapteren und Orthopteren_ + (Jena, 1895) (also _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ liii., 1891, lxii., 1897; + _Anhang zu den Abhandl. K. Akad. d. Wissens., Berlin_, 1896); A. + Lecaillon (_Arch. d'anat. micr._ ii., 1898); J. Carriere and O. Burger + (_Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad._ lxix., 1897); K. Escherich (ibid. + lxxvii., 1901); F. Schwangart (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ lxxvi., 1904); R. + Ritter (_ib._ li., 1890); E. Metchnikoff (_ib._ xvi., 1866); H. Uzel + (_Zool. Anz._ xx., 1897); J. W. Folsom (_Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. + Harvard_., xxxvi., 1900). + + Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis.--T. H. Huxley (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ + xxii., 1858); R. Leuckart, _Zur Kenntnis des Generationswechsels und + der Parthogenesis bei den Insekten_ (Frankfurt, 1858); N. Wagner + (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xv., 1865); L. F. Henneguy (_Bull. Soc. + Philomath._ [9], i. 1899); A. Petrunkevich (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xiv., + xvii., 1901-1903); P. Marchal (_Arch. zool. exp. et gen._ [4], ii., + 1904); L. Doncaster (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlix., li., + 1906-1907). + + Growth and Metamorphosis.--A. Weismann (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xiii., + xiv., 1863-1864); F. Brauer (_Verh. zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Wien_, + xix., 1869); Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Origin and Metamorphosis + of Insects_ (London, 1874); L. C. Miall (_Nature_, liii., 1895); L. C. + Miall and A. R. Hammond, _Structure and Life-history of the + Harlequin-fly_ (Oxford, 1900); J. Gonin (_Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat._ + xxx., 1894); C. de Bruyne (_Arch. de biol._ xv. (1898); D. Sharp + (_Proc. Inter. Zool. Congress_, 1898); E. B. Poulton (_Trans. Linn. + Soc._ v., 1891); T. A. Chapman (_Trans. Ent. Soc._, 1893). + + Classification.--F. Brauer (_S. B. Akad. Wiss., Wien_, xci., 1885); A. + S. Packard (_Amer. Nat._ xx.; 1886); C. Borner, A. Handlirsch, F. + Klapalek (_Zool. Anz._ xxvii., 1904); G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._ + xxvi., 1903). + + Palaeontology.--S. H. Scudder, in Zittel's _Palaeontology_ (French + trans., vol. ii., Paris, 1887, and Eng. trans., vol. i., London, + 1900); C. Brongniart, _Insectes fossiles des temps primaires_ + (St-Etienne, 1894); A. Handlirsch, _Die fossilen Insekten und die + Phylogenie der rezenten Formen_ (Leipzig, 1906). + + Phylogeny.--Brauer, Lubbock, Sharp, Borner, &c. (opp. cit.); P. Mayer + (_Jena, Zeits. Naturw._ x., 1876); B. Grassi (_Atti R. Accad. dei + Lincei, Roma_ [4], iv., 1888, and _Archiv ital. biol._ xi., 1889); F. + Muller, _Facts and Arguments for Darwin_ (trans. W. S. Dallas, London, + 1869); N. Zograf (_Congr. Zool. Int._, 1892); E. R. Lankester (_Quart. + Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvii., 1904); G. H. Carpenter (_Proc. R. Irish + Acad._ xxiv., 1903; _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlix., 1905). + (D. S.*; G. H. C.) + + + + +HEXASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: stylos], column), an +architectural term given to a temple in the portico of which there are +six columns in front. + + + + +HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the Old Testament +(the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact that these form one +literary whole, describing the early traditional history of the +Israelites from the creation of the world to the conquest of Palestine +and the origin of their national institutions. These books are the +result of an intricate literary process, on which see BIBLE (Old +Testament: _Canon_), and the articles on the separate books (GENESIS, +EXODUS, LEVITICUS, NUMBERS, DEUTERONOMY and JOSHUA). + + + + +HEXHAM, a market town in the Hexham parliamentary division of +Northumberland, England, 21 m. W. from Newcastle by the Carlisle branch +of the North-Eastern railway, served also from Scotland by a branch of +the North British railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7107. It is +pleasantly situated beneath the hills on the S. bank of the Tyne, and +its market square and narrow streets bear many marks of antiquity. It is +famous for its great abbey church of St Andrew. This building, as +renovated in the 12th century, was to consist of nave and transepts, +choir and aisles, and massive central tower. The Scots are believed to +have destroyed the nave in 1296, but it may be doubted if it was ever +completed. In 1536 the last prior was hanged for being concerned in the +insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace. The church as it stands is +a fine monument of Early English work, with Transitional details. +Within, although it suffered much loss during a restoration c. 1858, +there are several objects of interest. Among these are a Roman slab, +carved with figures of a horseman trampling upon an enemy, several fine +tombs and stones of the 13th and 14th centuries, the frith or fridstool +of stone, believed to be the original bishop's throne, and the fine +Perpendicular roodscreen of oak, retaining its loft. The crypt, +discovered in 1726, is part of the Saxon church, and a noteworthy +example of architecture of the period. Its material is Roman, some of +the stones having Roman inscriptions. These were brought from the Roman +settlement at Corbridge, 4 m. E. of Hexham on the N. bank of the Tyne; +for Hexham itself was not a Roman station. In 1832 a vessel containing +about 8000 Saxon coins was discovered in the churchyard. Fragments of +the monastic buildings remain, and west of the churchyard is the monks' +park, known as the Seal, and now a promenade, commanding beautiful +views. In the town are two strong castellated towers of the 14th +century, known as the Moot Hall and the Manor Office. Their names +explain their use, but they were doubtless also intended as defensive +works. In the interesting and beautiful neighbourhood of Hexham there +should be noticed Aydon castle near Corbridge, a fortified house of the +late 13th century; and Dilston or Dyvilston, a typical border fortress +dating from Norman times, of which only a tower and small chapel remain. +It is replete with memories of the last earl of Derwentwater, who was +beheaded in 1716 for his part in the Stuart rising of the previous year, +and was buried in the chapel. There is an Elizabethan grammar school. +Hexham and Newcastle form a Roman Catholic bishopric, with the cathedral +at Newcastle. There are manufactures of leather gloves and other goods, +and in the neighbourhood barytes and coal mines and extensive market +gardens. + +The church and monastery at Hexham (Hextoldesham) were founded about 673 +by Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who is said to have received a grant of +the whole of Hexhamshire from Aethelhryth, queen of Northumbria, and a +grant of sanctuary in his church from the king. The church in 678 +became the head of the new see of Bernicia, which was united to that of +Lindisfarne about 821, when the bishop of Lindisfarne appears to have +taken possession of the lordship which he and his successors held until +it was restored to the archbishop of York by Henry II. The archbishops +appear to have had almost royal power throughout the liberty, including +the rights of trying all pleas of the crown in their court, of taking +inquisitions and of taxation. In 1545 the archbishop exchanged +Hexhamshire with the king for other property, and in 1572 all the +separate privileges which had belonged to him were taken away, and the +liberty was annexed to the county of Northumberland. Hexham was a +borough by prescription, and governed by a bailiff at least as early as +1276, and the same form of government continued until 1853. In 1343 the +men of Hexham were accused of pretending to be Scots and imprisoning +many people of Northumberland and Cumberland, killing some and extorting +ransoms for others. The Lancastrians were defeated in 1464 near Hexham, +and legend says that it was in the woods round the town that Queen +Margaret and her son hid until their escape to Flanders. In 1522 the +bishop of Carlisle complained to Cardinal Wolsey, then archbishop of +York, that the English thieves committed more thefts than "all the Scots +of Scotland," the men of Hexham being worst of all, and appearing 100 +strong at the markets held in Hexham, so that the men whom they had +robbed dared not complain or "say one word to them." This state of +affairs appears to have continued until the accession of James I., and +in 1595 the bailiff and constables of Hexham were removed as being +"infected with combination and toleration of thieves." Hexham was at one +time the market town of a large agricultural district. In 1227 a market +on Monday and a fair on the vigil and day of St Luke the Evangelist were +granted to the archbishop, and in 1320 Archbishop Melton obtained the +right of holding two new fairs on the feasts of St James the Apostle +lasting five days and of SS. Simon and Jude lasting six days. The market +day was altered to Tuesday in 1662, and Sir William Fenwick, then lord +of the manor, received a grant of a cattle market on the Tuesday after +the feast of St Cuthbert in March and every Tuesday fortnight until the +feast of St Martin. The market rights were purchased from Wentworth B. +Beaumont, lord of the manor, in 1886. During the 17th and 18th centuries +Hexham was noted for the leather trade, especially for the manufacture +of gloves, but in the 19th century the trade began to decline. Coal +mines which had belonged to the archbishop, were sold to Sir John +Fenwick, Kt., in 1628. Hexham has never been represented in parliament, +but gives its name to one of the four parliamentary divisions of the +county. + + See Edward Bateson and A. B. Hinds, _A History of Northumberland_ vol. + iii. (1893-1896); A. B. Wright, _An Essay towards the History of + Hexham_ (1823); James Hewitt, _A Handbook to Hexham and its + Antiquities_ (1879). + + + + +HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER (1637-1712), Dutch painter, was born at Gorcum in +1637, and died at Amsterdam on the 12th of September 1712. He was an +architectural landscape painter, a contemporary of Hobbema and Jacob +Ruysdael, with the advantage, which they lacked, of a certain +professional versatility; for, whilst they painted admirable pictures +and starved, he varied the practice of art with the study of mechanics, +improved the fire engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and +director of the firemen's company at Amsterdam. Till 1672 he painted in +partnership with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian's death, and +probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him, he +accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At no period +of artistic activity had the system of division of labour been more +fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in Holland towards +the close of the 17th century. Van der Heyden, who was perfect as an +architectural draughtsman in so far as he painted the outside of +buildings and thoroughly mastered linear perspective, seldom turned his +hand to the delineation of anything but brick houses and churches in +streets and squares, or rows along canals, or "moated granges," common +in his native country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent +and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to Cologne, where +he copied over and over again the tower and crane of the great +cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or vale, or stream or wood. He +could reproduce the rows of bricks in a square of Dutch houses sparkling +in the sun, or stunted trees and lines of dwellings varied by steeples, +all in light or thrown into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the +art of painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping. But +he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts; and this was +his disadvantage. His good genius under these circumstances was Adrian +van der Velde, who enlivened his compositions with spirited figures; and +the joint labour of both is a delicate, minute, transparent work, +radiant with glow and atmosphere. + + + + +HEYLYN (or HEYLIN), PETER (1600-1662), English historian and +controversialist, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire. Having made great +progress in his studies, he entered Hart Hall, Oxford, in 1613, +afterwards joining Magdalen College; and in 1618 he began to lecture on +cosmography, being made fellow of Magdalen in the same year. His +lectures, under the title of [Greek: Mikrokosmos], were published in +1621, and many editions of this useful book, each somewhat enlarged, +subsequently appeared. Having been ordained in 1624 Heylyn attracted the +notice of William Laud, then bishop of Bath and Wells; and in 1628 he +married Laetitia, daughter of Thomas Highgate, or Heygate, of Hayes, +Middlesex; but he appears to have kept his marriage secret and did not +resign his fellowship. After serving as chaplain to Danby in the Channel +Islands, he became chaplain to Charles I. in 1630, and was appointed by +the king to the rectory of Hemingford, Huntingdonshire. John Williams, +bishop of Lincoln, however, refused to institute Heylyn to this living, +owing to his friendship with Laud; and in return Charles appointed him a +prebendary of Westminster, where he made himself very objectionable to +Williams, who held the deanery _in commendam_. In 1633 he became rector +of Alresford, soon afterwards vicar of South Warnborough, and he became +treasurer of Westminster Abbey in 1637; but before this date he was +widely known as one of the most prominent and able controversialists +among the high-church party. Entering with great ardour into the +religious controversies of the time he disputed with John Prideaux, +regius professor of divinity at Oxford, replied to the arguments of +Williams in his pamphlets, "A Coal from the Altar" and "Antidotum +Lincolnense," and was hostile to the Puritan element both within and +without the Church of England. He assisted William Noy to prepare the +case against Prynne for the publication of his _Histriomastix_, and made +himself useful to the Royalist party in other ways. However, when the +Long Parliament met he was allowed to retire to Alresford, where he +remained until he was disturbed by Sir William Waller's army in 1642, +when he joined the king at Oxford. At Oxford Heylyn edited _Mercurius +Aulicus_, a vivacious but virulent news-sheet, which greatly annoyed the +Parliamentarians; and consequently his house at Alresford was plundered +and his library dispersed. Subsequently he led for some years a +wandering life of poverty, afterwards settling at Winchester and then at +Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire; and he refers to his hardships in his +pamphlet "Extraneus Vapulans," the cleverest of his controversial +writings, which was written in answer to Hamon l'Estrange. In 1653 he +settled at Lacy's Court, Abingdon, where he resided undisturbed by the +government of the Commonwealth, and where he wrote several books and +pamphlets, both against those of his own communion, like Thomas Fuller, +whose opinions were less unyielding than his own, and against the +Presbyterians and others, like Richard Baxter. + +His works, all of which are marred by political or theological rancour, +number over fifty. Among the most important are: a legendary and learned +_History of St. George of Cappadocia_, written in 1631; _Cyprianus +Anglicus, or the history of the Life and Death of William Laud_, a +defence of Laud and a valuable authority for his life; _Ecclesia +restaurata, or the History of the Reformation of the Church of England_ +(1661; ed. J. C. Robertson, Cambridge, 1849); _Ecclesia vindicata, or +the Church of England justified_; _Aerius redivivus, or History of the +Presbyterians_; and _Help to English History_, an edition of which, with +additions by P. Wright, was published in 1773. In 1636 he wrote a +_History of the Sabbath_, by order of Charles I. to answer the Puritans; +and in consequence of a journey through France in 1625 he wrote _A +Survey of France_, a work, frequently reprinted, which was termed by +Southey "one of the liveliest books of travel in its lighter parts, and +one of the wisest and most replete with information that was ever +written by a young man." Some verses of merit also came from his active +pen, and his poetical memorial of William of Waynflete was published by +the Caxton Society in 1851. + +Heylyn was a diligent writer and investigator, a good ecclesiastical +lawyer, and had always learning at his command. His principles, to which +he was honestly attached, were defended with ability; but his efforts to +uphold the church passed unrecognized at the Restoration, probably owing +to his physical infirmities. His sight had been very bad for several +years; yet he rejoiced that his "bad old eyes" had seen the king's +return, and upon this event he preached before a large audience in +Westminster Abbey on the 29th of May 1661. He died on the 8th of May +1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where he had been sub-dean for +some years. + + Lives of Heylyn were written by his son-in-law Dr John Barnard or + Bernard, and by George Vernon (1682). Bernard's work was reprinted + with Robertson's edition of Heylyn's _History of the Reformation_ in + 1849. + + + + +HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON [commonly abbreviated to PIET] (1578-1629), +Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein, +who was engaged in the herring fishery. The son went early to sea. In +his youth he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row +in the galleys during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an +exchange of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant skipper +with success. The then dangerous state of the seas at all times, and the +continuous war with Spain, gave him ample opportunity to gain a +reputation as a resolute fighting man. Wills which he made before 1623 +show that he had been able to acquire considerable property. When the +Dutch West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotterdam +Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of the fleet which +took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos in Brazil. Till 1628 he +continued to serve the Company, both on the coast of Brazil, and in the +West Indies. In the month of September of that year he made himself +famous, gained immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous +loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was bringing +the bullion from the American mines home to Spain. The Spanish ships +were outnumbered chiefly because the convoy had become scattered by bad +management and bad seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting +of the four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king's share +of the treasure was being carried, became separated from the rest, and +on being chased by the superior force of Heyn endeavoured to take refuge +at Matanzas in the island of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion +in the bush before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de +Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision, was +overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before the silver could +be discharged. The total loss was estimated by the Spaniards at four +millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now returned home, and bought himself a +house at Delft with the intention of retiring from the sea. In the +following year, however, he was chosen at a crisis to take command of +the naval force of the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of +Holland, in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers, +who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Netherlands. +In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action, and they were +severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live to enjoy his victory. He was +struck early in the battle by a cannon shot on the shoulder and fell +dead on the spot. His memory has been preserved by his capture of the +Treasure Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also +the traditional representative of the Dutch "sea dogs" of the 17th +century. + + See de Jonge, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen_; I. Duro, + _Armada espanola_, iv.; der Aa, _Biograph. Woordenboek der + Nederlanden_. (D. H.) + + + + +HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB (1729-1812), German classical scholar and +archaeologist, was born on the 25th of September 1729, at Chemnitz in +Saxony. His father was a poor weaver, and the expenses of his early +education were paid by one of his godfathers. In 1748 he entered the +university of Leipzig, where he was frequently in want of the +necessaries of life. His distress had almost amounted to despair, when +he procured the situation of tutor in the family of a French merchant in +Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. After he had +completed his university course, he was for many years in very +straitened circumstances. An elegy written by him in Latin on the death +of a friend attracted the attention of Count von Bruhl, the prime +minister, who expressed a desire to see the author. Accordingly, in +April 1752, Heyne journeyed to Dresden, believing that his fortune was +made. He was well received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary, +but nothing came of it. Another period of want followed, and it was only +by persistent solicitation that Heyne was able to obtain the post of +under-clerk in the count's library, with a salary of somewhat less than +twenty pounds sterling. He increased his scanty pittance by translation; +in addition to some French novels, he rendered into German the _Chaereas +and Callirrhoe_ of Chariton, the Greek romance writer. He published his +first edition of _Tibullus_ in 1755, and in 1756 his _Epictetus_. In the +latter year the Seven Years' War broke out, and Heyne was once more in a +state of destitution. In 1757 he was offered a tutorship in the +household of Frau Von Schonberg, where he met his future wife. In +January 1759 he accompanied his pupil to the university of Wittenberg, +from which he was driven in 1760 by the Prussian cannon. The bombardment +of Dresden (to which city he had meanwhile returned) on the 18th of July +1760, destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished +edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden Library. In +the summer of 1761, although still without any fixed income, he married, +and for some time he found it necessary to devote himself to the duties +of land-steward to the Baron von Loben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762, +however, he was enabled to return to Dresden, where he was commissioned +by P. D. Lippert to prepare the Latin text of the third volume of his +_Dactyliotheca_ (an account of a collection of gems). On the death of +Johann Matthias Gesner at Gottingen in 1761, the vacant chair was +refused first by Ernesti and then by Ruhnken, who persuaded Munchhausen, +the Hanoverian minister and principal curator of the university, to +bestow it on Heyne (1763). His emoluments were gradually augmented, and +his growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from other +German governments, which he persistently refused. After a long and +useful career, he died on the 14th of July 1812. Unlike Gottfried +Hermann, Heyne regarded the study of grammar and language only as the +means to an end, not as the chief object of philology. But, although not +a critical scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment +of Greek mythology, and he gave an undoubted impulse to philological +studies. + + Of Heyne's numerous writings, the following may be mentioned. + Editions, with copious commentaries, of Tibullus (ed. E. C. + Wunderlich, 1817), Virgil (ed. G. P. Wagner, 1830-1841), Pindar (3rd + ed. by G. H. Schafer, 1817), Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (1803), + Homer, _Iliad_ (1802); _Opuscula academica_ (1785-1812), containing + more than a hundred academical dissertations, of which the most + valuable are those relating to the colonies of Greece and the + antiquities of Etruscan art and history. His _Antiquarische Aufsatze_ + (1778-1779) is a valuable collection of essays connected with the + history of ancient art. His contributions to the _Gottingische + gelehrte Anzeigen_ are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in + number. See biography by A. H. Heeren (1813) which forms the basis of + the interesting essay by Carlyle (_Misc. Essays_, ii.); H. Sauppe, + _Gottinger Professoren_ (1872); C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_, xii.; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. 36-44. + + + + + +HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG (1830- ), German novelist, dramatist and +poet, was born at Berlin on the 15th of March 1830, the son of the +distinguished philologist Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797-1855). After +attending the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849, +to Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in 1852 +took his doctor's degree. He had already given proof of great literary +ability in the production in 1850 of _Der Jungbrunnen, Marchen eines +fahrenden Schulers_ and of the tragedy _Francesca von Rimini_, when +after a year's stay in Italy, he was summoned, early in 1854, by King +Maximilian II. to Munich, where he subsequently lived. Here he turned +his attention to novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four +short stories in one volume, one of which, at least, _L'Arrabbiata_, was +a masterpiece of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of +similar volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole +constituting such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as seldom +before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer. Heyse works in the +spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some picturesque incident or +situation, and chisels and polishes until all the effect which it is +capable of producing has been extracted from it. The success of the +story usually depends upon the theme, for the artist's skill is +generally much the same, and the situation usually leaves a deeper +impression than the characters. Heyse is also the author of several +novels on a larger scale, all of which have gained success and provoked +abundant discussion. The more important are _Kinder der Welt_ (1873), +_Im Paradiese_ (1875)--the one dealing with the religious and social +problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich--_Der Roman +der Stiftsdame_ (1888), and _Merlin_ (1892), a novel directed against +the modern realistic movement of which Heyse had been the leading +opponent in Germany. He has also been a prolific dramatist, but his +plays are deficient in theatrical qualities and are rarely seen on the +stage. Among the best of them are _Die Sabinerinnen_ (1859); _Hans +Lange_ (1866), _Kolberg_ (1868), _Die Weisheit Salomos_ (1886), and +_Maria von Magdala_ (1903). There are masterly translations by him of +Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (_Italienische Dichter seit +der Mitte des 18ten Jahrhundert_) (4 vols., 1889-1890). + + Heyse's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 29 vols. (1897-1899); there is + also a popular edition of his _Romane_ (8 vols., 1902-1904) and + _Novellen_ (10 vols., 1904-1906). See his autobiography, + _Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse_ (1901); also O. Kraus, _Paul + Heyses Novellen und Romane_ (1888); E. Petzet, _Paul Heyse als + Dramatiker_ (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in _Studien und + Studienkopfe_, 1877), and G. Brandes (in _Moderne Geister_, 1887). + + + + +HEYSHAM, a seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, on the south shore of Morecambe Bay, served by the +Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3381. Under powers obtained from parliament +in 1896, the Midland Railway Company constructed, and opened in 1904, a +harbour, enclosed by breakwaters, for the development of traffic with +Belfast and other Irish ports, a daily passenger-service of the first +class being established to Belfast. The harbour has a depth at low tide +of 17 ft., and extensive accommodation for live-stock and goods of all +kinds is provided. Heysham is in some favour as a watering-place. The +church of St Peter is mainly Norman, and has fragments of even earlier +date. Ruins of a very ancient oratory stand near it. This was dedicated +to St Patrick, and is traditionally said to have been erected as a place +of prayer for those at sea. + + + + +HEYWOOD, JOHN (b. 1497), English dramatist and epigrammatist, is +generally said to have been a native of North Mimms, near St Albans, +Hertfordshire, though Bale says he was born in London. A letter from a +John Heywood, who may fairly be identified with him, is dated from +Malines in 1575, when he called himself an old man of seventy-eight, +which would fix his birth in 1497. He was a chorister of the Chapel +Royal, and is said to have been educated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke +College), Oxford. From 1521 onwards his name appears in the king's +accounts as the recipient of an annuity of ten marks as player of the +virginals, and in 1538 he received forty shillings for "playing an +interlude with his children" before the Princess Mary. He is said to +have owed his introduction to her to Sir Thomas More, at whose seat at +Gobions near St Albans he wrote his Epigrams, according to Henry +Peacham. More took a keen interest in the drama, and is represented by +tradition as stepping on to the stage and taking an impromptu part in +the dialogue. William Rastell, the printer of four of Heywood's plays, +was the son of More's brother-in-law, John Rastell, who organized +dramatic representations, and possibly wrote plays himself. Mr A. W. +Pollard sees in Heywood's firm adherence to Catholicism and his free +satire of legal and social abuses a reflection of the ideas of More and +his friends, which counts for much in his dramatic development. His +skill in music and his inexhaustible wit made him a favourite both with +Henry VIII. and Mary. Under Edward VI. he was accused of denying the +king's supremacy over the church, and had to make a public recantation +in 1554; but with the accession of Mary his prospects brightened. He +made a Latin speech to her in St Paul's Churchyard at her coronation, +and wrote a poem to celebrate her marriage. Shortly before her death she +granted him the lease of a manor and lands in Yorkshire. When Elizabeth +succeeded to the throne he fled to Malines, and is said to have returned +in 1577. In 1587 he is spoken of as "dead and gone" in Thomas Newton's +epilogue to his works. + +John Heywood is important in the history of English drama as the first +writer to turn the abstract characters of the morality plays into real +persons. His interludes link the morality plays to the modern drama, and +were very popular in their day. They represent ludicrous incidents of a +homely kind in a style of the broadest farce, and approximate to the +French dramatic renderings of the subjects of the _fabliaux_. The fun in +them still survives in spite of the long arguments between the +characters and what one of their editors calls his "humour of filth." +Heywood's name was actually attached to four interludes. _The Playe +called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a palmer, a +pardoner, a potycary, a pedler_ (not dated) is a contest in lying, +easily won by Palmer, who said he had never known a woman out of +patience. _The Play of the Wether, a new and a very mery interlude of +all maner of Wethers_ (printed 1533) describes the chaotic results of +Jupiter's attempts to suit the weather to the desires of a number of +different people. _The Play of Love_ (printed 1533) is an extreme +instance of the author's love of wire-drawn argument. It is a double +dispute between "Loving not Loved" and "Loved not Loving" as to which is +the more wretched, and between "Both Loved and Loving" and "Neither +Loving nor Loved" to decide which is the happier. The only action in +this piece is indicated by the stage direction marking the entrance of +"Neither loved nor loving," who is to run about the audience with a huge +copper tank on his head full of lighted squibs, and is to cry "Water, +water! Fire, fire!" _The Dialogue of Wit and Folly_ is more of an +academic dispute than a play. But two pieces universally assigned to +Heywood, although they were printed by Rastell without any author's +name, combine action with dialogue, and are much more dramatic. In _The +Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and Neybour +Pratte_ (printed 1533, but probably written much earlier) the Pardoner +and the Friar both try to preach at the same time, and, coming at last +to blows, are separated by the other two personages of the piece. The +_Mery Play betwene Johan Johan the Husbande, Tyb the Wyfe, and Syr Jhan +the Preest_ (printed 1533) is the best constructed of all his pieces. +Tyb and Syr Jhan eat the "Pye" which is the central "property" of the +piece, while Johan Johan is made to chafe wax at the fire to stop a hole +in a pail. This incident occurs in a French _Farce nouvelle tres bonne +et fort joyeuse de Pernet qui va au vin_. Heywood has sometimes been +credited with the authorship of the dialogue of _Gentylnes and Nobylyte_ +printed by Rastell without date, and Mr Pollard adduces some ground for +attributing to him the anonymous _New Enterlude called Thersytes_ +(played 1538). Heywood's other works are a collection of proverbs and +epigrams, the earliest extant edition of which is dated 1562; some +ballads, one of them being the "Willow Garland," known to Desdemona; +and a long verse allegory of over 7000 lines entitled _The Spider and +the Flie_ (1556). A contemporary writer in Holinshed's _Chronicle_ said +that neither its author nor any one else could "reach unto the meaning +thereof." But the flies are generally taken to represent the Roman +Catholics and the spiders the Protestants, while Queen Mary is +represented by the housemaid who with her broom (the sword) executes the +commands of her master (Christ) and her mistress (the church). Dr A. W. +Ward speaks of its "general lucidity and relative variety of treatment." +Heywood says that he laid it aside for twenty years before he finished +it, and, whatever may be the final interpretation put upon it, it +contains a very energetic statement of the social evils of the time, and +especially of the deficiencies of English law. + + The proverbs and epigrams were reprinted by the Spenser Society in + 1867, the _Dialogue on Wit and Folly_ by the Percy Society from an MS. + in the British Museum in 1846, with an account of Heywood by F. W. + Fairholt, and there are modern reprints of _Johan Johan_ (Chiswick + Press, 1819), _The Foure PP_. (Dodsley's _Old Plays_, 1825, 1874), and + _The Pardoner and the Frere_ (Dodsley's _Old Plays_, 1874). _The + Spider and the Flie_ was edited by A. W. Ward for the Spenser Society + in 1894. For notes and strictures on that edition see J. Haber in + _Litterarhistorische Forschungen_, vol. xv. (1900). See also A. W. + Pollard's introduction to the reprint of the _Play of the Wether_ and + _Johan Johan in Representative English Comedies_ (1903), and _The + Dramatic Writings of John Heywood_, edited by John S. Farmer for the + Early English Drama Society (1905). + +His son, JASPER HEYWOOD (1535-1598), who translated into English three +plays of Seneca, the _Troas_ (1559), the _Thyestes_ (1560) and _Hercules +Furens_ (1561), was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, but was +compelled to resign from that society in 1558. In the same year he was +elected a fellow of All Souls College, but, refusing to conform to the +changes in religion at the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, he gave +up his fellowship and went to Rome, where he was received into the +Society of Jesus. For seventeen years he was professor of moral theology +and controversy in the Jesuit College at Dillingen, Bavaria. In 1581 he +was sent to England as superior of the Jesuit mission, but his leniency +in that position led to his recall. He was on his way back to the +Continent when a violent storm drove him back to the English coast. He +was arrested on the charge of being a priest, but, although +extraordinary efforts were made to induce him to abjure his opinions, he +remained firm. He was condemned to perpetual exile on pain of death, and +died at Naples on the 9th of January 1598. His translations of Seneca +were supplemented by other plays contributed by Alexander Neville, +Thomas Nuce, John Studley and Thomas Newton. Newton collected these +translations in one volume, _Seneca, his tenne tragedies translated into +Englysh_ (1581). The importance of this work in the development of +English drama can hardly be over-estimated. + + See Dr J. W. Cunliffe, _On the Influence of Seneca upon Elizabethan + Tragedy_ (1893). + + + + +HEYWOOD, THOMAS (d. c. 1650), English dramatist and miscellaneous +author, was a native of Lincolnshire, born about 1575, and said to have +been educated at Cambridge and to have become a fellow of Peterhouse. +Heywood is mentioned by Philip Henslowe as having written a book or play +for the Lord Admiral's company of actors in October 1596; and in 1598 he +was regularly engaged as a player in the company, in which he presumably +had a share, as no wages are mentioned. He was also a member of other +companies, of Lord Southampton's, of the earl of Derby's and of the earl +of Worcester's players, afterwards known as the Queen's Servants. In his +preface to the _English Traveller_ (1633) he describes himself as having +had "an entire hand or at least a main finger in two hundred and twenty +plays." Of this number, probably considerably increased before the close +of his dramatic career, only twenty-three survive. He wrote for the +stage, not for the press, and protested against the printing of his +works, which he said he had no time to revise. He was, said Tieck, the +"model of a light and rapid talent," and his plays, as might be expected +from his rate of production, bear little trace of artistic elaboration. +Charles Lamb called him a "prose Shakespeare"; Professor Ward, one of +Heywood's most sympathetic editors, points out that this epigrammatic +statement can only be accepted with reservations. Heywood had a keen eye +for dramatic situations and great constructive skill, but his powers of +characterization were not on a par with his stagecraft. He delighted in +what he called "merry accidents," that is, in coarse, broad farce; his +fancy and invention were inexhaustible. It was in the domestic drama of +sentiment that he won his most distinctive success. For this he was +especially fitted by his genuine tenderness and his freedom from +affectation, by the sweetness and gentleness for which Lamb praised him. +His masterpiece, _A Woman kilde with kindnesse_ (acted 1603; printed +1607), is a type of the _comedie larmoyante_, and _The English +Traveller_ (1633) is a domestic tragedy scarcely inferior to it in +pathos and in the elevation of its moral tone. His first play was +probably _The Foure Prentises of London: With the Conquest of Jerusalem_ +(printed 1615, but acted some fifteen years earlier). This may have been +intended as a burlesque of the old romances, but it is more likely that +it was meant seriously to attract the apprentice public to whom it was +dedicated, and its popularity was no doubt aimed at in Beaumont and +Fletcher's travesty of the City taste in drama in their _Knight of the +Burning Pestle_. The two parts of _King Edward the Fourth_ (printed +1600), and of _If you know not me, you know no bodie; Or, The Troubles +of Queene Elizabeth_ (1605 and 1606) are chronicle histories. His other +comedies include: _The Royall King, and the Loyall subject_ (acted c. +1600; printed 1637); the two parts of _The Fair Maid of the West; Or, A +Girle worth Gold_ (two parts, printed 1631); _The Fayre Maid of the +Exchange_ (printed anonymously 1607); _The Late Lancashire Witches_ +(1634), written with Richard Brome, and prompted by an actual trial in +the preceding year; _A Pleasant Comedy, called A Mayden-Head well lost_ +(1634); _A Challenge for Beautie_ (1636); _The Wise-Woman of Hogsdon_ +(printed 1638), the witchcraft in this case being matter for comedy, not +seriously treated as in the Lancashire play; and _Fortune by Land and +Sea_ (printed 1655), with William Rowley. The five plays called +respectively _The Golden_, _The Silver_, _The Brazen_ and _The Iron Age_ +(the last in two parts), dated 1611, 1613, 1613, 1632, are series of +classical stories strung together with no particular connexion except +that "old Homer" introduces the performers of each act in turn. _Loves +Maistresse; Or, The Queens Masque_ (printed 1636) is on the story of +Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius; and the tragedy of the _Rape of +Lucrece_ (1608) is varied by a "merry lord," Valerius, who lightens the +gloom of the situation by singing comic songs. A series of pageants, +most of them devised for the City of London, or its guilds, by Heywood, +were printed in 1637. In vol. iv. of his _Collection of Old English +Plays_ (1885), Mr A. H. Bullen printed for the first time a comedy by +Heywood, _The Captives, or The Lost Recovered_ (licensed 1624), and in +vol. ii. of the same series, _Dicke of Devonshire_, which he tentatively +assigns to the same hand. + +Besides his dramatic works, twelve of which were reprinted by the +"Shakespeare Society," and were published by Mr John Pearson in a +complete edition of six vols. with notes and illustrations in 1874, he +was the author of _Troia Britannica, or Great Britain's Troy_ (1609), a +poem in seventeen cantos "intermixed with many pleasant poetical tales" +and "concluding with an universal chronicle from the creation until the +present time"; _An Apology for Actors, containing three brief treatises_ +(1612) edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1841; [Greek: Gynaikeion] +_or nine books of various history concerning women_ (1624); _England's +Elizabeth, her Life and Troubles during her minority from the Cradle to +the Crown_ (1631); _The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels_ (1635), a +didactic poem in nine books; _Pleasant Dialogue, and Dramas selected out +of Lucian_, &c. (1637; ed. W. Bang, Louvain, 1903); and _The Life of +Merlin surnamed Ambrosius_ (1641). + + See A. W. Ward, _History of English Dram. Lit._ ii. 550 seq. (1899); + the same author's Introduction to _A woman killed with kindness_ + ("Temple Dramatists," 1897); J. A. Symonds in the Introduction to + _Thomas Heywood_ in the "Mermaid" series (new issue, 1903). + + + + +HEYWOOD, a municipal borough in the Heywood parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, 9 m. N. of Manchester on the Lancashire and +Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,458. It is of modern growth and +possesses several handsome churches, chapels and public buildings. The +Queen's Park, purchased and laid out at a cost of L11,000 with money +which devolved to Queen Victoria in right of her duchy and county +palatine of Lancaster, was opened in 1879. Heywood Hall in the +neighbourhood of the town was the residence of Peter Heywood, who +contributed to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. Heywood owes its +rise to the enterprise of the Peels, its first manufactures having been +introduced by the father of the first Sir Robert Peel. It is an +important seat of the cotton manufacture, and there are power-loom +factories, iron foundries, chemical works, boiler-works and railway +wagon works. Coal is worked extensively in the neighbourhood. Heywood +was incorporated in 1881, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3660 acres. + + + + +HEZEKIAH (Heb. for "[my] strength is [of] Yah"), in the Bible son of +Ahaz, one of the greatest of the kings of Judah. He flourished at the +end of the 8th and beginning of the 7th century B.C., when Palestine +passed through one of the most eventful periods of its history. There is +much that is uncertain in his reign, and with the exception of the great +crisis of 701 B.C. its chronology has not been unanimously fixed. +Whether he came to the throne before or after the fall of Samaria +(722-721 B.C.) is disputed,[1] nor is it clear what share Judah took in +the Assyrian conflicts down to 701.[2] Shortly before this date the +whole of western Asia was in a ferment; Sargon had died and Sennacherib +had come to the throne (in 705); vassal kings plotted to recover their +independence and Assyrian puppets were removed by their opponents. Judah +was in touch with a general rising in S.W. Palestine, in which Ekron, +Lachish, Ascalon (Ashkelon) and other towns of the Philistines were +supported by the kings of Musri and Meluhha.[3] Sennacherib completely +routed them at Eltekeh (a Danite city), and thence turned against +Hezekiah, who had been in league with Ekron and had imprisoned its king +Padi, an Assyrian vassal. In this invasion of Judah the Assyrian claims +entire success; 46 towns of Judah were captured, 200,150 men and many +herds of cattle were carried off among the spoil, and Jerusalem itself +was closely invested. Hezekiah was imprisoned "like a bird in a +cage"[4]--to quote Sennacherib, and the Urbi (Arabian?) troops in +Jerusalem laid down their arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred of +silver, precious stones, couches and seats of ivory--"all kinds of +valuable treasure",--the ladies of the court, male and female attendants +(perhaps "singers") were carried away to Nineveh. Here the Assyrian +record ends somewhat abruptly, for, in the meanwhile, Babylonia had +again revolted (700 B.C.) and Sennacherib's presence was urgently needed +nearer home. + +At what precise period the Babylonian Merodach (i.e. Marduk)-Baladan +sent his embassy to Hezekiah is disputed. Although ostensibly to +congratulate the king upon his recovery from a sickness, it was really +sent in the hope of enlisting his support, and the excessive courtesy +and complaisance with which it was received suggest that it found a +ready ally in Judah (2 Kings xx. 12 sqq.; Isa. xxxix.). Merodach-Baladan +was overthrown by Sargon in 710 B.C., but succeeded in making a fresh +revolt some years later (704-703 B.C.), and opinion is much divided +whether his embassy was to secure the friendship of the youthful +Hezekiah at his succession or is to be associated with the later +widespread attempt to remove the Assyrian yoke.[5] + +The brief account of the Assyrian invasion, Hezekiah's submission, and +the payment of tribute in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16, supplements the Assyrian +record by the statement that Sennacherib besieged Lachish, a fact which +is confirmed by a bas-relief (now in the British Museum) depicting the +king in the act of besieging that town.[6] This thoroughly historical +fragment is followed by two narratives which tell how the king sent an +official from Lachish to demand the submission of Hezekiah and conclude +with the unexpected deliverance of Jerusalem. Both these stories appear +to belong to a biography of Isaiah, and, like the similar biographies of +Elijah and Elisha, are open to the suspicion that historical facts have +been subordinated to idealize the work of the prophet. See KINGS, BOOKS +OF. + + The narratives are (a) 2 Kings xviii. 13, 17-xix. 8; cf. Isa. xxxvi. + 1-xxxvii. 8, and (b) xix. 9b-35; cp. Isa. xxxvii. 9-36 (2 Chron. + xxxii. 9 sqq. is based on both), and Jerusalem's deliverance is + attributed to a certain rumour (xix. 7), to the advance of Tirhakah, + king of Ethiopia (v. 9), and to a remarkable pestilence (v. 35) which + finds an echo in a famous story related, not without some confusion of + essential facts, by Herodotus (ii. 141; cf. Josephus _Antiq._ x. i. + 5).[7] It is difficult to decide whether xix. 9a belongs to the first + or second of these narratives; and whether the "rumour" refers to the + approach of Tirhakah, or rather to the serious troubles which had + arisen in Babylonia. It is equally difficult to determine whether + Tirhakah actually appeared on the scene in 701, and the precise + application of the term Musri (Mizraim) is much debated. Unless the + two narratives are duplicates of the same event, it may be urged that + Sennacherib's attack upon Arabia (apparently about 689) involved an + invasion of Judah, by which time Egypt was in a position to be of + material assistance (cf. Isa. xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-3?). This theory of a + second campaign (first suggested by Sir Henry Rawlinson) has been + contested, although it is pointed out that Sennacherib at all events + did not invade Egypt, and that 2 Kings xix. 24 (Isa. xxxvii. 25) can + only refer to his successor. The allusion to the murder of Sennacherib + (xix. 36 sq.)[8] points to the year 681, but it is uncertain to which + of the above narratives it belongs. On the whole, the question must be + left open, and with it both the problem of the extension of the name + Musri and Mizraim outside Egypt in the Assyrian and Hebrew records of + this period and the true historical background of a number of the + Isaianic prophecies. It is quite possible that later events which + belong to the time of the Egyptian supremacy and the wars of + Esarhaddon have been confused with the history of Sennacherib's + invasion. + +It is not certain whether Hezekiah's conflict with the Philistines as +far as Gaza or his preparations to secure for Jerusalem a good water +supply (xviii. 8, xx. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 30; Ecclus. xlviii. 17 sq.)[9] +should precede or follow the events which have been discussed. On the +other hand, the reforms which the compiler of the book has attributed to +the early part of the reign were doubtless much later (2 Kings xviii. +1-8). Not the fall of Samaria, but the crisis of 701, is the earliest +date that could safely be chosen, and the extent of these reforms must +not be overestimated. They are related in terms that imply an +acquaintance with the great "Deuteronomic" movement (see DEUTERONOMY), +and are magnified further with characteristic detail by the chronicler +(2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi.). The most remarkable was the destruction of a +brazen serpent, the cult of which was traditionally traced back to the +time of Moses (Num. xxi. 9).[10] This persistence of serpent-cult, and +the idolatry (necromancy, tree-worship) which the contemporary prophets +denounce, do not support the view that the apparently radical reforms of +Hezekiah were extensive or permanent, and Jer. xxvi. 17-19 (which +suggests that Micah had a greater influence than Isaiah) throws another +light upon the conditions during his reign. Hezekiah was succeeded by +his son MANASSEH (q.v.). + + See further W. R. Smith, _Prophets_, 359-364, and HEBREW RELIGION. + According to PROV. xxv. 1, Hezekiah was a patron of literature (see + PROVERBS). The hymn which is ascribed to the king (Isa. xxxviii. 9-20, + wanting in 2 Kings) is of post-exilic origin (see Cheyne, _Introd. to + Isaiah_, 222 sq.), but is further proof of the manner in which the + Judaean king was idealized in subsequent ages, partly, perhaps, in the + belief that the deliverance of Jerusalem was the reward for his piety. + For special discussions, see Stade, _Zeits. d. alttest. Wissenschaft_, + 1886, pp. 173 sqq.; Winckler, _Alttest. Untersuch_., 26 sqq.; + Schrader, _Cuneiform Inscr. and Old Test_. (on 2 Kings, _l.c_.); + Driver, _Isaiah, his Life and Times_, pp. 43-83; A. Jeremias, _Alte + Test_. 304-310; Nagel, _Zug d. Sanherib gegen Jerus_. (Leipzig, 1903, + conservative); and especially Prasek, Sanherib's "Feldzuge gegen Juda" + (_Mitteil. d. Vorderasiat. Gesell_., 1903, pp. 113-158), K. Fullerton, + _Bibliotheca sacra_, 1906, pp. 577-634, A. Alt, _Israel u. Agypten_ + (Leipzig, 1909); also the bibliography to ISAIAH. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel,[2] 415 sqq.; O. C. + Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, _Kings_, p. 43 + seq.; T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2058, n. 1, and references. + + [2] The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza and + Musri) at Karkar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine); 715, a + rising of Musri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture of + Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter occasion + is not improbable. + + [3] Meluhha is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia; the + identification of Musri is uncertain, see below. + + [4] The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal + (Byblus), in the 15th century B.C.; _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_ (ed. + Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &c. Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a + different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib's record, see Wilke, + _Jesaja u. Assur_ (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq. + + [5] For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, _Alttest. + Unt._ 139 sqq., Burney, _Kings_, 350 sq.; Driver; Kuchler, &c.; for + the later, Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader, + Wellhausen, W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M'Curdy, Paton, &c. + + [6] Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to + the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii. + 12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18, + xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii. + 9-11. But see further ISAIAH (BOOK). + + [7] See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth's _Authority and + Archaeology_, p. 167, n. 1. + + [8] The house of _Nisroch_ should probably be that of the god + _Nusku_; see also Driver in Hogarth, _op. cit._ p. 109; Winckler, + _op. cit._ p. 84. + + [9] It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit of + Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see INSCRIPTIONS, + JERUSALEM). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool was + already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see _Pal. + Explor. Fund, Quart. Stat._ (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq. + + [10] The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. _nahash_, "serpent") + is obscure: see the commentaries. + + + + +HIATUS (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity, whether in +speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy the term is used for an +opening or foramen, as the _hiatus Fallopii_, a foramen of the temporal +bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when a step or link in reasoning is +wanting; and in grammar it is the pause made for the sake of euphony in +pronouncing two successive vowels, which are not separated by a +consonant. + + + + +HIAWATHA ("he makes rivers"), a legendary chief (_c_. 1450) of the +Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The formation of the League of +Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is attributed to him by Indian +tradition. In his miraculous character Hiawatha is the incarnation of +human progress and civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation, +medicine and the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature +which war against man. + + See J. N. B. Hewitt, in _Amer. Anthrop_. for April 1892. + + + + +HIBBING, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., 75 m. N.W. of +Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census) 6566, of whom 3537 were +foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes, 498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and +314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832. Hibbing is served by the Great Northern +and the Duluth, Missabe & Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the +great Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines +were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and farming are +also important industries. The village owns and operates the water-works +and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing was settled in 1892 and was +incorporated in 1893. + + + + +HIBERNACULUM (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a term for a winter +bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters for plants; in zoology, the +winter bud of a polyzoan. + + + + +HIBERNATION (winter sleep), the dormant condition in which certain +animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestivation (summer sleep) is +the similar condition in which other species pass periods of heat or +drought in warm latitudes. The origins of these kindred phenomena are +probably to be sought in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply +or of other factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of +cold in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other. +They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are enabled to live +through unfavourable climatic conditions which would end fatally in +starvation or desiccation were the animals to maintain their normal +state of activity. + +I. _The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestivation_.--The +physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mammalia, has been worked +out in detail by several observers in the case of some European species, +notably bats, hedgehogs, dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of +aestivation nothing definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems +probable, however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the +physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are to all +intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation, for example, +in the European hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_) is not distinguished by +external signs from the state of aestivation of the allied Mascarene +genus, the tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_). The lethargy in both cases +appears to be directly due to fall in the temperature of the organisms; +and the fall in temperature proceeds _pari passu_ with the slowing down +and weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the circulation +of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hibernation and aestivation +is shown not only in their physiological accompaniments but also in the +species of animals which become seasonally dormant. Birds neither +hibernate nor aestivate. The tenrec (_Centetes_) of Madagascar, which +aestivates, closely resembles the hedgehog (_Erinaceus_) in habits and +belongs to the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and +batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep the +winter through in cold countries; and some species of these groups +habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud in tropical latitudes +where drought is of periodical occurrence. Terrestrial molluscs lie +dormant in the winter in cold and temperate latitudes and their tropical +allies aestivate in districts where conditions enforce the habit. Some +fresh-water molluscs bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds +when the surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way +when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season in the +tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries insects and +arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters during the cold +weather, and in the tropics they similarly disappear during times of +drought. + +_Predisposing Causes of Hibernation._--The likeness between hibernation +and aestivation and the coincidence of the one with cold and of the +other with heat arrest the conclusion that the temperature of the +surrounding medium, whether atmospheric or aquatic, is the prime, much +less the sole, cause of either. The effect of extreme cold is to rouse +the hibernating animal from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter +brings about a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears +to be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues is +followed by death because the gases are expelled from the fluids as +bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals. Some +cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to 0 deg. C. Fish have been +resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice, and frogs have been +known to recover when ice has been formed in the blood and in the lymph +of the peritoneal cavity (Landois). + +For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take precautions against +exposure to extreme cold. They either bury themselves in the soil or +under the snow or seek the shelter of hollow trees or of caves, not +infrequently congregating in the same spot so that the temperature is +kept up by corporeal contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be +suspended unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon +winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not hibernate +unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during the summer and autumn +to fatten them for their winter fast; and hedgehogs and dormice in +captivity have been known to remain active in the cold until warm +sleeping-quarters were insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their +cages. Finally the wood-chucks (_Arctomys monax_) in the Adirondacks +retire to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox, +when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the vernal equinox +before the snows of winter have vanished from the ground. These and +other facts justify Marshall Hall's conclusion that cold is merely a +predisposing cause of hibernation in the sense that it is a predisposing +cause of ordinary sleep. It has also been shown that the state of +hibernation cannot be forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to +artificial cold even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper +season they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37 +deg. to 77 deg. Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters +in the autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than that +of preceding days during which they retain their activity. + +Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer sleep depend to +a considerable extent upon conditions of existence other than those of +temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign of a living thing on his arrival +at Bahia Blanca, Argentina, on the 7th of Sept., although by digging +several insects, large spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid +state. During the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean +temperature was 51 deg., the thermometer seldom rising above 55 deg. at +mid-day. But during the succeeding days when the mean temperature was 58 +deg. and that of the middle of the day between 60 deg. and 70 deg. both +insect and reptilian life was in a state of activity. Nevertheless at +Montevideo, lying only four degrees further north, between the 26th of +July and the 19th of August when the mean temperature was 58.4 deg. and +the mean highest temperature of mid-day 65.5 deg. almost every beetle, +several genera of spiders, land molluscs, toads and lizards were all +lying dormant beneath stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo +remained dormant at a temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from +its torpidity. Darwin unfortunately does not record whether the species +observed were identical in the two localities. + +The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation is +approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium or at most a +degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature of the chosen +hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as freezing point, life is +endangered at least in the case of mammals. + +In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature is normally +only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two rising and falling +together. But, setting aside the young, especially of those species in +which the offspring are born or hatched at a comparatively early stage +of development, the majority of warm-blooded animals are able to +maintain a high and approximately level temperature irrespective of +decline in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty of +temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or weakened in +most if not in all hibernating mammals both in their normal nocturnal or +diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep. In the case of European bats it +has been shown that the ordinary day sleep in summer differs only in the +matter of duration from the prolonged slumber of the same animals in +winter. The temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration +practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven minutes +has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate temperatures ranging from +45 deg. to 50 deg. F., dormice (_Muscardinus avellanarius_) and +hedgehogs (_Erinaceus europaeus_) alternately wake to feed and sink into +slumber. Dormice awake once in every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the +hedgehogs may last for two or three days. The temperature of the +hedgehog, when awake and active, rises to about 87 deg. F., that of the +dormouse to 92 deg. or 94 deg. F.; but during sleep the temperature of +both species falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all +the phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these +animals during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods of +wakeful activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term "diurnation" +has been proposed, because it has only been observed in nocturnal +animals, lies phenomenally midway between the normal sleep of +non-hibernating mammals and the dormant condition in winter of +hibernating species. The stimulus of hunger appears to be the prime +cause of its periodic cessation. Since then the faculty of temperature +adjustment is in abeyance during the ordinary diurnal summer sleep in +hibernating mammals, which in this physiological particular resemble +reptiles, it seems probable that hibernation can only be practised by +those species in which the power to maintain, when sleeping, a permanent +average high temperature has been lost or perhaps never acquired. That +there is no broad line of demarcation between the ordinary sleep of +these hibernating mammals in which the temperature is known to drop +considerably and that of non-hibernating species is indicated by the +fact that the temperature of human beings and possibly of all +non-hibernating species falls to a certain, though to a limited, extent +in ordinary sleep. + +The relation between the internal body-temperature and the respiratory +movements has been worked out in hibernating dormice, hedgehogs, marmots +and bats. When the temperature is below 12 deg. C., the torpid animal +exhibits long periods of apnoea of several minutes' duration and +interrupted by a few respirations. With the temperature rising above 13 +deg. C., the periods of apnoea in the still inactive animal become +shorter, the respiration suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot's type), +or gradually waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes' type). When the +temperature is at about 16 deg. C., the periods of apnoea in the +gradually awaking animal are very short and infrequent. When the +temperature is about 20 deg. and rising apace, respiration becomes +continuous and rapid and the animal is awake. These stages have been +especially recorded in the case of dormice. In the last stage the +respiration of hedgehogs and marmots is somewhat different, there being +a series of rapid respirations, often followed by a single deep sighing +respiration. + +_Respiration_ appears to be totally suspended in animals in a complete +state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may however, be readily +re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and to this fact may perhaps be +attributed the belief that breathing does not actually cease. If a +hibernating hedgehog be lightly touched it draws a deep breath, and +breathing is maintained for a longer or shorter time before again +ceasing; but if at the same time the temperature of the atmosphere be +raised, respiration becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by +activity (Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally +suspended is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and +bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon dioxide, +a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals in a state of +normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which may be drowned in about +three minutes when awake and active, has been removed from water +uninjured when in deep winter sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes' +submergence. A hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived +sixteen minutes' immersion. Further proof of the suspension of +respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat which while in +a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was kept in a pneumatometer for +ten hours without appreciably affecting the percentage of oxygen in the +air. The same animal, when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in +the space of one hour from the instrument. + +As in the case of respiration, _alimentation_ and _excretion_ are +suspended during hibernation. + +The _circulation of the blood_, on the other hand, continues without +interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact may be +observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats in a state of +winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog lethargic from +hibernation, it was experimentally shown that when the spinal cord was +severed behind the occipital foramen, the brain removed and the entire +spinal cord gently destroyed, the heart continued to beat strongly and +regularly for several hours, the contraction of the auricles and +ventricles being quite perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse +of ten hours. After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed +its activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve hours +both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the ventricles +remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles gave no response. +On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a hedgehog in a normal state +of activity was severed at the occiput, the left ventricle ceased to +beat almost at once, and the left auricle in less than fifteen minutes; +the right auricle was the next to cease, whereas the right ventricle +continued its contraction for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots +have yielded very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in +a state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The +pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16 to 18 per +minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent, until at the end of +the third hour only 3 were recorded in the same length of time. Excised +pieces of voluntary muscular tissue contracted vigorously three hours +after death under electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did +they cease to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same +way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the number of +pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen minutes, to 8 at +the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing altogether at the end of fifty +minutes. Similarly the response of the muscles to galvanic shock failed +at a correspondingly rapid rate. It is evident, therefore, that during +hibernation the irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked +degree, and that the irritability of the left side of the organ is +scarcely less pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction +in the rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain +hibernating mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that +the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens with +a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52 deg. F. the number was 22 +in the common garden snail (_Helix hortensis_), and 21 in the cellar +slug (_Hyalinia cellaria_). At a temperature of 30 deg. F. the pulsation +fell to 4 in the former and to 3 in the latter animal. + +The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation, and the +principal physiological phenomena connected with them, may be briefly +summarized as follows:-- + + 1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the tissues + is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the case of + mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes in definite + parts of the body, during the weeks of activity immediately preceding + the period of winter sleep. + + 2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and + hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or nocturnal + sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their prolonged and + lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of degree, + differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration. + + 3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (a) + Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and + excretion; (b) lowering of the body temperature to that of the + surrounding medium or to within a few degrees of it; (c) total or + almost total cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive + immersion for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases, + which prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active; + (d) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially + of those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that + organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (e) a + slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the + cardio-pneumatic movement. + + 4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, + devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the phenomenon of + hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence wherever the + conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought are + inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the contrary, + the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned; + aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation + is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in these + the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily at all + events in abeyance. + +II. _The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation._--Owing to the extreme +difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in their natural +haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost impossible to get accurate +knowledge of the details of this state of existence. In a general way it +is known, or assumed from their disappearance, that certain species +retire to winter quarters in particular districts, but on such important +points as whether the winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light +or profound, assured information is for the most part not forthcoming. +This is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North +America, which have been objects of study for many years. It is still +more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited and rarely +visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested in such +questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration of this truth. +It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep of these animals in north +and temperate Europe was complete and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for +example, remarked that "perhaps the bat may be the only animal which +sleeps profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food." It +was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other winged +insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats which feed upon +them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees, caves, sheds or other +places likely to afford them sufficient shelter. Here they hang +suspended, solitary or in companies according to the species. But a mild +spell of weather in mid-winter will sometimes entice a few to take wing +while it lasts, although they never appear in any numbers until +crepuscular and nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward +has recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats +(_Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), that during the +early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hibernation, in +the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that even later +in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted, especially when the +temperature of the air rises above 46 deg. F., and that during their +wakeful intervals they crawl about and feed apparently upon the insects +which live throughout the year in the caves. This is also true of the +long-eared bat (_Plecotus auritus_), and probably of other species of +this group. At Mussoorie in the Himalayas, and in other parts of +northern India, insectivorous bats, such as _Rhinolophus luctus_ and +_Rh. affinis_, pass the winter in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely +seen abroad during the cold season. The fruit-eating bats, on the +contrary (_Pteropidae_), which are more southern in their distribution +and are restricted in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower +slopes of the mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times +of the year (Blanford). + +Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles and shrews +do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction between two +groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends upon the difference in +their habitats and in those of the creatures they live upon. By +tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer, moles are still able to find +worms and various insects buried in the earth beyond the reach of frost; +and shrews hunt out spiders, centipedes and insects which in their +larval, pupal or sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in +holes and crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or +under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially active life of +the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular fact that the +common hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_)--the only member of this order +besides genera referable to the moles (_Talpidae_) and shrews +(_Soricidae_) that inhabits temperate and north-temperate latitudes in +Europe and Asia--passes the winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in +profundity by that of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly +the explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the bionomial +differences between the three animals. The subterranean feeding habits +of the mole render hibernation unnecessary on his part. Therefore the +shrew and the hedgehog, both surface feeders for the most part, need +only be considered in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst +the smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable +size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult to +find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike. Hence in winter +when insects are scarce and demand active and diligent search, it is +quite intelligible that the shrews, in virtue of their smallness and +rapidity of movement, are able to procure sufficient food for their +needs; whereas the hedgehogs, requiring a far larger quantity and +handicapped by lack of activity, would probably starve under the same +conditions. Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedgehog +(_Erinaceus megalotis_) hibernates in Afghanistan from November till +February. The tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_), a large insectivore from +Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest weeks of the year; and +specimens exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London preserved the +habit although kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with +food. + +Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha (hares, rabbits and +picas) are known to hibernate, although some of the species, like the +mountain hare (_Lepus timidus_), extend far to the north in the +palaearctic region, and the picas (_Ochotona_) live at high altitudes in +the Himalayas and Central Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive, +and where the snow lies deep for many months. It is probable that the +picas live in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores +of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The Hystrico-morpha +also are non-hibernators. It is true that the common porcupine (_Hystrix +cristata_) of south Europe and north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the +statement cannot, however, be accepted without confirmation, because the +cold is seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens +exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active throughout +the year, although kept in enclosures without artificial heat of any +kind. Even the most northerly representative of this group, the Canadian +porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), which inhabits forest-covered tracts +in the United States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter. +Some members of this group, like capybaras (_Hydrochaerus capybara_) and +coypus (_Myocastors coypus_) which live in tropical America, are +unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries, and live in the +open all the year round in parks and zoological gardens in England. +Several of the genera of Myomorpha contain species inhabiting the +northern hemisphere, which habitually hibernate. The three European +genera of dormice (_Myoxidae_), namely _Muscardinus_, _Eliomys_ and +_Glis_, sleep soundly practically throughout the winter; and examples of +the South African genus _Graphiurus_ practise the same habit when +imported to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from +their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated during the +autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed for shelter +during the winter. According to the weather, the sleep lasts from about +five to seven months. In the family _Muridae_, the true mice and rats +(_Murinae_) and the voles and lemmings (_Arvicolinae_) seem to remain +active through the winter, although some species, like the lemmings, +range far to the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice +(_Hesperomys_) of North America, belonging to the _Cricetinae_, spend +the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food is laid up for +consumption in the early spring. The Canadian jumping mouse (_Zapus +hudsonianus_), one of the Jaculidae, also hibernates, although the sleep +is frequently interrupted by milder days. Some of the most northerly +species of jerboas (Jaculidae), namely _Alactaga decumana_ of the +Kirghiz Steppes and _A. indica_ of Afghanistan, sleep from September or +October till April; and the Egyptian species (_Jaculus jaculus_) and the +Cape jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_), one of the Hystrico-morpha, remain +in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous to winter +sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains many hibernating +species. None of the true squirrels, however, appear to sleep throughout +the winter. Even the red squirrel (_Sciurus hudsonianus_) of North +America retains its activity in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that +prevail. The same is true of its European ally _Sc. vulgaris_. The North +American grey squirrel (_Sc. cinereus_), although more southerly in its +distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hibernates +partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological Gardens in London +disappear for a day or two when the cold is exceptionally keen, but for +the most part they may be seen abroad throughout the season. On the +other hand, ground squirrels like the chipmunks (_Tamias_) and the +susliks or gophers (_Spermophilus_) of North America and Central Asia, +at all events in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from +the late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where +they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of warmer +weather in the winter which may rouse them from their slumbers. The +North American flying squirrel (_Sciuropterus volucella_) and its ally +_Pteromys inornatus_ are believed to hibernate in hollow trees. All the +true marmots (_Arctomys_), a genus of which the species live at +tolerably high altitudes in Central Europe, Asia and North America, +appear to spend the winter in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their +burrows. They apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a +quantity of fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in +the case of the woodchuck (_A. monax_) of the Adirondacks, retire to +winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset of the winter cold. +The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (_Cynomys ludovicianus_) of North +America, which live in the plains, do not hibernate to the same extent +as the true marmots, although they appear to remain in their burrows +during the coldest portions of the winter. Beavers (_Castor_), although +formerly at all events extending in North America from the tropic of +Cancer up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground is +deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able to feed on +aquatic plants beneath the ice. + +Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be practised, +with one possible exception, only by species belonging to the group +Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in Europe and Asia, as well +as in the Himalayas, brown bears (_Ursus arctos_) hibernate, so also +does the North American grizzly bear (_U. horribilis_), at least in the +more northern districts of its range. The smaller black bear of the +Himalayas (_U. tibetanus_) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor +during the winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when +occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the American +black bear (_U. americanus_) the female seeks winter quarters +comparatively early in the season in preparation for the birth of her +progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the males remain active so +long as plenty of food is to be found. In the case of all bears, except +the Polar bear (_U. maritimus_), the site chosen as the hibernaculum is +either a cave or hole or some sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or +the roots of large trees, more or less overgrown with brushwood which +holds the snow until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where +the sleeping animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the +intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called "tappen" and composed +principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated until the +spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the subject of the +hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during the winter from +particular spots in the Arctic regions where icebound ships have spent +the winter, and the occasional discovery of specimens buried beneath the +snow, have led to the belief that these animals habitually retire to +winter quarters through the cold sunless months of the year. This may +possibly be the true explanation at least for certain districts. But it +has been alleged that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen +throughout the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury +themselves in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without +feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the following +year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from the neighbourhood of +icebound ships may be explained on the supposition that the adult +females alone hibernate for breeding purposes, while the full-grown +males and half-grown specimens of both sexes migrate in the winter to +the edges of the ice-floes and to coast lines, where the water is open. +Before retiring to winter quarters the pregnant females store up +sufficient quantity of fat in their tissues not only to sustain +themselves but also to supply milk for their cubs. In the Adirondack +region and probably in other districts of the same or more northern +latitudes in North America, raccoons (_Procyon lotor_) retire in the +winter to some sheltered place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass +the severest part of the season in sleep, emerging in February or March +when the snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks +(_Mephitis mephitica_), a member of the weasel family, also seek shelter +during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam believes that the +hibernation of this animal is determined by cold, and not by failure of +food-supply, for he observes that skunks may frequently be seen in +numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a time of the year when they feed +almost entirely upon mice and shrews which do not hibernate even when +the thermometer registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North +America the badger (_Taxidea americana_) is said to hibernate from +October till April; but the duration of the period probably depends, as +in the case of its European ally (_Meles meles_), upon the length and +severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the winter +repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a break in the +weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth in search of food. +This interrupted hibernation takes place at least in England and even in +Scandinavia; but in countries where frost is continuous throughout the +winter it is probable that the badger's sleep is unbroken. + +The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the Carnivora +is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the raccoon dog +(_Nyctereutes procyonoides_) of Japan and north-eastern Asia, which is +said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amurland if food has been +sufficiently plentiful in late summer and autumn to enable the animal to +lay on enough fat to resist the cold and sustain a long period of fast. +If, however, food has been scarce, this dog is compelled to remain +active all through the winter. The Arctic fox (_Vulpes lagopus_), +although considerably more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does +not hibernate. It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in +winter, but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate +southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in other +districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings or hares, for +food during the winter months. In Australia the porcupine ant-eater +(_Echidna aculeata_) hibernates; and the habit is retained by specimens +imported to Europe if exposed to the cold in outdoor cages. + +Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case of man. +For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia, where food is scarce +throughout the year and in danger of exhaustion during the winter, the +peasants are said to resort to a practice closely akin to hibernation, +spending at least one-half of the cold weather in sleep. From time +immemorial it has been the custom when the first snows fall for families +to shut themselves up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse +into slumber, each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once +a day only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little +dry bread. + +Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the +surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in a state of +lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into northern +latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue of their +inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level than that of +the atmosphere. The common land tortoise (_Testudo graeca_) of South +Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter in its natural +habitat, and even when imported to England is able, in some cases at +least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by practising the same +habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded. In Pennsylvania the +box-tortoise (_Cistudo carolina_) passes the winter in a burrow; and +_Testudo elegans_, which inhabits dry hilly districts in north India, +takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or bushes as the cold weather +approaches and remains in a semi-lethargic state until the return of the +warmth. The European pond tortoise (_Emys orbicularis_) also hibernates +buried in the soil; and the North American salt-water terrapin +(_Malacoclemmys concentrica_), abundant in the salt-marshes round +Charleston, S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold +months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises protect +themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into the soil which +afterwards becomes indurated. When drought sets in with the dry season +and the tanks become exhausted and food unobtainable, crocodiles and +alligators sometimes wander across country in search of water, but more +commonly bury themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence +until the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large snakes, +anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the Indians in South +America buried in the same lethargic state. Snakes and lizards in all +countries where there is any considerable seasonal variation in +temperature become dormant or semi-dormant during the colder months. + +Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other countries +situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury themselves in the mud at the +bottom of tanks and ponds, often congregating in numbers in the same +spot. Toads retire to burrows or other secluded places on the land, and +newts either bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up +beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to Mr G. A. +Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not pass the winter in +profound torpor, but merely in a state of sluggish quiescence. In +tropical countries, where wet and dry seasons alternate, frogs which, +like the rest of the batrachians, are for the most part intolerant of +great heat, especially when accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury +themselves deep in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from +their retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains. + +This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud forming the +bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised by several species of +tropical freshwater fishes, belonging principally to the family +_Siluridae_. The members of this group are able to exist and thrive in +moist mud, and can even support life for a comparatively long time out +of water altogether. The instinct is exhibited by species occurring both +in the eastern and western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the +case of species of _Callicthys_ and _Loricaria_ in Guiana and by +_Clarias lazera_ in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to +Tennent, in a species of climbing perch (_Anabas oligolepis_) found in +Ceylon and belonging to the family _Anabantidae_, all the species of +which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water, and +may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of fresh pools. +The habit is also common to some species of mud fishes of the order +Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays the part of lungs. +_Protopterus_, from tropical Africa, for instance, burrows into the mud +and remains for nearly half the year coiled up at the bottom in a +slightly enlarged chamber. The walls of this are lined with a layer of +slime secreted from the fish's skin, and the orifice is closed with a +lid the centre of which is perforated and forms an inturned tube by +means of which air is conducted to the fish's mouth. The aestivating +burrow of the Brazilian mudfish (_Lepidosiren_) is similar, except that +the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian mudfish +(_Ceratodus_) is not known to hibernate or aestivate. + +In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegetation +terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or fallen tree +trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of dead leaves, in +moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent until the coming of spring. +Amongst pulmonate gastropods, most species of snails (_Helix_, +_Clausilia_) close the mouth of the shell at this period with a +membranous or calcified plate, the epiphragm. Slugs (_Limax_, _Arion_), +on the contrary, lie buried in the earth encysted in a coating of slime. +Similarly in the tropics members of this group, such as _Achatina_ in +tropical Africa and _Orthalicus_ in Brazil, aestivate during the dry +season, the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and examples +of two species of _Achatina_ from east and west Africa exhibited in the +Zoological Gardens in London remained concealed in their shells during +the winter, although kept in an artificially warmed house, and resumed +their activity in the summer. + +Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such forms as _Limnaea_ +and _Planorbis_ having been frequently seen crawling about beneath the +ice of frozen ponds. During periods of drought in England, however, they +commonly bury themselves in the mud, a habit which is also practised +during the dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate +Gastropods belonging to the genera _Ampullaria_, _Melania_ and others, +which lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy. +Freshwater Pelecypoda (_Anodonta_, _Unio_) spend the European winter +buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams. + +In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects pass the +winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal or imaginal +(reproductive) stages. In some the state of hibernation is complete in +the sense that although the insects may be roused from their lethargy to +the extent of movement by spells of warm weather, they do not leave +their hibernacula to feed; in others it is incomplete in the sense that +the insects emerge to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of +_Euprepia fuliginosa_, or to take the wing as in the case of the midge +_Trichocera hiemalis_. Others again, like _Podura nivalis_ and _Boreus +hiemalis_, never appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects +which hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more than +one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (_Cossus ligniperda_), +cockchafers (_Melolontha_), stagbeetles (_Lucanus_) and dragon-flies +(_Libellula_), &c.; and to some species which, although they only live a +few months in this immature state, are hatched in the autumn or summer +and only reach the final stage of growth in the following spring, like +the butterflies of the genus _Argynnis_ (_paphia_, _aglaia_, &c.) in +England. As an instance of species which survive the winter in the +pupal or chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of +Europe (_Papilio machaon_); while to the category of species which +hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera (Rhyncophora, +_Coccinellidae_), &c., as well as some Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera +and Lepidoptera (_Vanessa io_, _urticae_, &c.). In the case of the +social Hymenoptera it is only the fertilized queen wasp out of the nest +that survives the frost of winter, all the workers dying with the onset +of cold in the autumn; the common hive bees (_Apis mellifica_), although +they retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity of +the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the +temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively at work +underground unless the temperature falls several degrees below zero. + +Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate latitudes. +Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the family _Ctenizidae_ and +some species of _Lycosidae_ seal the doors of their burrows with silk or +close up the orifice with a sheet of that material. Other non-burrowing +species, like some species of _Clubionidae_ and _Drassidae_, lie up in +silken cases attached to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose +bark, or buried under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls. +Other species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state +protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother for her +eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the "garden spider" +(_Aranea diadema_). Commonly, however, when the cocoons are later in the +making, or the cold weather sets in early, the eggs of this and of +allied species do not hatch until the spring; but in either case the +young emerge in the warm weather, become adult during the summer and die +in the autumn after pairing and oviposition. Some members of this +family, nevertheless, like _Zilla x-notata_, which live in the corners +of windows, or in outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree +of protection from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage +and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and tempted by the +warmth to spin new webs. Typical members of the Opiliones or harvest +spiders, belonging to the family _Phalangiidae_, do not hibernate in +temperate and more northern latitudes in Europe and America, but perish +in the autumn, leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the +succeeding spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature +individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging to the +family _Trogulidae_, spend the winter in a dormant state under stones or +buried in the soil. False scorpions (_Pseudo-scorpiones_) also hibernate +in temperate latitudes, passing the cold months, like many spiders, +enclosed in silken cases attached to the underside of stones or loosened +pieces of bark. Centipedes and millipedes bury themselves in the earth, +or lie up in some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks +afford during the winter; and in the tropics millipedes lie dormant +during seasons of drought. + +What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in the winter of +the northern hemisphere is also true in a general way of that of the +southern hemisphere at the same season of the year. This is proved--to +mention no other cases--by the observations of Darwin on the hibernation +of insects and spiders at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America, +and by Distant's account of the paucity of insect life in the winter in +South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating semi-torpid +Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in the Transvaal, and of +the gradual increase in the numbers of individuals and species of +insects in that country as the spring advanced and the dry season came +to an end. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Bell, _A History of British Reptiles (and + Amphibians)_ (1849); W. T. Blanford, _Fauna of British India: + Mammalia_ (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, _Monograph of the Tailless + Batrachians of Europe_, edited by the Ray Society; "Teleostei" in + _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 541-727 (1904); T. W. Bridge, + "Dipneustei" in _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 505-520 (1904); A. + H. Cooke, "Molluscs" in _Cambridge Natural History_, iii. 25-27 + (1895); T. A. Coward, _P.Z.S._ pp. 849-855 (1906), and pp. 312-324 + (1907); C. Darwin, _A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World_, pp. + 97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant, _A Naturalist in the Transvaal_, ch. + iii. (1892); Marshall Hall, "Hibernation," in _Todd's Cyclopaedia of + Anatomy and Physiology_, pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); _Phil. + Trans. Roy. Soc._ (1832); John Hunter, _Observations on parts of the + Animal Economy_ (1837); _Index Catalogue of the Library of the + Surgeon-General's Office of the U.S. Army_, vii. (1902), Bibliography + relating to physiology of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, _An + Introduction to Entomology_, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois, + _A Text-book of Human Physiology_, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410 + (1904); V. Laporte, "Suspension of Vitality in Animals," _Pop. Sci. + Monthly_, xxxvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, "Essai sur la + lethargie periodique," _Annales du Museum_, x. 453-456 (1807); C. Hart + Merriam, _North American Pocket Mice_ (Washington, 1889); W. Miller, + "Hibernation and Allied States in Animals," _Trans. Pan-Amer. Med. + Congr._ (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285 (Washington, 1895); M. S. + Pembrey and A. G. Pitts, "The Relation between the Internal + Temperature and the Respiratory Movements of Hibernating Animals," + _Journ. Physiol._ (London, 1899), pp. 305-316; Prunelle, "Recherches + sur les phenomenes et sur les causes du sommeil hivernal," _Annales du + Museum_, xviii.; J. A. Saissy, _Recherches sur les animaux hivernans_ + (1808); L. Spallanzani, _Memoires sur la respiration_ (1803); J. + Emerson Tennent, _Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon_, pp. + 351-358 (1861); Volkov, "Le Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes," + _Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol._ (Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in _Brit. + Med. Journ._ (1900), i. 1554. (R. I. P.) + + + + +HIBERNIA, in ancient geography, one of the names by which Ireland was +known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names were Ierne, Iuverna, +Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem from which also Erin is +descended. The island was well known to the Romans through the reports +of traders, so far at least as its coasts. But it never became part of +the Roman empire. Agricola (about A.D. 80) planned its conquest, which +he judged an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise. +During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to have been +an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may have settled +occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration is that of the Scots +into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman days that Roman civilization, +brought perhaps by Christian missionaries like Patrick, entered the +island. + + + + +HICKERINGILL (or HICKHORNGILL), EDMUND (1631-1708), English divine, +lived an eventful life in the days of the Commonwealth and the +Restoration. After graduating at Caius College, Cambridge, where he was +junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined Lilburne's regiment as chaplain, +and afterwards served in the ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish +service, ultimately becoming a captain in Fleetwood's regiment. He then +lived for a time in Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661. +In the same year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln, +having already passed through such shades of belief as are connoted by +the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662 until his death in 1708 +he was vicar of All Saints', Colchester. He was a vigorous pamphleteer, +and came into collision with Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he +had to pay heavy damages for slander in 1682. He made a public +recantation in 1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and +ended his career by being convicted for forgery in 1707. + + + + +HICKES, GEORGE (1642-1715), English divine and scholar, was born at +Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 20th of June 1642. In 1659 he +entered St John's College, Oxford, whence after the Restoration he +removed to Magdalen College and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was +elected fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded +M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was appointed +rector of St Ebbe's, Oxford. In 1676, as private chaplain, he +accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal commissioner, to Scotland, +and shortly afterwards received the degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In +1680 he became vicar of All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having +been made chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the +deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II.'s declaration of +indulgence and Monmouth's rising, and he tried in vain to save from +death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685), one of the +Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the revolution of 1688, +having declined to take the oath of allegiance, Hickes was first +suspended and afterwards deprived of his deanery. When he heard of the +appointment of a successor he affixed to the cathedral doors a +"protestation and claim of right." After remaining some time in +concealment in London, he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors +to James II. in France on matters connected with the continuance of +their episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself +consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were largely +occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he persuaded two +Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald Campbell, to assist him +in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as +bishops among the nonjurors. He died on the 15th of December 1715. + + The chief writings of Hickes are the _Institutiones Grammaticae + Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae_ (1689), and _Linguarum veterum + Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus_ + (1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry. + + Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious + author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested by + contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great satisfaction--the + execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having attempted to murder + Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and John King, Presbyterian + ministers, "for high treason and rebellion" (_Ravillac Redivivus_, + 1678; _The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the Mouths of Phanatical + Protestant_s, 1680). In his _Jovian_ (an answer to S. Johnson's + _Julian the Apostate_, 1683), he endeavoured to show that the Roman + empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians under Julian had + recognized the duty of passive obedience. His two treatises, one _Of + the Christian Priesthood_ and the other _Of the Dignity of the + Episcopal Order_, originally published in 1707, have been more than + once reprinted, and form three volumes of the _Library of + Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were published + _Collections of Controversial Letters_, in 1711 a collection of + _Sermons_, and in 1726 a volume of _Posthumous Discourses_. Other + treatises, such as the _Apologetical Vindication of the Church of + England_, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson's _Preservative against + Popery_. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which sketches + his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant in + various collections. A posthumous publication of his _The Constitution + of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of Schism_ + (1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy. + + See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the _Dictionary of + National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, _The + Nonjurors_ (1902). + + + + +HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1798-1888), American philosopher and divine, +was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1798. He took +his degree at Union College in 1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in +active pastoral work, and was then appointed professor of theology at +the Western Reserve College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn +(N.Y.) Theological Seminary. From this post he was elected +vice-president of Union College and professor of mental and moral +science. In 1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868 +retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to writing +and study. A collected edition of his principal works was published at +Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th of May 1888. He wrote +_Rational Psychology_ (1848), _System of Moral Science_ (1853), +_Empirical Psychology_ (1854), _Rational Cosmology_ (1858), _Creator and +Creation, or the Knowledge in the Reason of God and His Work_ (1872), +_Humanity Immortal_ (1872), _Logic of Reason_ (1874). + + + + +HICKORY, a shortened form of the American Indian name _pohickery_. +Hickory trees are natives of North America, and belong to the genus +_Carya_. They are closely allied to the walnuts (_Juglans_), the chief +or at least one very obvious difference being that, whilst in _Carya_ +the husk which covers the shell of the nut separates into four valves, +in _Juglans_ it consists of but one piece, which bursts irregularly. The +timber is both strong and heavy, and remarkable for its extreme +elasticity, but it decays rapidly when exposed to heat and moisture, and +is peculiarly subject to the attacks of worms. It is very extensively +employed in manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth, +the bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels, +chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes requiring +great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in America is for +hoop-making; and it is the only American wood found perfectly fit for +that purpose. + +The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of the +brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it gives out, +the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived. The species which +furnish the best wood are _Carya alba_ (shell-bark hickory), _C. +tomentosa_ (mockernut), _C. olivaeformis_ (pecan or pacane nut), and _C. +porcina_ (pig-nut), that of the last named, on account of its extreme +tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees and axle-handles. The wood of +_C. alba_ splits very easily and is very elastic, so that it is much +used for making whip-handles and baskets. The wood of this species is +also used in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia for making +the back bows of Windsor chairs. The timber of _C. amara_ and _C. +aquatica_ is considered of inferior quality. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Shell-bark Hickory (_Carya alba_) in flower.] + +Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to 90 ft. +in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced ample heads, +and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When confined in the forest they +shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches, but when standing alone they +expand into a fine head, and produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of +foliage. They have all the qualities necessary to constitute fine +graceful park trees. The most ornamental of the species are _C. +olivaeformis_, _C. alba_ and _C. porcina_, the last two also producing +delicious nuts, and being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Fruit of _Carya alba_; 2, Hickory Nut; 3, +Cross Section of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed.] + +The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into four +equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the upper part, +while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface, but has four or +more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The hickory nuts of the +American markets are the produce of _C. alba_, called the shell-bark +hickory because of the roughness of its bark, which becomes loosened +from the trunk in long scales bending outwards at the extremities and +adhering only by the middle. The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of +the States, and are exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The +pecan-nuts, which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to +1(1/2) in. long, smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and +thin-shelled, with the kernels full, not like those of most of the +hickories divided by partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour. +The thick-shelled fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground +for swine, squirrels, &c., to devour. In _C. amara_ the kernel is so +bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it. + + + + +HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in Hempstead +township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748. His parents were +Friends, but he took little interest in religion until he was about +twenty; soon after that time he gave up the carpenter's trade, to which +he had been apprenticed when seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he +had "openings leading to the ministry" and was "deeply engaged for the +right administration of discipline and order in the church," and in 1779 +he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours between Vermont and +Maryland. He attacked slavery, even when preaching in Maryland; wrote +_Observations on the Slavery of the Africans and their Descendants_ +(1811); and was influential in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the +act declaring free after 1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed +by the Act of 1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of +February 1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he +was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition +at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed which +would make the Society in America approach the position of the English +Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His _Doctrinal Epistle_ (1824) +stated his position, and a break ensued in 1827-1828, Hicks's followers, +who call themselves the "Liberal Branch," being called "Hicksites" by +the "Orthodox" party, which they for a time outnumbered. The village of +Hicksville, in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the +centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named in honour of +Elias Hicks. + + See _A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks_ + (Philadelphia, 1825); _The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias + Hicks_ (Philadelphia, 1828), and his _Letters_ (Philadelphia, 1834). + + + + +HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899), British physician and geologist, was born on +the 26th of May 1837 at St David's, in Pembrokeshire, where his father, +Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He studied medicine at Guy's Hospital, +London, qualifying as M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he +commenced a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to +Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases, took the +degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued his medical work +until the close of his life. In Wales he had been attracted to geology +by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist to the Geological Survey), and his +leisure time was given to the study of the older rocks and fossils of +South Wales. In conjunction with Salter, he established in 1865 the +Menevian group (Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite +_Paradoxides_. Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important +papers on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and +described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the +Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David's, describing the Dimetian (granitoid +rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his views, though +contested, have been generally accepted. At Hendon Dr Hicks gave much +attention to the local geology and also to the Pleistocene deposits of +the Denbighshire caves. For a few years before his death he had laboured +at the Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected organic +remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as unfossiliferous, and +these he regarded as including representatives of Lower Devonian and +Silurian. His papers were mostly published in the _Geol. Mag._ and +_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ He was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president +of the Geological Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the +18th of November 1899. + + + + +HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the Bombay army in +1849, and served through the Indian mutiny, being mentioned in +despatches for good conduct at the action of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In +1861 he became captain, and in the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was +a brigade major, being again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet +majority. He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After +the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive's service +and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum as chief of the +staff of the army there, then commanded by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was +formed at Omdurman and a new force of some 8000 fighting men +collected--mostly recruited from the fellahin of Arabi's disbanded +troops, sent in chains from Egypt. After a month's vigorous drilling +Hicks led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar, +whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns of Sennar +and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an immediate attack by +the mahdists the Egyptian officials at Khartum intrigued against Hicks, +who in July tendered his resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of +Suliman Niazi and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an +expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi, who in +January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that province. Hicks, +aware of the worthlessness of his force for the purpose contemplated, +stated his opinion that it would be best to "wait for Kordofan to settle +itself" (telegram of the 5th of August). The Egyptian ministry, however, +did not then believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition +started from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of 7000 +infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and included thirteen +Europeans. On the 20th the force left the Nile at Duem and struck inland +across the almost waterless wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of +November the army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was +ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid. With the +exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed. According to the +story of Hicks's cook, one of the survivors, the general was the last +officer to fall, pierced by the spear of the khalifa Mahommed Sherif. +After emptying his revolver, the pasha kept his assailants at bay for +some time with his sword, a body of Baggara who fled before him being +known afterwards as "Baggar Hicks" (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on +the words _baggara_ and _baggar_, the former being the herdsmen and the +latter the cows. Hicks's head was cut off and taken to the mahdi. + + See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_, book iv., by Sir F. R. Wingate + (London, 1891), and _With Hicks Pasha in the Soudan_, by J. Colborne + (London, 1884), Also EGYPT: _Military Operations_. + + + + +HIDALGO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San Luis Potosi and +Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala and Mexico +(state), and W. by Queretaro. Pop. (1895) 551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area, +8917 sq. m. The northern and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous, +culminating in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of +this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren, +being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where the _maguey_ +(American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The southern and western +parts of the state consist of rolling plains, in the midst of which is +the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo produces cereals in the more +elevated districts, sugar, maguey, coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco. +Maguey is cultivated for the production of _pulque_, the national drink. +The chief industry, however, is mining, the mineral districts of +Pachuca, El Chico, Real del Monte, San Jose del Oro, and Zimapan being +among the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver, gold, +mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese and plumbago. +Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway facilities are afforded +by a branch of the Vera Cruz and Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco +to Pachuca, the capital of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among +the principal towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24 +m. E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpan (about 9000) with silver mines 80 m. N. by +W. of the Federal Capital, and Actopan (2666), the chief town of the +district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited principally by Indians of the +Othomies nation. + + + + +HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from _hijo d'algo_ or _hijo de +algo_, son of something, or somewhat), originally a Spanish title of the +lower nobility; the hidalgo being the lowest grade of nobility which was +entitled to use the prefix "don." The term is now used generally to +denote one of gentle birth. The Portuguese _fidalgo_ has a similar +history and meaning. + + + + +HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL (1753-1811), Mexican patriot, was born on the +8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos, near Guanajuato. His mother's +maiden name was Gallaga, but contrary to the usual custom of the +Spaniards he used only the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y +Costilla. He was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained +priest in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life who +exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry, including the +cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at Dolores. But Napoleon's +invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a widespread commotion. The colonists +were indisposed to accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in +proclaiming Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for their +professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however, by the Spanish +authorities with suspicion as being designed to prepare the independence +of Mexico. Hidalgo and several of his friends, among whom was Miguel +Dominguez, mayor of Queretaro, engaged in consultation and preparations +which the authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested, +but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred of his +parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized the prison +at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a revolt against the +Spanish and Creole elements of the population. With what is known as the +"_grito_" or cry of Dolores as their rallying shout, a multitude +gathered round Hidalgo, who took for his banner a wonder-working picture +of the Virgin belonging to a popular shrine. At first he met with some +success. A regiment of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some +small posts were stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of +Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated. Hidalgo +lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted, and on the +march to Queretaro he was attacked at Aculco by General Felix Calleja on +the 7th of November 1810, and routed. He endeavoured to continue the +struggle, and did succeed in collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about +Guadalajara. With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a +position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On the 17th of +January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja and a small force of +soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other leaders, and soon afterwards +all of them were betrayed to the Spaniards. They were tried at +Chihuahua, and condemned. Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood +and then shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August 1811. + + See H. H. Bancroft, _The Pacific States_, vol. vii., which contains a + copious bibliography. + + + + +HIDDENITE, a green transparent variety of spodumene, (q.v.) used as a +gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b. 1853) about 1879 +at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina, and was at first taken +for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence Smith proved it to be spodumene, and +named it. Hiddenite occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of +prismatic habit, often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic +cleavage renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes +from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly +distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a marked +degree, and shows much "fire" when properly cut. The composition of the +mineral is represented by the formula LiAl(SiO3)2, the green colour +being probably due to the presence of a small proportion of chromium. +The presence of lithia in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate +name of lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite was +originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards +worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association with beryl, +quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c. + + + + +HIDE[1] (Lat. _hida_, A.-S. _higid_, _hid_ or _hiwisc_, members of a +household), a measure of land. The word was in general use in England in +Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although its meaning seems to have +varied somewhat from time to time. Among its Latin equivalents are +_terra unius familiae_, _terra unius cassati_ and _mansio_; the first of +these forms is used by Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no +definite area. In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of +the typical family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded +as containing 120 "acres" (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each, but 120 +times the amount of land which a ploughteam of eight oxen could plough +in a single day). This definition appears to have been very general in +England before the Norman Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and +80 acres are repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some +historians, however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres +or thereabouts. + + "The question about the hide," says Professor Maitland in _Domesday + Book and Beyond_, "is 'pre-judicial' to all the great questions of + early English history." The main argument employed by J. M. Kemble + (_The Saxons in England_) in favour of the "small" hide is that the + number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts of England + gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these parts, + making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an allowance + necessary because the hide was only that part of the land which came + under the plough, and each hide must have carried with it a certain + amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support of Kemble's theory + must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight contained 1200 hides. Now + 1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a total acreage of 144,000 acres, + while the total acreage of the island to-day is only 93,000 acres. + Again a document called _The Tribal Hidage_ puts the number of hides + in the whole of England at nearly a quarter of a million. This gives + in acres a figure about equal to the total acreage of England at the + present time, but it leaves no room for pasture and for the great + proportion of land which was still woodland. On these grounds Kemble + regarded the hide as containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40 + acres, and thought that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., i.e. + that it was roughly equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought + forward is that 30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the + average family, in other words that it was the _terra unius familiae_ + of Bede. Another Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at + 48 acres. + + But formidable arguments have been advanced against the "small" hide. + There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday the hide was equated + with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking the word _familia_ in its + proper sense, a household with many dependent members, and making an + allowance for primitive methods of agriculture, it is questionable + whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient for its support; and again if + the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected there is no serious + evidence in favour of any other. A possible explanation is that, + although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide consisted of 30 acres or + thereabouts, it had come before the time of Domesday to contain 120 + acres. But no trace of such change can be found; there is no break in + the continuity of the land-charters which refer to hides and manses. + Reviewing the whole question Professor Maitland accepts the view that + the hide contained 120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they + are not insuperable. Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for + the most part of lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a + vague and general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean + 120 times 4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of + Domesday the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for + purposes of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick (_Studies + on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_) says there is no evidence that the hide + contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests that possibly + the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at 40 acres, while + in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres. Dr Stubbs (_Const. + Hist._ i.) suggests that the confusion may have arisen because the + word was used "to express the whole share of one man in all the fields + of the village." Thus it might refer to 30 acres, his share in one + field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four fields. He adds, + however, that this explanation is not adequate for all cases. But + these differences about the size of the hide are not peculiar to + modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, _Hida Anglice vocatur terra + unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum_, while the _Dialogus de + scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be the long + hundred, or_ 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when he says, + "hides were of an incertain quantity." Certainly he gives a very good + description of the early hide when he says (_Titles of Honour_): "Now + a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as much land as might + be well manured with one plough, together with pasture, meadow and + wood competent for the maintenance of that plough, and the servants of + the family." The view that the size of the hide varied from district + to district is borne out by Professor Vinogradoff's more recent + researches. In his _English Society in the Eleventh Century_ he + mentions that there was a hide of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40 + acres in Dorset. In addition some authorities distinguish between + English hides and Welsh hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained + 8 virgates. Sometimes again in the 11th century hides were not merely + fiscal units; they were shares in the land itself. + +The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been established by +Mr J. H. Round in his _Feudal England_, and is regarded as throwing a +most valuable light upon the many problems which present themselves to +the student of Domesday. The process which converted the hide from a +unit of measurement to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as +follows. Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such +pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide was a +useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates doubtless from +the time of the Danegeld. For some time the two meanings were used side +by side, but before the Norman Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation, +had quite supplanted the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state +of affairs when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made. +The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county, but a single +illustration may be given. _Huntedun Burg defendebat se ad geldum regis +pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred pro L. hidis_. This does not +mean that the town of Huntingdon contained a certain fixed number of +square yards multiplied by 50, but that for purposes of taxation +Huntingdon was regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit. + + This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton in _A + Key to Domesday_ and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof rests + primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By collating + various documents which formed part of the Domesday inquest Mr Round + has brought together for certain parts of England, especially for + Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the various lords in + the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total of 5 hides or + 10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A similar result is + shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are almost universal, and + the total hidage for the county of Worcester is very near the round + figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously artificial; it must have + been imposed upon the counties or the hundreds by the central + authority and then divided among the vills. Another proof is found in + what is called "beneficial hidation." It is shown that in certain + cases the number of hides in a hundred has been reduced since the time + of Edward the Confessor, and that this reduction had been transferred + _pro rata_ to the vills in the hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that + the hide was fixed "independently of area or value." Some slight + criticism has been directed against the idea of "artificial hidation," + but the most that can be said against it is that its proof rests upon + isolated cases, a reproach which further research will doubtless + remove. However, Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a + fiscal unit "which corresponds only in a very rough way to the + agrarian reality," and Maitland says the fiscal hide is "at its best a + lame compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value." + +What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures have been +hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than the Danegeld. Rejecting +the idea that it is of Roman or of British origin, and pointing to the +serious difference in the rates at which the various counties were +assessed, Mr Round thinks that it dates from the time when the various +Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of +assessment for military service, possibly it was the recognized +endowment of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man's standing in +society was dependent to a great extent upon the number of hides which +he possessed; this statement is fully proved from the laws. Moreover, in +the laws of the Wessex king, Ine, the value of a man's oath is expressed +in hides, the oath for a king's thegn being probably worth 60 hides and +that of a ceorl 5 hides. + +The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate being, after +the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the villein with two oxen. +Mr Round holds that in Domesday at all events the hide always consisted +of four virgates; Mr F. Seebohm in _The English Village Community_, +although thinking that the normal hide "consisted as a rule of four +virgates of 30 acres each," says that the Hundred Rolls for +Huntingdonshire show that "the hide did not always contain the same +number of virgates." The virgate, it may be noted, consisted of a strip +of land in _each_ acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly a strong +case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates. + +Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions are rooted +in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between the methods of +taxation of land in Rome and in England; he sees some connexion between +the Roman _centuria_ and the hide, and between the Roman system of +taxation called _jugatio_ and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff +(_Villainage in England_) summarizes the views of those who hold a +contrary opinion thus: "The curious fact that the normal holding, the +hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by its origin; it +came full-formed from Germany and remained unchanged in spite of all +diversities of geographical and economical conditions." + + In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the "Five + Boroughs," the carucate takes the place of the hide as the unit of + value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of + assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide is + quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According to Mr + Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates; Mr W. H. + Stevenson (_English Historical Review_, vol. v.) argues that it + contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. Mr Seebohm + thinks there was a _solanda_ or double hide of 240 acres in Essex and + other southern counties, but Mr Round does not think that this word + refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all. For Kent, however, + the word _sullung_ or solin, is used in _Domesday Book_ and in the + charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere, and Vinogradoff + thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres. + +Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two or more +shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized method of +raising money, royal and some other estates, however, as is seen from +Domesday, not being hidated and not paying the tax. This geld, or tax, +received several names, one of the most general being _hidage_ (Lat. +_hidagium_). "Hidage," says Vinogradoff, "is historically connected with +the old English Danegeld system," and as Danegeld and then hidage it was +levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was during the +11th century "the most sweeping and the heaviest of all the taxes." +Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was 2s. on each hide of land, +and this was evidently the rate at the time of the famous dispute +between Henry II. and Becket at Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always +kept at this figure, as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on +each hide, an unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the +hide. Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide for +the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor Henry V., and in +1194, when money was collected for the ransom of Richard I., some of the +taxation for this purpose seems to have been assessed according to the +hidage given in Domesday Book. + +By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax was +disappearing, its place being taken by the word _carucage_. The carucate +(Lat. _caruca_, a plough) was a measure of land which prevailed in the +north of England, the district inhabited by people of Danish descent. +Some authorities regard it as equivalent to the hide, others deny this +identity. In 1198, however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each +_carucata terrae sive hyda_, the two words were obviously +interchangeable, and about the same time the size of the carucate was +fixed at 100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time +longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes on land. + + One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain + unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and a + hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres to + make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage, a simple + process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound, makes + calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from the German + _hufe_ or _huba_? (A. W. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The homonym "hide," meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng. _hydan_; + the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages. The root + is probably seen in Gr. [Greek: keuthein] to hide, or may be the same + as in "hide," skin, O. Eng. _hyd_, which is also seen in Ger. _Haut_, + Dutch _huid_; the root appears in Lat. _cutis_, Gr. [Greek: kytos]. + The Indo-European root _ku_-, weakened form of _sku_-, seen in "sky," + and meaning "to cover," may be the ultimate source of both words. The + slang use of "to hide," to flog or whip, means "to take the skin off, + to flay." + + + + +HIEL, EMMANUEL (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and prose writer, was +born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May 1834. He acted in various +functions, from teacher and government official to journalist and +bookseller, busily writing all the time both for the theatre and the +magazines of North and South Netherlands. His last posts were those of +librarian at the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the +Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic works may be +cited _Looverkens_ ("Leaflets," 1857); _Nieuwe Liedekens_ ("New +Poesies," 1861); _Gedichten_ ("Poems," 1863); _Psalmen, Zangen, en +Oratorios_ ("Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios," 1869); _De Wind_ (1869), an +inspiriting cantata, which had a large measure of success and was +crowned; _De Liefde in 't Leven_ ("Love in Life," 1870); _Elle_ and +_Isa_ (two musical dramas, 1874); _Liederen voor Groote en Kleine +Kinderen_ ("Songs for Big and Small Folk," 1879); _Jakoba van Beieren_ +("Jacqueline of Bavaria," a poetic drama, 1880); _Mathilda van +Denemarken_ (a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were +published in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an active +and prominent part in the so-called "Flemish movement" in Belgium, and +his name is constantly associated with those of Jan van Beers, the +Willems and Peter Benoit. The last wrote some of his compositions to +Hiel's verses, notably to his oratorios _Lucifer_ (performed in London +at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere) and _De Schelde_ ("The +Scheldt"); whilst the Dutch composer, Richard Hol (of Utrecht), composed +the music to Hiel's "Ode to Liberty," and van Gheluwe to the poet's +"Songs for Big and Small Folk" (second edition, much enlarged, 1879), +which has greatly contributed to their popularity in schools and among +Belgian choral societies. Hiel also translated several foreign lyrics. +His rendering of Tennyson's _Dora_ appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the +national festival of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth +anniversary of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas, +_Belgenland_ ("The Land of the Belgians") and _Eer Belgenland_ ("Honour +to Belgium"), which, set to music, were much appreciated. He died at +Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August 1899. Hiel's efforts to +counteract Walloon influences and bring about a _rapprochement_ between +the Netherlanders in the north and the Teutonic racial sympathizers +across the Rhine made him very popular with both, and a volume of his +best poems was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors +published at Leipzig. + + + + +HIEMPSAL, the name of the two kings of Numidia. For Hiempsal I. see +under JUGURTHA. Hiempsal II. was the son of Gauda, the half-brother of +Jugurtha. In 88 B.C., after the triumph of Sulla, when the younger +Marius fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent +friendliness, his real intention being to detain him as a prisoner. +Marius discovered this intention in time and made good his escape with +the assistance of the king's daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was driven from +his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by Hiarbas, ruler of part of +the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the leader of the +Marian party in Africa. Soon afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by +Sulla to reinstate Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased +by the addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty +concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius Rullus +introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had been originally +assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Africanus, were expressly +exempted from sale, which roused the indignation of Cicero (_De lege +agraria_, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (_Caesar_, 71) it is evident +that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 17), he +was the author of an historical work in the Punic language. + + Plutarch, _Marius_, 40, _Pompey_, 12; Appian, _Bell. civ._, i. 62. 80; + Dio Cassius xli. 41. + + + + +HIERAPOLIS. 1. (Arabic _Manbij_ or _Mumbij_) an ancient Syrian town +occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria, in a fertile +district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the Sajur and Euphrates. +There is abundant water supply from large springs. In 1879, after the +Russo-Turkish war, a colony of Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was +planted in the ruins, and the result has been the constant discovery of +antiquities, which find their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab. +The place first appears in Greek as _Bambyce_, but Pliny (v. 23) tells +us its Syrian name was _Mabog_. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian +sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who made it +the chief station on their main road between Antioch and +Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian Nature +Goddess, Atargatis (q.v.), it became known to the Greeks as the city of +the sanctuary [Greek: Hieropolis], and finally as the Holy City [Greek: +Hierapolis]. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous writer) +has immortalized this worship in the tract _De Dea Syria_, wherein are +described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the tank of sacred +fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. According to the _De Dea +Syria_, the worship was of a phallic character, votaries offering little +male figures of wood and bronze. There were also huge _phalli_ set up +like obelisks before the temple, which were climbed once a year with +certain ceremonies, and decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic +character with golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration. +Inside was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter. +Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first seems to +have been the more richly decorated with gems and other ornaments. +Between them stood a gilt _xoanon_, which seems to have been carried +outside in sacred processions. Other rich furniture is described, and a +mode of divination by movements of a _xoanon_ of Apollo. A great bronze +altar stood in front, set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived +numerous sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice. +Some three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous +minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities and it +was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an altar standing in +the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and other orgies went on in the +temple precinct, and there was an elaborate ritual on entering the city +and first visiting the shrine under the conduct of local guides, which +reminds one of the Meccan Pilgrimage. + +The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the Parthians (53 +B.C.); but in the 3rd century of the empire the city was the capital of +the Euphratensian province and one of the great cities of Syria. +Procopius called it the greatest in that part of the world. It was, +however, ruinous when Julian collected his troops there ere marching to +his defeat and death in Mesopotamia, and Chosroes I. held it to ransom +after Justinian had failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun +restored it at the end of the 8th century and it became a bone of +contention between Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured +it from the Seljuks in the 12th century, but Saladin retook it (1175), +and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols, who +completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost wholly of late +date, as is to be expected in the case of a city which survived into +Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no ruins of the great temple +survive. The most noteworthy relic of antiquity is the sacred lake, on +two sides of which can still be seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The +first modern account of the site is in a short narrative appended by H. +Maundrell to his _Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem_. He was at Mumbij in +1699. + +The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century B.C. with an Aramaic +series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural crown or as +riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief type even during +imperial times, being generally shown seated with the _tympanum_ in her +hand. Other coins substitute the legend [Greek: Theas Surias +Hieropoliton], within a wreath. It is interesting to note that from +_Bambyce_ (near which much silk was produced) were derived the +_bombycina vestis_ of the Romans and, through the crusaders, the +bombazine of modern commerce. + + See F. R. Chesney, _Euphrates Expedition_ (1850); W. F. Ainsworth, + _Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888); E. Sachau, + _Reise in Syrien_, &c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_ (1909). + +2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the Churuk Su +(Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the Menderes (Maeander), +situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above the valley and 6 m. N. of +Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous springs, that have deposited +vast incrustations of snowy whiteness. To these springs, which are warm +and slightly sulphureous, and to the "Plutonium"--a hole reaching deep +into the earth, from which issued a mephitic vapour--the place owed its +celebrity and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious +establishment (_hieron_) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian +Kydrara, a settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew +round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native life but +of non-political importance. The chief religious festival was the +Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of the Mother +Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic rites in which +elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate and Nature-cult +survived: there was also a worship of Apollo Lairbenos. Hierapolis was +the seat of an early church (Col. iv. 13), with which tradition closely +connects the apostle Philip. Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a +disciple of St John and author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus, +were born there. Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a +station on the Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks +has gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is +apparently _Pambuk Kale_ (though doubt has been thrown on the +statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-like +appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted, however, that +this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by the Syrians to +the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), _Bambyce_, the origin of which it +has been suggested was a native name of the goddess Pambe or Mambe +(whence Mabog). Considering that cotton is a comparatively modern +phenomenon in Anatolia, it is worth suggesting that _Pambuk_ in this +case may be a survival of a primitive name, derived from the same +goddess, Pambe. The goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case +closely akin. If an old native name has reappeared here after the +decline of Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish, +it affords another instance of a very common feature of west Asian +nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the ruins of +Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily accessible +spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the long avenue of +tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by which the city is +approached from the W., and for a very perfect theatre partly excavated +in the hill at the N. side of the site. Stage buildings as well as +auditorium are well preserved. On the S., just above the white terraces +and largely blocked with petrified deposit, stand large baths, into +which the natural warm spring was once conducted. Behind these is a fine +triumphal arch, whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches +survive, and also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which +may represent the "Plutonium," but it has no such deadly power as was +ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the "Plutonium" was +obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over 300 inscriptions have +been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence Ramsay has deduced interesting +facts about the very early Christian community which existed here. The +site has been often visited and described, and was systematically +examined in 1887 by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann +respectively. + + See K. Humann, _Altertumer v. Hierapolis_ (1888); Sir W. M. Ramsay, + _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i. (1895). + (C. W. W.; D. G. H.) + + + + +HIERARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hieros], holy, and [Greek: archein], to rule), +the office of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a "ruler of +priests" or "priestly ruler" (see Boeckh, _Corp. inscr. Gr._ No. 1570), +a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote the aggregate +of those persons who exercise authority within the Christian Church, the +patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-fold order of the clergy. The +word [Greek: hierarchia], which does not occur in any classical Greek +writer, owes its present extensive currency to the celebrated writings +of Dionysius Areopagiticus. Of these the most important are the two +which treat of the celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy +respectively. Defining hierarchy as the "function which comprises all +sacred things," or, more fully, as "a sacred order and science and +activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and elevated to +the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine illuminations +conceded to it," the author proceeds to enumerate the nine orders of the +heavenly host, which are subdivided again into hierarchies or triads, in +descending order, thus: Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations, +Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for +the common object of raising men through ascending stages of +purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical or +earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the first or +highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and chrism. The second +triad consists of the three orders of the ministry, bishop or hierarch, +priest and minister or deacon ([Greek: hierarches, hiereus, +leitourgos]); this is the earliest known instance in which the title +hierarch is applied to a bishop. The third or lowest triad is made up of +monks, "initiated" and catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through +Thomas Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period, the +definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic writers--"coetus +seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum ad regendam ecclesiam +gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem divinitus institutus"[1]--although +it immediately rests upon the authority of the sixth canon of the +twenty-third session of the council of Trent, in which anathema is +pronounced upon all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of +a hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of bishops, +priests and ministers.[2] (See ORDER, HOLY). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Perrone, _De locis theologicis_, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2. + + [2] Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina + ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et + ministris: anathema sit. + + + + +HIERATIC, priestly or sacred (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos, hieros], sacred), +a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing, +which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name was first +given by Champollion (see EGYPT, S _Language_). + + + + +HIERAX, or HIERACAS, a learned ascetic who flourished about the end of +the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt, where he lived to the age of +ninety, supporting himself by calligraphy and devoting his leisure to +scientific and literary pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible. +He was the author of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and +is said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of the so-called +sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from which married persons +were excluded, and of which one of the leading tenets was that only the +celibate could enter the kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the +suppression of the sexual impulse was emphatically the new revelation +brought by the Logos, and appealed to 1 Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and +Matt. xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link between +Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning and prodigious +memory, he seems to have developed Origen's Christology in the direction +of Athanasius. He held that the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of +the Father, that Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the +ideas of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the +ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized +infants, "for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict no +reward." In his insistence on virginity as the specifically Christian +virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the 4th and 5th +centuries. + + + + +HIERO (strictly HIERON), the name of two rulers of Syracuse. + +HIERO I. was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse from 478 to +467/6 B.C. During his reign he greatly increased the power of Syracuse. +He removed the inhabitants of Naxos and Catana to Leontini, peopled +Catana (which he renamed Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with +Acragas (Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against +Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achievement was the +defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which he saved the Greeks of +Campania. A bronze helmet (now in the British Museum), with an +inscription commemorating the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though +despotic in his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died +at Catana in 467. + + See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, _Hiero_, 6. 2; E. Lubbert, + _Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron_ (1875); for his coins see + NUMISMATICS (section _Sicily_). + + + + +HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 B.C., was the illegitimate +son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelo. On +the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275) the Syracusan army and +citizens appointed him commander of the troops. He materially +strengthened his position by marrying the daughter of Leptines, the +leading citizen. In the meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian +mercenaries who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the +stronghold of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They were +finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero, who was only +prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian interference. His +grateful countrymen then chose him king (270). In 264 he again returned +to the attack, and the Mamertines called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at +once joined the Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily; +but being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew to +Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was compelled to +conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was to rule over the south-east +of Sicily and the eastern coast as far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16; +Zonaras viii. 9). From this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal +to the Romans, and frequently assisted them with men and provisions +during the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept up +a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his famous kinsman +Archimedes in the construction of those engines that, at a later date, +played so important a part during the siege of Syracuse by the Romans. + + A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in + the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic. + xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4. + + + + +HIEROCLES, proconsul of Bithynia and Alexandria, lived during the reign +of Diocletian (A.D. 284-305). He is said to have been the instigator of +the fierce persecution of the Christians under Galerius in 303. He was +the author of a work (not extant) entitled [Greek: logoi philaletheis +pros tous Christianous] in two books, in which he endeavoured to +persuade the Christians that their sacred books were full of +contradictions, and that in moral influence and miraculous power Christ +was inferior to Apollonius of Tyana. Our knowledge of this treatise is +derived from Lactantius (_Instit. div._ v. 2) and Eusebius, who wrote a +refutation entitled [Greek: Antirrhetikos pros ta Hierokleous]. + + + + +HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA, Neoplatonist writer, flourished c. A.D. 430. He +studied under the celebrated Neoplatonist Plutarch at Athens, and taught +for some years in his native city. He seems to have been banished from +Alexandria and to have taken up his abode in Constantinople, where he +gave such offence by his religious opinions that he was thrown into +prison and cruelly flogged. The only complete work of his which has been +preserved is the commentary on the _Carmina Aurea_ of Pythagoras. It +enjoyed a great reputation in middle age and Renaissance times, and +there are numerous translations in various European languages. Several +other writings, especially one on providence and fate, a consolatory +treatise dedicated to his patron Olympiodorus of Thebes, author of +[Greek: historikoi logoi], are quoted or referred to by Photius and +Stobaeus. The collection of some 260 witticisms ([Greek: asteia]) called +[Greek: Philogelos] (ed. A. Eberhard, Berlin, 1869), attributed to +Hierocles and Philagrius, has no connexion with Hierocles of Alexandria, +but is probably a compilation of later date, founded on two older +collections. It is now agreed that the fragments of the _Elements of +Ethics_ ([Greek: Ethike stoicheiosis]) preserved in Stobaeus are from a +work by a Stoic named Hierocles, contemporary of Epictetus, who has been +identified with the "Hierocles Stoicus vir sanctus et gravis" in Aulus +Gellius (ix. 5. 8). This theory is confirmed by the discovery of a +papyrus (ed. H. von Arnim in _Berliner Klassikertexte_, iv. 1906; see +also C. Prachter, _Hierokles der Stoiker_, 1901). + + + There is an edition of the commentary by F. W. Mullach in _Fragmenta + philosophorum Graecorum_ (1860), i. 408, including full information + concerning Hierocles, the poem and the commentary; see also E. Zeller, + _Philosophie der Griechen_ (2nd ed.), iii. 2, pp. 681-687; W. Christ, + _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898), pp. 834, 849. + + Another Hierocles, who flourished during the reign of Justinian, was + the author of a list of provinces and towns in the Eastern Empire, + called [Greek: Synekdemos] ("fellow-traveller"; ed. A. Burckhardt, + 1893); it was one of the chief authorities used by Constantine + Porphyrogenitus in his work on the "themes" of the Roman Empire (see + C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_, 1897, p. + 417). In Fabricius's _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), i. 791, + sixteen persons named Hierocles, chiefly literary, are mentioned. + + + + +HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. [Greek: hieros], sacred, and [Greek: glyphe], +carving), the term used by Greek and Latin writers to describe the +sacred characters of the ancient Egyptian language in its classical +phase. It is now also used for various systems of writing in which +figures of objects take the place of conventional signs. Such characters +which symbolize the idea of a thing without expressing the name of it +are generally styled "ideographs" (Gr. [Greek: idea], idea, and [Greek: +graphein], to write), e.g. the Chinese characters. + + See EGYPT, _Language_; CUNEIFORM; INSCRIPTIONS and WRITING. + + + + +HIERONYMITES, a common name for three or four congregations of hermits +living according to the rule of St Augustine with supplementary +regulations taken from St Jerome's writings. Their habit was white, with +a black cloak. (1) The Spanish Hieronymites, established near Toledo in +1374. The order soon became popular in Spain and Portugal, and in 1415 +it numbered 25 houses. It possessed some of the most famous monasteries +in the Peninsula, including the royal monastery of Belem near Lisbon, +and the magnificent monastery built by Philip II. at the Escurial. +Though the manner of life was very austere the Hieronymites devoted +themselves to studies and to the active work of the ministry, and they +possessed great influence both at the Spanish and the Portuguese courts. +They went to Spanish and Portuguese America and played a considerable +part in Christianizing and civilizing the Indians. There were +Hieronymite nuns founded in 1375, who became very numerous. The order +decayed during the 18th century and was completely suppressed in 1835. +(2) Hieronymites of the Observance, or of Lombardy: a reform of (1) +effected by the third general in 1424; it embraced seven houses in Spain +and seventeen in Italy, mostly in Lombardy. It is now extinct. (3) Poor +Hermits of St Jerome, established near Pisa in 1377: it came to embrace +nearly fifty houses whereof only one in Rome and one in Viterbo survive. +(4) Hermits of St Jerome of the congregation of Fiesole, established in +1406: they had forty houses but in 1668 they were united to (3). + + See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1714), iii. cc. 57-60, + iv. cc. 1-3; Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S + 70; and art. "Hieronymiten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. + 3), and in Welte and Wetzer, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2). (E. C. B.) + + + + +HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA, Greek general and historian, contemporary of +Alexander the Great. After the death of the king he followed the +fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman Eumenes. He was wounded and +taken prisoner by Antigonus, who pardoned him and appointed him +superintendent of the asphalt beds in the Dead Sea. He was treated with +equal friendliness by Antigonus's son Demetrius, who made him polemarch +of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he died at the age +of 104. He wrote a history of the Diadochi and their descendants, +embracing the period from the death of Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus +(323-272 B.C.), which is one of the chief authorities used by Diodorus +Siculus (xviii.-xx.) and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus. He +made use of official papers and was careful in his investigation of +facts. The simplicity of his style rendered his work unpopular, but it +is probable that it was on a high level as compared with that of his +contemporaries. In the last part of his work he made a praiseworthy +attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character and early history of +the Romans. He is reproached by Pausanias (i. 9. 8) with unfairness +towards all rulers with the exception of Antigonus Gonatas. + + See Lucian, _Macrobii_, 22; Plutarch, _Demetrius_, 39; Diod. Sic. + xviii. 42. 44. 50, xix. 100; Dion. Halic. _Antiq. Rom._ i. 6; F. + Bruckner, "De vita et scriptis Hieronymi Cardii" in _Zeitschrift fur + die Alterthumswissenschaft_ (1842); F. Reuss, _Hieronymus von Kardia_ + (Berlin, 1876); C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten + Geschichte_ (1895); fragments in C. W. Muller, _Frag. hist. Graec._ + ii. 450-461. + + + + +HIERRO, or FERRO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the +Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 6508; area +107 sq. m. Hierro, the most westerly and the smallest island of the +group, is somewhat crescent-shaped. Its length is about 18 m., its +greatest breadth about 15 m., and its circumference 50 m. It lies 92 m. +W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its coast is bound by high, steep rocks, which only +admit of one harbour, but the interior is tolerably level. Its hill-tops +in winter are sometimes wrapped in snow. Better and more abundant grass +grows here than on any of the other islands. Hierro is exposed to +westerly gales which frequently inflict great damage. Fresh water is +scarce, but there is a sulphurous spring, with a temperature of 102 deg. +Fahr. The once celebrated and almost sacred Til tree, which was reputed +to be always distilling water in great abundance from its leaves, no +longer exists. Only a small part of the cultivable land is under +tillage, the inhabitants being principally employed in pasturage. +Valverde (pop. about 3000) is the principal town. Geographers were +formerly in the habit of measuring all longitudes from Ferro, the most +westerly land known to them. The longitude assigned at first has, +however, turned out to be erroneous; and the so-called "Longitude of +Ferro" does not coincide with the actual longitude of the island. + + + + +HIGDON (or HIGDEN), RANULF (c. 1299-c. 1363), English chronicler, was a +Benedictine monk of the monastery of St Werburg in Chester, in which he +lived, it is said, for sixty-four years, and died "in a good old age," +probably in 1363. Higdon was the author of a long chronicle, one of +several such works based on a plan taken from Scripture, and written for +the amusement and instruction of his society. It closes the long series +of general chronicles, which were soon superseded by the invention of +printing. It is commonly styled the _Polychronicon_, from the longer +title _Ranulphi Castrensis, cognomine Higdon, Polychronicon (sive +Historia Polycratica) ab initio mundi usque ad mortem regis Edwardi III. +in septem libros dispositum_. The work is divided into seven books, in +humble imitation of the seven days of Genesis, and, with exception of +the last book, is a summary of general history, a compilation made with +considerable style and taste. It seems to have enjoyed no little +popularity in the 15th century. It was the standard work on general +history, and more than a hundred MSS. of it are known to exist. The +Christ Church MS. says that Higdon wrote it down to the year 1342; the +fine MS. at Christ's College, Cambridge, states that he wrote to the +year 1344, after which date, with the omission of two years, John of +Malvern, a monk of Worcester, carried the history on to 1357, at which +date it ends. According, however, to its latest editor, Higdon's part of +the work goes no further than 1326 or 1327 at latest, after which time +it was carried on by two continuators to the end. Thomas Gale, in his +_Hist. Brit. &c., scriptores_, xv. (Oxon., 1691), published that portion +of it, in the original Latin, which comes down to 1066. Three early +translations of the _Polychronicon_ exist. The first was made by John of +Trevisa, chaplain to Lord Berkeley, in 1387, and was printed by Caxton +in 1482; the second by an anonymous writer, was written between 1432 and +1450; the third, based on Trevisa's version, with the addition of an +eighth book, was prepared by Caxton. These versions are specially +valuable as illustrating the change of the English language during the +period they cover. + + The _Polychronicon_, with the continuations and the English versions, + was edited for the Rolls Series (No. 41) by Churchill Babington (vols. + i. and ii.) and Joseph Rawson Lumby (1865-1886). This edition was + adversely criticized by Mandell Creighton in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._ for + October 1888. + + + + +HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES (1810-1868), British writer over the nom-de-plume +"Jacob Omnium," which was the title of his first magazine article, was +born in County Meath, Ireland, on the 4th of December 1810. His letters +in _The Times_ were instrumental in exposing many abuses. He was a +frequent contributor to the _Cornhill_, and was a friend of Thackeray, +who dedicated to him _The Adventures of Philip_, and one of his ballads, +"Jacob Omnium's Hoss," deals with an incident in Higgins's career. He +died on the 14th of August 1868. Some of his articles were published in +1875 as _Essays on Social Subjects_. + + + + +HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH (1823-1911), American author and soldier, +was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of December 1823. He +was a descendant of Francis Higginson (1588-1630), who emigrated from +Leicestershire to the colony of Massachusetts Bay and was a minister of +the church of Salem, Mass., in 1629-1630; and a grandson of Stephen +Higginson (1743-1828), a Boston merchant, who was a member of the +Continental Congress in 1783, took an active part in suppressing Shay's +Rebellion, was the author of the "Laco" letters (1789), and rendered +valuable services to the United States government as navy agent from the +11th of May to the 22nd of June 1798. Graduating from Harvard in 1841, +he was a schoolmaster for two years, studied theology at the Harvard +Divinity School, and was pastor in 1847-1850 of the First Religious +Society (Unitarian) of Newburyport, Massachusetts, and of the Free +Church at Worcester in 1852-1858. He was a Free Soil candidate for +Congress (1850), but was defeated; was indicted with Wendell Phillips +and Theodore Parker for participation in the attempt to release the +fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston (1853); was engaged in the +effort to make Kansas a free state after the passage of the +Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854; and during the Civil War was captain in +the 51st Massachusetts Volunteers, and from November 1862 to October +1864, when he was retired because of a wound received in the preceding +August, was colonel of the First South Carolina Volunteers, the first +regiment recruited from former slaves for the Federal service. He +described his experiences in _Army Life in a Black Regiment_ (1870). In +politics Higginson was successively a Republican, an Independent and a +Democrat. His writings show a deep love of nature, art and humanity, and +are marked by vigour of thought, sincerity of feeling, and grace and +finish of style. In his _Common Sense About Women_ (1881) and his _Women +and Men_ (1888) he advocated equality of opportunity and equality of +rights for the two sexes. + + Among his numerous books are _Outdoor Papers_ (1863); _Malbone: an + Oldport Romance_ (1869); Life of _Margaret Fuller Ossoli_ (in + "American Men of Letters" series, 1884); _A Larger History of the + United States of America to the Close of President Jackson's + Administration_ (1885); _The Monarch of Dreams_ (1886); _Travellers + and Outlaws_ (1889); _The Afternoon Landscape_ (1889), poems and + translations; _Life of Francis Higginson_ (in "Makers of America," + 1891); _Concerning All of Us_ (1892); _The Procession of the Flowers + and Kindred Papers_ (1897); _Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_ (in "American + Men of Letters" series, 1902); _John Greenleaf Whittier_ (in "English + Men of Letters" series, 1902); _A Reader's History of American + Literature_ (1903), the Lowell Institute lectures for 1903, edited by + Henry W. Boynton; and _Life and Times of Stephen Higginson_ (1907). + His volumes of reminiscence, _Cheerful Yesterdays_ (1898), _Old + Cambridge_ (1899), _Contemporaries_ (1899), and _Part of a Man's Life_ + (1905), are characteristic and charming works. His collected works + were published in seven vols. (1900). + + + + +HIGHAM FERRERS, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern +parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 63 m. N.N.W. from +London, on branches of the London & North-Western and Midland railways. +Pop. (1901), 2540. It is pleasantly situated on high ground above the +south bank of the river Nene. The church of St Mary is among the most +beautiful of the many fine churches in Northamptonshire. To the Early +English chancel a very wide north aisle, resembling a second nave, was +added in the Decorated period, and the general appearance of the +chancel, with its north aisle and Lady-chapel, is Decorated. The tower +with its fine spire and west front was partially but carefully rebuilt +in the 17th century. Close to the church, but detached from it, stands a +beautiful Perpendicular building, the school-house, founded by +Archbishop Chichele in 1422. The Bede House, a somewhat similar +structure by the same founder, completes a striking group of buildings. +In the town are remains of Chichele's college. Higham Ferrers shares in +the widespread local industry of shoemaking. The town is governed by a +mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1945 acres. + +Higham (Hecham, Heccam, Hegham Ferers) was evidently a large village +before the Domesday Survey. It was then held by William Peverel of the +king, but on the forfeiture of the lordship by his son it was granted in +1199 to William Ferrers, earl of Derby. On the outlawry of Robert his +grandson it passed to Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and, reverting to the +crown in 1322, was granted to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, but +escheated to the crown in 1327, and was granted to Henry, earl of +Lancaster. The castle, which may have been built before Henry III. +visited Higham in 1229, is mentioned in 1322, but had been destroyed by +1540. It appears by the confirmation of Henry III. in 1251 that the +borough originated in the previous year when William de Ferrers, earl of +Derby, manumitted by charter ninety-two persons, granting they should +have a free borough. A mayor was elected from the beginning of the reign +of Richard II., while a town hall is mentioned in 1395. The revenues of +Chichele's college were given to the corporation by the charter of 1566, +whereby the borough returned one representative to parliament, a +privilege enjoyed until 1832. James I. in 1604 gave the mayor the +commission of the peace with other privileges which were confirmed by +Charles II. in 1664. The old charters were surrendered in 1684 and a new +grant obtained; a further charter was granted in 1887. + + + + +HIGHGATE, a northern district of London, England, partly in the +metropolitan borough of St Pancras, but extending into Middlesex. It is +a high-lying district, the greatest elevation being 426 ft. The Great +North Road passes through Highgate, which is supposed to have received +its name from the toll-gate erected by the bishop of London when the +road was formed through his demesne in the 14th century. It is possible, +however, that "gate" is used here in its old signification, and that the +name means simply high road. The road rose so steeply here that in 1812 +an effort was made to lessen the slope for coaches by means of an +archway, and a new way was completed in 1900. In the time of +stage-coaches a custom was introduced of making ignorant persons believe +that they required to be sworn and admitted to the freedom of the +Highgate before being allowed to pass the gate, the fine of admission +being a bottle of wine. Not a few famous names occur among the former +residents of Highgate. Bacon died here in 1626; Coleridge and Andrew +Marvell, the poets, were residents. Cromwell House, now a convalescent +home, was presented by Oliver Cromwell to his eldest daughter Bridget on +her marriage with Henry Ireton (January 15, 1646/7). Lauderdale House, +now attached to the public grounds of Waterlow Park, belonged to the +Duke of Lauderdale, one of the "Cabal" of Charles II. Among various +institutions may be mentioned Whittington's almshouses, near Whittington +Stone, at the foot of Highgate Hill, on which the future mayor of London +is reputed to have been resting when he heard the peal of Bow bells and +"turned again." Highgate grammar school was founded (1562-1565) by Sir +Roger Cholmley, chief-justice. St Joseph's Retreat is the mother-house +of the Passionist Fathers in England. There is an extensive and +beautiful cemetery on the slope below the church of St Michael. + + + + +HIGHLANDS, THE, that part of Scotland north-west of a line drawn from +Dumbarton to Stonehaven, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the +county of Bute, but excluding the Orkneys and Shetlands, Caithness, the +flat coastal land of the shires of Nairn, Elgin and Banff, and all East +Aberdeenshire (see SCOTLAND). This area is to be distinguished from the +Lowlands by language and race, the preservation of the Gaelic speech +being characteristic. Even in a historical sense the Highlanders were a +separate people from the Lowlanders, with whom, during many centuries, +they shared nothing in common. The town of Inverness is usually regarded +as the capital of the Highlands. The Highlands consist of an old +dissected plateau, or block, of ancient crystalline rocks with incised +valleys and lochs carved by the action of mountain streams and by ice, +the resulting topography being a wide area of irregularly distributed +mountains whose summits have nearly the same height above sea-level, but +whose bases depend upon the amount of denudation to which the plateau +has been subjected in various places. The term "highland" is used in +physical geography for any elevated mountainous plateau. + + + + +HIGHNESS, literally the quality of being lofty or high, a term used, as +are so many abstractions, as a title of dignity and honour, to signify +exalted rank or station. These abstractions arose in great profusion in +the Roman empire, both of the East and West, and "highness" is to be +directly traced to the _altitudo_ and _celsitudo_ of the Latin and the +[Greek: hypselotes] of the Greek emperors. Like other "exorbitant and +swelling attributes" of the time, they were conferred on ruling princes +generally. In the early middle ages such titles, couched in the second +or third person, were "uncertain and much more arbitrary (according to +the fancies of secretaries) than in the later times" (Selden, _Titles of +Honour_, pt. i. ch. vii. 100). In English usage, "Highness" alternates +with "Grace" and "Majesty," as the honorific title of the king and queen +until the time of James I. Thus in documents relating to the reign of +Henry VIII. all three titles are used indiscriminately; an example is +the king's judgment against Dr Edward Crome (d. 1562), quoted, from the +lord chamberlain's books, ser. 1, p. 791, in _Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc._ +N.S. xix. 299, where article 15 begins with "Also the Kinges Highness" +hath ordered, 16 with "Kinges Majestie," and 17 with "Kinges Grace." In +the Dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible of 1611 James I. +is still styled "Majesty" and "Highness"; thus, in the first paragraph, +"the appearance of Your Majesty, as of the Sun in his strength, +instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised mists ... especially +when we beheld the government established in Your Highness and Your +hopeful Seed, by an undoubted title." It was, however, in James I.'s +reign that "Majesty" became the official title. It may be noted that +Cromwell, as lord protector, and his wife were styled "Highness." In +present usage the following members of the British Royal Family are +addressed as "Royal Highness" (H.R.H.): all sons and daughters, brothers +and sisters, uncles and aunts of the reigning sovereign, grandsons and +granddaughters if children of sons, and also great grandchildren (decree +of 31st of May 1898) if children of an eldest son of any prince of +Wales. Nephews, nieces and cousins and grandchildren, offspring of +daughters, are styled "Highness" only. A change of sovereign does not +entail the forfeiture of the title "Royal Highness," once acquired, +though the father of the bearer has become a nephew and not a grandson +of the sovereign. The principal feudatory princes of the Indian empire +are also styled "Highness." + +As a general rule the members of the blood royal of an Imperial or Royal +house are addressed as "Imperial" or "Royal Highness" (_Altesse +Imperiale_, _Royale_, _Kaiserliche_, _Konigliche Hoheit_) respectively. +In Germany the reigning heads of the Grand Duchies bear the title of +Royal or Grand Ducal Highness (_Konigliche_ or _Gross-Herzogliche +Hoheit_), while the members of the family are addressed as _Hoheit_, +Highness, simply. _Hoheit_ is borne by the reigning dukes and the +princes and princesses of their families. The title "Serene Highness" +has also an antiquity equal to that of "highness," for [Greek: +galenotes] and [Greek: hemerotes] were titles borne by the Byzantine +rulers, and serenitas and _serenissimus_ by the emperors Honorius and +Arcadius. The doge of Venice was also styled _Serenissimus_. Selden +(_op. cit._ pt. ii. ch. x. 739) calls this title "one of the greatest +that can be given to any Prince that hath not the superior title of +King." In modern times "Serene Highness" (_Altesse Serenissime_) is used +as the equivalent of the German _Durchlaucht_, a stronger form of +_Erlaucht_, illustrious, represented in the Latin honorific +_superillustris_. Thackeray's burlesque title "Transparency" in the +court at Pumpernickel very accurately gives the meaning. The title of +_Durchlaucht_ was granted in 1375 by the emperor Charles IV. to the +electoral princes (_Kurfursten_). In the 17th century it became the +general title borne by the heads of the reigning princely states of the +empire (_reichslandische Fursten_), as _Erlaucht_ by those of the +countly houses (_reichstandische Grafen_). In 1825 the German Diet +agreed to grant the title _Durchlaucht_ to the heads of the mediatized +princely houses whether domiciled in Germany or Austria, and it is now +customary to use it of the members of those houses. Further, all those +who are elevated to the rank of prince (_Furst_) in the secondary +meaning of that title (see PRINCE) are also styled _Durchlaucht_. In +1829 the title of _Erlaucht_, which had formerly been borne by the +reigning counts of the empire, was similarly granted to the mediatized +countly families (see _Almanack de Gotha_, 1909, 107). + + + + +HIGH PLACE, in the English version of the Old Testament, the literal +translation of the Heb. _bamah_. This rendering is etymologically +correct, as appears from the poetical use of the plural in such +expressions as to ride, or stalk, or stand on the high places of the +earth, the sea, the clouds, and from the corresponding usage in +Assyrian; but in prose _bamah_ is always a place of worship. It has been +surmised that it was so called because the places of worship were +originally upon hill-tops, or that the _bamah_ was an artificial +platform or mound, perhaps imitating the natural eminence which was the +oldest holy place, but neither view is historically demonstrable. The +development of the religious significance of the word took place +probably not in Israel but among the Canaanites, from whom the +Israelites, in taking possession of the holy places of the land, adopted +the name also. + +In old Israel every town and village had its own place of sacrifice, and +the common name for these places was _bamah_, which is synonymous with +_mikdash_, holy place (Amos vii. 9; Isa. xvi. 12, &c.). From the Old +Testament and from existing remains a good idea may be formed of the +appearance of such a place of worship. It was often on the hill above +the town, as at Ramah (I Sam. ix. 12-14); there was a stele +(_massebah_), the seat of the deity, and a wooden post or pole +(_asherah_), which marked the place as sacred and was itself an object +of worship; there was a stone altar, often of considerable size and hewn +out of the solid rock[1] or built of unhewn stones (Ex. xx. 25; see +ALTAR), on which offerings were burnt (_mizbeh_, lit. "slaughter +place"); a cistern for water, and perhaps low stone tables for dressing +the victims; sometimes also a hall (_lishkah_) for the sacrificial +feasts. + +Around these places the religion of the ancient Israelite centred; at +festival seasons, or to make or fulfil a vow, he might journey to more +famous sanctuaries at a distance from his home, but ordinarily the +offerings which linked every side of his life to religion were paid at +the _bamah_ of his own town. The building of royal temples in Jerusalem +or in Samaria made no change in this respect; they simply took their +place beside the older sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Dan, Gilgal, +Beersheba, to which they were, indeed, inferior in repute. + +The religious reformers of the 8th century assail the popular religion +as corrupt and licentious, and as fostering the monstrous delusion that +immoral men can buy the favour of God by worship; but they make no +difference in this respect between the high places of Israel and the +temple in Jerusalem (cf. Amos v. 21 sqq.; Hos. iv.; Isa. i. 10 sqq.); +Hosea stigmatizes the whole cultus as pure heathenism--Canaanite +baal-worship adopted by apostate Israel. The fundamental law in Deut. +xii. prohibits sacrifice at every place except the temple in Jerusalem; +in accordance with this law Josiah, in 621 B.C., destroyed and +desecrated the altars (_bamoth_) throughout his kingdom, where Yahweh +had been worshipped from time immemorial, and forcibly removed their +priests to Jerusalem, where they occupied an inferior rank in the temple +ministry. In the prophets of the 7th and 6th centuries the word _bamoth_ +connotes "seat of heathenish or idolatrous worship"; and the historians +of the period apply the term in this opprobrious sense not only to +places sacred to other gods but to the old holy places of Yahweh in the +cities and villages of Judah, which, in their view, had been +illegitimate from the building of Solomon's temple, and therefore not +really seats of the worship of Yahweh; even the most pious kings of +Judah are censured for tolerating their existence. The reaction which +followed the death of Josiah (608 B.C.) restored the old altars of +Yahweh; they survived the destruction of the temple in 586, and it is +probable that after its restoration (520-516 B.C.) they only slowly +disappeared, in consequence partly of the natural predominance of +Jerusalem in the little territory of Judaea, partly of the gradual +establishment of the supremacy of the written law over custom and +tradition in the Persian period. + +It may not be superfluous to note that the deuteronomic dogma that +sacrifice can be offered to Yahweh only at the temple in Jerusalem was +never fully established either in fact or in legal theory. The Jewish +military colonists in Elephantine in the 5th century B.C. had their +altar of Yahweh beside the high way; the Jews in Egypt in the Ptolemaic +period had, besides many local sanctuaries, one greater temple at +Leontopolis, with a priesthood whose claim to "valid orders" was much +better than that of the High Priests in Jerusalem, and the legitimacy of +whose worship is admitted even by the Palestinian rabbis. + + See Baudissin, "Hohendienst," _Protestantische Realencyklopadie_^3 + (viii. 177-195); Hoonacker, _Le Lieu du culte dans la legislation + rituelle des Hebreux_ (1894); v. Gall, _Altisraelitische Kultstadte_ + (1898). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Several altars of this type have been preserved. + + + + +HIGH SEAS, an expression in international law meaning all those parts of +the sea not under the sovereignty of adjacent states. Claims have at +times been made to exclusive dominion over large areas of the sea as +well as over wide margins, such as a 100 m., 60 m., range of vision, +&c., from land. The action and reaction of the interests of navigation, +however, have brought states to adopt a limitation first enunciated by +Bynkershoek in the formula "terrae dominium finitur ubi finitur armorum +vis." Thenceforward cannon-shot range became the determining factor in +the fixation of the margin of sea afterwards known as "territorial +waters" (q.v.). With the exception of these territorial waters, bays of +certain dimensions and inland waters surrounded by territory of the same +state, and serving only as a means of access to ports of the state by +whose territory they are surrounded, and some waters allowed by +immemorial usage to rank as territorial, all seas and oceans form part +of the high sea. The usage of the high sea is free to all the nations of +the world, subject only to such restrictions as result from respect for +the equal rights of others, and to those which nations may contract with +each other to observe. An interesting case affecting land-locked seas +was that of the _Emperor of Japan_ v. _The Peninsular and Oriental Steam +Navigation Company_, in which a collision had taken place in the inland +sea of Japan. The British Supreme Court at Shanghai declared this sea to +form part of the high sea. On appeal to the privy council, the +appellants were successful. Though the decision of the Shanghai court on +the point in question was not dealt with by the privy council, Japan +continues to treat her inland sea as under her exclusive jurisdiction. + (T. Ba.) + + + + +HIGHWAY, a public road over which all persons have full right of +way--walking, riding or driving. Such roads in England for the most part +either are of immemorial antiquity or have been created under the +authority of an act of parliament. But a private owner may create a +highway at common law by dedicating the soil to the use of the public +for that purpose; and the using of a road for a number of years, without +interruption, will support the presumption that the soil has been so +dedicated. At common law the parish is required to maintain all highways +within its bounds; but by special custom the obligation may attach to a +particular township or district, and in certain cases the owner of land +is bound by the conditions of his holding to keep a highway in repair. +Breach of the obligation is treated as a criminal offence, and is +prosecuted by indictment. Bridges, on the other hand, and so much of the +highway as is immediately connected with them, are as a general rule a +charge on the county; and by 22 Henry VIII. c. 5 the obligation of the +county is extended to 300 yds. of the highway on either side of the +bridge. A bridge, like a highway, may be a burden on neighbouring land +_ratione tenurae_. Private owners so burdened may sometimes claim a +special toll from passengers, called a "toll traverse." + +Extensive changes in the English law of highways have been made by +various highway acts, viz. the Highway Act 1835, and amending acts of +1862, 1864, 1878 and 1891. The leading principle of the Highway Act 1835 +is to place the highways under the direction of parish surveyors, and to +provide for the necessary expenses by a rate levied on the occupiers of +land. It is the duty of the surveyor to keep the highways in repair; and +if a highway is out of repair, the surveyor may be summoned before +justices and convicted in a penalty not exceeding L5, and ordered to +complete the repairs within a limited time. The surveyor is likewise +specially charged with the removal of nuisances on the highway. A +highway nuisance may be abated by any person, and may be made the +subject of indictment at common law. The amending acts, while not +interfering with the operation of the principal act, authorize the +creation of highway districts on a larger scale. The justices of a +county may convert it or any portion of it into a highway district to be +governed by a highway board, the powers and responsibilities of which +will be the same as those of the parish surveyor under the former act. +The board consists of representatives of the various parishes, called +"way wardens" together with the justices for the county residing within +the district. Salaries and similar expenses incurred by the board are +charged on a district fund to which the several parishes contribute; but +each parish remains separately responsible for the expenses of +maintaining its own highways. By the Local Government Act 1888 the +entire maintenance of main roads was thrown upon county councils. The +Public Health Act 1875 vested the powers and duties of surveyors of +highways and vestries in urban authorities, while the Local Government +Act 1894 transferred to the district councils of every rural district +all the powers of rural sanitary authorities and highway authorities +(see ENGLAND: _Local Government_). + +The Highway Act of 1835 specified as offences for which the driver of a +carriage on the public highway might be punished by a fine, in addition +to any civil action that might be brought against him--riding upon the +cart, or upon any horse drawing it, and not having some other person to +guide it, unless there be some person driving it; negligence causing +damage to person or goods being conveyed on the highway; quitting his +cart, or leaving control of the horses, or leaving the cart so as to be +an obstruction on the highway; not having the owner's name painted up; +refusing to give the same; and not keeping on the left or near side of +the road, when meeting any other carriage or horse. This rule does not +apply in the case of a carriage meeting a foot-passenger, but a driver +is bound to use due care to avoid driving against any person crossing +the highway on foot. At the same time a passenger crossing the highway +is also bound to use due care in avoiding vehicles, and the mere fact of +a driver being on the wrong side of the road would not be evidence of +negligence in such a case. + +The "rule of the road" given above is peculiar to the United Kingdom. +Cooley's treatise on the _American Law of Torts_ states that "the custom +of the country, in some states enacted into statute law, requires that +when teams approach and are about to pass on the highway, each shall +keep to the right of the centre of the travelled portion of the road." +This also appears to be the general rule on the continent of Europe. + +By the Lights on Vehicles Act 1907, all vehicles on highways in England +and Wales must display to the front a white light during the period +between one hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. Locomotives +and motor cars, being dealt with by special acts, are excluded from the +operation of the act, as are bicycles and tricycles (dealt with by the +Local Government Act 1888), and vehicles drawn or propelled by hand, but +every machine or implement drawn by animals comes within the act. There +are two exceptions: (1) vehicles carrying inflammable goods in the +neighbourhood of places where inflammable goods are stored, and (2) +vehicles engaged in harvesting. The public have a right to pass along a +highway freely, safely and conveniently, and any wrongful act or +omission which prevents them doing so is a nuisance, for the prevention +and abatement of which the highways and other acts contain provisions. +Generally, nuisance to highway may be caused by encroachment, by +interfering with the soil of the highway, by attracting crowds, by +creating danger or inconvenience on or near the highway, by placing +obstacles on the highway, by unreasonable user, by offences against +decency and good order, &c. + +The use of locomotives, motor cars and other vehicles on highways is +regulated by acts of 1861-1903. + +Formerly under the Turnpike Acts many of the more important highways +were placed under the management of boards of commissioners or trustees. +The trustees were required and empowered to maintain, repair and improve +the roads committed to their charge, and the expenses of the trust were +met by tolls levied on persons using the road. The various grounds of +exemption from toll on turnpike roads were all of a public character, +e.g. horses and carriages attending the sovereign or royal family, or +used by soldiers or volunteers in uniform, were free from toll. In +general horses and carriages used in agricultural work were free from +toll. By the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878 disturnpiked roads +became "main roads." Ordinary highways might be declared to be "main +roads," and "main roads" be reduced to the status of ordinary highways. + +In Scotland the highway system is regulated by the Roads and Bridges Act +1878 and amending acts. The management and maintenance of the highways +and bridges is vested in county road trustees, viz. the commissioners of +supply, certain elected trustees representing ratepayers in parishes and +others. One of the consequences of the act was the abolition of tolls, +statute-labour, causeway mail and other exactions for the maintenance of +bridges and highways, and all turnpike roads became highways, and all +highways became open to the public free of tolls and other exactions. +The county is divided into districts under district committees, and +county and district officers are appointed. The expenses of highway +management in each district (or parish), together with a proportion of +the general expenses of the act, are levied by the trustees by an +assessment on the lands and heritages within the district (or parish). + +Highway, in the law of the states of the American Union, generally means +a lawful public road, over which all citizens are allowed to pass and +repass on foot, on horseback, in carriages and waggons. Sometimes it is +held to be restricted to county roads as opposed to town-ways. In +statutes dealing with offences connected with the highway, such as +gaming, negligence of carriers, &c., "highway" includes navigable +rivers. But in a statute punishing with death robbery on the highway, +railways were held not to be included in the term. In one case it has +been held that any way is a highway which has been used as such for +fifty years. + + See Glen, _Law Relating to Highways_; Pratt, _Law of Highways, Main + Roads and Bridges_. + + + + +HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE (1827-1893), chief-justice of Victoria, Australia, +sixth son of T. Higinbotham of Dublin, was born on the 19th of April +1827, and educated at the Royal School, Dungannon, and at Trinity +College, Dublin. After entering as a law student at Lincoln's Inn, and +being engaged as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ in 1849, he +emigrated to Victoria, where he contributed to the _Melbourne Herald_ +and practised at the bar (having been "called" in 1853) with much +success. In 1850 he became editor of the _Melbourne Argus_, but resigned +in 1859 and returned to the bar. He was elected to the legislative +assembly in 1861 for Brighton as an independent Liberal, was rejected at +the general election of the same year, but was returned nine months +later. In 1863 he became attorney-general. Under his influence measures +were passed through the legislative assembly of a somewhat extreme +character, completely ignoring the rights of the legislative council, +and the government was carried on without any Appropriation Act for more +than a year. Mr Higinbotham, by his eloquence and earnestness, obtained +great influence amongst the members of the legislative assembly, but his +colleagues were not prepared to follow him as far as he desired to go. +He contended that in a constitutional colony like Victoria the secretary +of state for the colonies had no right to fetter the discretion of the +queen's representative. Mr Higinbotham did not return to power with his +chief, Sir James M'Culloch, after the defeat of the short-lived Sladen +administration; and being defeated for Brighton at the next general +election by a comparatively unknown man, he devoted himself to his +practice at the bar. Amongst his other labours as attorney-general he +had codified all the statutes which were in force throughout the colony. +In 1874 he was returned to the legislative assembly for Brunswick, but +after a few months he resigned his seat. In 1880 he was appointed a +puisne judge of the supreme court, and in 1886, on the retirement of Sir +William Stawell, he was promoted to the office of chief justice. Mr +Higinbotham was appointed president of the International Exhibition held +at Melbourne in 1888-1889, but did not take any active part in its +management. One of his latest public acts was to subscribe a sum of L10, +10s. a week towards the funds of the strikers in the great Australian +labour dispute of 1890, an act which did not meet with general approval. +He died in 1893. + + + + +HILARION, ST (c. 290-371), abbot, the first to introduce the monastic +system into Palestine. The chief source of information is a life written +by St Jerome; it was based upon a letter, no longer extant, written by +St Epiphanius, who had known Hilarion. The accounts in Sozomen are +mainly based on Jerome's _Vita_; but Otto Zocker has shown that Sozomen +also had at his disposal authentic local traditions (see "Hilarion von +Gaza" in the _Neue Jahrbucher fur deutsche Theologie_, 1894), the most +important study on Hilarion, which is written against the hypercritical +school of Weingarten and shows that Hilarion must be accepted as an +historical personage and the _Vita_ as a substantially correct account +of his career. He was born of heathen parents at Tabatha near Gaza about +290; he was sent to Alexandria for his education and there became a +convert to Christianity; about 306 he visited St Anthony and became his +disciple, embracing the eremitical life. He returned to his native place +and for many years lived as a hermit in the desert by the marshes on the +Egyptian border. Many disciples put themselves under his guidance; but +his influence must have been limited to south Palestine, for there is no +mention of him in Palladius or Cassian. In 356 he left Palestine and +went again to Egypt; but the accounts given in the _Vita_ of his travels +during the last fifteen years of his life must be taken with extreme +caution. It is there said that he went from Egypt to Sicily, and thence +to Epidaurus, and finally to Cyprus where he met Epiphanius and died in +371. + + An abridged story of his life will be found in Alban Butler's _Lives + of the Saints_, on the 21st of October, and a critical sketch with + full references in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3). + (E. C. B.) + + + + +HILARIUS (HILARY[1]), ST (c. 300-367), bishop of Pictavium (Poitiers), +an eminent "doctor" of the Western Church, sometimes referred to as the +"malleus Arianorum" and the "Athanasius of the West," was born at +Poitiers about the end of the 3rd century A.D. His parents were pagans +of distinction. He received a good education, including what had even +then become somewhat rare in the West, some knowledge of Greek. He +studied, later on, the Old and New Testament writings, with the result +that he abandoned his neo-platonism for Christianity, and with his wife +and his daughter received the sacrament of baptism. So great was the +respect in which he was held by the citizens of Poitiers that about 353, +although still a married man, he was unanimously elected bishop. At that +time Arianism was threatening to overrun the Western Church; to repel +the irruption was the great task which Hilary undertook. One of his +first steps was to secure the excommunication, by those of the Gallican +hierarchy who still remained orthodox, of Saturninus, the Arian bishop +of Arles and of Ursacius and Valens, two of his prominent supporters. +About the same time he wrote to the emperor Constantius a remonstrance +against the persecutions by which the Arians had sought to crush their +opponents (_Ad Constantium Augustum liber primus_, of which the most +probable date is 355). His efforts were not at first successful, for at +the synod of Biterrae (Beziers), summoned in 356 by Constantius with +the professed purpose of settling the longstanding disputes, Hilary was +by an imperial rescript banished with Rhodanus of Toulouse to Phrygia, +in which exile he spent nearly four years. Thence, however, he continued +to govern his diocese; while he found leisure for the preparation of two +of the most important of his contributions to dogmatic and polemical +theology, the _De synodis_ or _De fide Orientalium_, an epistle +addressed in 358 to the Semi-Arian bishops in Gaul, Germany and Britain, +expounding the true views (sometimes veiled in ambiguous words) of the +Oriental bishops on the Nicene controversy, and the _De trinitate libri +xii._,[2] composed in 359 and 360, in which, for the first time, a +successful attempt was made to express in Latin the theological +subtleties elaborated in the original Greek. The former of these works +was not entirely approved by some members of his own party, who thought +he had shown too great forbearance towards the Arians; to their +criticisms he replied in the _Apologetica ad reprehensores libri de +synodis responsa_. In 359 Hilary attended the convocation of bishops at +Seleucia In Isauria, where, with the Egyptian Athanasians, he joined the +Homoiousian majority against the Arianizing party headed by Acacius of +Caesarea; thence he went to Constantinople, and, in a petition (_Ad +Constantium Augustum liber secundus_) personally presented to the +emperor in 360, repudiated the calumnies of his enemies and sought to +vindicate his trinitarian principles. His urgent and repeated request +for a public discussion with his opponents, especially with Ursacius and +Valens, proved at last so inconvenient that he was sent back to his +diocese, which he appears to have reached about 361, within a very short +time of the accession of Julian. He was occupied for two or three years +in combating Arianism within his diocese; but in 364, extending his +efforts once more beyond Gaul, he impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, +and a man high in the imperial favour, as heterodox. Summoned to appear +before the emperor (Valentinian) at Milan and there maintain his +charges, Hilary had the mortification of hearing the supposed heretic +give satisfactory answers to all the questions proposed; nor did his +(doubtless sincere) denunciation of the metropolitan as a hypocrite save +himself from an ignominious expulsion from Milan. In 365 he published +the _Contra Arianos vel Auxentium Mediolanensem liber_, in connexion +with the controversy; and also (but perhaps at a somewhat earlier date) +the _Contra Constantium Augustum liber_, in which he pronounced that +lately deceased emperor to have been Antichrist, a rebel against God, "a +tyrant whose sole object had been to make a gift to the devil of that +world for which Christ had suffered." Hilary is sometimes regarded as +the first Latin Christian hymn-writer, but none of the compositions +assigned to him is indisputable. The later years of his life were spent +in comparative quiet, devoted in part to the preparation of his +expositions of the Psalms (_Tractatus super Psalmos_), for which he was +largely indebted to Origen; of his _Commentarius in Evangelium +Matthaei_, a work on allegorical lines of no exegetical value; and of +his no longer extant translation of Origen's commentary on Job. While he +thus closely followed the two great Alexandrians, Origen and Athanasius, +in exegesis and Christology respectively, his work shows many traces of +vigorous independent thought. He died in 367; no more exact date is +trustworthy. He holds the highest rank among the Latin writers of his +century. Designated already by Augustine as "the illustrious doctor of +the churches," he by his works exerted an increasing influence in later +centuries; and by Pius IX. he was formally recognized as "universae +ecclesiae doctor" at the synod of Bordeaux in 1851. Hilary's day in the +Roman calendar is the 13th of January.[3] + + EDITIONS.--Erasmus (Basel, 1523, 1526, 1528); P. Coustant + (Benedictine, Paris, 1693); Migne (_Patrol. Lat._ ix., x.). The + _Tractatus de mysteriis_, ed. J. F. Gamurrini (Rome, 1887), and the + _Tractatus super Psalmos_, ed. A. Zingerle in the Vienna _Corpus + scrip. eccl. Lat._ xxii. Translation by E. W. Watson in _Nicene and + Post-Nicene Fathers_, ix. + + LITERATURE.--The life by (Venantius) Fortunatus c. 550 is almost + worthless. More trustworthy are the notices in Jerome (_De vir. + illus._ 100), Sulpicius Severus (_Chron._ ii. 39-45) and in Hilary's + own writings. H. Reinkens, _Hilarius von Poictiers_ (1864); O. + Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_; A. Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, esp. vol. + iv.; F. Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._ viii. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The name is derived from Gr. [Greek: hilaros], gay, cheerful, + whence hilarious, hilarity. + + [2] Hilary's own title was _De fide contra Arianos_. It really deals + less with the doctrine of the Trinity than with that of the + Incarnation. That it is not an easy work to read is due partly to the + nature of the subject, partly to the fact that it was issued in + detached portions. + + [3] "Hilary" was the name of one of the four terms of the English + legal year. These terms were abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873, + s. 26, and "sittings" substituted. It is now the name of the sitting + of the Supreme Court of Judicature which commences on the 11th of + January and terminates on the Wednesday before Easter. In the Inns of + Court, Hilary is one of the four dining terms; it begins on the 11th + of January and ends on the 1st of February. It is also the name of + one of the terms at the universities of Oxford (more usually "Lent + term") and Dublin. + + + + +HILARIUS, or HILARUS (HILARY), bishop of Rome from 461 to 468, is known +to have been a deacon and to have acted as legate of Leo the Great at +the "robber" synod of Ephesus in 449. There he so vigorously defended +the conduct of Flavian in deposing Eutyches that he was thrown into +prison, whence he had great difficulty in making his escape to Rome. He +was chosen to succeed Leo on the 19th of November 461. In 465 he held at +Rome a council which put a stop to some abuses, particularly to that of +bishops appointing their own successors. His pontificate was also marked +by a successful encroachment of the papal authority on the metropolitan +rights of the French and Spanish hierarchy, and by a resistance to the +toleration edict of Anthemius, which ultimately caused it to be +recalled. Hilarius died on the 17th of November 467, and was succeeded +by Simplicius. + + + + +HILARIUS (fl. 1125), a Latin poet who is supposed to have been an +Englishman. He was one of the pupils of Abelard at his oratory of +Paraclete, and addressed to him a copy of verses with its refrain in the +vulgar tongue, "_Tort avers vos li mestre_," Abelard having threatened +to discontinue his teaching because of certain reports made by his +servant about the conduct of the scholars. Later Hilarius made his way +to Angers. His poems are contained in MS. supp. lat. 1008 of the +Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, purchased in 1837 at the sale of M. de +Rosny. Quotations from this MS. had appeared before, but in 1838 it was +edited by Champollion Figeac as _Hilarii versus et ludi_. His works +consist chiefly of light verses of the goliardic type. There are verses +addressed to an English nun named Eva, lines to Rosa, "_Ave splendor +puellarum, generosa domina_," and another poem describes the beauties of +the priory of Chaloutre la Petite, in the diocese of Sens, of which the +writer was then an inmate. One copy of satirical verses seems to aim at +the pope himself. He also wrote three miracle plays in rhymed Latin with +an admixture of French. Two of them, _Suscitatio Lazari_ and _Historia +de Daniel repraesentanda_, are of purely liturgical type. At the end of +_Lazarus_ is a stage direction to the effect that if the performance has +been given at matins, Lazarus should proceed with the _Te Deum_, if at +vespers, with the _Magnificat_. The third, _Ludus super iconia Sancti +Nicholai_, is founded on a sufficiently foolish legend. Petit de +Julleville sees in the play a satiric intention and a veiled incredulity +that put the piece outside the category of liturgical drama. + + A rhymed Latin account of a dispute in which the nuns of Ronceray at + Angers were concerned, contained in a cartulary of Ronceray, is also + ascribed to the poet, who there calls himself Hilarius Canonicus. The + poem is printed in the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (vol. + xxxvii. 1876), and is dated by P. Marchegay from 1121. See also a + notice in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xii. 251-254), supplemented (in + xx. 627-630), s.v. Jean Bodel, by Paulin Paris; also Wright, + _Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period_ (1846); and + Petit de Julleville, _Les Mysteres_ (vol. i. 1880). + + + + +HILARIUS (HILARY), ST (c. 403-449), bishop of Arles, was born about 403. +In early youth he entered the abbey of Lerins, then presided over by his +kinsman Honoratus (St Honore), and succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric +of Arles in 429. Following the example of St Augustine, he is said to +have organized his cathedral clergy into a "congregation," devoting a +great part of their time to social exercises of ascetic religion. He +held the rank of metropolitan of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted to +realize the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul which seemed +implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor Patroclus (417). +Hilarius deposed the bishop of Besancon (Chelidonus), for ignoring this +primacy, and for claiming a metropolitan dignity for Besancon. An appeal +was made to Rome, and Leo I. used it to extinguish the Gallican +vicariate (A.D. 444). Hilarius was deprived of his rights as +metropolitan to consecrate bishops, call synods, or exercise +ecclesiastical oversight in the province, and the pope secured the edict +of Valentinian III., so important in the history of the Gallican church, +"ut episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid apostolicae +sedis auctoritas sanxisset." The papal claims were made imperial law, +and violation of them subject to legal penalties (_Novellae Valent._ +iii. tit. 16). Hilarius died in 449, and his name was afterwards +introduced into the Roman martyrology for commemoration on the 5th of +May. He enjoyed during his lifetime a high reputation for learning and +eloquence as well as for piety; his extant works (_Vita S. Honorati +Arelatensis episcopi_ and _Metrum in Genesin_) compare favourably with +any similar literary productions of that period. + + A poem, _De Providentia_, usually included among the writings of + Prosper, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Arles. + + + + +HILDA, ST, strictly Hild (614-680), was the daughter of Hereric, a +nephew of Edwin, king of Northumbria. She was converted to Christianity +before 633 by the preaching of Paulinus. According to Bede she took the +veil in 614, when Oswio was king of Northumbria and Aidan bishop of +Lindisfarne, and spent a year in East Anglia, where her sister Hereswith +had married Aethelhere, who was to succeed his brother Anna, the reigning +king. In 648 or 649 Hilda was recalled to Northumbria by Aidan, and +lived for a year in a small monastic community north of the Wear. She +then succeeded Heiu, the foundress, as abbess of Hartlepool, where she +remained several years. From Hartlepool Hilda moved to Whitby, where in +657 she founded the famous double monastery which in the time of the +first abbess included among its members five future bishops, Bosa, Aetta, +Oftfor, John and Wilfrid II. as well as the poet Caedmon. Hilda exercised +great influence in Northumbria, and ecclesiastics from all over +Christian England and from Strathclyde and Dalriada visited her +monastery. In 655 after the battle of Winwaed Oswio entrusted his +daughter Aelfled to Hilda, with whom she went to Whitby. At the synod of +Whitby in 664 Hilda sided with Colman and Cedd against Wilfrid. In spite +of the defeat of the Celtic party she remained hostile to Wilfrid until +679 at any rate. Hilda died in 680 after a painful illness lasting for +seven years. + + See Bede, _Hist. eccl._ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1869), iii. 24, 25, + iv. 23; Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_ (Raine, _Historians of Church of + York_, Rolls Series, vol. i., 1879), c. liv. + + + + +HILDBURGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, +situated in a wide and fruitful valley on the river Werra, 19 m. S.E. of +Meiningen, on the railway Eisenach-Lichtenfels. Pop. (1905) 7456. The +principal buildings are a ducal palace, erected 1685-1695, now used as +barracks, with a park in which there is a monument to Queen Louisa of +Prussia, the old town hall, two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church +and a theatre. A technical college occupies the premises in which +Meyer's Bibliographisches Institut carried on business from 1828, when +it removed hither from Gotha, until 1874, when it was transferred to +Leipzig. A monument has been erected to those citizens who died in the +Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. The manufactures include linen fabrics, +cloth, toys, buttons, optical instruments, agricultural machines, +knives, mineral waters, condensed soups and condensed milk. +Hildburghausen (in records _Hilpershusia_ and _Villa Hilperti_) belonged +in the 13th century to the counts of Henneberg, from whom it passed to +the landgraves of Thuringia and then to the dukes of Saxony. In 1683 it +became the capital of a principality which in 1826 was united to +Saxe-Meiningen. + + See R. A. Human, _Chronik der Stadt Hildburghausen_ (Hildburghausen, + 1888). + + + + +HILDEBERT, HYDALBERT, GILDEBERT or ALDEBERT (c. 1055-1133), French +writer and ecclesiastic, was born of poor parents at Lavardin, near +Vendome, and was intended for the church. He was probably a pupil of +Berengarius of Tours, and became master (_scholasticus_) of the school +at Le Mans; in 1091 he was made archdeacon and in 1096 bishop of Le +Mans. He had to face the hostility of a section of his clergy and also +of the English king, William II., who captured Le Mans and carried the +bishop with him to England for about a year. Hildebert then travelled to +Rome and sought permission to resign his bishopric, which Pope Paschal +II. refused. In 1116 his diocese was thrown into great confusion owing +to the preaching of Henry of Lausanne, who was denouncing the higher +clergy, especially the bishop. Hildebert compelled him to leave the +neighbourhood of Le Mans, but the effects of his preaching remained. In +1125 Hildebert was translated very unwillingly to the archbishopric of +Tours, and there he came into conflict with the French king Louis VI. +about the rights of ecclesiastical patronage and with the bishop of Dol +about the authority of his see in Brittany. He presided over the synod +of Nantes, and died at Tours probably on the 18th of December 1133. +Hildebert, who built part of the cathedral at Le Mans, has received from +some writers the title of saint, but there appears to be no authority +for this. He was not a man of very strict life; his contemporaries, +however, had a very high opinion of him and he was called _egregius +versificator_. + +The extant writings of Hildebert consist of letters, poems, a few +sermons, two lives and one or two treatises. An edition of his works +prepared by the Maurist, Antoine Beaugendre, and entitled _Venerabilis +Hildeberti, primo Cenomannensis episcopi, deinde Turonensis +archiepiscopi, opera tam edita quam inedita_, was published in Paris in +1708 and was reprinted with additions by J. J. Bourasse in 1854. These +editions, however, are very faulty. They credit Hildebert with numerous +writings which are the work of others, while some genuine writings are +omitted. The revelation of this fact has affected Hildebert's position +in the history of medieval thought. His standing as a philosopher rested +upon his supposed authorship of the important _Tractatus theologicus_; +but this is now regarded as the work of Hugh of St Victor, and +consequently Hildebert can hardly be counted among the philosophers. His +genuine writings include many letters. These _Epistolae_ enjoyed great +popularity in the 12th and 13th centuries, and were frequently used as +classics in the schools of France and Italy. Those which concern the +struggle between the emperor Henry V. and Pope Paschal II. have been +edited by E. Sackur and printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. +Libelli de lite ii._ (1893). His poems, which deal with various +subjects, are disfigured by many defects of style and metre, but they +too were very popular. Hildebert attained celebrity also as a preacher +both in French and Latin, but only a few of his sermons are in +existence, most of the 144 attributed to him by his editors being the +work of Peter Lombard and others. The _Vitae_ written by Hildebert are +the lives of Hugo, abbot of Cluny, and of St Radegunda. Undoubtedly +genuine is also his _Liber de querimonia et conflictu carnis et spiritus +seu animae_. Hildebert was an excellent Latin scholar, being acquainted +with Cicero, Ovid and other authors, and his spirit is rather that of a +pagan than of a Christian writer. + + See B. Haureau, _Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin_ + (Paris, 1882), and _Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins + de la Bibliotheque nationale_ (Paris, 1890-1893); Comte P. de + Deservillers, _Un Eveque au XII^e siecle, Hildebert et son temps_ + (Paris, 1876); E. A. Freeman, _The Reign of Rufus_, vol. ii. (Oxford, + 1882); tome xi. of the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, and H. + Bohmer in Band viii. of Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1900). The + most important work, however, to be consulted is L. Dieudonne's + _Hildebert de Lavardin, eveque du Mans, archeveque de Tours. Sa vie, + ses lettres_ (Paris, 1898). + + + + +HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (_Das Hildebrandslied_), a unique example of Old +German alliterative poetry, written about the year 800 on the first and +last pages of a theological manuscript, by two monks of the monastery of +Fulda. The fragment, or rather fragments, only extend to sixty-eight +lines, and the conclusion of the poem is wanting. The theory propounded +by Karl Lachmann, that the poem had been written in its present form +from memory, has been discredited by later philological investigation; +it is clearly a transcript of an older original, which the copyists--or +more probably the writer to whom we owe the older version--imperfectly +understood. The language of the poem shows a curious mixture of Low and +High German forms; as the High German elements point to the dialect of +Fulda, the inference is that the copyists were reproducing an originally +Low German lay in the form in which it was sung in Franconia. + +The fragment is mainly taken up with a dialogue between Hildebrand and +his son Hadubrand. When Hildebrand followed his master, Theodoric the +Great, who was fleeing eastwards before Odoacer, he left his young wife +and an infant child behind him. At his return to his old home, after +thirty years' absence among the Huns, he is met by a young warrior and +challenged to single combat. Before the fight begins, Hildebrand asks +for the name of his opponent, and discovering his own son in him, tries +to avert the fight, but in vain; Hadubrand only regards the old man's +words as the excuse of cowardice. "In sharp showers the ashen spears +fall on the shields, and then the warriors seize their swords and hew +vigorously at the white shields until these are beaten to pieces...." +With these words the fragment breaks off abruptly, giving no clue as to +the issue of the combat. There is little doubt, however, that, as in the +Old Norse _Asmundar saga_, where the tale is alluded to, the fight must +have been fatal to Hadubrand. But in the later traditions, both of the +Old Norse _Thidreks saga_ (13th century), and the so-called _Jungere +Hildebrandslied_--a German popular lay, preserved in several versions +from the 15th to the 17th century--Hadubrand is simply represented as +defeated, and obliged to recognize his father. The Old High German +_Hildebrandslied_ is dramatically conceived, and written in a terse, +vigorous style; it is the only remnant that has come down from early +Germanic times of an undoubtedly extensive ballad literature, dealing +with the national sagas. + + The MS. of the _Hildebrandslied_, originally in Fulda, is now + preserved in the Landesbibliothek at Cassel. The literature on the + poem will be found most conveniently in K. Mullenhoff and W. Scherer, + _Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem VIII. bis XI. Jahrh._, + 3rd ed. (1892), and in W. Braune, _Althochdeutsches Lesebuch_, 5th ed. + (1902), to which authorities the reader is referred for a critical + text. The poem was discovered and first printed (as prose) by J. G. + von Eckhart, _Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis_ (1729), i. 864 + ff.; the first scholarly edition was that of the brothers Grimm + (1812). Facsimile reproductions of the MS. have been published by W. + Grimm (1830), E. Sievers (1872), G. Konnecke in his _Bilderatlas_ + (1887; 2nd ed., 1895) and M. Enneccerus (1897). See also K. Lachmann, + _Uber das Hildebrandslied_ (1833) in _Kleine Schriften_, i. 407 ff.; + C. W. M. Grein, _Das Hildebrandslied_ (1858; 2nd ed., 1880); O. + Schroder, _Bemerkungen zum Hildebrandslied_ (1880); H. Moller, _Zur + althochdeutschen Alliterationspoesie_ (1888); R. Heinzel, _Uber die + ostgotische Heldensage_ (1889); B. Busse, "Sagengeschichtliches zum + Hildebrandslied," in Paul und Braune's _Beitrage_, xxvi. (1901), pp. 1 + ff.; R. Koegel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis zum Ausgang + des Mittelalters_, i. (1894), pp. 210 ff.; and R. Koegel and W. + Bruckner, in Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, 2nd ed., + ii. (1901), pp. 71 ff. (J. G. R.) + + + + +HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD (1818-1868), German painter, was born in 1818, and +served as apprentice to his father, a house-painter at Danzig. He was +not twenty when he came to Berlin, where he was taken in hand by Wilhelm +Krause, a painter of sea pieces. Several early pieces exhibited after +his death--a breakwater, dated 1838, ships in a breeze off Swinemunde +(1840), and other canvases of this and the following year--show +Hildebrandt to have been a careful student of nature, with inborn +talents kept down by the conventionalisms of the formal school to which +Krause belonged. Accident made him acquainted with masterpieces of +French art displayed at the Berlin Academy, and these awakened his +curiosity and envy. He went to Paris, where, about 1842, he entered the +atelier of Isabey and became the companion of Lepoittevin. In a short +time he sent home pictures which might have been taken for copies from +these artists. Gradually he mastered the mysteries of touch and the +secrets of effect in which the French at this period excelled. He also +acquired the necessary skill in painting figures, and returned to +Germany, skilled in the rendering of many kinds of landscape forms. His +pictures of French street life, done about 1843, while impressed with +the stamp of the Paris school, reveal a spirit eager for novelty, quick +at grasping, equally quick at rendering, momentary changes of tone and +atmosphere. After 1843 Hildebrandt, under the influence of Humboldt, +extended his travels, and in 1864-1865 he went round the world. Whilst +his experience became enlarged his powers of concentration broke down. +He lost the taste for detail in seeking for scenic breadth, and a fatal +facility of hand diminished the value of his works for all those who +look for composition and harmony of hue as necessary concomitants of +tone and touch. In oil he gradually produced less, in water colours +more, than at first, and his fame must rest on the sketches which he +made in the latter form, many of them represented by chromo-lithography. +Fantasies in red, yellow and opal, sunset, sunrise and moonshine, +distances of hundreds of miles like those of the Andes and the Himalaya, +narrow streets in the bazaars of Cairo or Suez, panoramas as seen from +mastheads, wide cities like Bombay or Pekin, narrow strips of desert +with measureless expanses of sky--all alike display his quality of +bravura. Hildebrandt died at Berlin on the 25th of October 1868. + + + + +HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR (1804-1874), German painter, was born at Stettin. +He was a disciple of the painter Schadow, and, on Schadow's appointment +to the presidency of a new academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828, +followed that master to Dusseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting +pictures illustrative of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he +followed the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He +produced rapidly "Faust and Mephistopheles" (1824), "Faust and Margaret" +(1825), and "Lear and Cordelia" (1828). He visited the Netherlands with +Schadow in 1829, and wandered alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not +alter his style, though it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism +and realism. At Dusseldorf, about 1830, he produced "Romeo and Juliet," +"Tancred and Clorinda," and other works which deserved to be classed +with earlier paintings; but during the same period he exhibited (1829) +the "Robber" and (1832) the "Captain and his Infant Son," examples of an +affected but kindly realism which captivated the public, and marked to a +certain extent an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made +Hildebrandt's fame is the "Murder of the Children of King Edward" +(1836), of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still +belongs to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late in +life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in pictures +representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed again into the +romantic in "Othello and Desdemona." After 1847 Hildebrandt gave himself +up to portrait-painting, and in that branch succeeded in obtaining a +large practice. He died at Dusseldorf in 1874. + + + + +HILDEGARD, ST (1098-1179), German abbess and mystic, was born of noble +parents at Bockelheim, in the countship of Sponheim, in 1098, and from +her eighth year was educated at the Benedictine cloister of +Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of the count of Sponheim, whom she +succeeded as abbess in 1136. From earliest childhood she was accustomed +to see visions, which increased in frequency and vividness as she +approached the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years kept +almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-third year +(1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them. Committed to writing +by her intimate friend the monk Godefridus, they now form the first and +most important of her printed works, entitled _Scivias_ (probably an +abbreviation for "sciens vias" or "nosce vias Domini") _s. visionum et +revelatianum libri iii._, and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of +Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard of +Hildegard's revelations, and became so convinced of their reality that +he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknowledging her as a +prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated her recognition as +such by his friend and former pupil Pope Eugenius III. in the synod of +Treves (1148). In the same year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen +of her nuns to a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which +she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of voluminous +correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys, in the course of +which she was unwearied in the exercise of her gift of prophecy, she +wielded for many years an increasing influence upon her +contemporaries--an influence doubtless due to the fact that she was +imbued with the most widely diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and +hopes, of her time. Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV. +and Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and also the +theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted numerous questions in +dogmatic theology for her determination. She died in 1179, but has never +been canonized; her name, however, was received into the Roman +martyrology in the 15th century, September 17th being the day fixed for +her commemoration. + + Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Godefridus and + Theodoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566. Hildegard's + writings, besides the _Scivias_ already mentioned and first printed in + Paris in 1513, include the _Liber divinorum operum_, _Explanatio + regulae S. Benedicti_, _Physica_ and _the Letters_, &c., are contained + in Migne, _Patr. Lat._ t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra's _Analecta + sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis opera_ (Paris, + 1882). + + For a modern study of the saint's writings, see _Sainte Hildegarde_ by + Pal Franche, "_Les Saints_" series (Paris, 1903); and U. Chevalier, + _Repertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl._ 2153. + + + + +HILDEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province on the Itter, 9 m. S.E. of +Dusseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,946. It possesses an Evangelical and +a Roman Catholic church and a monument to the emperor William I. Its +manufactures include silks, velvets, carpets, calico-printing, machinery +and brick-making. + + + + +HILDESHEIM, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Hanover, beautifully situated at the north foot of the Harz +Mountains, on the right bank of the Innerste, 18 m. S.E. of Hanover by +railway, and on the main line from Berlin, via Magdeburg to Cologne. +Pop. (1885) 20,386, (1905) 47,060. The town consists of an old and a new +part, and is surrounded by ramparts which have been converted into +promenades. Its streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, and +contain many old houses with overhanging upper storeys and richly and +curiously adorned wooden facades. Its religious edifices are five Roman +Catholic and four Evangelical churches and a synagogue. The most +interesting is the Roman Catholic cathedral, which dates from the middle +of the 11th century and occupies the site of a building founded by the +emperor Louis the Pious early in the 9th century. It is famous for its +antiquities and works of art. These include the bronze doors executed by +Bishop Bernward, with reliefs from the history of Adam and of Jesus +Christ; a brazen font of the 13th century; two large candelabra of the +11th century; the sarcophagus of St Godehard; and the tomb of St +Epiphanius. In the cathedral also there is a bronze column 15 ft. high, +adorned with reliefs from the life of Christ and dating from 1022, and +another column, at one time thought to be an Irminsaule erected in +honour of the Saxon idol Irmin, but now regarded as belonging to a Roman +aqueduct. On the wall of the Romanesque crypt, which was restored in +1896, is a rose-bush, alleged to be a thousand years old; this sends its +branches to a height of 24 ft. and a breadth of 30 ft., and they are +trained to interlace one of the windows. Before the cathedral is the +pretty cloister garth, with the chapel of St Anne, erected in 1321 and +restored in 1888. The Romanesque church of St Godehard was built in the +12th century and restored in the 19th. The church of St Michael, founded +by Bishop Bernward early in the 11th century and restored after injury +by fire in 1186, contains a unique painted ceiling of the 12th century, +the sarcophagus and monument of Bishop Bernward, and a bronze font; it +is now a Protestant parish church, but the crypt is used by the Roman +Catholics. The church of the Magdalene possesses two candelabra, a gold +cross, and various other works in metal by Bishop Bernward; and the +Lutheran church of St Andrew has a choir dating from 1389 and a tower +385 ft. high. In the suburb of Moritzberg there is an abbey church +founded in 1040, the only pure columnar basilica in north Germany. + +The chief secular buildings are the town-hall (Rathaus), which dates +from the 15th century and was restored in 1883-1892, adorned with +frescoes illustrating the history of the city; the Tempelherrenhaus, in +Late Gothic erroneously said to have been built by the Knights Templars; +the Knochenhaueramthaus, formerly the gild-house of the butchers, which +was restored after being damaged by fire in 1884, and is probably the +finest specimen of a wooden building in Germany; the Michaelis +monastery, used as a lunatic asylum; and the old Carthusian monastery. +The Romer museum of antiquities and natural history is housed in the +former church of St Martin; the buildings of Trinity hospital, partly +dating from the 14th century, are now a factory; and the Wedekindhaus +(1598) is now a savings-bank. The educational establishments include a +Roman Catholic and a Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school and +college and two technical institutions, the Georgstift for daughters of +state servants and a conservatoire of music. Hildesheim is the seat of +considerable industry. Its chief productions are sugar, tobacco and +cigars, stoves, machines, vehicles, agricultural implements and bricks. +Other trades are brewing and tanning. It is connected with Hanover by an +electric tram line, 19 m. in length. + +Hildesheim owes its rise and prosperity to the fact that in 822 it was +made the seat of the bishopric which Charlemagne had founded at Elze a +few years before. Its importance was greatly increased by St Bernward, +who was bishop from 993 to 1022 and walled the town. By his example and +patronage the art of working in metals was greatly stimulated. In the +13th century Hildesheim became a free city of the Empire; in 1249 it +received municipal rights and about the same time it joined the +Hanseatic league. Several of its bishops belonged to one or other of the +great families of Germany; and gradually they became practically +independent. The citizens were frequently quarrelling with the bishops, +who also carried on wars with neighbouring princes, especially with the +house of Brunswick-Luneburg, under whose protection Hildesheim placed +itself several times. The most celebrated of these struggles is the one +known as the _Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde_, which broke out early in the +16th century when John, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was bishop. At first the +bishop and his allies were successful, but in 1521 the king of Denmark +and the duke of Brunswick overran his lands and in 1523 he made peace, +surrendering nearly all his possessions. Much, however, was restored +when Ferdinand, prince of Bavaria, was bishop (1612-1650), as this +warlike prelate took advantage of the disturbances caused by the Thirty +Years' War to seize the lost lands, and at the beginning of the 19th +century the extent of the prince bishopric was 682 sq. m. In 1801 the +bishopric was secularized and in 1803 was granted to Prussia; in 1807 it +was incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia and in 1813 was +transferred to Hanover. In 1866, along with Hanover, it was annexed by +Prussia. In 1803 a new bishopric of Hildesheim, a spiritual organization +only, was established, and this has jurisdiction over all the Roman +Catholic churches in the centre of north Germany. + +In October 1868 a unique collection of ancient Augustan silver plate was +discovered on the Galgenberg near Hildesheim by some soldiers who were +throwing up earthworks. This _Hildesheimer Silberfund_ excited great +interest among classical archaeologists. Some authorities think that it +is the actual plate which belonged to Drusus himself. The most +noteworthy pieces are a crater richly ornamented with arabesques and +figures of children, a platter with a representation of Minerva, another +with one of the boy Hercules and another with one of Cybele. The +collection is in the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin. + + See the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim_, edited by R. Dobner + (Hildesheim, 1881-1901); the _Urkundenbuch des Hochstifts Hildesheim_, + edited by K. Janicke and H. Hoogeweg (Leipzig and Hanover, 1896-1903); + C. Bauer, _Geschichte von Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1892); A. Bertram, + _Geschichte des Bistums Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1899 fol.); C. + Euling, _Hildesheimer Land und Leute des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ + (Hildesheim, 1892); O. Fischer, _Die Stadt Hildesheim wahrend des + dreissigjahrigen Krieges_ (Hildesheim, 1897); A. Grebe, _Auf + Hildesheimschem Boden_ (Hildesheim, 1884); H. Cuno, _Hildesheims + Kunstler im Mittelalter_ (Hildesheim, 1886); W. Wachsmuth, + _Geschichte von Hochstift und Stadt Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1863); R. + Dobner, _Studien zur Hildesheimischen Geschichte_ (Hildesheim, 1901); + Lachner, _Die Holzarchitektur Hildesheims_ (Hildesheim, 1882); + Seifart, _Sagen, Marchen, Schwanke und Gebrauche aus Stadt und Stift + Hildesheims_ (Hildesheim, 1889). For the _Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde_, + see H. Delius, _Die Hildesheimische Stiftsfehde_ 1519 (Leipzig, 1803). + For the _Hildesheimer Silberfund_, see Wieseler, _Der Hildesheimer + Silberfund_ (Gottingen, 1869); Holzer, _Der Hildesheimer antike + Silberfund_ (Hildesheim, 1871); and E. Pernice and F. Winter, _Der + Hildesheimer Silberfund der koniglichen Museen zu Berlin_ (Berlin, + 1901). + + + + +HILDRETH, RICHARD (1807-1865), American journalist and author, was born +at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of June 1807, the son of Hosea +Hildreth (1782-1835), a teacher of mathematics and later a +Congregational minister. Richard graduated at Harvard in 1826, and, +after studying law at Newburyport, was admitted to the bar at Boston in +1830. He had already taken to journalism, and in 1832 he became joint +founder and editor of a daily newspaper, the Boston Atlas. Having in +1834 gone to the South for the benefit of his health, he was led by what +he witnessed of the evils of slavery (chiefly in Florida) to write the +anti-slavery novel _The Slave: or Memoir of Archy Moore_ (1836; enlarged +edition, 1852, _The White Slave_). In 1837 he wrote for the _Atlas_ a +series of articles vigorously opposing the annexation of Texas. In the +same year he published _Banks, Banking, and Paper Currencies_, a work +which helped to promote the growth of the free banking system in +America. In 1838 he resumed his editorial duties on the _Atlas_, but in +1840 removed, on account of his health, to British Guiana, where he +lived for three years and was editor of two weekly newspapers in +succession at Georgetown. He published in this year (1840) a volume in +opposition to slavery, _Despotism in America_ (2nd ed., 1854). In 1849 +he published the first three volumes of his _History of the United +States_, two more volumes of which were published in 1851 and the sixth +and last in 1852. The first three volumes of this history, his most +important work, deal with the period 1492-1789, and the second three +with the period 1789-1821. The history is notable for its painstaking +accuracy and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist +bias. Hildreth's _Japan as It Was and Is_ (1855) was at the time a +valuable digest of the information contained in other works on that +country (new ed., 1906). He also wrote a campaign biography of William +Henry Harrison (1839); _Theory of Morals_ (1844); and _Theory of +Politics_ (1853), as well as _Lives of Atrocious Judges_ (1856), +compiled from Lord Campbell's two works. In 1861 he was appointed United +States consul at Trieste, but ill-health compelled him to resign and +remove to Florence, where he died on the 11th of July 1865. + + + + +HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH (1823-1907), German Protestant +divine, was born at Stappenbeck near Salzwedel in Prussian Saxony on the +2nd of June 1823. He studied at Berlin and Halle, and in 1890 became +professor ordinarius of theology at Jena. He belonged to the Tubingen +school. "Fond of emphasizing his independence of Baur, he still, in all +important points, followed in the footsteps of his master; his method, +which he is wont to contrast as _Literarkritik_ with Baur's +_Tendenzkritik_, is nevertheless essentially the same as Baur's" (Otto +Pfleiderer). On the whole, however, he modified the positions of the +founder of the Tubingen school, going beyond him only in his +investigations into the Fourth Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the +_Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_. He died on the 12th of +January 1907. + + His works include: _Die elementarischen Recognitionen und Homilien_ + (1848); _Die Evangelien und die Briefe des Johannes nach ihrem + Lehrbegriff_ (1849); _Das Markusevangelium_ (1850); _Die Evangelien + nach ihrer Entstehung und geschichtlichen Bedeutung_ (1854); _Das + Unchristentum_ (1855); _Jud. Apokalyptik_ (1857); _Novum Testamentum + extra canonem receptum_ (4 parts, 1866; 2nd ed., 1876-1884); + _Histor.-kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1875); _Acta + Apostolorum graece et latine secundum antiquissimos testes_ (1899); + the first complete edition of the _Shepherd of Hermas_ (1887); + _Ignatii et Polycarpi epistolae_ (1902). + + + + +HILL, AARON (1685-1750), English author, was born in London on the 10th +of February 1685. He was the son of George Hill of Malmesbury Abbey, +Wiltshire, who contrived to sell an estate entailed on his son. In his +fourteenth year he left Westminster School to go to Constantinople, +where William, Lord Paget de Beaudesert (1637-1713), a relative of his +mother, was ambassador. Paget sent him, under care of a tutor, to travel +in Palestine and Egypt, and he returned to England in 1703. He was +estranged from his patron by the "envious fears and malice of a certain +female," and again went abroad as companion to Sir William Wentworth. On +his return home in 1709 he published _A Full and Just Account of the +Present State of the Ottoman Empire_, a production of which he was +afterwards much ashamed, and he addressed his poem of _Camillus_ to +Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough. In the same year he is said to +have been manager of Drury Lane theatre and in 1710 of the Haymarket. +His first play, _Elfrid: or The Fair Inconstant_ (afterwards revised as +_Athelwold_), was produced at Drury Lane in 1709. His connexion with the +theatre was of short duration, and the rest of his life was spent in +ingenious commercial enterprises, none of which were successful, and in +literary pursuits. He formed a company to extract oil from beechmast, +another for the colonization of the district to be known later as +Georgia, a third to supply wood for naval construction from Scotland, +and a fourth for the manufacture of potash. In 1730 he wrote _The +Progress of Wit, being a caveat for the use of an Eminent Writer_. The +"eminent writer" was Pope, who had introduced him into _The Dunciad_ as +one of the competitors for the prize offered by the goddess of Dullness, +though the satire was qualified by an oblique compliment. A note in the +edition of 1729 on the obnoxious passage, in which, however, the +original initial was replaced by asterisks, gave Hill great offence. He +wrote to Pope complaining of his treatment, and received a reply in +which Pope denied responsibility for the notes. Hill appears to have +been a persistent correspondent, and inflicted on Pope a series of +letters, which are printed in Elwin & Courthope's edition (x. 1-78). +Hill died on the 8th of February 1750, and was buried in Westminster +Abbey. The best of his plays were _Zara_ (acted 1735) and _Merope_ +(1749), both adaptations from Voltaire. He also published two series of +periodical essays, _The Prompter_ (1735) and, with William Bond, _The +Plaindealer_ (1724). He was generous to fellow-men of letters, and his +letters to Richard Savage, whom he helped considerably, show his +character in a very amiable light. + + _The Works of the late Aaron Hill, consisting of letters ..., original + poems.... With an essay on the Art of Acting_ appeared in 1753, and + his _Dramatic Works_ in 1760. His _Poetical Works_ are included in + Anderson's and other editions of the British poets. A full account of + his life is provided by an anonymous writer in Theophilus Cibber's + _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v. + + + + +HILL, AMBROSE POWELL (1825-1865), American Confederate soldier, was born +in Culpeper county, Virginia, on the 9th of November 1825, and graduated +from West Point in 1847, being appointed to the 1st U.S. artillery. He +served in the Mexican and Seminole Wars, was promoted first lieutenant +in September 1851, and in 1855-1860 was employed on the United States' +coast survey. In March 1861, just before the outbreak of the Civil War, +he resigned his commission, and when his state seceded he was made +colonel of a Virginian infantry regiment, winning promotion to the rank +of brigadier-general on the field of Bull Run. In the Peninsular +campaign of 1862 he gained further promotion, and as a major-general +Hill was one of the most prominent and successful divisional commanders +of Lee's army in the Seven Days', Second Bull Run, Antietam and +Fredericksburg campaigns. His division formed part of "Stonewall" +Jackson's corps, and he was severely wounded in the flank attack of +Chancellorsville in May 1863. After Jackson's death Hill was made a +lieutenant-general and placed in command of the 3rd corps of Lee's army, +which he led in the Gettysburg campaign of 1863, the autumn campaign of +the same year, and the Wilderness and Petersburg operations of 1864-65. +He was killed in front of the Petersburg lines on the 2nd of April 1865. +His reputation as a troop leader in battle was one of the highest +amongst the generals of both sides, and both Lee and Jackson, when on +their death-beds their thoughts wandered in delirium to the battlefield, +called for "A. P. Hill" to deliver the decisive blow. + + + + +HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889), American Confederate soldier, was born +in York district, South Carolina, on the 12th of July 1821, and +graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842, being appointed +to the 1st United States artillery. He distinguished himself in the +Mexican War, being breveted captain and major for bravery at Contreras +and Churubusco and at Chapultepec respectively. In February 1849 he +resigned his commission and became a professor of mathematics at +Washington College (now Washington and Lee University), Lexington, +Virginia. In 1854 he joined the faculty of Davidson College, North +Carolina, and was in 1859 made superintendent of the North Carolina +Military Institute of Charlotte. At the outbreak of the Civil War, D. H. +Hill was made colonel of a Confederate infantry regiment, at the head of +which he won the action of Big Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, Va., on the +10th of June 1861. Shortly after this he was made a brigadier-general. +He took part in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations in the spring +of 1862, and as a major-general led a division with great distinction in +the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days. He took part in the Second +Bull Run campaign in August-September 1862, and in the Antietam campaign +the stubborn resistance of D. H. Hill's division in the passes of South +Mountain enabled Lee to concentrate for battle. The division bore a +conspicuous part in the battles of the Antietam and Fredericksburg. On +the reorganization of the army of Northern Virginia after Jackson's +death, D. H. Hill was not appointed to a corps command, but somewhat +later in 1863 he was sent to the west as a lieutenant-general and +commanded one of Bragg's corps in the brilliant victory of Chickamauga. +D. H. Hill surrendered with Gen. J. E. Johnston on the 26th of April +1865. In 1866-1869 he edited a magazine, _The Land we Love_, at +Charlotte, N.C., which dealt with social and historical subjects and had +a great influence in the South. In 1877 he became president of the +university of Arkansas, a post which he held until 1884, and in 1885 +president of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville, +Georgia. General Hill died at Charlotte, N.C., on the 24th of September +1889. + + + + +HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843-1910), American politician, was born at +Havana, New York, on the 29th of August 1843. In 1862 he removed to +Elmira, New York, where in 1864 he was admitted to the bar. He at once +became active in the affairs of the Democratic party, attracting the +attention of Samuel J. Tilden, one of whose shrewdest and ablest +lieutenants he became. In 1871 and 1872 he was a member of the New York +State Assembly, and in 1877 and again in 1881, presided over the +Democratic State Convention. In 1882 he was elected mayor of Elmira, and +in the same year was chosen lieutenant-governor of the state, having +been defeated for nomination as governor by Grover Cleveland. In January +1885, however, Cleveland having resigned to become president, Hill +became governor, and in November was elected for a three-year term, and +subsequently re-elected. In 1891-1897 he was a member of the United +States Senate. During these years, and in 1892, when he tried to get the +presidential nomination, he was prominent in working against Cleveland. +In 1896 he opposed the free silver plank in the platform adopted by the +Democratic National Convention which nominated W. J. Bryan; in the +National Convention of 1900, however, the free-silver issue having been +subordinated to anti-imperialism, he seconded Bryan's nomination. After +1897 he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1905 retired from +politics. He died in Albany on the 30th of October 1910. + + + + +HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903), English author, son of Arthur +Hill, head master of Bruce Castle school, was born at Tottenham, +Middlesex, on the 7th of June 1835. Arthur Hill, with his brothers +Rowland Hill, the postal reformer, and Matthew Davenport Hill, +afterwards recorder of Birmingham, had worked out a system of education +which was to exclude compulsion of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle, +of which Arthur Hill was head master, was founded to carry into +execution their theories, known as the Hazelwood system. George Birkbeck +Hill was educated in his father's school and at Pembroke College, +Oxford. In 1858 he began to teach at Bruce Castle school, and from 1868 +to 1877 was head master. In 1869 he became a regular contributor to the +_Saturday Review_, with which he remained in connexion until 1884. On +his retirement from teaching he devoted himself to the study of English +18th-century literature, and established his reputation as the most +learned commentator on the works of Samuel Johnson. He settled at Oxford +in 1887, but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad. He +died at Hampstead, London, on the 27th of February 1903. His works +include: _Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics_ (1878); an edition of +Boswell's _Correspondence_ (1879); a laborious edition of _Boswell's +Life of Johnson, including Boswell's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, +and Johnson's Diary of a Journey into North Wales_ (Clarendon Press, 6 +vols., 1887); _Wit and Wisdom of Samuel Johnson_ (1888); _Select Essays +of Dr Johnson_ (1889); _Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland_ (1890); +_Letters of Johnson_ (1892); _Johnsonian Miscellanies_ (2 vols., 1897); +an edition (1900) of Edward Gibbon's _Autobiography_; Johnson's _Lives +of the Poets_ (3 vols., 1905), and other works on the 18th-century +topics. Dr Birkbeck Hill's elaborate edition of Boswell's _Life_ is a +monumental work, invaluable to the student. + + See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition of + the _Lives of the English Poets_ (1905), and the _Letters_ edited by + his daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903. + + + + +HILL, JAMES J. (1838- ), American railway capitalist, was born near +Guelph, Ontario, Canada, on the 16th of September 1838, and was educated +at Rockwood (Ont.) Academy, a Quaker institution. In 1856 he settled in +St Paul, Minnesota. Abandoning, because of his father's death, his plans +to study medicine, he became a clerk in the office of a firm of river +steamboat agents and shippers, and later the agent for a line of river +packets; he established about 1870 transportation lines on the +Mississippi and on the Red River (of the North). He effected a traffic +arrangement between the St Paul Pacific Railroad and his steamboat +lines; and when the railway failed in 1873 for $27,000,000, Hill +interested Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), George Stephen (Lord +Mount Stephen), and other Canadian capitalists, in the road and in the +wheat country of the Red River Valley; he got control of the bonds +(1878), foreclosed the mortgage, reorganized the road as the St Paul, +Minneapolis & Manitoba, and began to extend the line, then only 380 m. +long, toward the Pacific; and in 1883 he became its president. He was +president of the Great Northern Railway (comprehending all his secondary +lines) from 1893 to April 1907, when he became chairman of its board of +directors. In the extension (1883-1893) of this railway westward to +Puget Sound (whence it has direct steamship connexions with China and +Japan), the line was built by the company itself, none of the work being +handled by contractors. Subsequently his financial interests in American +railways caused constant sensations in the stock-markets. The Hill +interests obtained control not only of the Great-Northern system, but of +the Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and proposed +the construction of another northern line to the Pacific coast. Hill was +the president of the Northern Securities Company, which in 1904 was +declared by the United States Supreme Court to be in conflict with the +Sherman Anti-Trust Law. (See Vol. 27, p. 733.) Among Hill's gifts to +public institutions was one of $500,000 to the St. Paul Theological +Seminary (Roman Catholic). + + + + +HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775), called from his Swedish honours, "Sir" John +Hill, English author, son of the Rev. Theophilus Hill, is said to have +been born in Peterborough in 1716. He was apprenticed to an apothecary +and on the completion of his apprenticeship he set up in a small shop in +St Martin's Lane, Westminster. He also travelled over the country in +search of rare herbs, with a view to publishing a _hortus siccus_, but +the plan failed. His first publication was a translation of +Theophrastus's _History of Stones_ (1746). From this time forward he was +an indefatigable writer. He edited the _British Magazine_ (1746-1750), +and for two years (1751-1753) he wrote a daily letter, "The Inspector," +for the _London Advertiser and Literary Gazette_. He also produced +novels, plays and scientific works, and was a large contributor to the +supplement of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_. His personal and +scurrilous writings involved him in many quarrels. Henry Fielding +attacked him in the _Covent Garden Journal_, Christopher Smart wrote a +mock-epic, _The Hilliad_, against him, and David Garrick replied to his +strictures against him by two epigrams, one of which runs:-- + + "For physics and farces, his equal there scarce is; + His farces are physic, his physic a farce is." + +He had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who accused him +of plagiarizing his _Orpheus_, also with Samuel Foote and Henry +Woodward. From 1759 to 1775 he was engaged on a huge botanical +work--_The Vegetable System_ (26 vols. fol.)--adorned by 1600 +copperplate engravings. Hill's botanical labours were undertaken at the +request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the order of +Vasa from the king of Sweden in 1774. He had a medical degree from +Edinburgh, and he now practised as a quack doctor, making considerable +sums by the preparation of vegetable medicines. He died in London on the +21st of November 1775. + + Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the + _Dictionary of National Biography_, the most valuable are those that + deal with botany. He is said to have been the author of the second + part of _The Oeconomy of Human Life_ (1751), the first part of which + is by Lord Chesterfield, and Hannah Glasse's famous manual of cookery + was generally ascribed to him (see Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 285). Dr + Johnson said of him that he was "an ingenious man, but had no + veracity." + + See a _Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late + Sir John Hill_ (1779), which is chiefly occupied with a descriptive + catalogue of his works; also _Temple Bar_ (1872, xxxv. 261-266). + + + + +HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872), English lawyer and penologist, was +born on the 6th of August 1792, at Birmingham, where his father, T. W. +Hill, for long conducted a private school. He was a brother of Sir +Rowland Hill. He early acted as assistant in his father's school, but in +1819 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. He went the midland +circuit. In 1832 he was elected one of the Liberal members for +Kingston-upon-Hull, but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834. +On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was chosen recorder; and +in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in bankruptcy for the Bristol +district. Having had his interest excited in questions relating to the +treatment of criminal offenders, he ventilated in his charges to the +grand juries, as well as in special pamphlets, opinions which were the +means of introducing many important reforms in the methods of dealing +with crime. One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his +brother Frederick Hill (1803-1896), whose _Amount, Causes and Remedies +of Crime_, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons for +Scotland, marked an era in the methods of prison discipline. Hill was +one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful +Knowledge, and the originator of the _Penny Magazine_. He died at +Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 7th of June 1872. + + His principal works are _Practical Suggestions to the Founders of + Reformatory Schools_ (1855); _Suggestions for the Repression of Crime_ + (1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of + Birmingham; _Mettray_ (1855); _Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts_ + (1864); _Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and + Reformatories of Dublin_ (1865); _Addresses delivered at the + Birmingham and Midland Institute_ (1867). See _Memoir of Matthew + Davenport Hill_, by his daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport Hill + (1878). + + + + +HILL, OCTAVIA (1838- ) and MIRANDA (1836-1910), English philanthropic +workers, were born in London, being daughters of Mr James Hill and +granddaughters of Dr Southwood Smith, the pioneer of sanitary reform. +Miss Octavia Hill's attention was early drawn to the evils of London +housing, and the habits of indolence and lethargy induced in many of the +lower classes by their degrading surroundings. She conceived the idea of +trying to free a few poor people from such influences, and Mr Ruskin, +who sympathized with her plans, supplied the money for starting the +work. For L750 Miss Hill purchased the 56 years' lease of three houses +in one of the poorest courts of Marylebone. Another L78 was spent in +building a large room at the back of her own house where she could meet +the tenants. The houses were put in repair, and let out in sets of two +rooms. At the end of eighteen months it was possible to pay 5% +interest, to repay L48 of the capital, as well as meet all expenses for +taxes, ground rent and insurance. What specially distinguished this +scheme was that Miss Hill herself collected the rents, thus coming into +contact with the tenants and helping to enforce regular and +self-respecting habits. The success of her first attempt encouraged her +to continue. Six more houses were bought and treated in a similar +manner. A yearly sum was set aside for the repairs of each house, and +whatever remained over was spent on such additional appliances as the +tenants themselves desired. This encouraged them to keep their tenements +in good repair. By the help of friends Miss Hill was now enabled to +enlarge the scope of her work. In 1869 eleven more houses were bought. +The plan was to set a visitor over a small court or block of buildings +to do whatever work in the way of rent-collecting, visiting for the +School Board, &c., was required. As years went on Miss Octavia Hill's +work was largely increased. Numbers of her friends bought and placed +under her care small groups of houses, over which she fulfilled the +duties of a conscientious landlord. Several large owners of tenement +houses, notably the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, entrusted to her the +management of such property, and consulted her about plans of +rebuilding; and a number of fellow-workers were trained by her in the +management of houses for the poor. The results in Southwark (where Red +Cross Hall was established) and elsewhere were very beneficial. Both +Miss Miranda and Miss Octavia Hill took an interest in the movement for +bringing beauty into the homes of the poor, and the former was +practically the founder of the Kyrle Society, the first suggestion of +which was contained in a paper read to a small circle of friends. Both +sisters worked for the preservation of open spaces, and helped to +promote the work of the Charity Organization Society, and for several +years Miss Miranda Hill (who died on the 31st of May 1910) did admirable +work in Marylebone as a member of the Board of Guardians. + + + + +HILL, ROWLAND (1744-1833), English preacher, sixth son of Sir Rowland +Hill, Bart. (d. 1783), was born at Hawkstone, Shropshire, on the 23rd of +August 1744. He was educated at Shrewsbury, Eton and St John's College, +Cambridge. Stimulated by George Whitefield's example, he scandalized the +university authorities and his own friends by preaching and visiting the +sick before he had taken orders. In 1773 he was appointed to the parish +of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he soon attracted great crowds to his +open-air services. Having inherited considerable property, he built for +his own use Surrey Chapel, in the Blackfriars Road, London (1783). Hill +conducted his services in accordance with the forms of the Church of +England, in whose communion he always remained. Both at Surrey Chapel +and in his provincial "gospel tours" he had great success. His oratory +was specially adapted for rude and uncultivated audiences. He possessed +a voice of great power, and according to Southey "his manner" was "that +of a performer as great in his own line as Kean or Kemble." His earnest +and pure purposes more than made up for his occasional lapses from good +taste and the eccentricity of his wit. He helped to found the Religious +Tract Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the London +Missionary Society, and was a stout advocate of vaccination. His +best-known work is the _Village Dialogues_, which first appeared in +1810, and reached a 34th edition in 1839. He died on the 11th of April +1833. + + See _Life_ by E. Sidney (1833); _Memoirs_, by William Jones (1834); + and _Memorials_, by Jas. Sherman (1857). + + + + +HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879), English administrator, author of the +penny postal system, a younger brother of Matthew Davenport Hill, and +third son of T. W. Hill, who named him after Rowland Hill the preacher, +was born on the 3rd of December 1795 at Kidderminster. As a young child +he had, on account of an affection of the spine, to maintain a recumbent +position, and his principal method of relieving the irksomeness of his +situation was to repeat figures aloud consecutively until he had reached +very high totals. A similar bent of mind was manifested when he entered +school in 1802, his aptitude for mathematics being quite exceptional. +But he was indebted for the direction of his abilities in no small +degree to the guidance of his father, a man of advanced political and +social views, which were qualified and balanced by the strong practical +tendency of his mind. At the age of twelve Rowland began to assist in +teaching mathematics in his father's school at Hilltop, Birmingham, and +latterly he had the chief management of the school. On his suggestion +the establishment was removed in 1819 to Hazelwood, a more commodious +building in the Hagley Road, in order to have the advantages of a large +body of boys, for the purpose of properly carrying out an improved +system of education. That system, which was devised principally by +Rowland, was expounded in a pamphlet entitled _Plans for the Government +and Education of Boys in Large Numbers_, the first edition of which +appeared in 1822, and a second with additions in 1827. The principal +feature of the system was "to leave as much as possible all power in the +hands of the boys themselves"; and it was so successful that, in a +circular issued six years after the experiment had been in operation, it +was announced that "the head master had never once exercised his right +of veto on their proceedings." It may be said that Rowland Hill, as an +educationist, is entitled to a place side by side with Arnold of Rugby, +and was equally successful with him in making moral influence of the +highest kind the predominant power in school discipline. After his +marriage in 1827 Hill removed to a new school at Bruce Castle, +Tottenham, which he conducted until failing health compelled him to +retire in 1833. About this time he became secretary of Gibbon +Wakefield's scheme for colonizing South Australia, the objects of which +he explained in 1832 in a pamphlet on _Home Colonies_, afterwards partly +reprinted during the Irish famine under the title _Home Colonies for +Ireland_. It was in 1835 that his zeal as an administrative reformer was +first directed to the postal system. The discovery which resulted from +these investigations is when stated so easy of comprehension that there +is great danger of losing sight of its originality and thoroughness. A +fact which enhances its merit was that he was not a post-office +official, and possessed no practical experience of the details of the +old system. After a laborious collection of statistics he succeeded in +demonstrating that the principal expense of letter carriage was in +receiving and distributing, and that the cost of conveyance differed so +little with the distance that a uniform rate of postage was in reality +the fairest to all parties that could be adopted. Trusting also that the +deficiency in the postal rate would be made up by the immense increase +of correspondence, and by the saving which would be obtained from +prepayment, from improved methods of keeping accounts, and from +lessening the expense of distribution, he in his famous pamphlet +published in 1837 recommended that within the United Kingdom the rate +for letters not exceeding half an ounce in weight should be only one +penny. The employment of postage stamps is mentioned only as a +suggestion, and in the following words: "Perhaps the difficulties might +be obviated by using a bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp, +and covered at the back with a glutinous wash which by applying a little +moisture might be attached to the back of the letter." Proposals so +striking and novel in regard to a subject in which every one had a +personal interest commanded immediate and general attention. So great +became the pressure of public opinion against the opposition offered to +the measure by official prepossessions and prejudices that in 1838 the +House of Commons appointed a committee to examine the subject. The +committee having reported favourably, a bill to carry out Hill's +recommendations was brought in by the government. The act received the +royal assent in 1839, and after an intermediate rate of four-pence had +been in operation from the 5th of December of that year, the penny rate +commenced on the 10th of January 1840. Hill received an appointment in +the Treasury in order to superintend the introduction of his reforms, +but he was compelled to retire when the Liberal government resigned +office in 1841. In consideration of the loss he thus sustained, and to +mark the public appreciation of his services, he was in 1846 presented +with the sum of L13,360. On the Liberals returning to office in the +same year he was appointed secretary to the postmaster-general and in +1854 he was made chief secretary. His ability as a practical +administrator enabled him to supplement his original discovery by +measures realizing its benefits in a degree commensurate with +continually improving facilities of communication, and in a manner best +combining cheapness with efficiency. In 1860 his services were rewarded +with the honour of knighthood; and when failing health compelled him to +resign his office in 1864, he received from parliament a grant of +L20,000 and was also allowed to retain his full salary of L2000 a year +as retiring pension. In 1864 the university of Oxford conferred on him +the degree of D.C.L., and on the 6th of June 1879 he was presented with +the freedom of the city of London. The presentation, on account of his +infirm health, took place at his residence at Hampstead, and he died on +the 27th of August following. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. + + He wrote, in conjunction with his brother, Arthur Hill, a _History of + Penny Postage_, published in 1880, with an introductory memoir by his + nephew, G. Birkbeck Hill. See also _Sir Rowland Hill, the Story of a + Great Reform_, told by his daughter (1907). To commemorate his memory + the Rowland Hill Memorial and Benevolent Fund was founded shortly + after his death for the purpose of relieving distressed persons + connected with the post office who were outside the scope of the + Superannuation Act. See also POST AND POSTAL SERVICE. + + + + +HILL, ROWLAND HILL, 1ST VISCOUNT (1772-1842), British general, was the +second son of (Sir) John Hill, of Hawkstone, Shropshire, and nephew of +the Rev. Rowland Hill (1744-1833), was born at Prees Hall near Hawkstone +on the 11th of August 1772. He was gazetted to the 38th regiment in +1790, obtaining permission at the same time to study in a military +academy at Strassburg, where he continued after removing into the 53rd +regiment with the rank of lieutenant in 1791. In the beginning of 1793 +he raised a company, and was promoted to the rank of captain. The same +year he acted as assistant secretary to the British minister at Genoa, +and served with distinction as a staff officer in the siege of Toulon. +Hill took part in many minor expeditions in the following years. In +1800, when only twenty-eight, he was made a brevet colonel, and in 1801 +he served with distinction in Sir Ralph Abercromby's expedition to +Egypt, and was wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He continued to +command his regiment, the 90th, until 1803, when he became a +brigadier-general. During his regimental command he introduced a +regimental school and a sergeants' mess. He held various commands as +brigadier, and after 1805 as major-general, in Ireland. In 1805 he +commanded a brigade in the abortive Hanover expedition. In 1808 he was +appointed to a brigade in the force sent to Portugal, and from Vimeira +to Vittoria, in advance or retreat, he proved himself Wellington's +ablest and most indefatigable coadjutor. He led a brigade at Vimeira, at +Corunna and at Oporto, and a division at Talavera (see PENINSULAR WAR). +His capacity for independent command was fully demonstrated in the +campaigns of 1810, 1811 and 1812. In 1811 he annihilated a French +detachment under Girard at Arroyo-dos-Molinos, and early in 1812, having +now attained a rank of lieutenant-general (January 1812) and become a +K.B. (March), he carried by assault the important works of Almaraz on +the Tagus. Hill led the right wing of Wellington's army in the Salamanca +campaign in 1812 and at the battle of Vittoria in 1813. Later in this +year he conducted the investment of Pampeluna and fought with the +greatest distinction at the Nivelle and the Nive. In the invasion of +France in 1814 his corps was victoriously engaged both at Orthez and at +Toulouse. Hill was one of the general officers rewarded for their +services by peerages, his title being at first Baron Hill of Almaraz and +Hawkstone, and he received a pension, the thanks of parliament and the +freedom of the city of London. For about two years previous to his +elevation to the peerage, he had been M.P. for Shrewsbury. In 1815 the +news of Napoleon's return from Elba was followed by the assembly of an +Anglo-Allied army (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN) in the Netherlands, and Hill +was appointed to one of the two corps commands in this army. At Waterloo +he led the famous charge of Sir Frederick Adams's brigade against the +Imperial Guard, and for some time it was thought that he had fallen in +the melee. He escaped, however, without a wound, and continued with the +army in France until its withdrawal in 1818. Hill lived in retirement +for some years at his estate of Hardwicke Grange. He carried the royal +standard at the coronation of George IV. and became general in 1825. +When Wellington became premier in 1828, he received the appointment of +general commanding-in-chief, and on resigning this office in 1842 he was +created a viscount. He died on the 10th of December of the same year. +Lord Hill was, next to Wellington, the most popular and able soldier of +his time in the British service, and was so much beloved by the troops, +especially those under his immediate command, that he gained from them +the title of "the soldier's friend." He was a G.C.B, and G.C.H., and +held the grand crosses of various foreign orders, amongst them the +Russian St George and the Austrian Maria Theresa. + + The _Life of Lord Hill, G.C.B._, by Rev. Edwin Sidney, appeared in + 1845. + + + + +HILL (O. Eng. _hyll_; cf. Low Ger. _hull_, Mid. Dutch _hul_, allied to +Lat. _celsus_, high, _collis_, hill, &c.), a natural elevation of the +earth's surface. The term is now usually confined to elevations lower +than a mountain, but formerly was used for all such elevations, high or +low. + + + + +HILLAH, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalik of Bagdad, 60 m. S. of +the city of Bagdad, in 32 deg. 2' 35" N., 44 deg. 48' 40(1/2)" E., +formerly the capital of a sanjak and the residence of a mutasserif, who +in 1893 was transferred to Diwanieh. It is situated on both banks of the +Euphrates, the two parts of the town being connected by a floating +bridge, 450 ft. in length, in the midst of a very fertile district. The +estimated population, which includes a large number of Jews, varies from +6000 to 12,000. The town has suffered much from the periodical breaking +of the Hindieh dam and the consequent deflection of the waters of the +Euphrates to the westward, as a result of which at times the Euphrates +at this point has been entirely dry. This deflection of water has also +seriously interfered with the palm groves, the cultivation of which +constitutes a large part of the industry of the surrounding country +along the river. The bazaars of Hillah are relatively large and well +supplied. Many of the houses in the town are built of brick, not a few +bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, obtained from the ruins of +Babylon, which lie less than an hour away to the north. + + Bibliography.--C. J. Rich, _Babylon and Persepolis_ (1839); J. R. + Peters, _Nippur_ (1857); H. Rassam, _Asshur and the Land of Nimrod_ + (1897); H. V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_ (1904). (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN (1808-1879), American lawyer and author, was +born at Machias, Maine, on the 22nd of September 1808. After graduating +at Harvard College in 1828, he taught in the Round Hill School at +Northampton, Massachusetts. He graduated at the Harvard Law School in +1832, and in 1833 he was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he entered +into partnership with Charles Sumner. He was a member of the state House +of Representatives in 1836, of the state Senate in 1850, and of the +state constitutional convention of 1853, and in 1866-70 was United +States district attorney for Massachusetts. He devoted a large portion +of his time to literature. He became a member of the editorial staff of +the _Christian Register_, a Unitarian weekly, in 1833; in 1834 he became +editor of The _American Jurist_ (1829-1843), a legal journal to which +Sumner, Simon Greenleaf and Theron Metcalf contributed; and from 1856 to +1861 he was an associate editor of the Boston _Courier_. His +publications include an edition of Edmund Spenser's works (in 5 vols., +1839); _Selections from the Writings of Walter Savage Landor_ (1856); +_Six Months in Italy_ (2 vols., 1853); _Life and Campaigns of George B. +McClellan_ (1864); a part of the _Life, Letters, and Journals of George +Ticknor_ (1876); besides a series of school readers and many articles in +periodicals and encyclopaedias. He died in Boston on the 21st of January +1879. + + + + +HILLEBRAND, KARL (1829-1884), German author, was born at Giessen on the +17th of September 1829, his father Joseph Hillebrand (1788-1871) being a +literary historian and writer on philosophic subjects. Karl Hillebrand +became involved, as a student in Heidelberg, in the Baden revolutionary +movement, and was imprisoned in Rastatt. He succeeded in escaping and +lived for a time in Strassburg, Paris--where for several months he was +Heine's secretary--and Bordeaux. He continued his studies, and after +obtaining the doctor's degree at the Sorbonne, he was appointed teacher +of German in the _Ecole militaire_ at St Cyr, and shortly afterwards, +professor of foreign literatures at Douai. On the outbreak of the +Franco-German War he resigned his professorship and acted for a time as +correspondent to _The Times_ in Italy. He then settled in Florence, where +he died on the 19th of October 1884. Hillebrand wrote with facility and +elegance in French, English and Italian, besides his own language. His +essays, collected under the title _Zeiten, Volker und Menschen_ (Berlin, +1874-1885), show clear discernment, a finely balanced cosmopolitan +judgment and grace of style. He undertook to write the _Geschichte +Frankreichs von der Thronbesteigung Ludwig Philipps bis zum Fall +Napoleons III._, but only two volumes were completed (to 1848) (2nd ed., +1881-1882). In French he published _Des conditions de la bonne comedie_ +(1863), _La Prusse contemporaine_ (1867), _Etudes italiennes_ (1868), and +a translation of O. Muller's _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (3rd ed., +1883). In English he published his Royal Institution Lectures on _German +Thought during the Last Two Hundred Years_ (1880). He also edited a +collection of essays dealing with Italy, under the title _Italia_ (4 +vols., Leipzig, 1824-1877). + + See H. Homberger, _Karl Hillebrand_ (Berlin, 1884). + + + + +HILLEL, Jewish rabbi, of Babylonian origin, lived at Jerusalem in the +time of King Herod. Though hard pressed by poverty, he applied himself +to study in the schools of Shemaiah and Abtalion (Sameas and Pollion in +Josephus). On account of his comprehensive learning and his rare +qualities he was numbered among the recognized leaders of the Pharisaic +scribes. Tradition assigns him the highest dignity of the Sanhedrin, +under the title of nasi ("prince"), about a hundred years before the +destruction of Jerusalem, i.e. about 30 B.C. The date at least can be +recognized as historic; the fact that Hillel took a leading position in +the council can also be established. The epithet _ha-zaken_ ("the +elder"), which usually accompanies his name, proves him to have been a +member of the Sanhedrin, and according to a trustworthy authority Hillel +filled his leading position for forty years, dying, therefore, about +A.D. 10. His descendants remained, with few exceptions, at the head of +Judaism in Palestine until the beginning of the 5th century, two of +them, his grandson Gamaliel I. and the latter's son Simon, during the +time when the Temple was still standing. The fact that Josephus (_Vita_ +38) ascribes to Simon descent from a very distinguished stock ([Greek: +genous sphodra lamprou]), shows in what degree of estimation Hillel's +descendants stood. When the dignity of _nasi_ became afterwards +hereditary among them, Hillel's ancestry, perhaps on the ground of old +family traditions, was traced back to David. Hillel is especially noted +for the fact that he gave a definite form to the Jewish traditional +learning, as it had been developed and made into the ruling and +conserving factor of Judaism in the latter days of the second Temple, +and particularly in the centuries following the destruction of the +Temple. He laid down seven rules for the interpretation of the +Scriptures, and these became the foundation of rabbinical hermeneutics; +and the ordering of the traditional doctrines into a whole, effected in +the Mishna by his successor Judah I., two hundred years after Hillel's +death, was probably likewise due to his instigation. The tendency of his +theory and practice in matters pertaining to the Law is evidenced by the +fact that in general he advanced milder and more lenient views in +opposition to his colleague Shammai, a contrast which after the death of +the two masters, but not until after the destruction of the Temple, was +maintained in the strife kept up between the two schools named the House +of Hillel and the House of Shammai. The well-known institution of the +Prosbol ([Greek: prosbole]), introduced by Hillel, was intended to avert +the evil consequences of the scriptural law of release in the seventh +year (Deut. xv. 1). He was led to this, as is expressly set forth (_M. +Gittin_, iv. 3), by a regard for the welfare of the community. Hillel +lived in the memory of posterity chiefly as the great teacher who +enjoined and practised the virtues of charity, humility and true piety. +His proverbial sayings, in particular, a great number of which were +written down partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew, strongly affected the +spirit both of his contemporaries and of the succeeding generations. In +his Maxims (_Aboth,_ i. 12) he recommends the love of peace and the love +of mankind beyond all else, and his own love of peace sprang from the +tenderness and deep humility which were essential features in his +character, as has been illustrated by many anecdotes. Hillel's patience +has become proverbial. One of his sayings commends humility in the +following paradox: "My abasement is my exaltation." His charity towards +men is given its finest expression in the answer which he made to a +proselyte who asked to be taught the commandments of the Torah in the +shortest possible form: "What is unpleasant to thyself that do not to +thy neighbour; this is the whole Law, all else is but its exposition." +This allusion to the scriptural injunction to love one's neighbour (Lev. +xix. 18) as the fundamental law of religious morals, became in a certain +sense a commonplace of Pharisaic scholasticism. For the Pharisee who +accepts the answer of Jesus regarding that fundamental doctrine which +ranks the love of one's neighbour as the highest duty after the love of +God (Mark xii. 33), does so because as a disciple of Hillel the idea is +familiar to him. St Paul also (Gal. v. 14) doubtless learned this in the +school of Gamaliel. Hillel emphasized the connexion between duty towards +one's neighbour and duty towards oneself in the epigrammatic saying: "If +I am not for myself, who is for me? And if I am for myself alone, what +then am I? And if not now, then when?" (_Aboth_, i. 14). The duty of +working both with and for men he teaches in the sentence: "Separate not +thyself from the congregation" (_ib._ ii. 4). The duty of considering +oneself part of common humanity, of not differing from others by any +peculiarity of behaviour, he sums up in the words: "Appear neither naked +nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing, neither laughing nor weeping" +(_Tosef. Ber._ c. ii.). The command to love one's neighbour inspired +also Hillel's injunction (_Aboth_, ii. 4): "Judge not thy neighbour +until thou art in his place" (cf. Matt. vii. 1). The disinterested +pursuit of learning, study for study's sake, is commended in many of +Hillel's sayings as being what is best in life: "He who wishes to make a +name for himself loses his name; he who does not increase [his +knowledge] decreases it; he who does not learn is worthy of death; he +who works for the sake of a crown is lost" (_Aboth_, i. 13). "He who +occupies himself much with learning makes his life" (_ib._ ii. 7). "He +who has acquired the words of doctrine has acquired the life of the +world to come" (_ib._). "Say not: When I am free from other occupations +I shall study; for may be thou shalt never at all be free" (_ib._ 4). +One of his strings of proverbs runs as follows: "The uncultivated man is +not innocent; the ignorant man is not devout; the bashful man learns +not; the wrathful man teaches not; he who is much absorbed in trade +cannot become wise; where no men are, there strive thyself to be a man" +(_ib._ 5). The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's consciousness of +God is shown in the words spoken by him on the occasion of a feast in +the Temple--words alluding to the throng of people gathered there which +he puts into the mouth of God Himself: "If I am here every one is here; +if I am not here no one is here" (_Sukkah_ 53a). In like manner Hillel +makes God say to Israel, referring to Exodus xx. 24: "Whither I please, +thither will I go; if thou come into my house I come into thy house; if +thou come not into my house, I come not into thine" (_ib._). + +It is noteworthy that no miraculous legends are connected with Hillel's +life. A scholastic tradition, however, tells of a voice from heaven +which made itself heard when the wise men had assembled in Jericho, +saying: "Among those here present is one who would have deserved the +Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it." And +all eyes turned towards Hillel (_Tos. Sotah_, xiii. 3). When he died +lamentation was made for him as follows: "Woe for the humble, woe for +the pious, woe for the disciple of Ezra!" (_ib._) + + HILLEL II., one of the patriarchs belonging to the family of Hillel + I., lived in Tiberias about the middle of the 4th century, and + introduced the arrangement of the calendar through which the Jews of + the Diaspora became independent of Palestine in the uniform fixation + of the new moons and feasts. + + The Rabbi HILLEL, who in the 4th century made the remarkable + declaration that Israel need not expect a Messiah, because the promise + of a Messiah had already been fulfilled in the days of King Hezekiah + (Babli, _Sanhedrin_, 99a), is probably Hillel, the son of Samuel ben + Nahman, a well-known expounder of the scriptures. (W. Ba.) + + + + +HILLER, FERDINAND (1811-1885), German composer, was born at +Frankfort-on-Main, on the 24th of October 1811. His first master was +Aloys Schmitt, and when he was ten years of age his compositions and +talent led his father, a well-to-do man, to send him to Hummel in +Weimar. There he devoted himself to composition, among his work being +the entr'actes to _Maria Stuart_, through which he made Goethe's +acquaintance. Under Hummel, Hiller made great strides as a pianist, so +much so that early in 1827 he went on a tour to Vienna, where he met +Beethoven and produced his first quartet. After a brief visit home +Hiller went to Paris in 1829, where he lived till 1836. His father's +death necessitated his return to Frankfort for a time, but on the 8th of +January 1839 he produced at Milan his opera _La Romilda_, and began to +write his oratorio _Die Zerstorung Jerusalems_, one of his best works. +Then he went to Leipzig, to his friend Mendelssohn, where in 1843-1844 +he conducted a number of the Gewandhaus concerts and produced his +oratorio. After a further visit to Italy to study sacred music, Hiller +produced two operas, _Ein Traum_ and _Conradin_, at Dresden in 1845 and +1847 respectively; he went as conductor to Dusseldorf in 1847 and +Cologne in 1850, and conducted at the Opera Italien in Paris in 1851 and +1852. At Cologne he became a power as conductor of the Gurzenich +concerts and head of the Conservatorium. In 1884 he retired, and died on +the 12th of May in the following year. Hiller frequently visited +England. He composed a work for the opening of the Royal Albert Hall, +his _Nala and Damayanti_ was performed at Birmingham, and he gave a +series of pianoforte recitals of his own compositions at the Hanover +Square Rooms in 1871. He had a perfect mastery over technique and form +in musical composition, but his works are generally dry. He was a sound +pianist and teacher, and occasionally a brilliant writer on musical +matters. His compositions, numbering about two hundred, include six +operas, two oratorios, six or seven cantatas, much chamber music and a +once-popular pianoforte concerto. + + + + +HILLER, JOHANN ADAM (1728-1804), German musical composer, was born at +Wendisch-Ossig near Gorlitz in Silesia on the 25th of December 1728. By +the death of his father in 1734 he was left dependent to a large extent +on the charity of friends. Entering in 1747 the Kreuzschule in Dresden, +the school attended many years afterwards by Richard Wagner, he +subsequently went to the university of Leipzig, where he studied +jurisprudence, supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by +performing at concerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Gradually he +adopted music as his sole profession, and devoted himself more +especially to the permanent establishment of a concert institute at +Leipzig. It was he who in 1781 originated the celebrated Gewandhaus +concerts which still flourish at Leipzig. In 1789 he became "cantor" of +the Thomas school there, a position previously held by John Sebastian +Bach. He died in Leipzig on the 16th of June 1804. Two of his pupils +placed a monument to his memory in front of the Thomas school. Hiller's +compositions comprise almost every kind of church music, from the +cantata to the simple chorale. But much more important are his +operettas, 14 in number, which for a long time retained their place on +the boards, and had considerable influence on the development of light +dramatic music in Germany. The _Jolly Cobbler_, _Love in the Country_ +and the _Village Barber_ were amongst the most popular of his works. +Hiller also excelled in sentimental songs and ballads. With great +simplicity of structure his music combines a considerable amount of +genuine melodic invention. Although an admirer and imitator of the +Italian school, Hiller fully appreciated the greatness of Handel, and +did much for the appreciation of his music in Germany. It was under his +direction that the _Messiah_ was for the first time given at Berlin, +more than forty years after the composition of that great work. Hiller +was also a writer on music, and for some years (1766-1770) edited a +musical weekly periodical named _Wochentliche Nachrichten und +Anmerkungen die Musik betreffend_. + + + + +HILLIARD, LAWRENCE (d. 1640), English miniature painter. The date of his +birth is not known, but he died in 1640. He was the son of Nicholas +Hilliard, and evidently derived his Christian name from that of his +grandmother. He adopted his father's profession and worked out the +unexpired time of his licence after Nicholas Hilliard died. It was from +Lawrence Hilliard that Charles I. received the portrait of Queen +Elizabeth now at Montagu House, since van der Dort's catalogue describes +it as "done by old Hilliard, and bought by the king of young Hilliard." +In 1624 he was paid L42 from the treasury for five pictures, but the +warrant does not specify whom they represented. His portraits are of +great rarity, two of the most beautiful being those in the collections +of Earl Beauchamp and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. They are as a rule signed +L.H., but are also to be distinguished by the beauty of the calligraphy +in which the inscriptions round the portraits are written. The writing +is as a rule very florid, full of exquisite curves and flourishes, and +more elaborate than the more formal handwriting of Nicholas Hilliard. +The colour scheme adopted by the son is richer and more varied than that +used by the father, and Lawrence Hilliard's miniatures are not so hard +as are those of Nicholas, and are marked by more shade and a greater +effect of atmosphere. (G. C. W.) + + + + +HILLIARD, NICHOLAS (c. 1537-1619), the first true English miniature +painter, is said to have been the son of Richard Hilliard of Exeter, +high sheriff of the city and county in 1560, by Lawrence, daughter of +John Wall, goldsmith, of London, and was born probably about 1537. He +was appointed goldsmith, carver and portrait painter to Queen Elizabeth, +and engraved the Great Seal of England in 1586. He was in high favour +with James I. as well as with Elizabeth, and from the king received a +special patent of appointment, dated the 5th of May 1617, and granting +him a sole licence for the royal work for twelve years. He is believed +to have been the author of an important treatise on miniature painting, +now preserved in the Bodleian Library, but it seems more probable that +the author of that treatise was John de Critz, Serjeant Painter to James +I. It is probable, however, that the treatise was taken down from the +instructions of Hilliard, for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps +Isaac Oliver. + +The esteem of his countrymen for Hilliard is testified to by Dr Donne, +who in a poem called "The Storm" (1597) praises the work of this artist. +He painted a portrait of himself at the age of thirteen, and is said to +have executed one of Mary queen of Scots when he was eighteen years old. +He died on the 7th of January 1619, and was buried in St +Martin's-in-the-Fields, Westminster, leaving by his will twenty +shillings to the poor of the parish, L30 between his two sisters, some +goods to his maidservant, and all the rest of his effects to his son, +Lawrence Hilliard, his sole executor. + +It seems to be pretty certain that he visited France, and that he is the +artist alluded to in the papers of the duc d'Alencon under the name of +"Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois" who was painter to this prince in +1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres. The miniature of Mademoiselle +de Sourdis, in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, is certainly the +work of Hilliard, and is dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of +honour at the French Court; and other portraits which are his work are +believed to represent Gabrielle d'Estrees, niece of Madame de Sourdis, +la Princesse de Conde and Madame de Montgomery. + + For further information respecting Hilliard's sojourn in France, see + the privately printed catalogue of the collection of miniatures + belonging to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, compiled by Dr G. C. Williamson. + (G. C. W.) + + + + +HILLSDALE, a city and the county-seat of Hillsdale county, Michigan, +U.S.A., about 87 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 4151, of whom 300 +were foreign-born; (1904) 4809; (1910) 5001. Hillsdale is served by the +Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It has a public library, and is +the seat of Hillsdale College (co-educational, Free Baptist), which was +opened as Michigan Central College, at Spring Arbor, Michigan, in 1844, +was removed to Hillsdale and received its present name in 1853 and was +re-opened here in 1855. The college in 1907-1908 had 22 instructors and +345 students. The city is a centre for a rich farming region; among its +manufactures are gasoline and gas engines, screen doors, wagons, +barrels, shoes, fur-coats and flour. Hillsdale was first settled in +1837, was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was chartered as a city +in 1869. + + + + +HILL TIPPERA, or TRIPURA, a native state of India, adjoining the British +district of Tippera, in Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4086 sq. m.; +pop, (1901) 173,325; estimated revenue, L55,000. Six parallel ranges of +hill cross it from north to south, at an average distance of 12 m. +apart. The hills are covered for the most part with bamboo jungle, while +the low ground abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and +swamps. The principal crop and food staple is rice. The other articles +of produce are cotton, chillies and vegetables. The chief exports are +cotton, timber, oilseeds, bamboo canes, thatching-grass and firewood, on +all of which tolls are levied. The chief rivers are the Gumti, Haora, +Khoyai, Dulai, Manu and Fenny (Pheni). During the heavy rains the people +in the plains use boats as almost the sole means of conveyance. + +The history of the state includes two distinct periods--the traditional +period described in the _Rajmala_, or "Chronicles of the Kings of +Tippera," and the period since A.D. 1407. The _Rajmala_ is a history in +Bengali verse, compiled by the Brahmans of the court of Tripura. In the +early history of the state, the rajas were in a state of chronic feud +with all the neighbouring countries. The worship of Siva was here, as +elsewhere in India, associated with the practice of human sacrifice, and +in no part of India were more victims offered. It was not until the +beginning of the 17th century that the Moguls obtained any footing in +this country. When the East India Company obtained the _diwani_ or +financial administration of Bengal in 1765, so much of Tippera as had +been placed on the Mahommedan rent-roll came under British rule. Since +1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the British +government. In October 1905 the state was attached to the new province +of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It has a chronological era of its own, +adopted by Raja Birraj, from whom the present raja is 93rd in descent. +The year 1875 corresponded with 1285 of the Tippera era. + +Besides being the ruler of Hill Tippera, the raja holds an estate in the +British district of Tippera, called _chakla_ Roshnabad, which is far the +most valuable of his possessions. The capital is Agartala (pop. 9513), +where there is an Arts College. The raja's palace and other public +buildings were seriously damaged by the earthquake of the 12th of June +1897. The late raja, who died from the result of a motor-car accident in +1909, succeeded his father in 1896, but he had taken a large share in +the administration of the state for some years previously. The principle +of succession, which had often caused serious disputes, was defined in +1904, to the effect that the chief may nominate any male descendant +through males from himself or from any male ancestor, but failing such +nomination, then the rule of primogeniture applies. + + + + +HILTON, JOHN (1804-1878), British surgeon, was born at Castle Hedingham, +in Essex, in 1804. He entered Guy's Hospital in 1824. He was appointed +demonstrator of anatomy in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845, surgeon +1849. In 1867 he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of +which he became member in 1827 and fellow in 1843, and he also delivered +the Hunterian oration in 1867. As Arris and Gale professor (1859-1862) +he delivered a course of lectures on "Rest and Pain," which have become +classics. He was also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. Hilton +was the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nick named "Anatomical +John." It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist, enriched Guy's +Hospital with its unique collection of models. In his grasp of the +structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord he was far in +advance of his contemporaries. As an operator he was more cautious than +brilliant. This was doubtless due partly to his living in the +pre-anaesthetics period, and partly to his own consummate anatomical +knowledge, as is indicated by the method for opening deep abscesses +which is known by his name. But he could be bold when necessary; he was +the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal section, and +one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He died at Clapham on the +14th of September 1878. + + + + +HILTON, WILLIAM (1786-1839), English painter, was born in Lincoln on the +3rd of June 1786, son of a portrait-painter. In 1800 he was placed with +the engraver J. R. Smith, and about the same time began studying in the +Royal Academy school. He first exhibited in this institution in 1803, +sending a "Group of Banditti"; and he soon established a reputation for +choice of subject, and qualities of design and colour superior to the +great mass of his contemporaries. He made a tour in Italy with Thomas +Phillips, the portrait-painter. In 1813, having exhibited "Miranda and +Ferdinand with the Logs of Wood," he was elected an associate of the +Academy, and in 1820 a full academician, his diploma-picture +representing "Ganymede." In 1823 he produced "Christ crowned with +Thorns," a large and important work, subsequently bought out of the +Chantrey Fund; this may be regarded as his masterpiece. In 1827 he +succeeded Henry Thomson as keeper of the Academy. He died in London on +the 30th of December 1839, Some of his best pictures remained on his +hands at his decease--such as the "Angel releasing Peter from Prison" +(life-size), painted in 1831, "Una with the Lion entering Corceca's +Cave" (1832), the "Murder of the Innocents," his last exhibited work +(1838), "Comus," and "Amphitrite." The National Gallery now owns "Edith +finding the Body of Harold" (1834), "Cupid Disarmed," "Rebecca and +Abraham's Servant" (1829), "Nature blowing Bubbles for her Children" +(1821), and "Sir Calepine rescuing Serena" (from the _Faerie Queen_) +(1831). In the National Portrait Gallery is his likeness of John Keats, +with whom he was acquainted. In a great school or period Hilton could +not count as more than a respectable subordinate; but in the British +school of the earlier part of the 19th century he had sufficient +elevation of aim and width of attainment to stand conspicuous. + + + + +HILVERSUM, a town in the province of North Holland, 18 m. by rail S.E. +of Amsterdam. It is connected with Amsterdam by a steam tramway, passing +by way of the small fortified towns of Naarden and Muiden on the Zuider +Zee. Pop. (1900) 20,238. It is situated in the middle of the Gooi, a +stretch of hilly country extending from the Zuider Zee to about 5 m. +south of Hilversum, and composed of pine woods and sandy heaths. A +convalescent home, the Trompenberg, was established here in 1874, and +there are a town hall, middle-class and technical schools, and various +places of worship, including a synagogue. Hilversum manufactures large +quantities of floor-cloths and horse-blankets. + + + + +HIMALAYA, the name given to the mountains which form the northern +boundary of India. The word is Sanskrit and literally signifies +"snow-abode," from _him_, snow, and _alaya_, abode, and might be +translated "snowy-range," although that expression is perhaps more +nearly the equivalent of _Himachal_, another Sanskrit word derived from +_him_, snow, and _achal_, mountain, which is practically synonymous with +Himalaya and is often used by natives of northern India. The name was +converted by the Greeks into _Emodos_ and _Imaos_. + +Modern geographers restrict the term Himalaya to that portion of the +mountain region between India and Tibet enclosed within the arms of the +Indus and the Brahmaputra. From the bend of the Indus southwards towards +the plains of the Punjab to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards +towards the plains of Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or +Himalaya. Beyond the Indus, to the north-west, the region of mountain +ranges which stretches to a junction with the Hindu Kush south of the +Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya. Thus the Himalaya represents +the southern face of the great central upheaval--the plateau of +Tibet--the northern face of which is buttressed by the Kuen Lun. + + + Structure of the Himalaya. + +Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain face +geologists now trace a system of main chains, or axes, extending from +the Hindu Kush to Assam, arranged in approximately parallel lines, and +traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage obliquely. +Godwin-Austen indicates six of these geological axes as follows: + + 1. The main Central Asian axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern edge + or ridge of the Tibetan plateau. + + 2. The Trans-Himalayan chain of Muztagh (or Karakoram), which is lost + in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the sources of the + Indus. + + 3. The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus--for + that river breaks across it about 100 m. above Leh. This chain + continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes part + of the Himalayan system. + + 4. The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, i.e. the "snowy range" + _par excellence_ which is indicated by Nanga Parbat (overlooking the + Indus), and passes in a south-east direction to the southern side of + the Deosai plains. Thence, bending slightly south, it extends in the + line of snowy peaks which are seen from Simla to the famous peaks of + Gangotri and Nanda Devi. This is the best known range of the Himalaya. + + 5. The outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge. + + 6. The Sub-Himalaya, which is "easily defined by the fringing line of + hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked off + from the main chain by open valleys (dhuns) or narrow valleys, + parallel to the main axis of the chain." These include the Siwaliks. + +Interspersed between these main geological axes are many other minor +ridges, on some of which are peaks of great elevation. In fact, the +geological axis seldom coincides with the line of highest elevation, nor +must it be confused with the main lines of water-divide of the Himalaya. + + + The great northern watershed of India. + +On the north and north-west of Kashmir the great water-divide which +separates the Indus drainage area from that of the Yarkand and other +rivers of Chinese Turkestan has been explored by Sir F. Younghusband, +and subsequently by H. H. P. Deasy. The general result of their +investigations has been to prove that the Muztagh range, as it trends +south-eastwards and finally forms a continuous mountain barrier together +with the Karakoram, is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan +plateau. Shutting off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of +the Central Asian system of hydrography, this great water-parting is +distinguished by a group of peaks of which the altitude is hardly less +than that of the Eastern Himalaya. Mount Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. +high), only 750 ft. lower than Everest, affords an excellent example in +Asiatic geography of a dominating, peak-crowned water-parting or divide. +From Kailas on the far west to the extreme north-eastern sources of the +Brahmaputra, the great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan +highlands has only been occasionally touched. Littledale, du Rhins and +Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards Lhasa, +but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be lost in the +mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan plateau. Nor can it +be said to be as yet well defined to the east of Lhasa. + + + Eastern Tibet. + +The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the meridian of 92 deg. +E., and to the east of this meridian the affluents of the Tsanpo (the +same river as the Dihong and subsequently as the Brahmaputra) drain no +longer from the elevated plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a wild +region of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where its +successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves around the great +bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the sources of all the great +rivers of Burma and China. Neither immediately beyond this great bend, +nor within it in the Himalayan regions lying north of Assam and east of +Bhutan, have scientific investigations yet been systematically carried +out; but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of the +Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the Tibetan +plateau, and break down through the containing bands of hills, carrying +deposits of gold from their sources to the plains, as do all the rivers +of Tibet. + + + Himalaya north of the central chain of snowy peaks. + +Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not sufficiently +well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed even approximately, +there exists some scattered evidence of the nature of that strip of +Northern Himalaya on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between the +line of greatest elevation and the trough of the Tsanpo. Recent +investigations show that all the chief rivers of Nepal flowing +southwards to the Tarai take their rise north of the line of highest +crests, the "main range" of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain +long lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose +strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally, almost +at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels breaking +down to the plains. This formation brings the southern edge of the +Tsanpo basin to the immediate neighbourhood of the banks of that river, +which runs at its foot like a drain flanking a wall. It also affords +material evidence of that wrinkling or folding action which accompanied +the process of upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised, +which is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west +Indian borderland. North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan crest and +Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained; farther east, +although the same natural forces first resulted in the same effect of +successive folds of the earth's crust, forming extensive curves of ridge +and furrow, the abundant rainfall and the totally distinct climatic +conditions which govern the processes of denudation subsequently led to +the erosion of deeper valleys enclosed between forest-covered ranges +which rise steeply from the river banks. + + + Height of Himalayan peaks. + +Although suggestions have been made of the existence of higher peaks +north of the Himalaya than that which dominates the Everest group, no +evidence has been adduced to support such a contention. On the other +hand the observations of Major Ryder and other surveyors who explored +from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra and Indus, at the +conclusion of the Tibetan mission in 1904, conclusively prove that Mount +Everest, which appears from the Tibetan plateau as a single dominating +peak, has no rival amongst Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very +remarkable investigations made by permission of the Nepal durbar from +peaks near Kathmandu in 1903, by Captain Wood, R.E., not only place the +Everest group apart from other peaks with which they have been confused +by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system of Nepal, but +clearly show that there is no one dominating and continuous range +indicating a main Himalayan chain which includes both Everest and +Kinchinjunga. The main features of Nepalese topography are now fairly +well defined. So much controversy has been aroused on the subject of +Himalayan altitudes that the present position of scientific analysis in +relation to them may be shortly stated. The heights of peaks determined +by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are bound to be more +or less in error for three reasons: (1) the extraordinary geoidal +deformation of the level surface at the observing stations in submontane +regions; (2) ignorance of the laws of refraction when rays traverse +rarefied air in snow-covered regions; (3) ignorance of the variations in +the actual height of peaks due to the increase, or decrease, of snow. +The value of the heights attached to the three highest mountains in the +world are, for these reasons, adjudged by Colonel S. G. Burrard, the +Supt. Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the +following extent: + + +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+ + | | Present Survey | Most probable | + | | Value of Height.| Value. | + +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+ + | Mount Everest | 29,002 | 29,141 | + | K2 (Godwin Austen)| 28,250 | 28,191 | + | Kinchinjunga | 28,146 | 28,225 | + +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+ + +These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga second and +K2 third on the list. (T. H. H.*) + + _Geology._--The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumpling of the + earth's crust along the southern margin of the great tableland of + Central Asia. Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign of this + crumpling is to be detected except in the Salt Range, and the + Peninsula of India has been entirely free from folding of any + importance since early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean + period itself. But the contrast between the Himalaya and the Peninsula + is not confined to their structure: the difference in the rocks + themselves is equally striking. In the Himalaya the geological + sequence, from the Ordovician to the Eocene, is almost entirely + marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the series, but during + nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at least + its northern part, must have been beneath the sea--the Central + Mediterranean Sea of Neumayr or Tethys of Suess. In the peninsula, + however, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than + Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood + of the coasts; the principal fossiliferous deposits are the + plant-bearing beds of the Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt + that, at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the + Peninsula has been land. Between the folded marine beds of the + Himalaya and the nearly horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the + Indo-Gangetic plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial and + wind-blown deposits of recent date. The deep boring at Lucknow passed + through 1336 ft. of sands--reaching nearly to 1000 ft. below + sea-level--without any sign of approaching the base of the alluvial + series. It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there is a + great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this + depression was ever beneath the sea. + + In the light thrown by recent researches on the structure and origin + of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer + difficult. From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has been + dry land, a part, indeed, of a great continent which in Mesozoic times + extended across the Indian Ocean towards South Africa. Its northern + shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in Jurassic + and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from west to + east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of the + Himalaya. The tangential pressures which are known to be set up in the + earth's crust--either by the contraction of the interior or in some + other way--caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up against + the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and finally + led to the whole mass being pushed forward over the edge of the part + which did not crumple. The Indo-Gangetic depression was formed by the + weight of the over-riding mass bending down the edge over which it + rode, or else it is the lower limb of the S-shaped fold which would + necessarily result if there were no fracture--the Himalaya + representing the upper limb of the S. + + Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which + correspond more or less with orographical divisions. The northern zone + is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic + age are largely developed--excepting in the north-west no such rocks + are known on the southern flanks. The second is the zone of the snowy + peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed chiefly of + crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with unfossiliferous + sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age. The southern zone + comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely of Tertiary beds, and + especially of the upper Tertiaries. The oldest beds which have + hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician system, but it is + highly probable that the underlying "Haimantas" of the central + Himalaya are of Cambrian age. From these beds up to the top of the + Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but the Carboniferous beds + were in some places eroded before the deposition of the _Productus_ + shales, which belong to the Permian period. It is, however, possible + that this erosion was merely local, for in other places there seems to + be a complete passage from the Carboniferous to the Permian. From the + Permian to the Lias the sequence in the central Himalaya shows no sign + of a break, nor has any unconformity been proved between the Liassic + beds and the overlying Spiti shales, which contain fossils of Middle + and Upper Jurassic age. The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by + Cretaceous beds (Gieumal sandstone below and Chikkim limestone above), + and these are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene + age, much disturbed and altered by intrusions of gabbro and syenite. + Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been + continuous deposition of marine beds from the Permian _Productus_ + shales to the Eocene Nummulitic formation. The next succeeding deposit + is a sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon + the Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the + Sub-Himalaya (Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any + kind. The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Tertiaries of + Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite unaffected + by any of the folds. + + From the absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident that in + the northern part of the Himalayan belt, at least in the Spiti area, + there can have been no post-Archaean folding of any magnitude until + after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the folding was + completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes were laid down. It + was, therefore, during the Miocene period that the elevation of this + part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the Siwalik-like + sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the Pliocene + period. Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the history of the + chain is still more clearly shown. The sub-Himalaya are formed of + Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while the lower + Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks without fossils. + Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever the junction of the + Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen, it is a great + reversed fault. West of the Blas river a similar reversed fault forms + the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the pre-Tertiary rocks + of the Himalaya, while between the Sutlej and the Jumna rivers, where + the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower Himalaya, the fault lies + between them and the Siwaliks. The hade of the fault is constantly + inwards, towards the centre of the chain, and the older rocks which + form the Himalaya proper, have been pushed forward over the later beds + of the sub-Himalaya. But the fault is more than an ordinary reversed + fault: it was, nearly everywhere, the northern boundary of deposition + of the Siwalik beds, and only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik + deposits extend even to a short distance beyond it. The fault in fact + was being formed during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the + beds were laid down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the + Siwaliks themselves being folded and upturned during the process. + Accordingly, in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and + conformable series from base to summit, in other places the middle + beds are absent and the upper beds of the series rest upon the + upturned and denuded edges of the lower beds. The Siwaliks are + fluviatile and torrential deposits similar to those which are now + being formed at the foot of the mountains, in the Indo-Gangetic plain; + and their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were + very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of the + plain and the Siwaliks themselves. But the great fault just described + is not the only one of this character. There is a series of such + faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although they have + not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever they occur + they seem to have formed the northern boundary of deposition of the + deposits immediately to the south of them. It appears, therefore, that + the Himalaya grew southwards in a series of stages. A reversed fault + was formed at the foot of the chain, and upon this fault the + mountains were pushed forward over the beds deposited at their base, + crumpling and folding them in the process, and forming a sub-Himalayan + ridge in front of the main chain. After a time a new fault originated + at the foot of the sub-Himalayan zone thus raised, which now became + part of the Himalaya themselves, and a new sub-Himalayan chain was + formed in front of the previous one. The earthquakes of the present + day show that the process is still in operation, and in time the + deposits of the present Indo-Gangetic plain will be involved in the + folds. + + The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true + circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed + forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the dip + of the plane must be low, for a line drawn along the southern foot of + the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane inclined to + the surface at an angle of about 14 deg. The thrust-plane, then, does + not coincide with any of the boundary faults already mentioned, which + are usually inclined at angles of 50 deg. or 60 deg. The latter are + due to the fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass above the + thrust-plane may move, yet the pressure which pushes it forwards + necessarily proceeds from behind. The back, accordingly, moves faster + than the front, and the whole is packed together; as when an ice-floe + drives against the shore, the ice breaks and the outer fragments ride + over those within. The great thrust-plane which is thus imagined to + exist at the base of the Himalaya, corresponds with the "major + thrusts" of the N.W. Highlands of Scotland, and the reversed faults + which appear at the surface with the "minor thrusts." (P. La.) + + + Topographical results of evolution. + + Such is the general outline of Himalayan evolution as now understood, + and the process of it has led to certain marked features of scenery + and topography. Within the area of the trans-Indus mountains we have + beds of hard limestone or sandstone alternating with soft shales, + which leads to the scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys + where the shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep + rifts or gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which stand in + irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys between. + The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure, due to the + same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much larger scale; + but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the mountains + by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially by the + greater rainfall. Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys, here + are found fertile alluvial plains--such as Manipur--but for the most + part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep pace with + the rise of the river bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys + arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the + western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers + cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that + originally held. An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly + breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west + Himalaya to resume its north-westerly course after passing from the + northern to the southern side of the range. The reason assigned for + these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the + general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent--i.e. that the + lines of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were + raised; and that the drainage has merely maintained the course + originally held, by the power of erosion during the gradual process of + upheaval. + + In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep, so + steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still + cutting down the river beds and have not yet reached the stage of + equilibrium. Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial + detritus owing to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this + occurs there is usually to be found a fertile and productive field for + agriculture. The straits of the Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably + account for the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in + principles of construction) a repetition on grand scale of the Maidan + of the Afridi Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great + amphitheatre of hills is collected and then arrested by the gorge + which marks the outlet to the Bara. + + + General Himalayan formation is typical. + + Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by draining a + considerable area north of the snowy range--the Sutlej, the Kosi, the + Gandak and the Subansiri, for example. All these rivers break through + the main snowy range ere they twist their way through the southern + hills to the plains of India. Here the "antecedent" theory will not + suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of the snows + to support it. Their formation is explained by a process of "cutting + back," by which the heads of these streams are gradually eating their + way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the southern than on + the northern slopes. The result of this process is well exhibited in + the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and Tibetan sides of the + passes to the Indus plateau. On the southern or Indian side the routes + to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of Himalayan valleys with no + remarkably steep gradients till they near the approach to the + water-divide. The slope then steepens with the ascending curve to the + summit of the pass, from which point it falls with a comparatively + gentle gradient to the general level of the plateau. The Zoji La, the + Kashmir water-divide between the Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent + case in point, and all the passes from the Kumaon and Garhwal hills + into Tibet exhibit this formation in a marked degree. Taking the + average elevation of the central axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000 + ft., the average height of the passes is not more than 10,000 owing to + this process of cutting down by erosion and gradual encroachment into + the northern basin. + + [Illustration: Section across the sub-Himalayan zone.] + + _Meteorology._--Independently of the enormous variety of topographical + conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast altitude of + the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of climate in + ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by those + observed in moving from the equator to the poles. One half of the + total mass of the atmosphere and three-fourths of the water suspended + in it in the form of vapour lie below the average altitude of the + Himalaya; and of the residue, one-half of the air and virtually almost + all the vapour come within the influence of the highest peaks. The + regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the barometer + and the annual and diurnal oscillations are as well marked in the + Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in suspension + diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than one-sixth + (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot of the + mountains is found at the greatest heights. This is dependent on the + temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude. On the + mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature, an + elevation of 1000 ft. producing a fall of 3(1/2) deg., or about 1 deg. + to each 300 ft. The mean winter temperature at 7000 ft. (which is + about the average height of Himalayan "hill stations") is 44 deg. F. + and the summer mean about 65 deg. F. At 9000 ft. the mean temperature + of the coldest month is 32 deg. F. At 12,000 ft. the thermometer never + falls below freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of + October, and at 15,000 ft. it is seldom above that point even in the + height of summer. It should be noted that the thermometrical + conditions of Tibet vary considerably from those of the Himalaya. At + 12,000 ft. in Tibet the mean of the hottest month is about 60 deg. F. + and of the coldest about 10 deg. F. whilst, at 15,000 ft. the frost is + only permanent from the end of October to the end of April. The + distribution of vegetation and topographical conformation largely + influence the question of local temperature. For instance it may be + found that the difference of temperature between forest-clad ranges + and the Indian plains is twice as much in April and May as in December + or January; and the difference between the temperature of a + well-wooded hill top and the open valley below may vary from 9 deg. to + 24 deg. within twenty-four hours. The general relations of temperature + to altitude as determined by Himalayan observations are as follows: + (1) The decrease of temperature with altitude is most rapid in summer. + (2) The annual range diminishes with the elevation. (3) The diurnal + range diminishes with the elevation. Comparisons are, however, apt to + become anomalous when applied to elevated zones with a dense covering + of forest and a great quantity of cloud and open and uncloudy regions + both above and below the forest-clad tracts. + + + Rainfall. + + The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and October + (i.e. the period of the monsoon rains of India), the remainder of the + year being comparatively dry. The fall of rain over the great plain of + northern India gradually diminishes in quantity, and begins later, as + we pass from east to west. At the same time the rain is heavier as we + approach the Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer + ranges; but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the + chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great line + of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to be + hardly susceptible of measurement. Diurnal currents of wind, which are + established from the plains to the mountains during the day, and from + the hills to the plains during the night, are important agents in + distributing the rainfall. The condensation of vapour from the + ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion as they are + precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in the cloud effects + produced during the monsoon, the southern or windward face of each + range being clothed day after day with a white crest of cloud whilst + the northern slopes are often left entirely free. This shows how large + a proportion of the vapour is arrested and how it is that only by + drifting through the deeper gorges can any moisture find its way to + the Tibetan table-land. + + The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 60 and 70 in. in the + delta of the Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river issues + from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouchment of the + Indus into the plains. At Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude) on the outer + ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about 120 in. At Naini + Tal north of the United Provinces it is about 90 in.; at Simla about + 80 in., diminishing still further as one approaches the north-western + hills. All these stations are about the same altitude. + + + Snowfall. + + In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is 6000 ft. + and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft. In Kumaon, on the + west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level and occasionally + to 2500 ft. Snow has been known to fall at Peshawar. At Leh, in + western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow are usually registered and the + fall on the passes between 17,000 and 19,000 ft. is not generally more + than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan passes farther east the falls are + much heavier. Even in September these passes may be quite blocked and + they are not usually open till the middle of June. The snow-line, or + the level to which snow recedes in the course of the year, ranges from + 15,000 to 16,000 ft. on the southern exposures of the Himalaya that + carry perpetual snow, along all that part of the system that lies + between Sikkim and the Indus. It is not till December that the snow + begins to descend for the winter, although after September light falls + occur which cover the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these + soon disappear. On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than + 18,500 ft. and on the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000 + ft. On all the passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500 + ft., and in August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400 + ft. without finding any snow upon them; and it is as impossible to + find snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the + plains of India. + + _Glaciers._--The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is + greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and + elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and + position of the mountain on which they are formed. Glaciers on the + outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly the + case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy range. + The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are believed not to + reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft. In Kumaon many of them + descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft. In the higher valleys and + Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary level at which they end, + but there are exceptions which descend far lower. In Europe the + glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft. below the snow-line, and in + the Himalaya and Tibet about the same holds good. The summer + temperatures of the points where the glaciers end on the Himalaya also + correspond fairly with those of the corresponding positions in + European glaciers, viz. for July a little below 60 deg. F., August 58 + deg. and September 55 deg. + + Measurements of the movement of Himalayan glaciers give results + according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in + the Alps, viz. rates from 9(1/2) to 14(1/4) in. in twenty-four hours. + The motion of one glacier from the middle of May to the middle of + October averaged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours. The dimensions of + the glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the + valleys descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with + those of Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in + length--8 or 10 m. not being unusual. In the elevated valleys of + northern Tibet, where the destructive action of the summer heat is far + less, the development of the glaciers is enormous. At one locality in + north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice + extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the + extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends. Another single + glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long. + + The northern tributaries of the Gilgit river, which joins the Indus + near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from + a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its + extent and magnificent proportions. Chief amongst them are the + glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Muztagh + mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount + Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high). The Biafo glacier system, which lies + in a long narrow trough extending south-west from Nagar on the Hunza + to near the base of the Muztagh peaks, may be traced for 90 m. between + mountain walls which tower to a height of from 20,000 to 25,000 ft. + above sea-level on either side. + + In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which precise + accounts are forthcoming are ancient moraines indicating some previous + condition in which their extent was much larger than now. In the east + these moraines are very remarkable, extending 8 or 10 m. In the west + they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 m. reach. They have been observed on + the summit of the table-land as well as on the Himalayan slope. The + explanation suggested to account for the former great extension of + glaciers in Norway would seem applicable here. Any modification of the + coast-line which should submerge the area now occupied by the North + Indian plain, or any considerable part of it, would be accompanied by + a much wetter and more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow + would fall on the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be + brought to bear on the destruction of the glaciers, which would + receive larger supplies and descend lower. + + _Botany._--Speaking broadly, the general type of the flora of the + lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain + at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger + rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from + that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and + insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to + west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and + higher latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter + cold increases. The vegetation of the western part of the plain and of + the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely allied + to, or almost identical with, that of the drier parts of the Indian + peninsula, more especially of its hilly portions; and, while a general + tropical character is preserved, forms are observed which indicate the + addition of an Afghan as well as of an African element, of which last + the gay lily _Gloriosa superba_ is an example, pointing to some + previous connexion with Africa. + + The European flora, which is diffused from the Mediterranean along the + high lands of Asia, extends to the Himalaya; many European species + reach the central parts of the chain, though few reach its eastern + end, while genera common to Europe and the Himalaya are abundant + throughout and at all elevations. From the opposite quarter an influx + of Japanese and Chinese forms, such as the rhododendrons, the tea + plant, _Aucuba_, _Helwingia_, _Skimmia_, _Adamia_, _Goughia_ and + others, has taken place, these being more numerous in the east and + gradually disappearing in the west. On the higher and therefore cooler + and less rainy ranges of the Himalaya the conditions of temperature + requisite for the preservation of the various species are readily + found by ascending or descending the mountain slopes, and therefore a + greater uniformity of character in the vegetation is maintained along + the whole chain. At the greater elevations the species identical with + those of Europe become more frequent, and in the alpine regions many + plants are found identical with species of the Arctic zone. On the + Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness, a Siberian type is + established, with many true Siberian species and more genera; and some + of the Siberian forms are further disseminated, even to the plains of + Upper India. The total absence of a few of the more common forms of + northern Europe and Asia should also be noticed, among which may be + named _Tilia_, _Fagus_, _Arbutus_, _Erica_, _Azalea_ and _Cistacae_. + + In the more humid regions of the east the mountains are almost + everywhere covered with a dense forest which reaches up to 12,000 or + 13,000 ft. Many tropical types here ascend to 7000 ft. or more. To the + west the upper limit of forest is somewhat lower, from 11,500 to + 12,000 ft. and the tropical forms usually cease at 5000 ft. + + In Sikkim the mountains are covered with dense forest of tall + umbrageous trees, commonly accompanied by a luxuriant growth of under + shrubs, and adorned with climbing and epiphytal plants in wonderful + profusion. In the tropical zone large figs abound, _Terminalia_, + _Shorea_ (sal), laurels, many _Leguminosae_, _Bombax_, _Artocarpus_, + bamboos and several palms, among which species of Calamus are + remarkable, climbing over the largest trees; and this is the western + limit of _Cycas_ and _Myristica_ (nutmeg). Plantains ascend to 7000 + ft. _Pandanus_ and tree-ferns abound. Other ferns, _Scitamineae_, + orchids and climbing _Aroideae_ are very numerous, the last named + profusely adorning the forests with their splendid dark-green foliage. + Various oaks descend within a few hundred feet of the sea-level, + increasing in numbers at greater altitudes, and becoming very frequent + at 4000 ft., at which elevation also appear _Aucuba_, _Magnolia_, + cherries, _Pyrus_, maple, alder and birch, with many _Araliaceae_, + _Hollbollea_, _Skimmia_, _Daphne_, _Myrsine_, _Symplocos_ and _Rubus_. + Rhododendrons begin at about 6000 ft. and become abundant at 8000 ft., + from 10,000 to 14,000 ft. forming in many places the mass of the + shrubby vegetation which extends some 2000 ft. above the forest. + Epiphytal orchids are extremely numerous between 6000 and 8000 ft. Of + the Coniferae, _Podocarpus_ and _Pinus longifolia_ alone descend to + the tropical zone; _Abies Brunoniana_ and _Smithiana_ and the larch (a + genus not seen in the western mountains) are found at 8000, and the + yew and _Picea Webbiana_ at 10,000 ft. _Pinus excelsa_, which occurs + in Bhutan, is absent in the wetter climate of Sikkim. + + On the drier and higher mountains of the interior of the chain, the + forests become more open, and are spread less uniformly over the + hill-sides, a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation appears, and the number + of shrubby _Leguminosae_, such as _Desmodium_ and _Indigofera_, + increases, as well as _Ranunculaceae_, _Rosaceae_, _Umbelliferae_, + _Labiatae_, _Gramineae_, _Cyperaceae_ and other European genera. + + Passing to the westward, and viewing the flora of Kumaon, which + province holds a central position on the chain, on the 80th meridian, + we find that the gradual decrease of moisture and increase of high + summer heat are accompanied by a marked change of the vegetation. The + tropical forest is characterized by the trees of the hotter and drier + parts of southern India, combined with a few of European type. Ferns + are more rare, and the tree-ferns have disappeared. The species of + palm are also reduced to two or three, and bamboos, though abundant, + are confined to a few species. + + The outer ranges of mountains are mainly covered with forests of + _Pinus longifolia_, rhododendron, oak and _Pieris_. At Naini Tal + cypress is abundant. The shrubby vegetation comprises _Rosa_, _Rubus_, + _Indigofera_, _Desmodium_, _Berberis_, _Boehmeria_, _Viburnum_, + _Clematis_, with an _Arundinaria_. Of herbaceous plants species of + _Ranunculus_, _Potentilla_, _Geranium_, _Thalictrum_, _Primula_, + _Gentiana_ and many other European forms are common. In the less + exposed localities, on northern slopes and sheltered valleys, the + European forms become more numerous, and we find species of alder, + birch, ash, elm, maple, holly, hornbeam, _Pyrus_, &c. At greater + elevations in the interior, besides the above are met _Corylus_, the + common walnut, found wild throughout the range, horse chestnut, yew, + also _Picea Webbiana_, _Pinus excelsa_, _Abies Smithiana_, _Cedrus + Deodara_ (which tree does not grow spontaneously east of Kumaon), and + several junipers. The denser forests are commonly found on the + northern faces of the higher ranges, or in the deeper valleys, between + 8000 and 10,500 ft. The woods on the outer ranges from 3000 up to 7000 + ft. are more open, and consist mainly of evergreen trees. + + The herbaceous vegetation does not differ greatly, generically, from + that of the east, and many species of _Primulaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_, + _Cruciferae_, _Labiatae_ and _Scrophulariaceae_ occur; balsams abound, + also beautiful forms of _Campanulaceae_, _Gentiana_, _Meconopsis_, + _Saxifraga_ and many others. + + Cultivation hardly extends above 7000 ft., except in the valleys + behind the great snowy peaks, where a few fields of buckwheat and + Tibetan barley are sown up to 11,000 or 12,000 ft. At the lower + elevations rice, maize and millets are common, wheat and barley at a + somewhat higher level, and buckwheat and amaranth usually on the + poorer lands, or those recently reclaimed from forest. Besides these, + most of the ordinary vegetables of the plains are reared, and potatoes + have been introduced in the neighbourhood of all the British stations. + + As we pass to the west the species of rhododendron, oak and _Magnolia_ + are much reduced in number as compared to the eastern region, and both + the Malayan and Japanese forms are much less common. The herbaceous + tropical and semi-tropical vegetation likewise by degrees disappears, + the _Scitamineae_, epiphytal and terrestrial _Orchideae_, _Araceae_, + _Cyrtandraceae_ and _Begoniae_ only occur in small numbers in Kumaon, + and scarcely extend west of the Sutlej. In like manner several of the + western forms suited to drier climates find their eastern limit in + Kumaon. In Kashmir the plane and Lombardy poplar flourish, though + hardly seen farther east, the cherry is cultivated in orchards, and + the vegetation presents an eminently European cast. The alpine flora + is slower in changing its character as we pass from east to west, but + in Kashmir the vegetation of the higher mountains hardly differs from + that of the mountains of Afghanistan, Persia and Siberia, even in + species. + + The total number of flowering plants inhabiting the range amounts + probably to 5000 or 6000 species, among which may be reckoned several + hundred common English plants chiefly from the temperate and alpine + regions; and the characteristic of the flora as a whole is that it + contains a general and tolerably complete illustration of almost all + the chief natural families of all parts of the world, and has + comparatively few distinctive features of its own. + + The timber trees of the Himalaya are very numerous, but few of them + are known to be of much value. The "Sal" is one of the most valuable + of the trees; with the "Toon" and "Sissoo," it grows in the outer + ranges most accessible from the plains. The "Deodar" is also much + used, but the other pines produce timber that is not durable. Bamboos + grow everywhere along the outer ranges, and rattans to the eastward, + and are largely exported for use in the plains of India. + + Though one species of coffee is indigenous in the hotter Himalayan + forests, the climate does not appear suitable for the growth of the + plant which supplies the coffee of commerce. The cultivation of tea, + however, is carried on successfully on a large scale, both in the east + and west of the mountains. In the western Himalaya the cultivated + variety of the tea plant of China succeeds well; on the east the + indigenous tea of Assam, which is not specifically different, and is + perhaps the original parent of the Chinese variety, is now almost + everywhere preferred. The produce of the Chinese variety in the hot + and wet climate of the eastern Himalaya, Assam and eastern Bengal is + neither so abundant nor so highly flavoured as that of the indigenous + plant. + + The cultivation of the cinchona, several species of which have been + introduced from South America and naturalized in the Sikkim Himalaya, + promises to yield at a comparatively small cost an ample supply of the + febrifuge extracted from its bark. At present the manufacture is + almost wholly in the hands of the Government, and the drug prepared is + all disposed of in India. + + _Zoology._--The general distribution of animal life is determined by + much the same conditions that have controlled the vegetation. The + connexion with Europe on the north-west, with China on the north-east, + with Africa on the south-west, and with the Malayan region on the + south-east is manifest; and the greater or less prevalence of the + European and Eastern forms varies according to more western or eastern + position on the chain. So far as is known these remarks will apply to + the extinct as well as to the existing fauna. The Palaeozoic forms + found in the Himalaya are very close to those of Europe, and in some + cases identical. The Triassic fossils are still more closely allied, + more than a third of the species being identical. Among the Jurassic + Mollusca, also, are many species that are common in Europe. The + Siwalik fossils contain 84 species of mammals of 45 genera, the whole + bearing a marked resemblance to the Miocene fauna of Europe, but + containing a larger number of genera still existing, especially of + ruminants, and now held to be of Pliocene age. + + The fauna of the Tibetan Himalaya is essentially European or rather + that of the northern half of the old continent, which region has by + zoologists been termed Palaearctic. Among the characteristic animals + may be named the yak, from which is reared a cross breed with the + ordinary horned cattle of India, many wild sheep, and two antelopes, + as well as the musk-deer; several hares and some burrowing animals, + including pikas (_Lagomys_) and two or three species of marmot; + certain arctic forms of carnivora--fox, wolf, lynx, ounce, marten and + ermine; also wild asses. Among birds are found bustard and species of + sand-grouse and partridge; water-fowl in great variety, which breed on + the lakes in summer and migrate to the plains of India in winter; the + raven, hawks, eagles and owls, a magpie, and two kinds of chough; and + many smaller birds of the passerine order, amongst which are several + finches. Reptiles, as might be anticipated, are far from numerous, but + a few lizards are found, belonging for the most part to types, such as + _Phrynocephalus_, characteristic of the Central-Asiatic area. The + fishes from the headwaters of the Indus also belong, for the most + part, to Central-Asiatic types, with a small admixture of purely + Himalayan forms. Amongst the former are several peculiar small-scaled + carps, belonging to the genus _Schizothorax_ and its allies. + + The ranges of the Himalaya, from the border of Tibet to the plains, + form a zoological region which is one of the richest of the world, + particularly in respect to birds, to which the forest-clad mountains + offer almost every range of temperature. + + Only two or three forms of monkey enter the mountains, the langur, a + species of _Semnopithecus_, ranging up to 12,000 ft. No lemurs occur, + although a species is found in Assam, and another in southern India. + Bats are numerous, but the species are for the most part not peculiar + to the area; several European forms are found at the higher + elevations. Moles, which are unknown in the Indian peninsula, abound + in the forest regions of the eastern Himalayas at a moderate altitude, + and shrews of several species are found almost everywhere; amongst + them are two very remarkable forms of water-shrew, one of which, + however, _Nectogale_, is probably Tibetan rather than Himalayan. Bears + are common, and so are a marten, several weasels and otters, and cats + of various kinds and sizes, from the little spotted _Felis + bengalensis_, smaller than a domestic cat, to animals like the clouded + leopard rivalling a leopard in size. Leopards are common, and the + tiger wanders to a considerable elevation, but can hardly be + considered a permanent inhabitant, except in the lower valleys. + Civets, the mungoose (_Herpestes_), and toddy cats (_Paradoxurus_) are + only found at the lower elevations. Wild dogs (_Cyon_) are common, but + neither foxes nor wolves occur in the forest area. Besides these + carnivora some very peculiar forms are found, the most remarkable of + which is Aelurus, sometimes called the cat-bear, a type akin to the + American racoon. Two other genera, _Helictis_, an aberrant badger, and + linsang, an aberrant civet, are representatives of Malayan types. + Amongst the rodents squirrels abound, and the so-called flying + squirrels are represented by several species. Rats and mice swarm, + both kinds and individuals being numerous, but few present much + peculiarity, a bamboo rat (_Rhizomys_) from the base of the eastern + Himalaya being perhaps most worthy of notice. Two or three species of + vole (_Arvicola_) have been detected, and porcupines are common. The + elephant is found in the outer forests as far as the Jumna, and the + rhinoceros as far as the Sarda; the spread of both of these animals as + far as the Indus and into the plains of India, far beyond their + present limits, is authenticated by historical records; they have + probably retreated before the advance of cultivation and fire-arms. + Wild pigs are common in the lower ranges, and one peculiar species of + pigmy-hog (_Sus salvanius_) of very small size inhabits the forests at + the base of the mountains in Nepal and Sikim. Deer of several kinds + are met with, but do not ascend very high on the hillsides, and belong + exclusively to Indian forms. The musk deer keeps to the greater + elevations. The chevrotains of India and the Malay countries are + unrepresented. The gaur or wild ox is found at the base of the hills. + Three very characteristic ruminants, having some affinities with + goats, inhabit the Himalaya; these are the "serow" (_Nemorhaedus_), + "goral" (_Cemas_) and "tahr" (_Hemitragus_), the last-named ranging to + rather high elevations. Lastly, the pangolin (_Manis_) is represented + by two species in the eastern Himalaya. A dolphin (_Platanista_) + living in the Ganges ascends that river and its affluents to their + issue from the mountains. + + Almost all the orders of birds are well represented, and the + marvellous variety of forms found in the eastern Himalaya is only + rivalled in Central and South America. Eagles, vultures and other + birds of prey are seen soaring high over the highest of the + forest-clad ranges. Owls are numerous, and a small species, + _Glaucidium_, is conspicuous, breaking the stillness of the night by + its monotonous though musical cry of two notes. Several kinds of + swifts and nightjars are found, and gorgeously-coloured trogons, + bee-eaters, rollers, and beautiful kingfishers and barbets are common. + Several large hornbills inhabit the highest trees in the forest. The + parrots are restricted to parrakeets, of which there are several + species, and a single small lory. The number of woodpeckers is very + great and the variety of plumage remarkable, and the voice of the + cuckoo, of which there are numerous species, resounds in the spring as + in Europe. The number of passerine birds is immense. Amongst them the + sun-birds resemble in appearance and almost rival in beauty the + humming-birds of the New Continent. Creepers, nuthatches, shrikes, and + their allied forms, flycatchers and swallows, thrushes, dippers and + babblers (about fifty species), bulbuls and orioles, peculiar types of + redstart, various sylviads, wrens, tits, crows, jays and magpies, + weaver-birds, avadavats, sparrows, crossbills and many finches, + including the exquisitely coloured rose-finches, may also be + mentioned. The pigeons are represented by several wood-pigeons, doves + and green pigeons. The gallinaceous birds include the peacock, which + everywhere adorns the forest bordering on the plains, jungle fowl and + several pheasants; partridges, of which the chikor may be named as + most abundant, and snow-pheasants and partridges, found only at the + greatest elevations. Waders and waterfowl are far less abundant, and + those occurring are nearly all migratory forms which visit the + peninsula of India--the only important exception being two kinds of + solitary snipe and the red-billed curlew. + + Of the reptiles found in these mountains many are peculiar. Some of + the snakes of India are to be seen in the hotter regions, including + the python and some of the venomous species, the cobra being found as + high up as 8000 or 9000 ft., though not common. Lizards are numerous, + and as well as frogs are found at all elevations from the plains to + the upper Himalayan valleys, and even extend to Tibet. + + The fishes found in the rivers of the Himalaya show the same general + connexion with the three neighbouring regions, the Palaearctic, the + African and the Malayan. Of the principal families, the + _Acanthopterygii_, which are abundant in the hotter parts of India, + hardly enter the mountains, two genera only being found, of which one + is the peculiar amphibious genus _Ophiocephalus_. None of these fishes + are found in Tibet. The _Siluridae_, or scaleless fishes, and the + _Cyprinidae_, or carp and loach, form the bulk of the mountain fish, + and the genera and species appear to be organized for a + mountain-torrent life, being almost all furnished with suckers to + enable them to maintain their positions in the rapid streams which + they inhabit. A few _Siluridae_ have been found in Tibet, but the + carps constitute the larger part of the species. Many of the Himalayan + forms are Indian fish which appear to go up to the higher streams to + deposit their ova, and the Tibetan species as a rule are confined to + the rivers on the table-land or to the streams at the greatest + elevations, the characteristics of which are Tibetan rather than + Himalayan. The _Salmonidae_ are entirely absent from the waters of the + Himalaya proper, of Tibet and of Turkestan east of the Terektag. + + The Himalayan butterflies are very numerous and brilliant, for the + most part belonging to groups that extend both into the Malayan and + European regions, while African forms also appear. There are large and + gorgeous species of _Papilio_, _Nymphalidae_, _Morphidae_ and + _Danaidae_, and the more favoured localities are described as being + only second to South America in the display of this form of beauty and + variety in insect life. Moths, also, of strange forms and of great + size are common. The cicada's song resounds among the woods in the + autumn; flights of locusts frequently appear after the summer, and + they are carried by the prevailing winds even among the glaciers and + eternal snows. Ants, bees and wasps of many species, and flies and + gnats abound, particularly during the summer rainy season, and at all + elevations. + + _Mountain Scenery._--Much has been written about the impressiveness + of Himalayan scenery. It is but lately, however, that any adequate + conception of the magnitude and majesty of the most stupendous of the + mountain groups which mass themselves about the upper tributaries and + reaches of the Indus has been presented to us in the works of Sir F. + Younghusband, Sir W. M. Conway, H. C. B. Tanner and D. Freshfield. It + is not in comparison with the picturesque beauty of European Alpine + scenery that the Himalaya appeals to the imagination, for amongst the + hills of the outer Himalaya--the hills which are known to the majority + of European residents and visitors--there is often a striking absence + of those varied incidents and sharp contrasts which are essential to + picturesqueness in mountain landscape. Too often the brown, barren, + sun-scorched ridges are obscured in the yellow dust haze which drifts + upwards from the plains; too often the whole perspective of hill and + vale is blotted out in the grey mists that sweep in soft, resistless + columns against these southern slopes, to be condensed and + precipitated in ceaseless, monotonous rainfall. Few Europeans really + see the Himalaya; fewer still are capable of translating their + impressions into language which is neither exaggerated nor inadequate. + + Some idea of the magnitude of Himalayan mountain construction--a + magnitude which the eye totally fails to appreciate--may, however, be + gathered from the following table of comparison of the absolute height + of some peaks above sea-level with the actual amount of their slopes + exposed to view:-- + + _Relative Extent of Snow Slopes Visible._ + + +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+ + | | | Height | Amount | + | Name of Mountain. | Place of Observation.| above | of Slope | + | | | sea. | exposed. | + +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+ + | Everest | Dewanganj | 29,002 | 8,000 | + | " | Sandakphu | " | 12,000 | + | K2 or Godwin-Austen | Between Gilgit and | | | + | | Gor, 16,000 ft. | 28,250 | | + | Pk. XIII. or Makalu | Purnea, 200 ft | 27,800 | 8,000 | + | | Sandakphu, 12,000 ft.| " | 9,000 | + | Nanga Parbat | Gor, 16,000 ft. | 26,656 | 23,000 | + | Tirach Mir | Between Gilgit and | | | + | | Chitral, 8000 ft. | 25,400 |17-18,000 | + | Rakapushi | Chaprot (Gilgit), | | | + | | 13,000 ft. | 25,560 | 18,000 | + | Kinchinjunga | Darjeeling, 7000 ft. | 28,146 | 16,000 | + | Mont Blanc | Above Chamonix, 7000 | | | + | | ft. | 15,781 | 11,500 | + +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+ + + It will be observed from this table that it is not often that a + greater slope of snow-covered mountain side is observable in the + Himalaya than that which is afforded by the familiar view of Mont + Blanc from Chamonix. (T. H. H.*) + + AUTHORITIES.--Drew, _Jammu and Kashmir_ (London, 1875); G. W. Leitner, + _Dardistan_ (1887); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, + 1880); H. H. Godwin-Austen, "Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vols. + v. and vi. _Proc. R. G. S._ (1883-1884); C. Ujfalvy, _Aus dem + westlichen Himalaya_ (Leipzig, 1884); H. C. B. Tanner, "Our Present + Knowledge of the Himalaya," vol. xiii. _Proc. R. G. S._ (1891); R. D. + Oldham, "The Evolution of Indian Geography," vol. iii. _Jour. R. G. + S._; W. Lawrence, _Kashmir_ (Oxford, 1895); Sir W. M. Conway, + _Climbing and Exploring in the Karakoram_ (London, 1898); F. Bullock + Workman, _In the Ice World of Himalaya_ (1900); F. B. and W. H. + Workman, _Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh_ (1908); D. W. Freshfield, + _Round Kangchenjunga_ (1903). + + For geology see R. Lydekker, "The Geology of Kashmir," &c., _Mem. + Geol. Surv. India_, vol. xxii. (1883); C. S. Middlemiss, "Physical + Geology of the Sub-Himalaya of Gahrwal and Kumaon," ibid., vol. xxiv. + pt. 2 (1890); C. L. Griesbach, _Geology of the Central Himalayas_, + vol. xxiii. (1891); R. D. Oldham, _Manual of the Geology of India_, + chap. xviii. (2nd ed., 1893). Descriptions of the fossils, with some + notes on stratigraphical questions, will be found in several of the + volumes of the _Palaeontologia Indica_, published by the Geological + Survey of India, Calcutta. + + + + +HIMERA, a city on the north coast of Sicily, on a hill above the east +bank of the Himeras Septentrionalis. It was founded in 648 B.C. by the +Chalcidian inhabitants of Zancle, in company with many Syracusan exiles. +Early in the 5th century the tyrant Terillas, son-in-law of Anaxilas of +Rhegium and Zancle, appealed to the Carthaginians, who came to his +assistance, but were utterly defeated by Gelon of Syracuse in 480 +B.C.--on the same day, it is said, as the battle of Salamis. +Thrasydaeus, son of Theron of Agrigentum, seems to have ruled the city +oppressively, but an appeal made to Hiero of Syracuse, Gelon's brother, +was betrayed by him to Theron; the latter massacred all his enemies and +in the following year resettled the town. In 415 it refused to admit the +Athenian fleet and remained an ally of Syracuse. In 408 the Carthaginian +invading army under Hannibal, after capturing Selinus, invested and took +Himera and razed the city to the ground, founding a new town close to +the hot springs (Thermae Himeraeae), 8 m. to the west. The only relic of +the ancient town now visible above ground is a small portion (four +columns, lower diameter 7 ft.) of a Doric temple, the date of which +(whether before or after 480 B.C.) is uncertain. + + + + +HIMERIUS (c. A.D. 315-386), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at +Prusa in Bithynia. He completed his education at Athens, whence he was +summoned to Antioch in 362 by the emperor Julian to act as his private +secretary. After the death of Julian in the following year Himerius +returned to Athens, where he established a school of rhetoric, which he +compared with that of Isocrates and the Delphic oracle, owing to the +number of those who flocked from all parts of the world to hear him. +Amongst his pupils were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great, bishop +of Caesarea. In recognition of his merits, civic rights and the +membership of the Areopagus were conferred upon him. The death of his +son Rufinus (his lament for whom, called [Greek: monodia], is extant) +and that of a favourite daughter greatly affected his health; in his +later years he became blind and he died of epilepsy. Although a heathen, +who had been initiated into the mysteries of Mithra by Julian, he shows +no prejudice against the Christians. Himerius is a typical +representative of the later rhetorical schools. Photius (cod. 165, 243 +Bekker) had read 71 speeches by him, of 36 of which he has given an +epitome; 24 have come down to us complete and fragments of 10 or 12 +others. They consist of epideictic or "display" speeches after the style +of Aristides, the majority of them having been delivered on special +occasions, such as the arrival of a new governor, visits to different +cities (Thessalonica, Constantinople), or the death of friends or +well-known personages. The _Polemarchicus_, like the _Menexenus_ of +Plato and the _Epitaphios Logos_ of Hypereides, is a panegyric of +those who had given their lives for their country; it is so called +because it was originally the duty of the polemarch to arrange the +funeral games in honour of those who had fallen in battle. Other +declamations, only known from the excerpts in Photius, were imaginary +orations put into the mouth of famous persons--Demosthenes advocating +the recall of Aeschines from banishment, Hypereides supporting the +policy of Demosthenes, Themistocles inveighing against the king of +Persia, an orator unnamed attacking Epicurus for atheism before Julian +at Constantinople. Himerius is more of a poet than a rhetorician, and +his declamations are valuable as giving prose versions or even the +actual words of lost poems by Greek lyric writers. The prose poem on the +marriage of Severus and his greeting to Basil at the beginning of spring +are quite in the spirit of the old lyric. Himerius possesses vigour of +language and descriptive powers, though his productions are spoilt by +too frequent use of imagery, allegorical and metaphorical obscurities, +mannerism and ostentatious learning. But they are valuable for the +history and social conditions of the time, although lacking the +sincerity characteristic of Libanius. + + See Eunapius, _Vitae sophistarum_; Suidas, _s.v._; editions by G. + Wernsdorf (1790), with valuable introduction and commentaries, and by + F. Dubner (1849) in the Didot series; C. Teuber, _Quaestiones + Himerianae_ (Breslau, 1882); on the style, E. Norden, _Die antike + Kunstprosa_ (1898). + + + + +HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE (1823-1906), French historian and geographer, was +born at Strassburg on the 28th of March 1823. After studying in his +native town and taking the university course in Berlin (1842-1843) he +went to Paris, and passed first in the examination for fellowship +(_agregation_) of the _lycees_ (1845), first in the examinations on +leaving the Ecole des Chartes, and first in the examination for +fellowship of the faculties (1849). In 1849 he took the degree of doctor +of letters with two theses, one of which, _Wala et Louis le Debonnaire_ +(published in Paris in 1849), placed him in the front rank of French +scholars in the province of Carolingian history. Soon, however, he +turned his attention to the study of geography. In 1858 he obtained an +appointment as teacher of geography at the Sorbonne, and henceforth +devoted himself to that subject. It was not till 1876 that he published, +in two volumes, his remarkable _Histoire de la formation territoriale +des etats de l'Europe centrale_, in which he showed with a firm, but +sometimes slightly heavy touch, the reciprocal influence exerted by +geography and history. While the work gives evidence throughout of wide +and well-directed research, he preferred to write it in the form of a +student's manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained him +admission to the Institute in 1881. In that year he was appointed dean +of the faculty of letters, and for ten years he directed the +intellectual life of that great educational centre during its +development into a great scientific body. He died at Sevres on the 6th +of October 1906. + + + + +HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY (1765-1814), German composer, was born on the +20th of November 1765 at Treuenbrietzen in Brandenburg, Prussia, and +originally studied theology at Halle. During a temporary stay at Potsdam +he had an opportunity of showing his self-acquired skill as a pianist +before King Frederick William II., who thereupon made him a yearly +allowance to enable him to complete his musical studies. This he did +under Naumann, a German composer of the Italian school, and the style of +that school Himmel himself adopted in his serious operas. The first of +these, a pastoral opera, _Il Primo Navigatore_, was produced at Venice +in 1794 with great success. In 1792 he went to Berlin, where his +oratorio _Isaaco_ was produced, in consequence of which he was made +court Kapellmeister to the king of Prussia, and in that capacity wrote a +great deal of official music, including cantatas, and a coronation Te +Deum. His Italian operas, successively composed for Stockholm, St +Petersburg and Berlin, were all received with great favour in their day. +Of much greater importance than these is an operetta to German words by +Kotzebue, called _Fanchon_, an admirable specimen of the primitive form +of the musical drama known in Germany as the _Singspiel_. Himmel's gift +of writing genuine simple melody is also observable in his songs, +amongst which one called "To Alexis" is the best. He died in Berlin on +the 8th of June 1814. + + + + +HINCKLEY, a market town in the Bosworth parliamentary division of +Leicestershire, England, 14(1/2) m. S.W. from Leicester on the +Nuneaton-Leicester branch of the London & North-Western railway, and +near the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,304. +The town is well situated on a considerable eminence. Among the +principal buildings are the church of St Mary, a Decorated and +Perpendicular structure, with lofty tower and spire; the Roman Catholic +academy named St Peter's Priory, and a grammar school. The ditch of a +castle erected by Hugh de Grentismenil in the time of William Rufus is +still to be traced. Hinckley is the centre of a stocking-weaving +district, and its speciality is circular hose. It also possesses a +boot-making industry, brick and tile works, and lime works. There are +mineral springs in the neighbourhood. + + + + +HINCKS, EDWARD (1792-1866), British assyriologist, was born at Cork, +Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders in the +Protestant Church of Ireland, and was rector of Killyleagh, Down, from +1825 till his death on the 3rd of December 1866. Hincks devoted his +spare time to the study of hieroglyphics, and to the deciphering of the +cuneiform script (see CUNEIFORM), in which he was a pioneer, working out +contemporaneously with Sir H. Rawlinson, and independently of him, the +ancient Persian vowel system. He published a number of original and +scholarly papers on assyriological questions of the highest value, +chiefly in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Irish Academy. + + + + +HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS (1807-1885), Canadian statesman, was born at Cork, +Ireland, the son of an Irish Presbyterian minister. In 1832 he engaged +in business in Toronto, became a friend of Robert Baldwin, and in 1835 +was chosen to examine the accounts of the Welland Canal, the management +of which was being attacked by W. L. Mackenzie. This turned his +attention to political life and in 1838 he founded the _Examiner_, a +weekly paper in the Liberal interest. In 1841 he was elected M.P. for +the county of Oxford, and in the following year was appointed +inspector-general, the title then borne by the finance minister, but in +1843 resigned with Baldwin and the other ministers on the question of +responsible government. In 1848 he again became inspector-general in the +Baldwin-Lafontaine ministry, and on their retirement in 1851 became +premier of Canada, his chief colleague being A. N. Morin (1803-1865). +While premier he was prominent in the negotiations which led to the +construction of the Grand Trunk railway, and in co-operation with Lord +Elgin negotiated with the United States the reciprocity treaty of 1854. +In the same year the bitter hostility of the "Clear Grits" under George +Brown compelled his resignation, and he was prominent in the formation +of the Liberal-Conservative Party. In 1855 he was chosen governor of +Barbados and the Windward Islands, and subsequently governor of British +Guiana. In 1869 he was created K.C.M.G. and returned to Canada, becoming +till 1873 finance minister in the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. In +February of that year he resigned, but continued to take an active part +in public life. In 1879 the failure of the Consolidated Bank of Canada, +of which he was president, led to his being tried for issuing false +statements. Though found guilty on a technicality (see _Journal_ of the +Canadian Bankers' Association, April 1906) judgment was suspended, his +personal credit remained unimpaired, and he continued to take part in +the discussion of public questions till his death on the 18th of August +1885. + + His writings include: _The Political History of Canada between 1840 + and 1855_ (1877); _The Political Destiny of Canada_ (1878), and his + _Reminiscences_ (1884). + + + + +HINCMAR (c. 805-882), archbishop of Reims, one of the most remarkable +figures in the ecclesiastical history of France, belonged to a noble +family of the north or north-east of Gaul. Destined, doubtless, to the +monastic life, he was brought up at St Denis under the direction of the +abbot Hilduin (d. 844), who brought him in 822 to the court of the +emperor Louis the Pious. When Hilduin was disgraced in 830 for having +joined the party of Lothair, Hincmar accompanied him into exile at +Corvey in Saxony, but returned with him to St Denis when the abbot was +reconciled with the emperor, and remained faithful to the emperor during +his struggle with his sons. After the death of Louis the Pious (840) +Hincmar supported Charles the Bald, and received from him the abbacies +of Notre-Dame at Compiegne and St Germer de Fly. In 845 he obtained +through the king's support the archbishopric of Reims, and this choice +was confirmed at the synod of Beauvais (April 845). Archbishop Ebbo, +whom he replaced, had been deposed in 835 at the synod of Thionville +(Diedenhofen) for having broken his oath of fidelity to the emperor +Louis, whom he had deserted to join the party of Lothair. After the +death of Louis, Ebbo succeeded in regaining possession of his see for +some years (840-844), but in 844 Pope Sergius II. confirmed his +deposition. It was in these circumstances that Hincmar succeeded, and in +847 Pope Leo IV. sent him the pallium. + +One of the first cares of the new prelate was the restitution to his +metropolitan see of the domains that had been alienated under Ebbo and +given as benefices to laymen. From the beginning of his episcopate +Hincmar was in constant conflict with the clerks who had been ordained +by Ebbo during his reappearance. These clerks, whose ordination was +regarded as invalid by Hincmar and his adherents, were condemned in 853 +at the council of Soissons, and the decisions of that council were +confirmed in 855 by Pope Benedict III. This conflict, however, bred an +antagonism of which Hincmar was later to feel the effects. During the +next thirty years the archbishop of Reims played a very prominent part +in church and state. His authoritative and energetic will inspired, and +in great measure directed, the policy of the west Frankish kingdom until +his death. He took an active part in all the great political and +religious affairs of his time, and was especially energetic in defending +and extending the rights of the church and of the metropolitans in +general, and of the metropolitan of the church of Reims in particular. +In the resulting conflicts, in which his personal interest was in +question, he displayed great activity and a wide knowledge of canon law, +but did not scruple to resort to disingenuous interpretation of texts. +His first encounter was with the heresiarch Gottschalk, whose +predestinarian doctrines claimed to be modelled on those of St +Augustine. Hincmar placed himself at the head of the party that +regarded Gottschalk's doctrines as heretical, and succeeded in procuring +the arrest and imprisonment of his adversary (849). For a part at least +of his doctrines Gottschalk found ardent defenders, such as Lupus of +Ferrieres, the deacon Florus and Amolo of Lyons. Through the energy and +activity of Hincmar the theories of Gottschalk were condemned at Quierzy +(853) and Valence (855), and the decisions of these two synods were +confirmed at the synods of Langres and Savonnieres, near Toul (859). To +refute the predestinarian heresy Hincmar composed his _De +praedestinatione Dei et libero arbitrio_, and against certain +propositions advanced by Gottschalk on the Trinity he wrote a treatise +called _De una et non trina deitate_. Gottschalk died in prison in 868. +The question of the divorce of Lothair II., king of Lorraine, who had +repudiated his wife Theutberga to marry his concubine Waldrada, engaged +Hincmar's literary activities in another direction. At the request of a +number of great personages in Lorraine he composed in 860 his _De +divortio Lotharii et Teutbergae_, in which he vigorously attacked, both +from the moral and the legal standpoints, the condemnation pronounced +against the queen by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (February 860). +Hincmar energetically supported the policy of Charles the Bald in +Lorraine, less perhaps from devotion to the king's interests than from a +desire to see the whole of the ecclesiastical province of Reims united +under the authority of a single sovereign, and in 869 it was he who +consecrated Charles at Metz as king of Lorraine. + +In the middle of the 9th century there appeared in Gaul the collection +of false decretals commonly known as the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. The +exact date and the circumstances of the composition of the collection +are still an open question, but it is certain that Hincmar was one of +the first to know of their existence, and apparently he was not aware +that the documents were forged. The importance assigned by these +decretals to the bishops and the provincial councils, as well as to the +direct intervention of the Holy See, tended to curtail the rights of the +metropolitans, of which Hincmar was so jealous. Rothad, bishop of +Soissons, one of the most active members of the party in favour of the +pseudo-Isidorian theories, immediately came into collision with his +archbishop. Deposed in 863 at the council of Soissons, presided over by +Hincmar, Rothad appealed to Rome. Pope Nicholas I. supported him +zealously, and in 865, in spite of the protests of the archbishop of +Reims, Arsenius, bishop of Orta and legate of the Holy See, was +instructed to restore Rothad to his episcopal see. Hincmar experienced +another check when he endeavoured to prevent Wulfad, one of the clerks +deposed by Ebbo, from obtaining the archbishopric of Bourges with the +support of Charles the Bald. After a synod held at Soissons, Nicholas I. +pronounced himself in favour of the deposed clerks, and Hincmar was +constrained to make submission (866). He was more successful in his +contest with his nephew Hincmar, bishop of Laon, who was at first +supported both by the king and by his uncle, the archbishop of Reims, +but soon quarrelled with both. Hincmar of Laon refused to recognize the +authority of his metropolitan, and entered into an open struggle with +his uncle, who exposed his errors in a treatise called _Opusculum LV. +capitulorum_, and procured his condemnation and deposition at the synod +of Douzy (871). The bishop of Laon was sent into exile, probably to +Aquitaine, where his eyes were put out by order of Count Boso. Pope +Adrian protested against his deposition, but it was confirmed in 876 by +Pope John VIII., and it was not until 878, at the council of Troyes, +that the unfortunate prelate was reconciled with the Church. A serious +conflict arose between Hincmar on the one side and Charles and the pope +on the other in 876, when Pope John VIII., at the king's request, +entrusted Ansegisus, archbishop of Sens, with the primacy of the Gauls +and of Germany, and created him vicar apostolic. In Hincmar's eyes this +was an encroachment on the jurisdiction of the archbishops, and it was +against this primacy that he directed his treatise _De jure +metropolitanorum_. At the same time he wrote a life of St Remigius, in +which he endeavoured by audacious falsifications to prove the supremacy +of the church of Reims over the other churches. Charles the Bald, +however, upheld the rights of Ansegisus at the synod of Ponthion. +Although Hincmar had been very hostile to Charles's expedition into +Italy, he figured among his testamentary executors and helped to secure +the submission of the nobles to Louis the Stammerer, whom he crowned at +Compiegne (8th of December 877). + +During the reign of Louis, Hincmar played an obscure part. He supported +the accession of Louis III. and Carloman, but had a dispute with Louis, +who wished to instal a candidate in the episcopal see of Beauvais +without the archbishop's assent. To Carloman, on his accession in 882, +Hincmar addressed his _De ordine palatii_, partly based on a treatise +(now lost) by Adalard, abbot of Corbie (c. 814), in which he set forth +his system of government and his opinion of the duties of a sovereign, a +subject he had already touched in his _De regis persona et regio +ministerio_, dedicated to Charles the Bald at an unknown date, and in +his _Instructio ad Ludovicum regem_, addressed to Louis the Stammerer on +his accession in 877. In the autumn of 832 an irruption of the Normans +forced the old archbishop to take refuge at Epernay, where he died on +the 21st of December 882. Hincmar was a prolific writer. Besides the +works already mentioned, he was the author of several theological +tracts; of the _De villa Noviliaco_, concerning the claiming of a domain +of his church; and he continued from 861 the _Annales Bertiniani_, of +which the first part was written by Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, the +best source for the history of Charles the Bald. He also wrote a great +number of letters, some of which are extant, and others embodied in the +chronicles of Flodoard. + + Hincmar's works, which are the principal source for the history of his + life, were collected by Jacques Sirmond (Paris, 1645), and reprinted + by Migne, _Patrol. Latina_, vol. cxxv. and cxxvi. See also C. von + Noorden, _Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims_ (Bonn, 1863), and, + especially, H. Schrors, _Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims_ + (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1884). For Hincmar's political and + ecclesiastical theories see preface to Maurice Prou's edition of the + _De ordine palatii_ (Paris, 1885), and the abbe Lesne, _La Hierarchie + episcopale en Gaule et en Germanie_ (Paris, 1905). (R. Po.) + + + + +HIND, the female of the red-deer, usually taken as being three years old +and over, the male being known as a "hart." It is sometimes also applied +to the female of other species of deer. The word appears in several +Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch and Ger. _Hinde_, and has been connected +with the Goth. _hinthan_ (_hinthan_), to seize, which may be connected +ultimately with "hand" and "hunt." "Hart," from the O.E. _heort_, may be +in origin connected with the root of Gr. [Greek: keras], horn. "Hind" +(O.E. _hine_, probably from the O.E. _hinan_, members of a family or +household), meaning a servant, especially a labourer on a farm, is +another word. In Scotland the "hind" is a farm servant, with a cottage +on the farm, and duties and responsibilities that make him superior to +the rest of the labourers. Similarly "hind" is used in certain parts of +northern England as equivalent to "bailiff." + + + + +HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON (1804-1872), Prussian general, was born at +Wernigerode near Halberstadt on the 18th of July 1804. He was the son of +a priest and received a good education. His earlier life was spent in +great poverty, and the struggle for existence developed in him an iron +strength of character. Entering the Prussian artillery in 1820 he became +an officer in 1825. From 1830 to 1837 he attended the Allgemeine +Kriegsakademie at Berlin, and in 1841, while still a subaltern, he was +posted to the great General Staff, in which he afterwards directed the +topographical section. In 1849 he served with the rank of major on the +staff of General Peucker, who commanded a federal corps in the +suppression of the Baden insurrection. He fell into the hands of the +insurgents at the action of Ladenburg, but was released just before the +fall of Rastadt. In the Danish war of 1864 Hindersin, now +lieutenant-general, directed the artillery operations against the lines +of Duppel, and for his services was ennobled by the king of Prussia. +Soon afterwards he became inspector-general of artillery. His experience +at Duppel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore gun were +past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting zeal to the rearmament +and reorganization of the Prussian artillery. The available funds were +small, and grudgingly voted by the parliament. There was a strong +feeling moreover that the smooth-bore was still tactically superior to +its rival (see ARTILLERY, S 19). There was no practical training for war +in either the field or the fortress artillery units. The latter had made +scarcely any progress since the days of Frederick the Great, and before +von Hindersin's appointment had practised with the same guns in the same +bastion year after year. All this was altered, the whole +"foot-artillery" was reorganized, manoeuvres were instituted, and the +smooth-bores were, except for ditch defence, eliminated from the +armament of the Prussian fortresses. But far more important was his work +in connexion with the field and horse batteries. In 1864 only one +battery in four had rifled guns, but by the unrelenting energy of von +Hindersin the outbreak of war with Austria one and a half years later +found the Prussians with ten in every sixteen batteries armed with the +new weapon. But the battles of 1866 showed, besides the superiority of +the rifled gun, a very marked absence of tactical efficiency in the +Prussian artillery, which was almost always outmatched by that of the +enemy. Von Hindersin had pleaded, in season and out of season, for the +establishment of a school of gunnery; and in spite of want of funds, +such a school had already been established. After 1866, however, more +support was obtained, and the improvement in the Prussian field +artillery between 1866 and 1870 was extraordinary, even though there had +not been time for the work of the school to leaven the whole arm. +Indeed, the German artillery played by far the most important part in +the victories of the Franco-German war. Von Hindersin accompanied the +king's headquarters as chief of artillery, as he had done in 1866, and +was present at Gravelotte, Sedan and the siege of Paris. But his work, +which was now accomplished, had worn out his physical powers, and he +died on the 23rd of January 1872 at Berlin. + + See Bartholomaus, _Der General der Infanterie von Hindersin_ (Berlin, + 1895), and Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, _Letters on + Artillery_ (translated by Major Walford, R.A.), No. xi. + + + + +HINDI, EASTERN, one of the "intermediate" Indo-Aryan languages (see +HINDOSTANI). It is spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand and Chhattisgarh by over +22,000,000 people. It is derived from the Apabhramsa form of +Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (see PRAKRIT), and possesses a large and important +literature. Its most famous writer was Tulsi Das, the poet and reformer, +who died early in the 17th century, and since his time it has been the +North-Indian language employed for epic poetry. + + + + +HINDI, WESTERN, the Indo-Aryan language of the middle and upper Gangetic +Doab, and of the country to the north and south. It is the vernacular of +over 40,000,000 people. Its standard dialect is Braj Bhasha, spoken near +Muttra, which has a considerable literature mainly devoted to the +religion founded on devotion to Krishna. Another dialect spoken near +Delhi and in the upper Gangetic Doab is the original from which +Hindostani, the great _lingua franca_ of India, has developed (see +HINDOSTANI). Western Hindi, like Punjabi, its neighbour to the west, is +descended from the Apabhramsa form of Sauraseni Prakrit (see PRAKRIT), +and represents the language of the Madhyadesa or Midland, as distinct +from the intermediate and outer Indo-Aryan languages. + + + + +HINDKI, the name given to the Hindus who inhabit Afghanistan. They are +of the Khatri class, and are found all over the country even amongst the +wildest tribes. Bellew in his _Races of Afghanistan_ estimates their +number at about 300,000. The name Hindki is also loosely used on the +upper Indus, in Dir, Bajour, &c., to denote the speakers of Punjabi or +any of its dialects. It is sometimes applied in a historical sense to +the Buddhist inhabitants of the Peshawar Valley north of the Kabul +river, who were driven thence about the 5th or 6th century and settled +in the neighbourhood of Kandahar. + + + + +HINDLEY, an urban district in the Ince parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, 2 m. E.S.E. of Wigan, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire +and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901) 23,504. Cotton spinning and the +manufacture of cotton goods are the principal industries, and there are +extensive coal-mines in the neighbourhood. It is recorded that in the +time of the Puritan revolution Hindley church was entered by the +Cavaliers, who played at cards in the pews, pulled down the pulpit and +tore the Bible in pieces. + + + + +HINDOSTANI (properly _Hindostani_, of or belonging to Hindostan[1]), the +name given by Europeans to an Indo-Aryan dialect (whose home is in the +upper Gangetic Doab and near the city of Delhi), which, owing to +political causes, has become the great _lingua franca_ of modern India. +The name is not employed by natives of India, except as an imitation of +the English nomenclature. Hindostani is by origin a dialect of Western +Hindi, and it is first of all necessary to explain what we mean by the +term "Hindi" as applied to language. Modern Indo-Aryan languages fall +into three groups,--an outer band, the language of the Midland and an +intermediate band. The Midland consists of the Gangetic Doab and of the +country to its immediate north and south, extending, roughly speaking, +from the Eastern Punjab on the west, to Cawnpore on its east. The +language of this tract is called "Western Hindi"; to its west we have +Panjabi (of the Central Punjab), and to the east, reaching as far as +Benares, Eastern Hindi, both Intermediate languages. These three will +all be dealt with in the present article. Panjabi and Western Hindi are +derived from Sauraseni, and Eastern Hindi from Ardham gadha Prakrit, +through the corresponding Apabhramsas (see PRAKRIT). Eastern Hindi +differs in many respects from the two others, but it is customary to +consider it together with the language of the Midland, and this will be +followed on the present occasion. In 1901 the speakers of these three +languages numbered: Panjabi, 17,070,961; Western Hindi, 40,714,925; +Eastern Hindi, 22,136,358. + +_Linguistic Boundaries._--Taking the tract covered by these three forms +of speech, it has to its west, in the western Punjab, Lannda (see +SINDHI), a language of the Outer band. The parent of Lahnda once no +doubt covered the whole of the Punjab, but, in the process of expansion +of the tribes of the Midland described in the article INDO-ARYAN +LANGUAGES, it was gradually driven back, leaving traces of its former +existence which grow stronger as we proceed westwards, until at about +the 74th degree of east longitude there is a mixed, transition dialect. +To the west of that degree Lahnda may be said to be established, the +deserts of the west-central Punjab forming a barrier and protecting it, +just as, farther south, a continuation of the same desert has protected +Sindhi from Rajasthani. It is the old traces of Lahnda which mainly +differentiate Panjabi from Hindostani. To the south of Panjabi and +Western Hindi lies Rajasthani. This language arose in much the same way +as Panjabi. The expanding Midland language was stopped by the desert +from reaching Sindhi, but to the south-west it found an unobstructed way +into Gujarat, where, under the form of Gujarati, it broke the +continuity of the Outer band. Eastern Hindi, as an Intermediate form of +speech, is of much older lineage. It has been an Intermediate language +since, at least, the institution of Jainism (say, 500 B.C.), and is much +less subject to the influence of the Midland than is Panjabi. To its +east it has Bihari, and, stretching far to the south, it has Marathi as +its neighbour in that direction, both of these being Outer languages. + +_Dialects._--The only important dialect of Eastern Hindi is Awadhi, +spoken in Oudh, and possessing a large literature of great excellence. +Chhattisgarhi and Bagheli, the other dialects, have scanty literatures +of small value. Western Hindi has four main dialects, Bundeli of +Bundelkhand, Braj Bhasha (properly "Braj Bhasa") of the country round +Mathura (Muttra), Kanauji of the central Doab and the country to its +north, and vernacular Hindostani of Delhi and the Upper Doab. West of +the Upper Doab, across the Jumna, another dialect, Bangaru, is also +found. It possesses no literature. Kanauji is very closely allied to +Braj Bhasha, and these two share with Awadhi the honour of being the +great literary speeches of northern India. Nearly all the classical +literature of India is religious in character, and we may say that, as a +broad rule, Awadhi literature is devoted to the Ramaite religion and the +epic poetry connected with it, while that of Braj Bhasha is concerned +with the religion of Krishna. Vernacular Hindostani has no literature of +its own, but as the _lingua franca_ now to be described it has a large +one. Panjabi has one dialect, Dogri, spoken in the Himalayas. + +_Hindostani as a Lingua Franca._--It has often been said that Hindostani +is a mongrel "pigeon" form of speech made up of contributions from the +various languages which met in Delhi bazaar, but this theory has now +been proved to be unfounded, owing to the discovery of the fact that it +is an actual living dialect of Western Hindi, existing for centuries in +its present habitat, and the direct descendant of Sauraseni Prakrit. It +is not a typical dialect of that language, for, situated where it is, it +represents Western Hindi merging into Panjabi (Braj Bhasha being +admittedly the standard of the language), but to say that it is a +mongrel tongue thrown together in the market is to reverse the order of +events. It was the natural language of the people in the neighbourhood +of Delhi, who formed the bulk of those who resorted to the bazaar, and +hence it became the bazaar language. From here it became the _lingua +franca_ of the Mogul camp and was carried everywhere in India by the +lieutenants of the empire. It has several recognized varieties, amongst +which we may mention Dakhini, Urdu, Rekhta and Hindi. Dakhini or +"southern," is the form current in the south of India, and was the first +to be employed for literature. It contains many archaic expressions now +extinct in the standard dialect. Urdu, or _Urdu zaban_, "the language of +the camp," is the name usually employed for Hindostani by natives, and +is now the standard form of speech used by Mussulmans. All the early +Hindostani literature was in poetry, and this literary form of speech +was named "Rekhta," or "scattered," from the way in which words borrowed +from Persian were "scattered" through it. The name is now reserved for +the dialect used in poetry, Urdu being the dialect of prose and of +conversation. The introduction of these borrowed words, which has been +carried to even a greater extent in Urdu, was facilitated by the facts +that the latter was by origin a "camp" language, and that Persian was +the official language of the Mogul court. In this way Persian (and, with +Persian, Arabic) words came into current use, and, though the language +remained Indo-Aryan in its grammar and essential characteristics, it +soon became unintelligible to any one who had not at least a moderate +acquaintance with the vocabulary of Iran. This extreme Persianization of +Urdu was due rather to Hindu than to Persian influence. Although Urdu +literature was Mussulman in its origin, the Persian element was first +introduced in excess by the pliant Hindu officials employed in the Mogul +administration, and acquainted with Persian, rather than by Persians and +Persianized Moguls, who for many centuries used only their own languages +for literary purposes.[2] Prose Urdu literature took its origin in the +English occupation of India and the need for text-books for the college +of Fort William. It has had a prosperous career since the commencement +of the 19th century, but some writers, especially those of Lucknow, have +so overloaded it with Persian and Arabic that little of the original +Indo-Aryan character remains, except, perhaps, an occasional pronoun or +auxiliary verb. The Hindi form of Hindostani was invented simultaneously +with Urdu prose by the teachers at Fort William. It was intended to be a +Hindostani for the use of Hindus, and was derived from Urdu by ejecting +all words of Persian or Arabic birth, and substituting for them words +either borrowed from Sanskrit (_tatsamas_) or derived from the old +primary Prakrit (_tadbhavas_) (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Owing to the +popularity of the first book written in it, and to its supplying the +need for a _lingua franca_ which could be used by the most patriotic +Hindus without offending their religious prejudices, it became widely +adopted, and is now the recognized vehicle for writing prose by those +inhabitants of northern India who do not employ Urdu. This Hindi, which +is an altogether artificial product of the English, is hardly ever used +for poetry. For this the indigenous dialects (usually Awadhi or Braj +Bhasha) are nearly always employed by Hindus. Urdu, on the other hand, +having had a natural growth, has a vigorous poetical literature. Modern +Hindi prose is often disfigured by that too free borrowing of Sanskrit +words instead of using home-born _tadbhavas_, which has been the ruin of +Bengali, and it is rapidly becoming a Hindu counterpart of the +Persianized Urdu, neither of which is intelligible except to persons of +high education. + +Not only has Urdu adopted a Persian vocabulary, but even a few +peculiarities of Persian construction, such as reversing the positions +of the governing and the governed word (e.g. _bap mera_ for _mera bap_), +or of the adjective and the substantive it qualifies, or such as the use +of Persian phrases with the preposition _ba_ instead of the native +postposition of the ablative case (e.g. _ba-khushi_ for _khushi-se_, or +_ba-hukm sarkar-ke_ instead of _sarkar-ke hukm-se_) are to be met with +in many writings; and these, perhaps, combined with the too free +indulgence on the part of some authors in the use of high-flown and +pedantic Persian and Arabic words in place of common and yet chaste +Indian words, and the general use of the Persian instead of the Nagari +character, have induced some to regard Hindostani or Urdu as a language +distinct from Hindi. But such a view betrays a radical misunderstanding +of the whole question. We must define Urdu as the Persianized Hindostani +of educated Mussulmans, while Hindi is the Sanskritized Hindostani of +educated Hindus. As for the written character, Urdu, from the number of +Persian words which it contains, can only be written conveniently in the +Persian character, while Hindi, for a parallel reason, can only be +written in the Nagari or one of its related alphabets (see SANSKRIT). On +the other hand, "Hindostani" implies the great _lingua franca_ of India, +capable of being written in either character, and, without purism, +avoiding the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when +employed for literature. It is easy to write this Hindostani, for it has +an opulent vocabulary of _tadbhava_ words understood everywhere by both +Mussulmans and Hindus. While "Hindostani," "Urdu" and "Hindi" are thus +names of dialects, it should be remembered that the terms "Western +Hindi" and "Eastern Hindi" connote, not dialects, but languages. + +The epoch of Akbar, which first saw a regular revenue system +established, with toleration and the free use of their religion to the +Hindus, was, there can be little doubt, the period of the formation of +the language. But its final consolidation did not take place till the +reign of Shah Jahan. After the date of this monarch the changes are +comparatively immaterial until we come to the time when European sources +began to mingle with those of the East. Of the contributions from these +sources there is little to say. Like the greater part of those from +Arabic and Persian, they are chiefly nouns, and may be regarded rather +as excrescences which have sprung up casually and have attached +themselves to the original trunk than as ingredients duly incorporated +in the body. In the case of the Persian and Arabic element, indeed, we +do find not a few instances in which nouns have been furnished with a +Hindi termination, e.g. _kharidna_, _badalna_, _guzarna_, _daghna_, +_bakhshnaa_, _kaminapan_, &c.; but the European element cannot be said +to have at all woven itself into the grammar of the language. It +consists, as has been observed, solely of nouns, principally substantive +nouns, which on their admission into the language are spelt +phonetically, or according to the corrupt pronunciation they receive in +the mouths of the natives, and are declined like the indigenous nouns by +means of the usual postpositions or case-affixes. A few examples will +suffice. The Portuguese, the first in order of seniority, contributes a +few words, as _kamara_ or _kamra_ (_camera_), a room; _martol_ +(_martello_), a hammer; _nilam_ (_leilao_), an auction, &c. &c. Of +French and Dutch influence scarcely a trace exists. English has +contributed a number of words, some of which have even found a place in +the literature of the language; e.g. _kamishanar_ (commissioner); _jaj_ +(judge); _daktar_ (doctor); _daktari_, "the science of medicine" or "the +profession of physicians"; _inspektar_ (inspector); _istant_ +(assistant); _sosayati_ (society); _apil_ (appeal); _apil karna_, "to +appeal"; _dikri_ or _digri_ (decree); _digri_ (degree); _inc_ (inch); +_fut_ (foot); and many more, are now words commonly used. Some borrowed +words are distorted into the shape of genuine Hindostani words familiar +to the speakers; e.g. the English railway term "signal" has become +_sikandar_, the native name for Alexander the Great, and "signal-man" is +_sikandar-man_, or "the pride of Alexander." How far the free use of +Anglicisms will be adopted as the language progresses is a question upon +which it would be hazardous to pronounce an opinion, but of late years +it has greatly increased in the language of the educated, especially in +the case of technical terms. A native veterinary surgeon once said to +the present writer, "_kutte-ka saliva bahut antiseptic hai_" for "a +dog's saliva is very antiseptic," and this is not an extravagant +example.[3] + +The vocabulary of Panjabi and Eastern Hindi is very similar to that of +Western Hindi. Panjabi has no literature to speak of and is free from +the burden of words borrowed from Persian or Sanskrit, only the +commonest and simplest of such being found in it. Its vocabulary is thus +almost entirely _tadbhava_, and, while capable of expressing all ideas, +it has a charming rustic flavour, like the Lowland Scotch of Burns, +indicative of the national character of the sturdy peasantry that +employs it. Eastern Hindi is very like Panjabi in this respect, but for +a different reason. In it were written the works of Tulsi Das, one of +the greatest writers that India has produced, and his influence on the +language has been as great as that of Shakespeare on English. The +peasantry are continually quoting him without knowing it, and his style, +simple and yet vigorous, thoroughly Indian and yet free from purism, has +set a model which is everywhere followed except in the large towns where +Urdu or Sanskritized Hindi prevails. Eastern Hindi is written in the +Nagari alphabet, or in the current character related to it called +"Kaithi" (see BIHARI). The indigenous alphabet of the Punjab is called +_Landa_ or "clipped." It is related to Nagari, but is hardly legible to +any one except the original writer, and sometimes not even to him. To +remedy this defect an improved form of the alphabet was devised in the +16th century by Angad, the fifth Sikh Guru, for the purpose of recording +the Sikh scriptures. It was named _Gurmukhi_, "proceeding from the mouth +of the Guru," and is now generally used for writing the language. + + _Grammar._--In the following account we use these contractions: Skr. = + Sanskrit; Pr. = Prakrit; Ap. = Apabhramsa; W.H. = Western Hindi; E.H. + = Eastern Hindi; H. = Hindostani; Br. = Braj Bhasha; P. = Panjabi. + + (A) _Phonetics._--The phonetic system of all three languages is nearly + the same as that of the Apabhramsas from which they are derived. With + a few exceptions, to be noted below, the letters of the alphabets of + the three languages are the same as in Sanskrit. Panjabi, and the + western dialects of Western Hindi, have preserved the old Vedic + cerebral l. There is a tendency for concurrent vowels to run into each + other, and for the semi-vowels y and v to become vowels. Thus, Skr. + _carmakaras_, Ap. _cammaaru_, a leather-worker, becomes H. _camar_; + Skr. _rajani_, Ap. _ra(y)ani_, H. _rain_, night; Skr. _dhavalakas_, + Ap. _dhavalau_, H. _dhaula_, white. Sometimes the semi-vowel is + retained, as in Skr. _kataras_, Ap. _ka(y)aru_, H. _kayar_, a coward. + Almost the only compound consonants which survived in the Pr. stage + were double letters, and in W.H. and E.H. these are usually + simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened and sometimes + nasalized, in compensation. P., on the other hand, prefers to retain + the double consonant. Thus, Skr. _karma_, Ap. _kammu_, W.H. and E.H. + _kam_, but P. _kamm_, a work; Skr. _satyas_, Ap. _saccu_, W.H. and + E.H. _sac_, but P. _sacc_, true (H., being the W.H. dialect which lies + nearest to P., often follows that language, and in this instance has + _sacc_, usually written _sac_); Skr. _hastas_, Ap. _hatthu_, W.H. and + E.H. _hath_, but P. _hatth_, a hand. The nasalization of vowels is + very frequent in all three languages, and is here represented by the + sign ~ over the vowel. Sometimes it is compensatory, as in _sac_, but + it often represents an original _m_, as in _kawal_ from Skr. + _kamalas_, a lotus. Final short vowels quiesce in prose pronunciation, + and are usually not written in transliteration; thus the final _a_, + _i_ or _u_ has been lost in all the examples given above, and other + _tatsama_ examples are Skr. _mati_-which becomes _mat_, mind, and Skr. + _vastu_-, which becomes _bast_, a thing. In all poetry, however + (except in the Urdu poetry formed on Persian models, and under the + rules of Persian prosody), they reappear and are necessary for the + scansion. + + In _tadbhava_ words an original long vowel in any syllable earlier + than the penultimate is shortened. In P. and H. when the long vowel is + _e_ or _o_ it is shortened to _i_ or _u_ respectively, but in other + W.H. dialects and in E.H. it is shortened to _e_ or _o_; thus, _beti_, + daughter, long form H. _bitiya_, E.H. _betiya_; _ghori_, mare, long + form H. _ghuriya_, E.H. _ghoriya_. The short vowels _e_ and _o_ are + very rare in P. and H., but are not uncommon (though ignored by most + grammars) in E.H. and the other W.H. dialects. A medial _d_ is + pronounced as a strongly burred cerebral _r_, and is then written as + shown, with a supposited dot. All these changes and various + contractions of Prakrit syllables have caused considerable variations + in the forms of words, but generally not so as to obscure the origin. + + (B) _Declension._--The nominative form of a _tadbhava_ word is derived + from the nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but _tatsama_ words + are usually borrowed in the form of the Skr. crude base; thus, Skr. + _hastin_-, nom. _hasti_, Ap. nom. _hatthi_, H. _hathi_, an elephant; + Skr. base _mati_-, nom. _matis_, H. (_tatsama_) _mati_, or, with + elision of the final short vowel, _mat_. Some _tatsamas_ are, however, + borrowed in the nominative form, as in Skr. _dhanin_-, nom. _dhani_, + H. _dhani_, a rich man. As another example of a _tadbhava_ word, we + may take the Skr. nom. _ghotas_, Ap. _ghodu_, H. _ghor_, a horse. Here + again the final short vowel has been elided, but in old poetry we + should find _ghoru_, and corresponding forms in u are occasionally met + with at the present day. + + In the article PRAKRIT attention is drawn to the frequent use of + pleonastic suffixes, especially -_ka_- (fem.-(i)_ka_). With such a + suffix we have the Skr. _ghota-kas_, Ap. _ghoda-u_, Western Hindi + _ghorau_, or in P. and H. (which is the W.H. dialect nearest in + locality to P.) _ghora_, a horse; Skr. _ghoti-ka_, Ap. _ghodi-a_, W.H. + and P. _ghodi_, a mare. Such modern forms made with one pleonastic + suffix are called "strong forms," while those made without it are + called "weak forms." All strong forms end in _au_ (or _a_) in the + masculine, and in _i_ in the feminine, whereas, in Skr., and hence in + _tatsamas_, both _a_ and _i_ are generally typical of feminine words, + though sometimes employed for the masculine. It is shown in the + article PRAKRIT that these pleonastic suffixes can be doubled, or even + trebled, and in this way we have a new series of _tadbhava_ forms. Let + us take the imaginary Skr. *_ghota-ka-kas_ with a double suffix. From + this we have the Ap. _ghoda-a-u_, and modern _ghorawa_ (with euphonic + _w_ inserted), a horse. Similarly for the feminine we have Skr. + *_ghoti-ka-ka_, Ap. _ghodi-a-a_, modern _ghoriya_ (with euphonic _y_ + inserted), a mare. Such forms, made with two suffixes, are called + "long forms," and are heard in familiar conversation, the feminine + also serving as diminutives. There is a further stage, built upon + three suffixes, and called the "redundant form," which is mainly used + by the vulgar. As a rule masculine long forms end in -_awa_, -_iya_ or + -_ua_, and feminines in -_iya_, although the matter is complicated by + the occasional use of pleonastic suffixes other than the -_ka_- which + we have taken for our example, and is the most common. Strong forms + are rarely met with in E.H., but on the other hand long forms are more + common in that language. + + There are a few feminine terminations of weak nouns which may be + noted. These are -_ini_, -_in_, -_an_, -_ni_ (Skr. -_ini_, Pr. + _-ini_); and -_ani_, -_ani_, -_ain_ (Skr. -_ani_, Pr. -_ani_). These + are found not only in words derived from Prakrit, but are added to + Persian and even Arabic words; thus, _hathini_, _hathni_, _hathin_ + (Skr. _hastini_, Pr. _hatthini_), a she-elephant; _sunarin_, + _sunaran_, a female goldsmith (_sonar_); _sherni_, a tigress (Persian + _sher_, a tiger); _Nasiban_, a proper name (Arabic _nasib_); + _panditani_, the wife of a _pandit_; _caudhrain_, the wife of a + _caudhri_ or head man; _mehtrani_, the wife of a sweeper (Pres. + _mehtar_, a sweeper). With these exceptions weak forms rarely have any + terminations distinctive of gender.[4] + + The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has disappeared. We + see it in the actual stage of disappearance in Apabhramsa (see + PRAKRIT), in which the case terminations had become worn down to + -_hu_, -_ho_, -_hi_, -_hi_ and -_ha_, of which -_hi_ and -_hi_ were + employed for several cases, both singular and plural. There was also a + marked tendency for these terminations to be confused, and in the + earliest stages of the modern vernaculars we find -_hi_ freely + employed for any oblique case of the singular, and -_hi_ for any + oblique case of the plural, but more especially for the genitive and + the locative. In the case of modern weak nouns these terminations have + disappeared altogether in W.H. and P. except in sporadic forms of the + locative such as _gawe_ (for _gawahi_), in the village. In E.H. they + are still heard as the termination of a form which can stand for any + oblique case, and is called the "oblique form" or the "oblique case." + Thus, from _ghar_, a house (a weak noun), we have W.H. and P. oblique + form _ghar_, E.H. _gharahi_, _ghare_ or _ghar_. In the plural, the + oblique form is sometimes founded on the Ap. terminations -_ha_ and + -_hu_, and sometimes on the Skr. termination of the genitive plural + -_anam_ (Pr. -_ana_, -_anham_), as in P. _ghara_, W.H. _gharau_, + _gharo_, _gharani_, E.H. _gharan_. In the case of masculine weak + forms, the plural nominative has dropped the old termination, except + in E.H., where it has adopted the oblique plural form for this case + also, thus _gharan_. The nominative plural of feminine weak forms + follows the example of the masculine in E.H. In P. it also takes the + oblique plural form, while in W.H. it takes the old singular oblique + form in -_ahi_, which it weakens to _ai_ or (H.) _e_; thus _bat_ + (fem.), a word, nom. plur. E.H. _bat-an_, P. _bat-a_, W.H. _batai_ or + (H.) _bate_. + + Strong masculine bases in Ap. ended in -_a-a_ (nom. -_a-u_); thus + _ghoda-a_- (nom. _ghoda-u_), and adding -_hi_ we get _ghoda-a-hi_, + which becomes contracted _ghodahi_ and finally to _ghore_. The + nominative plural is the same as the oblique singular, except in E.H. + where it follows the oblique plural. The oblique plural of all closely + follows in principle the weak forms. Feminine strong forms in Ap. + ended in -_i-a_, contracted to _i_ in the modern languages. Except in + E.H. the -_hi_ of the original oblique form singular disappears, so + that we have E.H. _ghorihi_ or _ghori_, others only _ghori_. The + nominative plural of feminine strong forms exhibits some + irregularities. In E.H., as usual, it follows the plural oblique + forms. In W.H. (except Hindostani) it simply nasalizes the oblique + form singular (i.e. adds -_hi_ instead of -_hi_), as in _ghori_, but + first on line looks like -hi]. P. and H. adopt the oblique long form + for the plural and nasalize it, thus, P. _ghoria_, H. _ghoriya_. The + oblique plurals call for no further remarks. We thus get the following + summary, illustrating the way in which these nominative and oblique + forms are made. + + +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+ + | | Panjabi. | Hindostani.| Braj Bhasha. | Eastern Hindi.| + +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+ + |Weak Noun Masc.-- | | | | | + | Nom. Sing. | ghar | ghar | ghar | ghar | + | Obl. Sing. | ghar | ghar | ghar | ghar, gharahi | + | Nom. Plur. | ghar | ghar | ghar | gharan | + | Obl. Plur. | ghara | gharo | gharau, gharani | gharan | + |Strong Noun Masc.--| | | | | + | Nom. Sing. | ghora | ghora | ghorau | ghora | + | Obl. Sing. | ghore | ghore | ghore, ghorai | ghora, ghore | + | Nom. Plur. | ghore | ghore | ghore | ghoran | + | Obl. Plur. | ghoria | ghoro | ghorau, ghorani | ghoran | + |Weak Noun Fem.-- | | | | | + | Nom. Sing. | bat | bat | bat | bat | + | Obl. Sing. | bat | bat | bat | bat | + | Nom. Plur. | bata | bate | batai | batan | + | Obl. Plur. | bata | bato | batau, batani | batan | + |Strong Noun Fem.-- | | | | | + | Nom. Sing. | ghori | ghori | ghori | ghori | + | Obl. Sing. | ghori | ghori | ghori | ghori, ghorihi| + | Nom. Plur. | ghoria | ghoriya | ghori | ghorin | + | Obl. Plur. | ghoria | ghoriyo | ghoriyau, ghoriyani| ghorin | + +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+ + + We have seen that the oblique form is the resultant of a general + melting down of all the oblique cases of Sanskrit and Prakrit, and + that in consequence it can be used for any oblique case. It is obvious + that if it were so employed it would often give rise to great + confusion. Hence, when it is necessary to show clearly what particular + case is intended, it is usual to add defining particles corresponding + to the English prepositions "of," "to," "from," "by," &c., which, as + in all Indo-Aryan languages they follow the main word, are here called + "postpositions." The following are the postpositions commonly employed + to form cases in our three languages:-- + + +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+ + | | Agent.| Genitive.| Dative.| Ablative.| Locative. | + +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+ + | Panjabi | nai | da | nu | te | vicc | + | Hindostani | ne | ka | ko | se | me | + | Braj Bhasha | ne | kau | kau | te, sau | mai | + | Eastern Hindi| None | ker, k | ka | se | me, bikhe | + +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+ + + The agent case is the case which a noun takes when it is the subject + of a transitive verb in a tense formed from the past participle. This + participle is passive in origin, and must be construed passively. In + the Prakrit stage the subject was in such cases put into the + instrumental case (see PRAKRIT), as in the phrase _aham tena mario_, I + by-him (was) struck, i.e. he struck me. In Eastern Hindi this is still + the case, the old instrumental being represented by the oblique form + without any suffix. The other two languages define the fact that the + subject is in the instrumental (or agent) case by the addition of the + postposition _ne_, &c., an old form employed elsewhere to define the + dative. It is really the oblique form (by origin a locative) of _na_ + or _no_, which is employed in Gujarati (q.v.) for the genitive. As + this suffix is never employed to indicate a material instrument but + here only to indicate the agent or subject of a verb, it is called the + postposition of the "agent" case. + + The genitive postpositions have an interesting origin. In Buddhist + Sanskrit the words _krtas_, done, and _krtyas_, to be done, were added + to a noun to form a kind of genitive. A synonym of _krtyas_ was + _karyas_. These three words were all adjectives, and agreed with the + thing possessed in gender, number, and case; thus, _mala-krte_ + _karande_, in the basket of the garland, literally, in the + garland-made basket. In the various dialects of Apabhramsa Prakrit + _krtas_ became (strong form) _kida-u_ or _kia-u_, _krtyas_ became + _kicca-u_, and _karyas_ became _kera-u_ or _kajja-u_, the initial _k_ + of which is liable to elision after a vowel. With the exception of + Gujarati (and perhaps Marathi, q.v.) every Indo-Aryan language has + genitive postpositions derived from one or other of these forms. Thus + from _(ki)da-u_ we have Panjabi _da_; from _kia-u_ we have H. _ka_, + Br. kau, E.H. and Bihari _k_ and Naipali _ko_; from _(ki)cca-u_ we + have perhaps Marathi _ca_; from _kera-u_, E.H. and Bihari _ker_, + _kar_, Bengali Oriya and Assamese -_r_, and Rajasthani -_ro_; while + from _(ka)jja-u_ we have the Sindhi _jo_. It will be observed that + while _k_, _ker_, _kar_, and _r_ are weak forms, the rest are strong. + As already stated, the genitive is an adjective. _Bap_ means "father," + and _bap-ka ghora_ is literally "the paternal horse." Hence (while + the weak forms as usual do not change) these genitives agree with the + thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Thus, _bap-ka ghora_, the + horse of the father, but _bap-ki ghori_, the mare of the father, and + _bap-ke ghore-ko_, to the horse of the father, the _ka_ being put into + the oblique case masculine _ke_, to agree with _ghore_, which is + itself in an oblique case. The details of the agreement vary slightly + in P. and W.H., and must be learnt from the grammars. The E.H. weak + forms do not change in the modern language. Finally, in Prakrit it was + customary to add these postpositions (_kera-u_, &c.) to the genitive, + as in _mama_ or _mama kera-u_, of me. Similarly these postpositions + are, in the modern languages, added to the oblique form. + + The locative of the Sanskrit _krtas_, _krte_, was used in that + language as a dative postposition, and it can be shown that all the + dative postpositions given above are by origin old oblique forms of + some genitive postposition. Thus H. _ko_, Br. _kau_, is a contraction + of _kahu_, an old oblique form of _kia-u_. Similarly for the others. + The origin of the ablative postpositions is obscure. To the present + writer they all seem (like the Bengal _haite_) to be connected with + the verb substantive, but their derivation has not been definitely + fixed. The locative postpositions _me_ and _mai_ are derived from the + Skr. _madhye_, in, through _majjhi_, _mahi_, and so on. The derivation + of _vicc_ and _bikhe_ is obscure. + + +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+ + | | Apabhramsa.| Panjabi.| Hindostani.| Braj | Eastern | + | | | | | Bhasha.| Hindi. | + +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+ + | I, Nom. | hau | mai | mai | hau | mai | + | Obl. | mai, mahu, | mai | mujh | mohi | mo | + | | majjhu | | | | | + | WE, Nom. | amhe | asi | ham | ham | ham | + | Obl. | amaha | asa | hamo | hamau, | ham | + | | | | | hamani| | + | THOU, Nom. | tuhu | tu | tu | tu | tai | + | Obl. | tai, tuha, | tai | tujh | tohi | to | + | | tujjhu | | | | | + | YOU, Nom. | tumhe | tusi | tum | tum | tum | + | Obl. | tumhaha | tusa | tumho | tumhau | tum | + +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+ + + The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. This will be + evident from the preceding table of the first two personal pronouns + compared with Apabhramsa. + + It will be observed that in most of the nominatives of the first + person, and in the E.H. nominative of the second person, the old + nominative has disappeared, and its place has been supplied by an + oblique form, exactly as we have observed in the nominative plural of + nouns substantive. The P. _asi_, _tusi_, &c., are survivals from the + old Lahnda (see _Linguistic Boundaries_, above). The genitives of + these two pronouns are rarely used, possessive pronouns (in H. _mera_, + my; _hamara_, our; _tera_, thy; _tumhara_, your) being employed + instead. They can all (except P. _asada_, our; _tusada_, your, which + are Lahnda) be referred to corresponding Ap. forms. + + There is no pronoun of the third person, the demonstrative pronouns + being used instead. The following table shows the principal remaining + pronominal forms, with their derivation from Ap.:-- + + +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+ + | | Apabhramsa. | Panjabi. | Hindostani.| Braj | Eastern | + | | | | | Bhasha.| Hindi. | + +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+ + | THAT, HE, Nom. | ? | uh | woh | wo | u | + | Obl. | ? | uh | us | wa | o | + | THOSE, THEY, Nom. | oi | oh | we | wai | unh | + | Obl. | ? | unha | unh | uni | unh | + | THIS, HE, Nom. | ehu | ih | yeh | yah | i | + | Obl. | ehasu, ehaho| ih | is | ya | e | + | THESE, THEY, Nom. | ei | eh | ye | yai | inh | + | Obl. | ehana | inha | inh | ini | inh | + | THAT, Nom. | so | so | so | so | se | + | Obl. | tasu, taho | tih | tis | ta | te | + | THOSE, Nom. | se | so | so | so | se | + | Obl. | tana | tinha | tinh | tini | tenh | + | WHO, Nom. | jo | jo | jo | jo | je | + | Obl. | jasu, jaho | jih | jis | ja | je | + | WHO (pl.), Nom. | je | jo | jo | jo | je | + | Obl. | jana | jinha | jinh | jini | jenh | + | WHO? Nom. | ko, kawanu | kaun | kaun | ko | ke | + | Obl. | kasu, kaho | kih | kis | ka | ke | + | WHO? (pl.), Nom. | ke | kaun | kaun | ko | ke | + | Obl. | kana | kinha | kinh | kini | kenh | + | WHAT?(Neut.), Nom. | kim | kia | kya | kaha | ka | + | Obl. | kaha, kasu | kah, kas| kahe | kahe | kahe | + +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+ + + The origin of the first pronoun given above (that, he; those, they) + cannot be referred to Sanskrit. It is derived from an Indo-Aryan base + which was not admitted to the classical literary language, but of + which we find sporadic traces in Apabhramsa. The existence of this + base is further vouched for by its occurrence in the Iranian language + of the Avesta under the form _ava-_. The base of the second pronoun is + the same as the base of the first syllable in the Skr. _e-sas_, this, + and other connected pronouns, and also occurs in the Avesta. Ap. _ehu_ + is directly derived from _e-sas_. + + There are other pronominal forms upon which, except perhaps _koi_ (Pr. + _ko-vi_, Skr. _ko-'pi_), any one, it is unnecessary to dwell. The + phrase _koi hai_? "Is any one (there)?" is the usual formula for + calling a servant in upper India, and is the origin of the + Anglo-Indian word "Qui-hi." The reflexive pronoun is _ap_ (Ap. _appu_, + Skr. _atma_), self, which, something like the Latin _suus_ (Skr. + _svas_), always refers to the subject of the sentence, but to all + persons, not only to the third. Thus _mai apne_ (not _mere_) _bap-ko + dekhta-hu_, "I see my father." + + C. _Conjugation_.--The synthetic conjugation was already commencing to + disappear in Prakrit, and in the modern languages the only original + tenses which remain are the present, the imperative, and here and + there the future. The first is now generally employed as a present + subjunctive. In the accompanying table we have the conjugation of this + tense, and also the three participles, present active, and past and + future passive, compared with Apabhramsa, the verb selected being the + intransitive root _call_ or _cal_, go. In Ap. the word may be spelt + with one or with two _ls_, which accounts for the variations of + spelling in the modern languages. + + The imperative closely resembles the old present, except that it drops + all terminations in the 2nd person singular; thus, _cal_, go thou. + + In P. and H. a future is formed by adding the syllable _ga_ (fem. + _gi_) to the simple present. Thus, H. _calu-ga_, I shall go. The _ga_ + is commonly said to be derived from the Skr. _gatas_ (Pr. _gao_), + gone, but this suggestion is not altogether acceptable to the present + writer, although he is not now able to propose a better. Under the + form of _-gau_ the same termination is used in Br., but in that + dialect the old future has also survived, as in _calihau_ (Ap. + _calihau_, Skr. _calisyami_), I shall go, which is conjugated like the + simple present. The E.H. formation of the future is closely analogous + to what we find in Bihari (q.v.). The third person is formed as in + Braj Bhasha, but the first and second persons are formed by adding + pronominal suffixes, meaning "by me," "by thee," &c., to the future + passive participle. + + +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+ + | | Apabhramsa.| Panjabi.| Hindostani.| Braj | Eastern | + | | | | | Bjasja.| Hindi. | + +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+ + | Old Present-- | | | | | | + | Singular 1. | callau | calla | calu | calau | calau | + | " 2. | callasi, | calle | cale | calai | calas | + | | callahi | | | | | + | " 3. | callai | calle | cale | calai | calai | + | Plural 1. | callahu | calliye | cale | calai | calai | + | " 2. | callahu | callo | calo | calau | calau | + | " 3. | callanti, | callan | cale | calai | calai | + | | callahi | | | | | + | Present Participle | callanta-u | callda | calta | calatu | calat | + | Past Part. Passive | callia-u | callia | cala | calyau | cala | + | Future Part. Passive| callania-u | callna | calna | calnau | | + | | calliavva-u| .. | .. | caliwau| calab | + +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+ + + Thus, _calab-u_, it-is-to-be-gone by-me, I shall go. We thus get the + following forms. It will be observed that, as in many other Indo-Aryan + languages, the first person plural has no suffix:-- + + Sing. Plur. + 1. alabu calab + 2. calabe calabo + 3. calihai calihai + + In old E.H. the future participle passive, _calab_, takes no suffix + for any person, and is used for all persons. + + The last remark leads us to a class of tenses in P. and W.H., in which + a participle, by itself, can be employed for any person of a finite + tense. A few examples of the use of the present and past participles + will show the construction. They are all taken from Hindostani. _Woh + calta_, he goes; _woh calti_, she goes; _mai cala_, I went; _woh + cali_, she went; _we cale_, they went. The present participle in this + construction, though it may be used to signify the present, is more + commonly employed to signify a past conditional "(if) he had gone." It + will have been observed that in the above examples, in all of which + the verb is intransitive, the past as well as the present participle + agrees with the subject in gender and number; but, if the verb be + transitive, the passive meaning of the past participle comes into + force. The subject must be put into the case of the agent, and the + participle inflects to agree with the object. If the object be not + expressed, or, as sometimes happens, be expressed in the dative case, + the participle is construed impersonally, and takes the masculine (for + want of a neuter) form. Thus, _mai-ne kaha_, by-me it-was-said, i.e. I + said; _us-ne citthi likhi_, by-him a-letter (fem.) was-written, he + wrote a letter; _raja-ne sherni-ko mara_, the king killed the tigress, + lit., by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, it (impersonal) + -was-killed. In the article PRAKRIT it is shown that the same + construction is obtained in that language. + + In E.H. the construction is the same, but is obscured by the fact that + (as in the future) pronominal suffixes are added to the participle to + indicate the person of the subject or of the agent, as in _calat-eu_, + (if) I had gone; _cal-eu_, I went; _mar-eu_ (transitive), I struck, + lit., struck-by-me; _mar-es_, struck-by-him, he struck. If the + participle has to be feminine, it (although a weak form) takes the + feminine termination _i_, as in _mari-u_, I struck her; _calati-u_, + (if) I (fem.) had gone; _cali-u_, I (fem.) went. + + Further tenses are formed by adding the verb substantive to these + participles, as in H. _mai calta-hu_, I am going; _mai calta-tha_, I + was going; _mai cala-hu_, I have gone; _mai cala-tha_, I had gone. + These and other auxiliary verbs need not detain us long. They differ + in the various languages. For "I am" we have P. _ha_, H. _hu_, Br. + _hau_, E.H. _batyeu_ or _aheu_. For "I was" we have P. _si_ or _sa_, + H. _tha_, Br. _hau_ or _hutau_, E.H. _raheu_. The H. _hu_ is thus + conjugated:-- + + Sing. Plur. + 1. hu hai + 2. hai ho + 3. hai hai + + The derivation of _ha_, _hu_, _hau_, and _aheu_ is uncertain. They are + usually derived from the Skr. _asmi_, I am; but this presents many + difficulties. An old form of the third person singular is _hwai_, and + this points to the Pr. _havai_, he is, equivalent to the Skr. + _bhavati_, he becomes. On the other hand this does not account for the + initial _a_ of _aheu_. This last word is in the _form_ of a past + tense, and it may be a secondary formation from _asmi_. The P. _si_ is + not a feminine of _sa_, as usually stated, but is a survival of the + Skr. _asit_, Pr. _asi_, was. As in the Prakrit form, _si_ is employed + for both genders, both numbers and all persons. _Sa_ is a secondary + formation from this, on the analogy of the H. _tha_, which is from the + Skr. _sthitas_, Pr. _thio_, stood, and is a participial form like + _cal_a; thus, _woh tha_, he was; _woh thi_, she was. The Br. _hau_ is + a modern past of _hau_, while _hutau_ is probably by origin a present + participle of the Skr. _bhu_, become, Pr. _huntao_. The E.H. _bateu_, + is the Skr. _varte_, Ap. _vattau_. _Raheu_ is the past tense of the + root _rah_, remain. + + The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an + infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. _calna_, E.H. _calab_, the act of + going, to go. There is a whole series of derivative verbal forms, + making potential passives and transitives from intransitives, and + causals (and even double causals) from transitives. Thus _dikhna_, to + be seen; potential passive, _dikhana_, to be visible; transitive, + _dekhna_, to see; causal, _dikhlana_, to show. + + D. _Literature._--The literatures of Western and Eastern Hindi form + the subject of a separate article (see HINDOSTANI LITERATURE). Panjabi + has no formal literature. Even the _Granth_, the sacred book of the + Sikhs, is mainly in archaic Western Hindi, only a small portion being + in Panjabi. On the other hand, the language is peculiarly rich in + folksongs and ballads, some of considerable length and great poetic + beauty. The most famous is the ballad of _Hir_ and _Ranjha_ by Waris + Shah, which is considered to be a model of pure Panjabi. Colonel Sir + Richard Temple has published an important collection of these songs + under the title of _The Legends of the Punjab_ (3 vols., Bombay and + London, 1884-1900), in which both texts and translations of nearly all + the favourite ones are to be found. + + AUTHORITIES.--(a) General: The two standard authorities are the + comparative grammars of J. Beames (1872-1879) and A. F. R. Hoernle + (1880), mentioned in the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. To these may be + added G. A. Grierson, "On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the + Modern Indo-Aryan Languages" in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of + Bengal_, vol. lxiv. (1895), part i. pp. 352 et seq.; and "On Certain + Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars" in the _Zeitschrift fur + vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen + Sprachen_ for 1903, pp. 473 et seq. + + (b) For the separate languages, see C. J. Lyall, _A Sketch of the + Hindustani Language_ (Edinburgh, 1880); S. H. Kellogg, _A Grammar of + the Hindi Language_ (for both Western and Eastern Hindi), (2nd ed., + London, 1893); J. T. Platts, _A Grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu + Language_ (London, 1874); and _A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi + and English_ (London, 1884); E. P. Newton, _Panjabi Grammar: with + Exercises and Vocabulary_ (Ludhiana, 1898); and Bhai Maya Singh, _The + Panjabi Dictionary_ (Lahore, 1895). _The Linguistic Survey of India_, + vol. vi., describes Eastern Hindi, and vol. ix., Hindostani and + Panjabi, in each instance in great detail. (G. A. Gr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Hindostan" is a Persian word, and in modern Persian is + pronounced "Hindustan." It means the country of the Hindus. In + medieval Persian the word was "Hindostan," with an _o_, but in the + modern language the distinctions between _e_ and _i_ and between _o_ + and _u_ have been lost. Indian languages have borrowed Persian words + in their medieval form. Thus in India we have _sher_, a tiger, as + compared with modern Persian _shir_; _go_, but modern Pers. _gu_; + _bostan_, but modern Pers. _bustan_. The word "Hindu" is in medieval + Persian "Hindo" representing the ancient Avesta _hendava_ (Sanskrit, + _saindhava_), a dweller on the _Sindhu_ or Indus. Owing to the + influence of scholars in modern Persian the word "Hindu" is now + established in English and, through English, in the Indian literary + languages; but "Hindo" is also often heard in India. "Hindostan" with + _o_ is much more common both in English and in Indian languages, + although "Hindustan" is also employed. Up to the days of Persian + supremacy inaugurated in Calcutta by Gilchrist and his friends, every + traveller in India spoke of "Indostan" or some such word, thus + bearing testimony to the current pronunciation. Gilchrist introduced + "Hindoostan," which became "Hindustan" in modern spelling. The word + is not an Indian one, and both pronunciations, with _o_ and with _u_, + are current in India at the present day, but that with _o_ is + unquestionably the one demanded by the history of the word and of the + form which other Persian words take on Indian soil. On the other hand + "Hindu" is too firmly established in English for us to suggest the + spelling "Hindo.". The word "Hindi" has another derivation, being + formed from the Persian _Hind_, India (Avesta _hindu_, Sanskrit + _sindhu_, the Indus). "Hindi" means "of or belonging to India," while + "Hindu" now means "a person of the Hindu religion." (Cf. Sir C. J. + Lyall, _A Sketch of the Hindustani Language_, p. 1). + + [2] Sir C. J. Lyall, _op. cit._ p. 9. + + [3] This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Mr + Platts's article in vol. xi. of the 9th edition of this + encyclopaedia. + + [4] In some dialects of W.H. weak forms have masculines ending in u + and corresponding feminines in _i_, but these are nowadays rarely met + in the literary forms of speech. In old poetry they are common. In + Braj Bhasha they have survived in the present participle. + + + + +HINDOSTANI LITERATURE. The writings dealt with in this article are those +composed in the vernacular of that part of India which is properly +called Hindostan,--that is, the valleys of the Jumna and Ganges rivers +as far east as the river Kos, and the tract to the south including +Rajputana, Central India (Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand), the Narmada +(Nerbudda) valley as far west as Khandwa, and the northern half of the +Central Provinces. It does not include the Punjab proper (though the +town population there speak Hindostani), nor does it extend to Lower +Bengal. + +In this region several different dialects prevail. The people of the +towns everywhere use chiefly the form of the language called _Urdu_ or +_Rekhta_,[1] stocked with Persian words and phrases, and ordinarily +written in a modification of the Persian character. The country folk +(who form the immense majority) speak different varieties of _Hindi_, of +which the word-stock derives from the Prakrits and literary Sanskrit, +and which are written in the Devanagari or Kaithi character. Of these +the most important from a literary point of view, proceeding from west +to east, are _Marwari_ and _Jaipuri_ (the languages of Rajputana), +_Brajbhasha_ (the language of the country about Mathura and Agra), +_Kanauji_ (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna Doab and western +Rohilkhand), _Eastern Hindi_, also called _Awadhi_ and _Baiswari_ (the +language of Eastern Rohilkhand, Oudh and the Benares division of the +United Provinces) and _Bihari_ (the language of Bihar or Mithila, +comprising several distinct dialects). What is called _High Hindi_ is a +modern development, for literary purposes, of the dialect of Western +Hindi spoken in the neighbourhood of Delhi and thence northwards to the +Himalaya, which has formed the vernacular basis of Urdu; the Persian +words in the latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of +Sanskritic origin, and the order of words in the sentence which is +proper to the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in +Urdu, which under the influence of Persian constructions has admitted +many inversions. + +As in many other countries, nearly all the early vernacular literature +of Hindostan is in verse, and works in prose are a modern growth.[2] +Both Hindi and Urdu are, in their application to literary purposes, at +first intruders upon the ground already occupied by the learned +languages Sanskrit and Persian, the former representing Hindu and the +latter Musalman culture. But there is this difference between them, +that, whereas Hindi has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech +chiefly by impulses of revolt against the monopoly of the Brahmans, Urdu +has been cultivated with goodwill by authors who have themselves highly +valued and dexterously used the polished Persian. Both Sanskrit and +Persian continue to be employed occasionally for composition by Indian +writers, though much fallen from their former estate; but for popular +purposes it may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in +sole possession of the field. + +The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:-- + + 1. Early Hindi, of the period during which the language was being + fashioned as a literary medium out of the ancient Prakrits, + represented by the old heroic poems of Rajputana and the literature of + the early _Bhagats_ or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about + A.D. 1100 to 1550; + + 2. Middle Hindi, representing the best age of Hindi poetry, and + reaching from about 1550 to the end of the 18th century; + + 3. The rise and development of literary Urdu, beginning about the end + of the 16th century, and reaching its height during the 18th; + + 4. The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature in + both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the 19th century. + +1. _Early Hindi._--Our knowledge of the ancient metrical chronicles of +Rajputana is still very imperfect, and is chiefly derived from the +monumental work of Colonel James Tod, called _The Annals and Antiquities +of Rajasthan_ (published in 1829-1832), which is founded on them. It is +in the nature of compositions of this character to be subjected to +perpetual revision and recasting; they are the production of the family +bards of the dynasties whose fortunes they record, and from generation +to generation they are added to, and their language constantly modified +to make it intelligible to the people of the time. Round an original +nucleus of historical fact a rich growth of legend accumulates; later +redactors endeavour to systematize and to assign dates, but the result +is not often such as to inspire confidence; and the mass has more the +character of ballad literature than of serious history. The materials +used by Tod are nearly all still unprinted; his manuscripts are now +deposited in the library of the Royal Asiatic Society in London; and one +of the tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first +be undertaken by the investigator of early Hindi literature is the +examination and sifting, and the publication in their original form, of +these important texts. + +Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by compilers of +accounts of Hindi literature, the earliest author of whom any portion +has as yet been published in the original text is Chand Bardai, the +court bard of Prithwi-Raj, the last Hindu sovereign of Delhi. His poem, +entitled _Prithi-Raj Rasau_ (or _Raysa_), is a vast chronicle in 69 +books or cantos, comprising a general history of the period when he +wrote. Of this a small portion has been printed, partly under the +editorship of the late Mr John Beames and partly under that of Dr Rudolf +Hoernle, by the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult +nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much progress.[3] +Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native of Lahore, which had +for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under Muslim rule when he +flourished, and the language of the poem exhibits a considerable leaven +of Persian words. In its present form the work is a redaction made by +Amar Singh of Mewar, about the beginning of the 17th century, and +therefore more than 400 years after Chand's death, with his patron +Prithwi-Raj, in 1193. There is, therefore, considerable reason to doubt +whether we have in it much of Chand's composition in its original shape; +and the nature of the incidents described enhances this doubt. The +detailed dates contained in the Chronicle have been shown by Kabiraj +Syamal Das[4] to be in every case about ninety years astray. It tells of +repeated conflicts between the hero Prithwi-Raj and Sultan Shihabuddin, +of Ghor (Muhammad Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last +great battle, comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on +payment of a ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our +contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter (that of +Tirauri (Tirawari) near Thenesar, fought in 1191) in which the Sultan +was defeated, and even then he escaped uncaptured to Lahore. The Mongols +(Book XV.) are brought on the stage more than thirty years before they +actually set foot in India, and are related to have been vanquished by +the redoubtable Prithwi-Raj. It is evident that such a record cannot +possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but nevertheless +it appears to contain a considerable element which, from its language, +may belong to Chand's own age, and represents the earliest surviving +document in Hindi. "Though we may not possess the actual text of Chand, +we have certainly in his writings some of the oldest known specimens of +Gaudian literature, abounding in pure Apabhramsa Sauraseni Prakrit +forms" (Grierson). + + It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as + literature. The language, essentially transitional in character, + consists largely of words which have long since died out of the + vernacular speech. Even the most learned Hindus of the present day are + unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses + must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit and + Prakrit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hindi. + Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of + ballad chroniclers in general. There is much that is lively and + spirited in his descriptions of fight or council; and the characters + of the Rajput warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in + their utterances with skill and animation. The sound, however, + frequently predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on + with the wearisome iteration and tedious unfolding of familiar themes + and images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value, + for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary. + +Chand may be taken as the representative of a long line of successors, +continued even to the present day in the Rajput states. Many of their +compositions are still widely popular as ballad literature, but are known +only in oral versions sung in Hindostan by professional singers. One of +the most famous of these is the _Alha-khand_, reputed to be the work of a +contemporary of Chand called Jagnik or Jagnayak, of Mahoba in Bundelkhand, +who sang the praises of Raja-Parmal, a ruler whose wars with Prithwi-Raj +are recorded in the Mahoba-Khand of Chand's work. Alha and Udal, the +heroes of the poem, are famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories +connected with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bihar, as +well as in the Bundelkhandi or western form which is best known. Two +versions of the latter have been printed, having been taken down as +recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists. Another celebrated bard +was Sarangdhar of Rantambhor, who flourished in 1363, and sang the praises +of Hammir Deo (Hamir Deo), the Chauhan chief of Rantambhor who fell in a +heroic struggle against Sultan 'Ala'uddin Khilji in 1300. He wrote the +_Hammir Kavya_ and _Hammir Rasau_, of which an account is given by Tod;[5] +he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which language he compiled, in 1363, +the anthology called _Sarngadhara-Paddhati_. Another work which may be +mentioned (though much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled +_Chhattra-Prakas_, or the history of Raja Chhatarsal, the Bundela raja of +Panna, who was killed, fighting on behalf of Prince Dara-Shukoh, in the +battle of Dholpur won by Aurangzeb in 1658. The author, Lal Kabi, has +given in this work a history of the valiant Bundela nation which was +rendered into English by Captain W. R. Pogson in 1828, and printed at +Calcutta. + +Before passing on to the more important branch of early Hindi +literature, the works of the _Bhagats_, mention may be made here of a +remarkable composition, a poem entitled the _Padmawat_, the materials of +which are derived from the heroic legends of Rajputana, but which is not +the work of a bard nor even of a Hindu. The author, Malik Muhammad of +Ja'is, in Oudh, was a venerated Muslim devotee, to whom the Hindu raja +of Amethi was greatly attached. Malik Muhammad wrote the Padmawat in +1540, the year in which Sher Shah Sur ousted Humayan from the throne of +Delhi. The poem is composed in the purest vernacular Awadhi, with no +admixture of traditional Hindu learning, and is generally to be found +written in the Persian character, though the metres and language are +thoroughly Indian. It professes to tell the tale of Padmawati or +Padmini, a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the +Chauhan raja of Chitor in Mewar. The historical Padmini's husband was +named Bhim Singh, but Malik Muhammad calls him Ratan Sen; and the story +turns upon the attempts of 'Ala'uddin Khilji, the sovereign of Delhi, to +gain possession of her person. The tale of the siege of Chitor in 1303 +by 'Ala'uddin, the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished to +the last man in fight with the Sultan's army, and the self-immolation of +Padmini and the other women, the wives and daughters of the warriors, by +the fiery death called _johar_, will be found related in Tod's +_Rajasthan_, i. 262 sqq. Malik Muhammad takes great liberties with the +history, and explains at the end of the poem that all is an allegory, +and that the personages represent the human soul, Divine wisdom, Satan, +delusion and other mystical characters. + + Both on account of its interest as a true vernacular work, and as the + composition of a Musalman who has taken the incidents of his morality + from the legends of his country and not from an exotic source, the + poem is memorable. It has often been lithographed, and is very + popular; a translation has even been made into Sanskrit. A critical + edition has been prepared by Dr G. A. Grierson and Pandit Sudhakar + Dwivedi. + +The other class of composition which is characteristic of the period of +early Hindi, the literature of the _Bhagats_, or Vaishnava saints, who +propagated the doctrine of _bhakti_, or faith in Vishnu, as the popular +religion of Hindostan, has exercised a much more powerful influence both +upon the national speech and upon the themes chosen for poetic +treatment. It is also, as a body of literature, of high intrinsic +interest for its form and content. Nearly the whole of subsequent +poetical composition in Hindi is impressed with one or other type of +Vaishnava doctrine, which, like Buddhism many centuries before, was +essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the chains of +caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in face of the monopoly which +the "twice-born" asserted of learning, of worship, of righteousness. A +large proportion of the writers were non-Brahmans, and many of them of +the lowest castes. As Siva was the popular deity of the Brahmans, so was +Vishnu of the people; and while the literature of the Saivas and +Saktas[6] is almost entirely in Sanskrit, and exercised little or no +influence on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas +is largely in Hindi, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of what +has been written in that language. + +The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to Ramanuja, a Brahman +who was born about the end of the 11th century, at Perambur in the +neighbourhood of the modern Madras, and spent his life in southern +India. His works, which are in Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on +the Vedanta Sutras, are devoted to establishing "the personal existence +of a Supreme Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love +and pity for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released +soul a home of eternal bliss near him--a home where each soul never +loses its identity, and whose state is one of perfect peace."[7] In the +Deity's infinite love and pity he has on several occasions become +incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and of these incarnations two, +Ramachandra, the prince of Ayodhya, and Krishna, the chief of the Yadava +clan and son of Vasudeva, are pre-eminently those in which it is most +fitting that he should be worshipped. Both of these incarnations had for +many centuries[8] attracted popular veneration, and their histories had +been celebrated by poets in epics and by weavers of religious myths in +_Puranas_ or "old stories"; but it was apparently Ramanuja's teaching +which secured for them, and especially for Ramachandra, their exclusive +place as the objects of _bhakti_--ardent faith and personal devotion +addressed to the Supreme. The adherents of Ramanuja were, however, all +Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of food, bathing and +dress; the new doctrine had not yet penetrated to the people. + +Whether Ramanuja himself gave the preference to Rama against Krishna as +the form of Vishnu most worthy of worship is uncertain. He dealt mainly +with philosophic conceptions of the Divine Nature, and probably busied +himself little with mythological legend. His _mantra_, or formula of +initiation, if Wilson[9] was correctly informed, implies devotion to +Rama; but Vasudeva (Krishna) is also mentioned as a principal object of +adoration, and Ramanuja himself dwelt for several years in Mysore, at a +temple erected by the raja, at Yadavagiri in honour of Krishna in his +form Ranchhor.[10] It is stated that in his worship of Krishna he joined +with that god as his _Sakti_, or Energy, his wife Rukmini; while the +later varieties of Krishna-worship prefer to honour his mistress Radha. +The great difference, in temper and influence upon life, between these +two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development subsequent to +Ramanuja; but by the time of Jaideo (about 1250) it is clear that the +theme of Krishna and Radha, and the use of passionate language drawn +from the relations of the sexes to express the longings of the soul for +God, had become fully established; and from that time onwards the two +types of Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from one +another. + +The cult of Rama is founded on family life, and the relation of the +worshipper to the Deity is that of a child to a father. The morality it +inculcates springs from the sacred sources of human piety which in all +religions have wrought most in favour of pureness of life, of fraternal +helpfulness and of humble devotion to a loving and tender Parent, who +desires the good of mankind, His children, and hates violence and wrong. +That of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary +career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked by a +kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and more spent its +energy in developing that side of devotion which is perilously near to +sensual thought, and has allowed the imagination and ingenuity of poets +to dwell on things unmeet for verse or even for speech. It is claimed +for those who first opened this way to faith that their hearts were pure +and their thoughts innocent, and that the language of erotic passion +which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely +mystical and allegorical. This is probable; but that these beginnings +were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that the fervent +impulses of adoration made way in later times for those of lust and +lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute. + +The worship of Krishna, especially in his infant and youthful form +(which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the neighbourhood +of Mathura, the capital of that land of Braj where as a boy he lived. +Its literature is mainly composed in the dialect of this region, called +Brajbhasha. That of Rama, though general throughout Hindostan, has +since the time of Tulsi Das adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh, +called Awadhi or Baiswari, a form of Eastern Hindi easily understood +throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley. Thus these two dialects +came to be, what they are to this day, the standard vehicles of poetic +expression. + +Subsequently to Ramanuja his doctrine appears to have been set forth, +about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by Jaideo, a Brahman born at +Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli, in the Birbhum district of Bengal, +author of the Sanskrit _Gita Govinda_, and by Namdeo or Nama, a +tailor[11] of Maharashtra, of both of whom verses in the popular speech +are preserved in the _Adi Granth_ of the Sikhs. But it was not until the +beginning of the 15th century that the Brahman Ramanand, a prominent +_Gosain_ of the sect of Ramanuja, having had a dispute with the members +of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed by them, left the +community, migrated to northern India (where he is said to have made his +headquarters Galta in Rajputana), and addressed himself to those outside +the Brahman caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the +popular faith of Hindostan. Among his twelve disciples or apostles were +a Rajput, a Jat, a leather-worker, a barber and a Musalman weaver; the +last-mentioned was the celebrated KABIR (see separate article). One +short Hindi poem by Ramanand is contained in the _Adi Granth_, and Dr +Grierson has collected hymns (_bhajans_) attributed to him and still +current in Mithila or Tirhut. Both Ramanand and Kabir were adherents of +the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to Raama, +who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself identical +with the Deity. A contemporary of Ramanand, Bidyapati Thakur, is +celebrated as the author of numerous lyrics in the Maithili dialect of +Bihar, expressive of the other side of Vaishnavism, the passionate +adoration of the Deity in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the +worshipper being mystically conveyed in the character of Radha, the +cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasudeva. These stanzas +of Bidyapati (who was a Brahman and author of several works in Sanskrit) +afterwards inspired the Vaishnava literature of Bengal, whose most +celebrated exponent was Chaitanya (b. 1484). Another famous adherent of +the same cult was Mira Bai, "the one great poetess of northern India" +(Grierson). This lady, daughter of Raja Ratiya Rana, Rathor, of Merta in +Rajputana, must have been born about the beginning of the 15th century; +she was married in 1413 to Raja Kumbhkaran of Mewar, who was killed by +his son Uday Rana in 1469. She was devoted to Krishna in the form of +Ranchhor, and her songs have a wide currency in northern India. + + An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava + saints or _Bhagats_ is contained in the sacred book, or _Adi Granth_, + of the Sikh _Gurus_. Nanak, the founder of this sect (1469-1538), + though a native of the Punjab (born at Talvandi on the Ravi near + Lahore), took his doctrine from the _Bhagats_ (see KABIR); and each of + the thirty-one _rags_, forming the body of the _Granth_, is followed + by a compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints, + chiefly of Kabir, in confirmation of the teaching of the _Gurus_, + while the whole book is closed by a _bhog_ or conclusion, containing + more verses by the same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian + Sufi, Shekh Farid of Pakpattan. The body of the _Granth_ (q.v.), being + in old Panjabi, falls outside the scope of this article; but the + extracts included in it from the early writers of old Hindi are a + precious store of specimens of authors some of whom have left no other + record in the surviving literature. The _Adi Granth_, which was put + together about 1600 by Arjun, the fifth _Guru_ of the Sikhs, sets + forth the creed of the sect in its original pietistic form, before it + assumed the militant character which afterwards distinguished it under + the five _Gurus_ who succeeded him. + +2. _Middle Hindi._--The second period, that of middle Hindi, begins with +the reign of the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605); and it is not improbable +that the broad and liberal views of this great monarch, his active +sympathy with his Hindu subjects, the interest which he took in their +religion and literature, and the peace which his organization of the +empire secured for Hindostan, had an important effect on the great +development of Hindi poetry which now set in.[12] Akbar's court was +itself a centre of poetical composition. The court musician Tan Sen (who +was also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by him in +the Emperor's name live to this day in the memory of the people. Akbar's +favourite minister and companion, Raja Birbal (who fell in battle on the +north-western frontier in 1583), was a musician and a poet as well as a +politician, and held the title, conferred by the Emperor, of _Kabi-Ray_, +or poet laureate; his verses and witty sayings are still extremely +popular in northern India, though no complete work by him is known to +exist. Other nobles of the court were also poets, among them the +_Khan-khanan_ 'Abdur-Rahim, son of Bairam Khan, whose Hindi _dohas_ and +_kabittas_ are still held in high estimation, and Faizi, brother of the +celebrated Abul-Fazl, the Emperor's annalist. + +By this time the worship of Krishna as the lover of Radha +_(Radha-ballabh)_ had been systematized, and a local habitation found +for it at Gokul, opposite Mathura on the Jumna, some 30 m. upstream from +Agra, Akbar's capital, by Vallabhacharya, a Tailinga Brahman from +Madras. Born in 1478, in 1497 he chose the land of Braj as his +headquarters, thence making missionary tours throughout India. He wrote +chiefly, if not entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate +followers, and those of his son Bitthalnath (who succeeded his father on +the latter's death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets in +Hindi. Four disciples of Vallabhacharya and four of Bitthalnath, who +flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the _Asht Chhap_, or +"Eight Seals," and are the acknowledged masters of the literature of +Braj-bhasha, in which dialect they all wrote. Their names are +Krishna-Das Pay-ahari, Sur Das (the Bhat), Parmanand Das, Kumbhan Das, +Chaturbhuj Das, Chhit Swami, Nand Das and Gobind Das. Of these much the +most celebrated, and the only one whose verses are still popular, is Sur +Das. The son of Baba Ram Das, who was a singer at Akbar's court, Sur Das +was descended, according to his own statement, from the bard of +Prithwi-Raj, Chand Bardai. A tradition gives the date of his birth as +1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both seem to be placed too +early, and in Abul-Fazl's _Ain-i Akbari_ he is mentioned as living when +that work was completed (1596/7). He was blind, and entirely devoted to +the worship of Krishna, to whose address he composed a great number of +hymns (_bhajans_), which have been collected in a compilation entitled +the _Sur Sagar_, said to contain 60,000 verses; this work is very highly +esteemed as the high-water mark of Braj devotional poetry, and has been +repeatedly printed in India. Other compositions by him were a +translation in verse of the _Bhagavata Purana_, and a poem dealing with +the famous story of Nala and Damayanti; of the latter no copies are now +known to exist. + +The great glory of this age is Tulsi Das (q.v.). He and Sur Das between +them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of the poetic art. It +is somewhat remarkable that the time of their appearance coincided with +the Elizabethan age of English literature. + +To these great masters succeeded a period of artifice and reflection, +when many works were composed dealing with the rules of poetry and the +analysis and the appropriate language of sentiment. Of their writers the +most famous is Kesab Das, a Brahman of Bundelkhand, who flourished +during the latter part of Akbar's reign and the beginning of that of +Jahangir. His works are the _Rasik-priya_, on composition (1591), the +_Kavi-priya_, on the laws of poetry (1601), a highly esteemed poem +dedicated to Parbin Rai Paturi, a celebrated courtesan of Orchha in +Bundelkhand, the _Ramachandrika_, dealing with the history of Rama, +(1610), and the _Vigyan-gita_ (1610). The fruit of this elaboration of +the poetic art reached its highest perfection in BIHARI LAL, whose +_Sat-sai_, or "seven centuries" (1662), is the most remarkable example +in Hindi of the rhetorical style in poetry (see separate article). + +Side by side with this cultivation of the literary use of the themes of +Rama and Krishna, there grew up a class of compositions dealing, in a +devotional spirit, with the lives and doings of the holy men from whose +utterances and example the development of the popular religion +proceeded. The most famous of these is the _Bhakta-mala_, or "Roll of +the _Bhagats_," by Narayan Das, otherwise called Nabha Das, or Nabhaji. +This author, who belonged to the despised caste of Doms and was a native +of the Deccan, had in his youth seen Tulsi Das at Mathura, and himself +flourished in the first half of the 17th century. His work consists of +108 stanzas in _chhappai_ metre, each setting forth the characteristics +of some holy personage, and expressed in a style which is extremely +brief and obscure. Its exact date is unknown, but it falls between 1585 +and 1623. The book was furnished with a _ika_ (supplement or gloss) in +the _kabitta_ metre, by Priya Das in 1713, gathering up, in an allusive +and disjointed fashion, all the legendary stories related of each saint. +This again was expanded about a century later by a modern author named +Lachhman into a detailed work of biography, called the _Bhakta-sindhu_. +From these nearly all our knowledge (such as it is) of the lives of the +Vaishnava authors, both of the Rama and the Krishna cults, is derived, +and much of it is of a very legendary and untrustworthy character. +Another work, somewhat earlier in date than the _Bhakta-mala_, named the +_Chaurasi Varta_, is devoted exclusively to stories of the followers of +Vallabhacharya. It is reputed to have been written by Gokulnath, son of +Bitthalnath, son of Vallabhacharya, and is dated in 1551. + + The matter of these tales is justly characterized by Professor + Wilson[13] (who gives some translated specimens) as "marvellous and + insipid anecdotes"; but the book is remarkable for being in very + artless prose, and, though written more than 300 years ago, shows that + the current language of Braj was then almost precisely identical with + that now spoken in that region. A specimen of the text will be found + at p. 296 of Mr F. S. Growse's _Mathura, a District Memoir_ (3rd ed., + 1883). + +It would be tedious to enumerate the many authors who succeeded the +great period of Hind poetical composition which extended through the +reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan. None of them attained to the +fame of Sur Das, Tuls Das or Bihari Lal. Their themes exhibit no +novelty, and they repeat with a wearisome monotony the sentiments of +their predecessors. The list of Hindi authors drawn up by Dr G. A. +Grierson, and printed in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ +in 1889, may be consulted for the names and works of these _epigoni_. +The courts of Chhatarsal, raja of Panna in Bundelkhand, who was killed +in battle with Aurangzeb in 1658, and of several rajas of Bandho (now +called Riwan or Rewah) in Baghelkhand, were famous for their patronage +of poets; and the Mogul court itself kept up the office of _Kabi-Ray_ or +poet laureate even during the fanatical reign of Aurangzeb. + +Such, in the briefest outline, is the character of Hind literature +during the period when it grew and flourished through its own original +forces. Founded by a popular and religious impulse in many respects +comparable to that which, nearly 1600 years before, had produced the +doctrine and literature, in the vernacular tongue, of Jainism and +Buddhism, and cultivated largely (though by no means exclusively) by +authors not belonging to the Brahmanical order, it was the legitimate +descendant in spirit, as Hindi is the legitimate descendant in speech, +of the Prakrit literature which preceded it. Entirely in verse, it +adopted and elaborated the Prakrit metrical forms, and carried them to a +pitch of perfection too often overlooked by those who concern themselves +rather with the substance than the form of the works they read. It +covers a wide range of style, and expresses, in the works of its +greatest masters, a rich variety of human feeling. Little studied by +Europeans in the past, it deserves much more attention than it has +received. The few who have explored it speak of it as an "enchanted +garden" (Grierson), abounding in beauties of thought and phrase. Above +all it is to be remembered that it is genuinely popular, and has reached +strata of society scarcely touched by literature in Europe. The ballads +of Rajput prowess, the aphorisms of Kabir, Tulsi Das's _Ramayan_, and +the _bhajans_ of Sur Das are to this day carried about everywhere by +wandering minstrels, and have found their way, throughout the great +plains of northern India and the uplands of the Vindhya plateau, to the +hearts of the people. There is no surer key to unlock the confidence of +the villager than an apt quotation from one of these inspired singers. + +3. _Literary Urdu._--The _origines_ of Urdu as a literary language are +somewhat obscure. The popular account refers its rise to the time of +Timur's invasion (1398). Some authors even claim for it a higher +antiquity, asserting that a _diwan_, or collection of poems, was +composed in _Rekhta_ by Mas'ud, son of Sa'd, in the last half of the +11th or beginning of the 12th century, and that Sa'di of Shiraz and his +friend Amir Khusrau[14] of Delhi likewise made verses in that dialect +before the end of the 13th century. This, however, is very improbable. +It has already been seen that during the early centuries of Muslim rule +in India adherents of that faith used the language and metrical forms of +the country for their compositions. Persian words early made their way +into the popular speech; they are common in Chand, and in Kabir's verses +(which are nevertheless unquestionable Hindi) they are in many places +used as freely as in the modern dialect. Much of the confusion which +besets the subject is due to the want of a clear understanding of what +Urdu, as opposed to Hindi, really is. + +Urdu, as a literary language, differs from Hindi rather in its form than +in its substance. The grammar, and to a large extent the vocabulary, of +both are the same. The really vital point of difference, that in which +Hindi and Urdu are incommensurable, is the _prosody_. Hardly one of the +metres taken over by Urdu poets from Persian agrees with those used in +Hindi. In the latter language it is the rule to give the short _a_ +inherent in every consonant or _nexus_ of consonants its full value in +scansion (though in prose it is no longer heard), except occasionally at +the metrical pause; in Urdu this is never done, the words being scanned +generally as pronounced in prose, with a few exceptions which need not +be mentioned here. The great majority of Hindi metres are scanned by the +number of _matras_ or syllabic instants--the value in time of a short +syllable--of which the lines consist; in Urdu, as in Persian, the metre +follows a special order of long and short syllables. + +The question, then, is not When did Persian first become intermixed with +Hindi in the literary speech?--for this process began with the first +entry of Muslim conquerors into India, and continued for centuries +before a line of Urdu verse was composed; nor When was the Persian +character first employed to write Hindi?--for the written form is but a +subordinate matter; as already mentioned, the MSS. of Malik Muhammad's +purely Hindi poem, the _Padmawat_, are ordinarily found to be written in +the Persian character; and copies lithographed in Devanagari of the +popular compositions of the Urdu poet Nazir are commonly procurable in +the bazars. We must ask When was the first verse composed in Hindi, +whether with or without foreign admixture, according to the forms of +Persian prosody, and not in those of the indigenous metrical system? +Then, and not till then, did Urdu poetry come into being. This appears +to have happened, as already mentioned, about the end of the 16th +century. Meantime the vernacular speech had been gradually permeated +with Persian words and phrases. The impulse which Akbar's interest in +his Hindu subjects had given to the translation of Sanskrit works into +Persian had brought the indigenous and the foreign literatures into +contact. The current language of the neighbourhood of the capital, the +Hindi spoken about Delhi and thence northwards to the Himalaya, was +naturally the form of the vernacular which was most subject to foreign +influences; and with the extension of Mogul territory by the conquests +in the south of Akbar and his successors, this idiom was carried abroad +by their armies, and was adopted by the Musalman kingdoms of the Deccan +as their court language some time before their overthrow by the +campaigns of Aurangzeb. + +It is not a little remarkable that, as happened with the Vaishnava +reformation initiated by Ramanuja and Ramanand, and with the +Vallabhacharya cult of Krishna established at Mathura, the first impulse +to literary composition in Urdu should have been given, not at the +headquarters of the empire in the north, but at the Muhammadan courts of +Golkonda and Bijapur in the south, the former situated amid an +indigenous population speaking Telugu, and the latter among one whose +speech was Kanarese, both Dravidian languages having nothing in common +with the Aryan tongues of the north. This fact of itself defines the +nature of the literature thus inaugurated. It had nothing to do with the +idiom or ideas of the people among whom it was born, but was from the +beginning an imitation of Persian models. It adopted the standards of +form and content current among the poets of Eran. The _qasida_ or +laudatory ode, the _ghazal_ or love-sonnet, usually of mystical import, +the _marsiya_ or dirge, the _masnavi_ or narrative poem with coupled +rhymes, the _hija_ or satire, the _ruba'i_ or epigram--these were the +types which Urdu took over ready-made. And with the forms were +appropriated also all the conventions of poetic diction. The Persians, +having for centuries treated the same themes with a fecundity which most +Europeans find extremely wearisome, had elaborated a system of rhetoric +and a stock of poetic images which, in the exhaustion of original +matter, made the success of the poet depend chiefly upon dexterity of +artifice and cleverness of conceit. Pleasing hyperbole, ingenious +comparison, antithesis, alliteration, carefully arranged gradation of +noun and epithet, are the means employed to obtain variety; and few of +the most eloquent passages of later Persian verse admit of translation +into any other language without losing that which in the original makes +their whole charm. What is true of Persian is likewise true of Urdu +poetry. Until quite modern times, there is scarcely anything in it which +can be called original.[15] Differences of school, which are made much +of by native critics, are to us hardly perceptible; they consist in the +use of one or other range of metaphor or comparison, classed, according +as they repeat the well-worn poetical stock-in-trade of the Persians, or +seek a slightly fresher and more Indian field of sentiment, as the old +or the new style of composition. + + Shuja'uddin Nuri, a native of Gujarat, a friend of Faizi and + contemporary of Akbar, is mentioned by the native biographers as the + most ancient Urdu poet after Amir Khusrau. He was tutor of the son of + the _wazir_ of Sultan Abu-l-Hasan Kutb Shah of Golkonda, and several + _ghazals_ by him are said to survive. Kuli Kutb Shah of Golkonda, who + reigned from 1581, and his successor 'Abdullah Kutb Shah, who came to + the throne in 1611, have both left collections of verse, including + _ghazals_, _ruba'is_, _masnavis_ and _qasidas_. And during the reign + of the latter Ibn Nishati wrote two works which are still famous as + models of composition in Dakhni; they are _masnavis_ entitled the + _Tuti-nama_, or "Tales of a Parrot," and the _Phul-ban_. The first, + written in 1639, is an adaptation of a Persian work by Nakhshabi, but + derives ultimately from a Sanskrit original entitled the + _Suka-saptati_; this collection has been frequently rehandled in Urdu, + both in verse and prose, and is the original of the _Tota-Kahani_, one + of the first works in Urdu prose, composed in 1801 by Muhammad + Haidar-bakhsh Haidari of the Fort William College. The _Phul-ban_ is a + love tale named from its heroine, said to be translated from a Persian + work entitled the _Basatin_. Another famous work which probably + belongs to the same place and time is the _Story of Kamrup and Kala_ + by Tahsinuddin, a _masnavi_ which has been published (1836) by M. + Garcin de Tassy; what makes this poem remarkable is that, though the + work of a Musalman, its personages are Hindu. Kamrup, the hero, is son + of the king of Oudh, and the heroine, Kala, daughter of the king of + Ceylon; the incidents somewhat resemble those of the tale of + as-Sindibad in the _Thousand and One Nights_; the hero and heroine + dream one of the other, and the former sets forth to find his beloved; + his wanderings take him to many strange countries and through many + wonderful adventures, ending in a happy marriage. + + The court of Bijapur was no less distinguished in literature. Ibrahim + 'Adil Shah (1579-1626) was the author of a work in verse on music + entitled the _Nau-ras_ or "Nine Savours," which, however, appears to + have been in Hindi rather than Urdu; the three prefaces (_dibajas_) to + this poem were rendered into Persian prose by Maula Zuhuri, and, under + the name of the _Sih nasr-i Zuhuri_, are well-known models of style. A + successor of this prince, 'Ali 'Adil Shah, had as his court poet a + Brahman known poetically as Nusrati, who in 1657 composed a _masnavi_ + of some repute entitled the _Gulshan-i 'Ishq_, or "Rose-garden of + Love," a romance relating the history of Prince Manohar and + Madmalati,--like the _Kamrup_, an Indian theme. The same poet is + author of an extremely long _masnavi_ entitled the _'Ali-nama_, + celebrating the monarch under whom he lived. + + These early authors, however, were but pioneers; the first generally + accepted standard of form, a standard which suffered little change in + two centuries, was established by Wali of Aurangabad (about 1680-1720) + and his contemporary and fellow-townsman Siraj. The former of these is + commonly called "the Father of Rekhtah"--_Baba-e Rekhta_; and all + accounts agree that the immense development attained by Urdu poetry in + northern India during the 18th century was due to his example and + initiative. Very little is known of Wali's life; he is believed to + have visited Delhi towards the end of the reign of Aurangzeb, and is + said to have there received instruction from Shah Gulshan in the art + of clothing in a vernacular dress the ideas of the Persian poets. His + _Kulliyat_ or complete works have been published by M. Garcin de + Tassy, with notes and a translation of selected passages (Paris, + 1834-1836), and may be commended to readers desirous of consulting in + the original a favourable specimen of Urdu poetical composition. + + The first of the Delhi school of poets was Zuhuruddin Hatim, who was + born in 1699 and died in 1792. In the second year of Muhammad Shah + (1719), the _diwan_ of Wali reached Delhi, and excited the emulation + of scholars there. Hatim was the first to imitate it in the Urdu of + the north, and was followed by his friends Naji, Mazmun and Abru. Two + _diwans_ by him survive. He became the founder of a school, and one of + his pupils was Rafi us-Sauda, the most distinguished poet of northern + India. Khan Arzu (1689-1756) was another of the fathers of Urdu poetry + in the north. This author is chiefly renowned as a Persian scholar, in + which language he not only composed much poetry, but one of the best + of Persian lexicons, the _Siraju-l-lughat_; but his compositions in + Urdu are also highly esteemed. He was the master of Mir Taqi, who + ranks next to Sauda as the most eminent Urdu poet. Arzu died at + Lucknow, whither he betook himself after the devastation of Delhi by + Nadir Shah (1739). Another of the early Delhi poets who is considered + to have surpassed his fellows was In'amullah Khan Yaqin, who died + during the reign of Ahmad Shah (1748-1754), aged only twenty-five. + Another was Mir Dard, pupil of the same Shah Gulshan who is said to + have instructed Wali; his _diwan_ is not long, but extremely popular, + and especially esteemed for the skill with which it develops the + themes of spiritualism. In his old age he became a _darwesh_ of the + _Naqshbandi_ following, and died in 1793. + + Sauda and Mir Taqi are beyond question the most distinguished Urdu + poets. The former was born at Delhi about the beginning of the 18th + century, and studied under Hatim. He left Delhi after its devastation, + and settled at Lucknow, where the Nawab Asafuddaulah gave him a + _jagir_ of Rs. 6000 a year, and where he died in 1780. His poems are + very numerous, and cover all the styles of Urdu poetry; but it is to + his satires that his fame is chiefly due, and in these he is + considered to have surpassed all other Indian poets. Mir Taqi was born + at Agra, but early removed to Delhi, where he studied under Arzu; he + was still living there at the time of Sauda's death, but in 1782 + repaired to Lucknow, where he likewise received a pension; he died at + a very advanced age in 1810. His works are very voluminous, including + no less than six _diwans_. Mir is counted the superior of Sauda in the + _ghazal_ and _masnavi_, while the latter excelled him in the satire + and _qasida_. Sayyid Ahmad, an excellent authority, and himself one of + the best of modern authors in Urdu, says of him in his + _Asaru-s-Sanadid_: "Mir's language is so pure, and the expressions + which he employs so suitable and natural, that to this day all are + unanimous in his praise. Although the language of Sauda is also + excellent, and he is superior to Mir in the point of his allusions, he + is nevertheless inferior to him in style." + + The tremendous misfortunes which befell Delhi at the hands of Nadir + Shah (1739), Ahmad Shah Durrani (1756), and the Marathas (1759), and + the rapid decay of the Mogul empire under these repeated shocks, + transferred the centre of the cultivation of literature from that city + to Lucknow, the capital of the newly founded and flourishing state of + Oudh. It has been mentioned how Arzu, Sauda and Mir betook themselves + to this refuge and ended their days there; they were followed in their + new residence by a school of poets hardly inferior to those who had + made Delhi illustrious in the first half of the century. Here they + were joined by Mir Hasan (d. 1786), Mir Soz (d. 1800) and + Qalandar-bakhsh Jur'at (d. 1810), also like themselves refugees from + Delhi, and illustrious poets. Mir Hasan was a friend and collaborator + of Mir Dard, and first established himself at Faizabad and + subsequently at Lucknow; he excelled in the _ghazal_, _ruba'i_, + _masnavi_ and _marsiya_, and is counted the third, with Sauda and Mir + Taqi, among the most eminent of Urdu poets. His fame chiefly rests + upon a much admired _masnavi_ entitled the _Sihru-l-bayan_, or "Magic + of Eloquence," a romance relating the loves of Prince Be-nazir and the + Princess Badr-i Munir; his _masnavi_ called the _Gulzar-i Iram_ + ("Rose-garden of Iram," the legendary 'Adite paradise in southern + Arabia), in praise of Faizabad, is likewise highly esteemed. Mir + Muhammadi Soz was an elegant poet, remarkable for the success with + which he composed in the dialect of the harem called _Rekhti_, but + somewhat licentious in his verse; he became a _darwesh_ and renounced + the world in his later years. Jur'at was also a prolific poet, but, + like Soz, his _ghazals_ and _masnavis_ are licentious and full of + double meanings. He imitated Sauda in satire with much success; he + also cultivated Hindi poetry, and composed _dohas_ and _kabittas_. + Miskin was another Lucknow poet of the same period, whose _marsiyas_ + are especially admired; one of them, that on the death of Muslim and + his two sons, is considered a masterpiece of this style of + composition. The school of Lucknow, so founded and maintained during + the early years of the century, continued to flourish till the + dethronement of the last king, Wajid 'Ali, in 1856. Atash and Nasikh + (who died respectively in 1847 and 1841) are the best among the modern + poets of the school in the _ghazal_; Mir Anis, a grandson of Mir + Hasan, and his contemporary Dabir, the former of whom died in December + 1875 and the latter a few months later, excelled in the _marsiyah_. + Rajab Ali Beg Surur, who died in 1869, was the author of a + much-admired romance in rhyming prose entitled the _Fisanah-e 'Ajaib_ + or "Tale of Marvels," besides a _diwan_. The dethroned prince Wajid + 'Ali himself, poetically styled Akhtar, was also a poet; he published + three diwans, among them a quantity of poetry in the rustic dialect of + Oudh which is philologically of much interest. + + Though Delhi was thus deserted by its brightest lights of literature, + it did not altogether cease to cultivate the poetic art. Among the + last Moguls several princes were themselves creditable poets. Shah + Alam II. (1761-1806) wrote under the name of Aftab, and was the author + of a romance entitled Manzum-i Aqdas, besides a _diwan_. His son + Sulaiman-shukoh, brother of Akbar Shah II., who had at first, like his + brother authors, repaired to Lucknow, returned to Delhi in 1815, and + died in 1838; he also has left a _diwan_. Lastly, his nephew Bahadur + Shah II., the last titular emperor of Delhi (d. 1862), wrote under the + name of Zafar, and was a pupil in poetry of Shaikh Ibrahim Zauq, a + distinguished writer; he has left a voluminous _diwan_, which has been + printed at Delhi. Mashafi (Ghulam-i Hamdani), who died about 1814, was + one of the most distinguished of the revived poetic school of Delhi, + and was himself one of its founders. Originally of Lucknow, he left + that city for Delhi in 1777, and held conferences of poets, at which + several authors who afterwards acquired repute formed their style; he + has left five _diwans_, a _Tazkira_ or biography of Urdu poets, and a + _Shah-nama_ or account of the kings of Delhi down to Shah 'Alam. Qaim + (Qiyamuddin 'Ali) was one of his society, and died in 1792; he has + left several works of merit. Ghalib, otherwise Mirza Asadullah Khan + Naushah, laureate of the last Mogul, who died in 1869, was undoubtedly + the most eminent of the modern Delhi poets. He wrote chiefly in + Persian, of which language, especially in the form cultivated by + Firdausi, free from intermixture of Arabic words, he was a master; but + his Urdu _diwan_, though short, is excellent in its way, and his + reputation spread far and wide. To this school, though he lived and + died at Agra, may be attached Mir Wali Muhammad Nazir (who died in the + year 1832); his _masnavis_ entitled _Jogi-nama_, _Kauri-nama_, + _Banjare-nama_, and _Burhape-nama_, as well as his _diwan_, have been + frequently reprinted, and are extremely popular. His language is less + artificial than that of the generality of Urdu poets, and some of his + poems have been printed in Nagari, and are as well known and as much + esteemed by Hindus as by Mahommedans. His verse is defaced by much + obscenity. + +4. _Modern Period._--While such, in outline, is the history of the +literary schools of the Deccan, Delhi and Lucknow, a fourth, that of the +Fort William College at Calcutta, was being formed, and was destined to +give no less an impulse to the cultivation of Urdu prose than had a +hundred years before been given to that of poetry by Wali. At the +commencement of the 19th century Dr John Gilchrist was the head of this +institution, and his efforts were directed towards getting together a +body of literature suitable as text-books for the study of the Urdu +language by the European officers of the administration. To his +exertions we owe the elaboration of the vernacular as an official +speech, and the possibility of substituting it for the previously +current Persian as the language of the courts and the government. He +gathered together at Calcutta the most eminent vernacular scholars of +the time, and their works, due to his initiative, are still notable as +specimens of elegant and serviceable prose composition, not only in +Urdu, but also in Hindi. The chief authors of this school are Haidari +(Sayyid Muhammad Haidar-bakhsh), Husaini (Mir Bahadur 'Ali), Mir Amman +Lutf, Hafizuddin Ahmad, Sher 'Ali Afsos, Nihal Chand of Lahore, Kazim +'Ali Jawan, Lallu Lal Kavi, Mazhar 'Ali Wila and Ikram 'Ali. + + Haidari died in 1828. He composed the _Tota-Kahani_ (1801), a prose + redaction of the _Tuti-namah_ which has been already mentioned; a + romance named _Araish-i Mahfil_ ("Ornament of the Assembly"), + detailing the adventures of the famous Arab chief Hatim-i Tai; the + _Gul-i Maghfirat_ or _Dah Majlis_, an account of the holy persons of + the Muhammadan faith; the _Gulzar-i Danish_, a translation of the + _Bahar-i Danish_, a Persian work containing stories descriptive of the + craft and faithlessness of women; and the _Tarikh-i Nadiri_, a + translation of a Persian history of Nadir Shah. Husaini is the author + of an imitation in prose of Mir Hasan's _Sihru-l-bayan_, under the + name of _Nasr-i Benazir_ ("the Incomparable Prose," or "the Prose of + Benazir," the latter being the name of the hero), and of a work named + _Akhlaq-i Hindi_, or "Indian Morals," both composed in 1802. The + _Akhlaq-i Hindi_ is an adaptation of a Persian work called the + _Mufarrihu-l-qulub_ ("the Delighter of Hearts"), itself a version of + the _Hitopadesa_. Mir Amman was a native of Delhi, which he left in + the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani for Patna, and in 1801 repaired to + Calcutta. To him we owe the _Bagh o Bahar_ (1801-1802), an adaptation + of Amir Khusrau's famous Persian romance entitled the _Chahar + Darwesh_, or "Story of the Four Dervishes." Amman's work is not itself + directly modelled on the Persian, but is a rehandling of an almost + contemporary rendering by Tahsin of Etawa, called the _Nau-tarz-i + Murassa'_. The style of this composition is much admired by natives of + India, and editions of it are very numerous. Amman also composed an + imitation of Husain Wa'iz Kashifi's _Akhlaq-i Muhsini_ under the name + of the _Ganj-i Khubi_ ("Treasure of Virtue"), produced in 1802. + Hafizuddin Ahmad was a professor at the Fort William College; in 1803 + he completed a translation of Abu-l-Fazl's _'Iyar-i Danish_, under the + name of the _Khirad-afroz_ ("Enlightener of the Understanding"). The + _'Iyar-i Danish_ ("Touchstone of Wisdom") is one of the numerous + imitations of the originally Sanskrit collection of apologues known in + Persian as the _Fables of Bidpai_, or _Kalilah and Dimna_. Afsos was + one of the most illustrious of the Fort William school; originally of + Delhi, he left that city at the age of eleven, and entered the service + of Qasim 'Ali Khan, Nawab of Bengal; he afterwards repaired to + Hyderabad in the Deccan, and thence to Lucknow, where he was the pupil + of Mir Hasan, Mir Soz and Mir Haidar 'Ali Hairan. He joined the Fort + William College in 1800, and died in 1809. He is the author of a much + esteemed diwan; but his chief reputation is founded on two prose works + of great excellence, the _Araish-i Mahfil_ (1805), an account of India + adapted from the introduction of the Persian _Khulasatu-t-tawarikh_ of + Sujan Rae, and the _Bagh-i Urdu_ (1808), a translation of Sa'di's + _Gulistan_. Nihal Chand translated into Urdu a _masnavi_, entitled the + _Gul-i Bakawali_, under the name of _Mazhab-i 'Ishq_ ("Religion of + Love"); this work is in prose intermingled with verse, was composed in + 1804, and has been frequently reproduced. Jawan, like most of his + collaborators, was originally of Delhi and afterwards of Lucknow; he + joined the College in 1800. He is the author of a version in Urdu of + the well-known story of Sakuntala, under the name of _Sakuntala + Natak_; the Urdu was rendered from a previous Braj-bhasha version by + Nawaz Kabishwar made in 1716, and was printed in 1802. He also + composed a _Barah-masa_, or poetical description of the twelve months + (a very popular and often-handled form of composition), with accounts + of the various Hindu and Muhammadan festivals, entitled the _Dastur-i + Hind_ ("Usages of India"), printed in 1812. Ikram 'Ali translated, + under the name of the _Ikhwanu-s-safa_, or "Brothers of Purity" + (1810), a chapter of a famous Arabian collection of treatises on + science and philosophy entitled _Rasailu Ikhwani-s-safa_, and composed + in the 10th century. The complete collection, due to different writers + who dwelt at Basra, has recently been made known to European readers + by the translation of Dr F. Dieterici (1858-1879); the chapter + selected by Ikram 'Ali is the third, which records an allegorical + strife for the mastery between men and animals before the king of the + _Jinn_. The translation is written in excellent Urdu, and is one of + the best of the Fort William productions. + + Sri Lallu Lal was a Brahman, whose family, originally of Gujarat, had + long been settled in northern India. What was done by the other Fort + William authors for Urdu prose was done by Lallu Lal almost alone for + Hindi. He may indeed without exaggeration be said to have created + "High Hindi" as a literary language. His _Prem Sagar_ and _Rajniti_, + the former a version in pure Hindi of the 10th chapter of the + _Bhagavata Purana_, detailing the history of Krishna, and founded on a + previous Braj-bhasha version by Chaturbhuj Misr, and the latter an + adaptation in Braj-bhasha prose of the _Hitopadesa_ and part of the + _Pancha-tantra_, are unquestionably the most important works in Hindi + prose. The _Prem Sagar_ was begun in 1804 and ended in 1810; it enjoys + immense popularity in northern India, has been frequently reproduced + in a lithographed form, and has several times been printed. The + _Rajniti_ was composed in 1809; it is much admired for its sententious + brevity and the purity of its language. Besides these two works, Lallu + Lal was the author of a collection of a hundred anecdotes in Hindi and + Urdu entitled _Lataif-i Hindi_, an anthology of Hindi verse called the + _Sabha-bilas_, a _Sat-sai_ in the style of Bihari-Lal called + _Sapta-satika_ and several other works. He and Jawan worked together + at the _Singhasan Battisi_ (1801), a redaction in mixed Urdu and Hindi + (Devanagari character) of a famous collection of legends relating the + prowess of King Vikramaditya; and he also aided the latter author in + the production of the _Sakuntala Natak_. Mazhar 'Ali Wila was his + collaborator in the _Baital Pachisi_, a collection of stories similar + in many respects to the _Singhasan Battisi_, and also in mixed + Urdu-Hindi; and he aided Wila in the preparation in Urdu of the _Story + of Madhonal_, a romance originally composed in Braj-bhasha by Moti + Ram. + + The works of these authors, though compiled and published under the + superintendence of Dr Gilchrist, Captain Abraham Lockett, Professor J. + W. Taylor, Dr W. Hunter and other European officers of the college of + Fort William, and originally intended for the instruction of the + Company's officers in the vernacular, are essentially Indian in taste + and style, and, until superseded by the more recent developments of + literature noticed below, enjoyed a very wide reputation and + popularity. They may, indeed, be said to have set the standard of + prose composition in Urdu and Hindi, and for the first half of the + 19th century their influence in this respect continued almost + unchallenged. Side by side with them, among the Musalman population of + northern India, another almost contemporaneous impulse did much for + the expansion of the Urdu language, and, like the work of the + Vaishnava reformers in moulding literary Hindi, gave an impetus to + composition which might otherwise have been lacking. This was the + reform in Islam led by Sayyid Ahmad[16] and his followers. In all + Eastern countries religion is the first and chief subject of literary + production; and the controversies which the new preaching aroused in + India at once afforded abundant material for authorship in Urdu, and + interested deeply the people to whom the works were addressed. + + Sayyid Ahmad was born in 1782, and received his early education at + Delhi; his instructors were two learned Muslims, Shah 'Abdul-'Aziz, + author of a celebrated commentary on the Qur'an (the _Tafsir-i + 'Aziziyyah_), and his brother 'Abdu-l-Qadir, the writer of the first + translation of the holy volume into Urdu. Under their guidance Sayyid + Ahmad embraced the doctrines of the Wahhabis, a sect whose preaching + appears at this time to have first reached India. He gathered round + him a large number of fervent disciples, among others Isma'il Haji, + nephew of 'Abdu-l'Aziz and 'Abdu-l-Qadir, the chief author of the + sect. After a course of preaching and apostleship at Delhi, Sayyid + Ahmad set out in 1820 for Calcutta, attended by numerous adherents. + Thence in 1822 he started on a pilgrimage to Mecca, whence he went to + Constantinople, and was there received with distinction and gained + many disciples. He travelled for nearly six years in Turkey and + Arabia, and then returned to Delhi. The religious degradation and + coldness which he found in his native country strongly impressed him + after his sojourn in lands where the life of Islam is stronger, and he + and his disciples established a propaganda throughout northern India, + reprobating the superstitions which had crept into the faith from + contact with Hindus, and preaching a _jihad_ or holy war against the + Sikhs. In 1828 he started for Peshawar, attended by, it is said, + upwards of 100,000 Indians, and accompanied by his chief followers, + Haji Isma'il and 'Abdu-l-Hayy. He was furnished with means by a + general subscription in northern India, and by several Muhammadan + princes who had embraced his doctrines. At the beginning of 1829 he + declared war against the Sikhs, and in the course of time made himself + master of Peshawar. The Afghans, however, with whom he had allied + himself in the contest, were soon disgusted by the rigour of his + creed, and deserted him and his cause. He fled across the Indus and + took refuge in the mountains of Pakhli and Dhamtor, where in 1831 he + encountered a detachment of Sikhs under the command of Sher Singh, and + in the combat he and Haji Isma'il were slain. His sect is, however, by + no means extinct; the Wahhabi doctrines have continued to gain ground + in India, and to give rise to much controversial writing, down to our + own day. + + The translation of the Quran by 'Abdu-l-Qadir was finished in 1803, + and first published by Sayyid 'Abdullah, a fervent disciple of Sayyid + Ahmad, at Hughli in 1829. The _Tambihu-l-ghafilin_, or "Awakener of + the Heedless," a work in Persian by Sayyid Ahmad, was rendered into + Urdu by 'Abdullah, and published at the same press in 1830. Haji + Isma'il was the author of a treatise in Urdu entitled + _Taqwiyatu-l-Iman_ ("Confirmation of the Faith"), which had great + vogue among the following of the Sayyid. Other works by the disciples + of the _Tariqah-e Muhammadiyyah_ (as the new preaching was called) are + the _Targhib-i Jihad_ ("Incitation to Holy War"), _Hidayatu-l-Muminin_ + ("Guide of the Believers"), _Muzihu-l-Kabair_ wa-l-Bid'ah ("Exposition + of Mortal Sins and Heresy"), _Naslhatu-l-Muslimin_ ("Admonition to + Muslims"), and the _Mi'at Masail_, or "Hundred Questions." + + Printing was first used for vernacular works by the College Press at + Fort William, at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th + century, and all the compositions prepared for Dr Gilchrist and his + successors which have been mentioned were thus given to the public. + But the expense of this method of reproduction long precluded its + extensive use in India, and movable types, though well suited for + alphabets derived from the Sanskrit, were not equally applicable to + the flowing and graceful characters of Persian. Lithography was + introduced about 1837, when the first press was set up at Delhi, and + immediately gave a powerful stimulus to the multiplication of + literature, both original and editions of older works. In 1832 the + vernaculars were substituted for Persian as the official language of + the courts and the acts of the legislature, and this at once led to + the transfer to the former of a mass of technical and forensic terms + which had previously been only to a limited extent in popular use. + Thirdly, the spread of education in subjects of Western learning, for + which text-books (many of them translations from English) were + required, not only greatly enlarged the vocabulary of the common + speech, but led by degrees to the use of a simpler and more direct + style, and the abandonment wholesale of the florid and artificial + ornament which was the legacy of the Persian literature upon which + Urdu prose had at first modelled itself. Lastly, the establishment of + a vernacular newspaper press, which lithography had rendered possible, + placed within the reach of a continually widening public the means of + becoming acquainted with new ideas in every department of culture, and + practised the writers who contributed to it in the art of wielding + their mother-tongue with effect in its application to European themes. + + All these revolutionary agencies were at work, though in a tentative + and limited fashion, when the great change, following on the Mutiny of + 1857, of the transfer of the government of India from the Company to + the Crown inaugurated a new era. Since 1860 their operation has become + extremely rapid and far-reaching. The use of lithography both for Urdu + and Hindi annually gives birth to hundreds of works. The extension of + education through both public and private agency has created an + immense mass of school-books, and the spread of instruction in English + and the activity of translators have filled the vernaculars with a + multitude of new words drawn from that language. The newspaper press, + in Urdu and Hindi, now counts over two hundred journals, the majority + issued in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and in the Punjab, but + a few at Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bombay and Calcutta. Of this + great body of literary production it is possible to speak only in + general terms. Style and vocabulary are still in a somewhat fluid and + unsettled condition, and the subjects treated are almost as various as + they are in European literatures. Much, indeed, of the work produced + has scarcely any claim to literary excellence, and in the crowd of + writers we may content ourselves with mentioning only a few whose + influence and authority make it probable that they will hereafter be + known as leaders in the new culture. + + One of the first effects of the new literary inspiration seemed to be + the extinction of poetical composition as previously practised. With + the deaths of Zauq (1854) and Ghalib (1869) of the Delhi school, and + those of Anis (1875) and Dabir (1876) of Lucknow, the end of Urdu + poetry appeared to have come. The new age was intensely practical and + eager to engage in the race for material and political advancement, + and had no time for sentiment, or taste for mystical conceits. + Moreover, poetical composition in India, as in other Eastern + countries, has always owed much to the patronage of courts and + princes. The thrones of Delhi and Lucknow had passed away, and the new + rulers showed little interest in this form of achievement. Only at + Hyderabad in the Deccan, under the patronage of the Nizam, were + laureates still honoured; the last of these, Mirza Khan Dagh + (1831-1905), enjoyed a wide reputation as a graceful and eloquent + master of the poetic art. + + But prose and material prosperity did not succeed in monopolizing the + genius of the people. The great movement of reform and liberalism in + Islam led by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) found its bard in + Sayyid Altaf Husain of Panipat, poetically styled Hali--an ambiguous + _nom-de-plume_ now generally taken in the sense of "modern," or + "up-to-date." Hali in his youth was a pupil of the famous Ghalib, + whose life he has written and of whose writings he has published an + able criticism. At the age of forty he came under the influence of Sir + Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and from that time devoted his great poetic gifts + to the service of his co-religionists. He has published much verse, of + which an interesting specimen will be found in the edition of his + _Ruba'is_ or quatrains (101 in number), with an English translation, + by Mr G. E. Ward (Oxford, 1904); in this is included a famous poem + addressed to his muse, setting forth his ideals in poetry--simplicity, + avoidance of exaggeration and unreality, direct and emotional appeal + to the heart, and above all sincerity. There can be no doubt that he + has succeeded in becoming the leader of a new poetic school, which + shows much vigour and promise. + + Perhaps the most memorable of all Hali's compositions is his long poem + in six-line stanzas (called _musaddas_) on "the flow and ebb of Islam" + (1879), which has had an extraordinary influence in stimulating + enthusiasm in the cause of progress among the Musalmans of the north + of India. In it he draws, in simple and direct but searching and + eloquent language, a rapid sketch of the glories of Islam in the past, + its principles and precepts, and the sources of its strength; and then + turns to contrast with this picture the degradation and decay into + which it had, when he wrote, fallen in Hindostan. Never have the vices + and shortcomings of a people been lashed by one of themselves with + more vigorous denunciation, or with more earnestness of moral purpose. + In his preface he explains how the poem came to be written--after a + youth spent in heedlessness and unsettlement, at the instigation of + Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and in the cause of that great reformer. The + poem is still recited and imitated by Muslims in the Punjab and United + Provinces, though the picture which it presents of Indian Musalmans is + no longer wholly applicable to the community. Hali has recently + completed a life of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan in two volumes, entitled + _Hayat-i Javid_ ("eternal life"), a work of great merit. + + Another writer whose work, though chiefly in prose, deals with poetry + and poetic style, is Maulavi Muhammad Husain Azad, lately professor of + Arabic at the Government College, Lahore. He has not himself composed + much verse; but his biographies of Urdu poets, with criticisms of + their works, entitled _Ab-i Hayat_ ("Water of Life," Lahore, 1883), is + by far the best book dealing with the subject. His prose style is much + admired. As Hali was the pupil of Ghalib, so was Azad that of Zauq, of + whose poems he has published a revised and annotated edition. His + other works in prose are _Qisas-i Hind_, episodes of Indian history + arranged for schools; _Nairang-i Khayal_, an allegory dealing with + human life; and _Darbar-i Akbari_, an account of the reign of Akbar. + + Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's life and work are dealt with elsewhere. Among + his literary achievements may be mentioned the _Asarus-Sanadid_ + ("Vestiges of Princes"), an excellent account of Delhi and its + monuments, which has passed through several editions since it was + first lithographed in 1847. His essays and occasional papers, + published in the _Aligarh Institute Gazette_ (started in 1864), and + afterwards (from 1870 onwards) in a periodical entitled + _Tahzibul-Akhlaq_ (or "Muhammadan Social Reformer"), handle all the + problems of religious, social and educational advancement among Indian + Musalmans--the cause with which his life was identified. His great + _Commentary on the Qur'an_, in seven volumes, the last finished only a + few days before his death in 1898, is carried to the end of Surah xx., + a little more than half the book. In him Urdu prose found its most + powerful wielder for the diffusion of modern ideas, and the movement + which he set on foot has been the spring of the best literature in the + language during recent years. + + Another excellent writer of Urdu is Shamsul-'Ulama Maulavi Nazir Ahmad + of Delhi, who is the author of a series of novels describing domestic + life, of a somewhat didactic character, which have had a wide + popularity, and from their admirable moral tone have been specially + serviceable in the education of Indian women. These are entitled the + _Mir'atul-'Arus_ (or "Brides' Mirror"); _Taubatun-Nasuh_ ("the + Repentance of Nasuh"), _Banatun-Na'sh_ ("the Seven Stars of the Great + Bear"), _Ibnul-Waqt_ ("Son of the Age"), and _Ayama_ ("Widows"). But + Nazir Ahmad is a man of many sides; before he took to novel-writing he + was the principal translator into Urdu of the _Indian Penal Code_ + (1861), which is reckoned a masterpiece in the exact rendering of + European legal ideas; and more lately he gave to the world the best + Urdu version of the Quran. He has been a popular lecturer on social + subjects, displaying a rich vein of humour, and in his old age even + ventured upon verse. During the latter portion of his life he was most + closely associated with Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan. + + The novel is one of the most noteworthy features of recent literary + composition in Urdu. India has from time immemorial been rich in + stories and romances of adventure; but the description of actual life + and character in action, as the modern novel is understood in Europe, + is quite a new development. The most admired production of this kind + in Urdu is a work entitled _Fisana-e Azad_, by Pandit Ratan-nath + Sarshar of Lucknow. The story, which is very long, is remarkable for + the faithful and vivid pictures of Lucknow society which it presents, + and its exact and lifelike delineation of character; it appeared + originally as a _feuilleton_ of the _Awadh Akhbar_, of which paper the + author was at the time editor. Another good writer in the same branch + of literature is Maulavi 'Abdul-Halim Sharar, also a native of the + neighbourhood of Lucknow, but settled at Hyderabad. He was editor of a + monthly periodical called the _Dil-gudaz_ ("melter of hearts"), which + contained essays and papers in European style, and in it his novels, + which are all of an historical character, in the style of Sir Walter + Scott, originally appeared. The best are _'Aziz and Virgina_, a tale + of the Crusades, and _Mansur and Mohina_, a story of which the scene + is laid in India at the time of the invasions of Sultan Mahmud of + Ghazni. + + Although Urdu chiefly represents Musalman culture, its use is by no + means confined to adherents of that faith. It has just been mentioned + that the most popular Urdu novelist is a Hindu (a Brahman from + Kashmir); and the statistics of the vernacular press show that this + form of the language is widely used by Hindus as well as Musalmans. + Thus, of eighty periodicals in Urdu published in the United Provinces, + twenty-nine are conducted by Hindus; similarly, in the Punjab, of + forty-eight Urdu journals, twenty are edited by Hindus. + + "High Hindi" has scarcely adapted itself to modern requirements with + the thoroughness displayed by Urdu. It is taught in the schools where + the population is mainly Hindu, and books of science have been written + in it with a terminology borrowed from Sanskrit, in place of the + Persian terms used in the other dialect. But Sanskrit is far removed + from the daily life of the people, and the majority of works in this + style are read only by Pandits, the great bulk of them dealing with + religion, philosophy and the ancient literature. There are + thirty-seven Hindi and four Hindi-Urdu journals in the United + Provinces; but many of them are exclusively religious in their + character, and several, though written in Devanagari, employ a mixed + language which admits Persian words freely. The old dialects of + literature, Awadhi and Braj-bhasha, are now only used for poetry; High + Hindi has been a complete failure for this purpose. + + The most noticeable authors in Hindi since the middle of the 19th + century have been Babu Harishchandra and Raja Siva Prasad, both of + Benares. The former, during his short life (1850-1885), was an + enthusiastic cultivator of the old poetic art, using the dialects just + mentioned. He published in the _Sundari Tilak_ an anthology of the + best Hindi poetry, and in the _Kabi-bachan-Sudha_ ("ambrosia of the + words of poets") and the magazine called _Harishchandrika_ a quantity + of old texts, with much added matter. He also wrote a volume of + biographies of famous men, European and Indian, and many critical + studies, historical and literary. In history especially he cleared up + many problems, and traced the lines for further investigation. In his + _Kashmir Kusum_, or history of Kashmir, a list is given of about a + hundred works by him. He was also the real founder of the modern Hindi + drama; he wrote plays himself, and inspired others. Raja Siva Prasad + (1823-1895) served for many years in the educational department, and + published a number of works intended for use in schools, which have + greatly contributed to the formation of a sound vernacular form of + Hindi, not excessively Sanskritized, and not rejecting current Persian + forms. The society at Benares called the _Nagari Pracharini Sabha_ + ("Society for promoting the use of the Nagari character") has, since + the death of Harishchandra, been active in procuring the publication + of works in Hindi, and has issued many useful books, besides + conducting a systematic search for old MSS. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best account in English of Hindi literature is Dr + G. A. Grierson's _Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindostan_, issued + by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889; the dates in this work, + which is founded on indigenous compilations, have, however, in many + cases to be received with caution. Before it appeared, Garcin de + Tassy's _Histoire de la litterature Hindouie et Hindoustanie_, and his + annual summaries of the progress made from 1850 to 1877, were our + chief authority, and may still be consulted with advantage. For the + religious literature of the Vaishnava sects, Professor H. H. Wilson's + _Essay on the Religious Sects of the Hindus_ (vol. i. of his collected + works) has not yet been superseded. + + For Urdu poets, Professor Azad's _Ab-i Hayat_ (in Urdu) is the most + trustworthy record. For the new school of Urdu literature reference + may be made to a series of lectures (in English) by Shaikh + 'Abdul-Qadir of Lahore, printed in 1898. The catalogues by Professor + Blumhardt of Hindostani and Hindi books in the libraries of the + British Museum and the India Office will give a good idea of the + volume of the recent productions of the press in those languages. + (C. J. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Urdu_ is a Turkish word meaning a camp or army with its + followers, and is the origin of the European word _horde_. _Rekhta_ + means "scattered, strewn," referring to the way in which Persian + words are intermixed with those of Indian origin; it is used chiefly + for the literary form of Urdu. + + [2] The only known exceptions are a work in Hindi called the + _Chaurasi Varta_ (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems; + the latter can scarcely be called literature. + + [3] A fresh critical edition of the text by Pandit Mohan Lal Vishnu + Lal Pandia at Benares, under the auspices of the _Nagari Pracharini + Sabha_, had reached canto xxiv. in 1907. + + [4] See _J.A.S.B._ (1886), pp. 6 sqq. + + [5] _Annals and Antiquities_, ii. 452 n. and 472 n. + + [6] Worshippers of the energic power--_Sakti_--of Siva, represented + by his consort Parvati or Bhawani. + + [7] Quoted from G. A. Grierson, chapter on "Literature," in the + _India Gazetteer_ (ed. 1907). + + [8] The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 300 B.C.), + who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathura on + the Jumna river. That of Rama is probably still more ancient; the + name occurs in stories of the Buddha. + + [9] _Religious Sects of the Hindus_, p. 40. + + [10] This name of Krishna, which means "He who quits the battle," is + connected with the story of the transfer of the Yadava clan from + Mathura to the new capital on the coast of the peninsula of + Kathiawar, the city of Dwaraka. This migration was the result of an + invasion of Braj by Jarasandha, king of Magadha, before whom Krishna + resolved to retreat. As his path southwards took him through + Rajputana and Gujarat, it is in these regions that his form Ranchhor + is most generally venerated as a symbol of the shifting of the centre + of divine life from Gangetic to southern India. + + [11] In the _Granth_ Namdeo is called a calico-printer, _Chhipi_. The + Marathi tradition is that he was a tailor, _Shimpi_; it is probable + that the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been + wrongly rendered by the former. + + [12] It will be remembered that Akbar's reign was remarkable for the + translation into Persian of a large number of Sanskrit works of + religion and philosophy, most of the versions being made by, or in + the names of, members of his court. + + [13] _Religious Sects_, p. 132. + + [14] Amir Khusrau is credited with the authorship of many still + popular rhymes, riddles or punning verses (called _pahelis_ and + _mukuris_); but these, though often containing Persian words, are in + Hindi and scanned according to the prosody of that language; they + are, therefore, like Malik Muhammad's _Padmawat_, not Urdu or Rekhta + verse (see Professor Azad's _Abi-Hayat_, pp. 72-76). A late Dakkhani + poet who used the _takkallus_ of Sa'di is said by Azad (p. 79) to + have been confused by Mirza Rafi'us-Sauda in his _Tazkira_ with Sa'di + of Shiraz. + + [15] An exception may be made to this general statement in favour of + the _genre_ pictures of city and country life contained in the + _masnavis_ of Sauda and Nazir. These are often satires (in the vein + of Horace rather than Juvenal), and are full of interest as pictures + of society. In Sauda, however, the conventional language used in + description is often Persian rather than Indian. + + [16] To be carefully distinguished from the reformer of the same name + who flourished half a century later. + + + + +HINDU CHRONOLOGY. The subject of Hindu chronology divides naturally into +three parts: the calendar, the eras, and other reckonings. + + +I. THE CALENDAR + +The Hindus have had from very ancient times the system of lunisolar +cycles, made by the combination of solar years, regulated by the course +of the sun, and lunar years, regulated by the course of the moon, but +treated in such a manner as to keep the beginning of the lunar year near +the beginning of the solar year. The exact manner in which they arranged +the details of their earliest calendar is still a subject of research. +We deal here with their calendar as it now stands, in a form which was +developed from about A.D. 400 under the influence of the Greek astronomy +which had been introduced into India at no very long time previously. + +The Hindu calendar, then, is determined by years of two kinds, solar and +lunar. For civil purposes, solar years are used in Bengal, including +Orissa, and in the Tamil and Malayalam districts of Madras, and lunar +years throughout the rest of India. But the lunar year regulates +everywhere the general religious rites and festivals, and the details of +private and domestic life, such as the selection of auspicious occasions +for marriages and for starting on journeys, the choice of lucky moments +for shaving, and so on. Consequently, the details of the lunar year are +shown even in the almanacs which follow the solar year. On the other +hand, certain details of the solar year, such as the course of the sun +through the signs and other divisions of the zodiac, are shown in the +almanacs which follow the lunar year. We will treat the solar year +first, because it governs the lunisolar system, and the explanation of +it will greatly simplify the process of explaining the lunar calendar. + + + The astronomical solar year. + +The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical solar year. The +latter professes to begin at the vernal equinox, but the actual position +is as follows. In our Western astronomy the signs of the zodiac have, in +consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, drawn away to a large +extent from the constellations from which they derived their names; with +the result that the sun now comes to the vernal equinox, at the first +point of the sign Aries, not in the constellation Aries, but at a point +in Pisces, about 28 degrees before the beginning of Aries. The Hindus, +however, have disregarded precession in connexion with their calendar +from the time (A.D. 499, 522, or 527, according to different schools) +when, by their system, the signs coincided with the constellations; and +their sign Aries, called Mesha by them, is still their constellation +Aries, beginning, according to them, at or near the star [zeta] Piscium. +Their astronomical solar year is, in fact, not the tropical year, in the +course of which the sun really passes from one vernal equinox to the +next, but a sidereal year, the period during which the earth makes one +revolution in its orbit round the sun with reference to the first point +of Mesha; its beginning is the moment of the Mesha-samkranti, the +entrance of the sun into the sidereal sign Mesha, instead of the +tropical sign Aries; and it begins, not with the true equinox, but with +an artificial or nominal equinox. + +The length of this sidereal solar year was determined in the following +manner. The astronomer selected what the Greeks termed an _exeligmos_, +the Romans an _annus magnus_ or _mundanus_, a period in the course of +which a given order of things is completed by the sun, moon, and planets +returning to a state of conjunction from which they have started. The +usual Hindu _exeligmos_ has been the Great Age of 4,320,000 sidereal +solar years, the aggregate of the Krita or golden age, the Treta or +silver age, the Dvapara or brazen age, and the Kali or iron age, in +which we now are; but it has sometimes been the Kalpa or aeon, +consisting according to one view of 1000, according to another view of +1008, Great Ages. He then laid down the number of revolutions, in the +period of his _exeligmos_, of the _nakshatras_, certain stars and groups +of stars which will be noticed more definitely in our account of the +lunar year; that is, the number of rotations of the earth on its axis, +or, in other words, the number of sidereal days. A deduction of the +number of the years from the number of the sidereal days gave, as +remainder, the number of civil days in the _exeligmos_. And, this +remainder being divided by the number of the years, the quotient gave +the length of the sidereal solar year: refinements, suggested by +experience, inference, or extraneous information, were made by +increasing or decreasing the number of sidereal days assigned to the +_exeligmos_. The Hindus now recognize three standard sidereal solar +years determined in that manner. (1) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. +30 sec. according to the _Aryabhatiya_, otherwise called the _First +Arya-Siddhanta_, which was written by the astronomer Aryabhata (b. A.D. +476): this year is used in the Tamil and Malayalam districts, and, we +may add, in Ceylon. (2) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30.915 sec. +according to the _Rajamriga ka_, a treatise based on the +_Brahma-Siddhanta_ of Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598) and attributed to king +Bhoja, of which the epoch, the point of time used in it for +calculations, falls in A.D. 1042: this year is used in parts of Gujarat +(Bombay) and in Rajputana and other western parts of Northern India. (3) +A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 36.56 sec. according to the present +_Surya-Siddhanta_, a work of unknown authorship which dates from +probably about A.D. 1000: this year is used in almost all the other +parts of India. It may be remarked that, according to modern science, +the true mean sidereal solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.6 +sec., and the mean tropical year measures 365 days 5 hrs. 48 min. +46.054440 sec. + +The result of the use of this sidereal solar year is that the beginning +of the Hindu astronomical solar year, and with it the civil solar year +and the lunar year and the nominal incidence of the seasons, has always +been, and still is, travelling slowly forward in our calendar year by an +amount which varies according to the particular authority.[1] For +instance, Aryabhata's year exceeds the Julian year by 12 min. 30 sec. +This amounts to exactly one day in 115(1/5) years, and five days in 576 +years. Thus, if we take the longer period and confine ourselves to a +time when the Julian calendar (old style) was in use, according to +Aryabhata the Mesha-samkranti began to occur in A.D. 603 on 20th March, +and in A.D. 1179 on 25th March. The intermediate advances arrange +themselves into four steps of one day each in 116 years, followed by one +step of one day in 112 years: thus, the Mesha-samkranti began to occur +on 21st March in A.D. 719, on 22nd March in A.D. 835, on 23rd March in +A.D. 951, and on 24th March in A.D. 1067 (whence 112 years take us to +25th March in A.D. 1179). It is now occurring sometimes on 11th April, +sometimes on the 12th; having first come to the 12th in A.D. 1871. + + + The civil solar year. + +The civil solar year exists in more varieties than one. The principal +variety, conveniently called the Meshadi year, i.e. "the year beginning +at the Mesha-samkranti," is the only one that we need notice at this +point. The beginning of it is determined directly by the astronomical +solar year; and for religious purposes it begins, with that year, at the +moment of the Mesha-samkranti. Its first civil day, however, may be +either the day on which the _samkranti_ occurs, or the next day, or even +the day after that: this is determined partly by the time of day or +night at which the _samkranti_ occurs, which, moreover, of course varies +in accordance with the locality as well as the particular authority that +is followed; partly by differing details of practice in different parts +of the country. In these circumstances an exact equivalent of the +Meshadi civil solar year cannot be stated; but it may be taken as now +beginning on or closely about the 12th of April. + + + The solar month. + + The solar year is divided into twelve months, in accordance with the + successive _samkrantis_ or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal) + signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are twelve in number. The + names of the signs in Sanskrit are as follows: Mesha, the ram (Aries); + Vrishabha, the bull (Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini); + Karka, Karkata, Karkataka, the crab (Cancer); Simha, the lion (Leo); + Kanya, the maiden (Virgo); Tula, the scales (Libra); Vrischika, the + scorpion (Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius); Makara, the + sea-monster (Capricornus); Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius); and Mina, + the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some parts by the + names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them; and these are the + best names for them for general use, because they lead to no + confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of names, preserving + the connexion of them with the lunar months: the Sanskrit forms of + these names are Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyaishtha, Ashadha, Sravana, + Bhadrapada, Asvina or Asvayuja, Karttika, Margasira or Margasirsha + (also known as Agrahayana), Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna: in some + localities these names are used in corrupted forms, and in others + vernacular names are substituted for some of them; and, while in some + parts the name Chaitra is attached to the month Mesha, in other parts + it is attached to the month Mina, and so on throughout the series in + each case. The astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one + _samkranti_ of the sun to the moment of the next _samkranti_; and, as + the signs of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as + with us, while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its + orbit round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the + length of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the + longest is Mithuna. The civil solar month begins with its first civil + day, which is determined, in different localities, in the same manner + with the first civil day of the Meshadi year, as indicated above. The + civil month is of variable length; partly for that reason, partly + because of the variation in the length of the astronomical month. No + exact equivalents of the civil months, therefore, can be stated; but, + speaking approximately, we may say that, while the month Mesha now + begins on or closely about 12th April, the beginning of a subsequent + month may come as late as the 16th day of the English month in which + it falls. + + + The seasons. + + The solar year is also divided into six seasons, the Sanskrit names of + which are Vasanta, spring; Grishma, the hot weather; Varsha, the rainy + season; Sarad, autumn; Hemanta, the cold weather; and Sisira, the dewy + season. Vasanta begins at the Mina-samkranti; the other seasons begin + at each successive second _samkranti_ from that. Originally, this + scheme was laid out with reference to the true course of the sun, and + the starting-point of it was the real winter solstice, with Sisira, as + the first season, beginning then; now, owing partly to the disregard + of precession, partly to our introduction of New Style, each season + comes about three weeks too late; Vasanta begins on or about 12th + March, instead of 19th or 20th February, and so on with the rest. It + may be added that in early times the year was also divided into three + or four, and even into five or seven, seasons; and there appears to + have been also a practice of reckoning the seasons according to the + lunar months, which, however, would only give a very varying + arrangement, in addition to neglecting the point that the seasons are + naturally determined by the course of the sun, not of the moon. But + there is now recognized only the division into six seasons, determined + as stated above. + + + The solstitial divisions of the year. + + The solar year is also divided into two parts called Uttarayana, the + period during which the sun is moving to the north, and Dakshinayana, + the period during which it is moving to the south. The Uttarayana + begins at the nominal winter solstice, as marked by the + Makara-samkranti; and the day on which this solstice occurs, usually + 12th January at present, is still a special occasion of festivity and + rejoicing; the Dakshinayana begins at the nominal summer solstice, as + marked by the Karka-samkranti. It may be added here that, while the + Hindus disregard precession in the actual computation of their years + and the regulation of their calendar, they pay attention to it in + certain other respects, and notably as regards the solstices: the + precessional solstices are looked upon as auspicious occasions, as + well as the non-precessional solstices, and are customarily shown in + the almanacs; and some of the almanacs show also the other + precessional _samkrantis_ of the sun. + + + The civil day. + + The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are numbered + 1, 2, 3, &c., in unbroken succession to the end of the month. And, the + length of the month being variable for the reasons stated above, the + number of the civil days may range from twenty-nine to thirty-two. + + + The weekday. + + The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual + appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some of the + names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit Adityavara or + Ravivara, the day of the sun, sometimes called Adivara, the + beginning-day (Sunday); Somavara, the day of the moon (Monday); + Mangalavara, the day of Mars (Tuesday); Budhavara, the day of Mercury + (Wednesday); Brihas-pativara or Guruvara, the day of Jupiter + (Thursday); Sukravara, the day of Venus (Friday); and Sanivara, the + day of Saturn (Saturday). It may be mentioned, as a matter of + archaeological interest, that, while some of the astronomical books + perhaps postulate an earlier knowledge of the "lords of the days," and + other writings indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven + days, the first proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is + of the year A.D. 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor + district, Central India. + + + Divisions of the day. + + The divisions of the civil day, as far as we need note them, are 60 + _vipalas_ = 1 _pala_ = 24 seconds; 60 _palas_ = 1 _ghatika_ = 24 + minutes; 60 _ghatikas_ = 24 hours = 1 day. There is also the _muhurta_ + = 2 _ghatikas_ = 48 minutes: this is the nearest approach to the + "hour." The comparative value of these measures of time may perhaps be + best illustrated thus: 2(1/2) _muhurtas_ = 2 hours; 2(1/2) _ghatikas_ + = 1 hour; 2(1/2) _palas_ = 1 minute; 2(1/2) _vipalas_ = 1 second. + + + Civil time. + + As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count all + their times, in _ghatikas_ and _palas_, from that moment. But the + moment is a varying one, though not in India to anything like the + extent to which it is so in European latitudes; and under the British + Government the Hindus have recognized the advantage, and in fact the + necessity, especially in connexion with their lunar calendar, of + having a convenient means of referring their own times to the time + which prevails officially. Consequently, some of the almanacs have + adopted the European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours + and minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset + from noon. + + + The lunar year. + +The lunar year consists primarily of twelve lunations or lunar months, +of which the present Sanskrit names, generally used in more or less +corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c., to Phalguna, as given above +in connexion with the solar months. It is of two principal varieties, +according as it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or with +the corresponding day in Karttika: the former variety is conveniently +known as the Chaitradi year; the latter as the Karttikadi year. For +religious purposes the lunar year begins with its first lunar day: for +civil purposes it begins with its first civil day, the relation of which +to the lunar day will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which, +as we shall explain, the beginning of the lunar year is always shifting +backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay down any close +equivalents for comparison: but an indication may be given as follows. +The first civil day of the Chaitradi year is the day after the new-moon +conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Mina, +and it now falls from about 13th March to about 11th April: the first +civil day of the Karttikadi year is the first day after the new-moon +conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Tula, +and it now falls from about 17th October to about 15th November. + + + The lunar month. + + The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were derived + from the _nakshatras_, which are certain conspicuous stars and groups + of stars lying more or less along the neighbourhood of the ecliptic. + The _nakshatras_ are regarded sometimes as twenty-seven in number, + sometimes as twenty-eight, and are grouped in twelve sets of two or + three each, beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the + list, with the pair Krittika and Rohini, and including in the sixth + place Chitra and Svati, and ending with the triplet Revati, Asvini and + Bharani. They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes + spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac; and it is, no doubt, + chiefly in connexion with the moon that they are now taken into + consideration. But they mark divisions of the ecliptic: according to + one system, twenty-seven divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes; + according to two other systems, twenty-seven or twenty-eight unequal + divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs show the + course of the sun through them, as well as the course of the moon; and + the course of the sun was marked by them only, before the time when + the Hindus began to use the twelve signs of the solar zodiac. So there + is nothing exclusively lunar about them. The present names of the + lunar months were derived from the _nakshatras_ in the following + manner: the full-moon which occurred when the moon was in conjunction + with Chitra (the star [alpha] Virginis) was named Chaitri, and the + lunar month, which contained the Chaitri full-moon, was named Chaitra; + and so on with the others. The present names have superseded another + set of names which were at one time in use concurrently with them; + these other names are Madhu (= Chaitra), Madhava, Sukra, Suchi, + Nabhas, Nabhasya, Isha, Urja (= Karttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and + Tapasya (= Phalguna): they seem to have marked originally solar + season-months of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar + year. + + A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new-moon, + which is called _amavasya_, or with the full-moon, which is called + _purnamasi_, _purnima_: a month of the former kind is termed _amanta_, + "ending with the new-moon," or _sukladi_, "beginning with the bright + fortnight;" a month of the latter kind is termed purnimanta, "ending + with the full-moon," or _krishnadi_, "beginning with the dark + fortnight." For all purposes of the calendar, the _amanta_ month is + used in Southern India, and the _purnimanta_ month in Northern India. + But only the _amanta_ month, the period of the synodic revolution of + the moon, is recognized in Hindu astronomy, and for the purpose of + naming the lunations and adjusting the lunar to the solar year by the + intercalation and suppression of lunar months; and the rule is that + the lunar Chaitra is the _amanta_ or synodic month at the first moment + of which the sun is in the sign Mina, and in the course of which the + sun enters Mesha: the other months follow in the same way; and the + lunar Karttika is the _amanta_ month at the first moment of which the + sun is in Tula, and in the course of which the sun enters Vrischika. + The connexion between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by + the point that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice + to the solar Mina, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to + another practice to the solar Mesha, in which the lunar Chaitra ends. + Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious purposes + with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil + day. + + + Intercalation and suppression of lunar months. + + One mean lunar year of twelve lunations measures very nearly 354 days + 8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures 365 days 6 + hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to Aryabhata, or slightly more + according to the other two authorities. Consequently, the beginning of + a lunar year pure and simple would be always travelling backwards + through the solar year, by about eleven days on each occasion, and + would in course of time recede entirely through the solar year, as it + does in the Mahommedan calendar. The Hindus prevent that in the + following manner. The length of the Hindu astronomical solar month, + measured by the _samkrantis_ of the sun, its successive entrances into + the signs of the zodiac, ranges, in accordance with periodical + variations in the speed of the sun, from about 29 days 7 hrs. 38 min. + up to about 31 days 15 hrs. 28 min. The length of the _amanta_ or + synodic lunar month ranges, in accordance with periodical variations + in the speed of the moon and the sun, from about 29 days 19 hrs. 30 + min. down to about 29 days 7 hrs. 20 min. Consequently, it happens + from time to time that there are two new-moon conjunctions, so that + two lunations begin, in one astronomical solar month, between two + _samkrantis_ of the sun, while the sun is in one and the same sign of + the zodiac, and there is no _samkranti_ in the lunation ending with + the second new-moon: when this is the case, there are two lunations to + which the same name is applicable, and so there is an additional or + intercalated month, in the sense that a name is repeated: thus, when + two new-moons occur while the sun is in Mesha, the lunation ending + with the first of them, during which the sun has entered Mesha, is + Chaitra; the next lunation, in which there is no _samkranti_, is + Vaisakha, because it begins when the sun is in Mesha; and the next + lunation after that is again Vaisakha, for the same reason, and also + because the sun enters Vrishabha in the course of it: in these + circumstances, the first of the two Vaisakhas is called + Adhika-Vaisakha, "the additional or intercalated Vaisakha," and the + second is called simply Vaisakha, or sometimes Nija-Vaisakha, "the + natural Vaisakha." On the other hand, it occasionally happens, in an + autumn or winter month, that there are two _samkrantis_ of the sun in + one and the same _amanta_ or synodic lunar month, between two new-moon + conjunctions, so that no lunation begins between the two _samkrantis_: + when this is the case, there is one lunation to which two names are + applicable, and there is a suppressed month, in the sense that a name + is omitted: thus, if the sun enters both Dhanus and Makara during one + synodic lunation, that lunation is Margasira, because the sun was in + Vrischika at the first moment of it and enters Dhanus in the course of + it;[2] the next lunation is Magha, because the sun is in Makara by the + time when it begins and will enter Kumbha in the course of it; and the + name Pausha, between Margasira and Magha, is omitted. When a month is + thus suppressed, there is always one intercalated month, and sometimes + two, in the same Chaitradi lunar year, so that the lunar year never + contains less than twelve months, and from time to time consists of + thirteen months. There are normally seven intercalated months, rising + to eight when a month is suppressed, in 19 solar years, which equal + very nearly 235 lunations;[3] and there is never less than one year + without an intercalated month between two years with intercalated + months, except when there is only one such month in a year in which a + month is suppressed; then there is always an intercalated month in the + next year also. The suppression of a month takes place at intervals of + 19 years and upwards, regarding which no definite statement can + conveniently be made here. It may be added that an intercalated + Chaitra or Karttika takes the place of the ordinary month as the first + month of the year; an intercalated month is not rejected for that + purpose, though it is tabooed from the religious and auspicious points + of view. + + The manner in which this arrangement of intercalated and suppressed + months works out, so as to prevent the beginning of the Chaitradi + lunar year departing far from the beginning of the Meshadi solar + year, may be illustrated as follows. In A.D. 1815 the Mesha-samkranti + occurred on 11th April; and the first civil day of the Chaitradi year + was 10th April. In A.D. 1816 and 1817 the first civil day of the + Chaitradi year fell back to 29th March and 18th March. In A.D. 1817, + however, there was an intercalated month, Sravana; with the result + that in A.D. 1818 the first civil day of the Chaitradi year advanced + to 6th April. And, after various shiftings of the same kind--including + in A.D. 1822 an intercalation of Asvina and a suppression of Pausha, + followed in A.D. 1823, when the first civil day of the Chaitradi year + had fallen back to 13th March, by an intercalation of Chaitra + itself--in A.D. 1834, when the Mesha-samkranti occurred again on 11th + April, the first civil day of the Chaitradi year was again 10th April. + + + The lunar fortnight. + + The lunar month is divided into two fortnights (_paksha_), called + bright and dark, or, in Indian terms, _sukla_ or _suddha_, _sudi_, + _sudi_, and _krishna_ or _bahula_, _badi_, _vadi_: the bright + fortnight, _sukla-paksha_, is the period of the waxing moon, ending at + the full-moon; the dark fortnight, _krishna-paksha_, is the period of + the waning moon, ending at the new-moon. In the _amanta_ or _sukladi_ + month, the bright fortnight precedes the dark; in the _purnimanta_ or + _krishnadi_ month, the dark fortnight comes first; and the result is + that, whereas, for instance, the bright fortnight of Chaitra is the + same period of time throughout India, the preceding dark fortnight is + known in Northern India as the dark fortnight of Chaitra, but in + Southern India as the dark fortnight of Phalguna. This, however, does + not affect the period covered by the lunar year; the Chaitradi and + Karttikadi years begin everywhere with the bright fortnight of Chaitra + and Karttika respectively; simply, by the _amanta_ system the dark + fortnights of Chaitra and Karttika are the second fortnights, and by + the _purnimanta_ system they are the last fortnights, of the years. + Like the month, the fortnight begins for religious purposes with its + first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil day. + + + The lunar day. + + The lunar fortnights are divided each into fifteen tithis or lunar + days.[4] The _tithi_ is the time in which the moon increases her + distance from the sun round the circle by twelve degrees; and the + almanacs show each _tithi_ by its ending-time; that is, by the moment, + expressed in _ghatikas_ and _palas_, after sunrise, at which the moon + completes that distance. In accordance with that, the _tithi_ is + usually used and cited with the weekday on which it ends; but there + are special rules regarding certain rites, festivals, &c., which + sometimes require the _tithi_ to be used and cited with the weekday on + which it begins or is current at a particular time. The first _tithi_ + of each fortnight begins immediately after the moment of new-moon and + full-moon respectively; the last _tithi_ ends at the moment of + full-moon and new-moon. The _tithis_ are primarily denoted by the + numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., for each fortnight; but, while the full-moon + _tithi_ is always numbered 15, the new-moon _tithi_ is generally + numbered 30, even where the _purnimanta_ month is used. The _tithis_ + may be cited either by their figures or by the Sanskrit ordinal words + _prathama_, "first," _dvitiya_, "second," &c., or corruptions of them. + But usually the first _tithi_ of either fortnight is cited by the term + _pratipad_, _pratipada_, and the new-moon and full-moon _tithis_ are + cited by the terms _amavasya_ and _purnima_; or here, again, + corruptions of the Sanskrit terms are used. And special names are + sometimes prefixed to the numbers of the _tithis_, according to the + rites, festivals, &c., prescribed for them, or events or merits + assigned to them: for instance, Vaisakha sukla 3 is Akshaya or + Akshayya-tritiya, the third _tithi_ which ensures permanence to acts + performed on it; Bhadrapada sukla 4 is Ganesa-chaturthi, the fourth + _tithi_ dedicated to the worship of the god Ganesa, Ganapati, and the + _amanta_ Bhadrapada or _purnimanta_ Asvina krishna 13 is + Kaliyugadi-trayodasi, as being regarded (for some reason which is not + apparent) as the anniversary of the beginning of the Kaliyuga, the + present Age. The first _tithi_ of the year is styled + Samvatsara-pratipada, which term answers closely to our "New Year's + Day." + + + The civil day. + + The civil days of the lunar month begin, like those of the solar + month, at sunrise, and bear in the same way the names of the weekdays. + But they are numbered in a different manner; fortnight by fortnight + and according to the _tithis_. The general rule is that the civil day + takes the number of the _tithi_ which is current at its sunrise. And + the results are as follows. As the motions of the sun and the moon + vary periodically, a tithi is of variable length, ranging, according + to the Hindu calculations, from 21 hrs. 34 min. 24 sec. to 26 hrs. 6 + min. 24 sec.: it may, therefore, be either shorter or longer than a + civil day, the duration of which is practically 24 hours (one minute, + roughly, more or less, according to the time of the year). A _tithi_ + may end at any moment during the civil day; and ordinarily it ends on + the civil day after that on which it begins, and covers only one + sunrise and gives its number to the day on which it ends. It may, + however, begin on one civil day and end on the next but one, and so + cover two sunrises; and it is then treated as a repeated _tithi_, in + the sense that its number is repeated: for instance, if the seventh + _tithi_ so begins and ends, the civil day on which it begins is + numbered 6, from the _tithi_ which is current at the sunrise of that + day and ends on it; the day covered entirely by the seventh _tithi_ is + numbered 7, because that _tithi_ is current at its sunrise; the next + day, at the sunrise of which the seventh _tithi_ is still current and + during which it ends, is again numbered 7; and the number 8 falls to + the next day after that, when the eighth tithi is current at + sunrise.[5] On the other hand, a _tithi_ may begin and end during one + and the same civil day, so as not to touch a sunrise at all: in this + case, it exists for any practical purposes for which it may be wanted + (it is, however, to be avoided if possible, as being an unlucky + occasion), but it is suppressed or expunged for the numbering of the + civil day, in the sense that its number is omitted; for instance, if + the seventh _tithi_ begins and ends during one civil day, that day is + numbered 6 from, as before, the _tithi_ which is current at its + sunrise and ends when the seventh _tithi_ begins; the next day is + numbered 8, because the eighth _tithi_ is current at its sunrise; and + there is, in this case, no civil day bearing the number seven. In + consequence of this method of numbering, it sometimes happens, as the + result of the suppression of a _tithi_, that the day of a full-moon is + numbered 14 instead of 15; that the day of a new-moon is numbered 14 + instead of 30; and that the first day of a fortnight, and even the + first day of a lunar year, is numbered 2 instead of 1. + + There are, on an average, thirteen suppressed _tithis_ and seven + repeated _tithis_ in twelve lunar months; and so the lunar year + averages 354 days, rising to about 384 when a month is intercalated. + It occasionally happens that there are two suppressions of _tithis_ in + one and the same fortnight; and the almanacs show such a case in the + bright fortnight of Jyaishtha, A.D. 1878: but this occurs only after + very long intervals. + + + The Karana. + + The _tithi_ is divided into two _karanas_; each _karana_ being the + time in which the moon increases her distance from the sun by six + degrees. But this is a detail of astrological rather than + chronological interest. So, also, are two other details to which a + prominent place is given in the lunar calendars; to yoga, or time in + which the joint motion in longitude, the sum of the motions of the sun + and the moon, is increased by 13 degrees 20 minutes; and the + _nakshatra_, the position of the moon as referred to the ecliptic by + means of the stars and groups of stars which have been mentioned above + under the lunar month. + + In the Indian calendar everything depends upon exact times, which + differ, of course, on every different meridian; and (to cite what is + perhaps the most frequent and generally important occurrence) + suppression and repetition may affect one _tithi_ and civil day in one + locality, and another _tithi_ and civil day in another locality not + very far distant. Consequently, neither for the lunar nor for the + solar calendar is there any almanac which is applicable to even the + whole area in which any particular length of the astronomical solar + year prevails; much less, for the whole of India. Different almanacs + are prepared and published for places of leading importance; details + for minor places, when wanted, have to be worked out by the local + astrologer, the modern representative of an ancient official known as + Sammvatsara, the "clerk of the year." + + +II. ERAS + +As far as the available evidence goes (and we have no reason to expect +to discover anything opposed to it), any use of eras, in the sense of +continuous reckonings which originated in historical occurrences or +astronomical epochs and were employed for official and other public +chronological purposes, did not prevail in India before the 1st century +B.C. Prior to that time, there existed, indeed, in connexion with the +sacrificial calendar, a five-years lunisolar cycle, and possibly some +extended cycles of the same nature; and there was in Buddhist circles a +record of the years elapsed since the death of Buddha, which we shall +mention again further on. But, as is gathered from books and is well +illustrated by the edicts of Asoka (reigned 264-227 B.C.) and the +inscriptions of other rulers, the years of the reign of each successive +king were found sufficient for the public dating of proclamations and +the record of events. There is no known case in which any Indian king, +of really ancient times, deliberately applied himself to the foundation +of an era: and we have no reason for thinking that such a thing was ever +done, or that any Hindu reckoning at all owes its existence to a +recognition of historical requirements. The eras which came into +existence from the 1st century B.C. onwards mostly had their origin in +the fortuitous extension of regnal reckonings. The usual course has been +that, under the influence of filial piety, pride in ancestry, loyalty to +a paramount sovereign, or some other such motive, the successor of some +king continued the regnal reckoning of his predecessor, who was not +necessarily the first king in the dynasty, and perhaps did not even +reign for any long time, instead of starting a new reckoning, beginning +again with the year 1, according to the years of his own reign. Having +thus run for two reigns, the reckoning was sufficiently well established +to continue in the same form, and to eventually develop into a generally +accepted local era, which might or might not be taken over by subsequent +dynasties ruling afterwards over the same territory. In these +circumstances, we find the establisher of any particular era in that +king who first continued his predecessor's regnal reckoning, instead of +replacing it by his own; but we regard as the founder of the era that +king whose regnal reckoning was so continued. We may add here that it +was only in advanced stages that any of the Hindu eras assumed specific +names: during the earlier period of each of them, the years were simply +cited by the term _samvatsara_ or _varsha_, "the year (bearing +such-and-such a number)," or by the abbreviations _samvat_ and _sam_, +without any appellative designation. + + + The Buddhist and Jain religious reckonings. + +The Hindus have had two religious reckonings, which it will be +convenient to notice first. Certain, statements in the Ceylonese +chronicles, the _Dipavamsa_ and _Mahavamsa_, endorsed by an entry in a +record of Asoka, show that in the 3rd century B.C. there existed among +the Buddhists a record of the time elapsed since the death of Buddha in +483 B.C., from which it was known that Asoka was anointed to the +sovereignty 218 years after the death. The reckoning, however, was +confined to esoteric Buddhist circles, and did not commend itself for +any public use; and the only known inscriptional use of it, which also +furnishes the latest known date recorded in it, is found in the Last +Edict of Asoka, which presents his dying speech delivered in 226 B.C., +256 years after the death of Buddha. In Ceylon, where, also the original +reckoning was not maintained, there was devised in the 12th century A.D. +a reckoning styled Buddhavarsha, "the years of Buddha," which still +exists, and which purports to run from the death of Buddha, but has set +up an erroneous date for that event in 544 B.C. This later reckoning +spread from Ceylon to Burma and Siam, where, also, it is still used. It +did not obtain any general recognition in India, because, when it was +devised, Buddhism had practically died out there, except at Bodh-Gaya. +But, as there seems to have been constant intercourse between Bodh-Gaya +and Ceylon as well as other foreign Buddhist countries, we should not be +surprised to find an occasional instance of its use at Bodh-Gaya: and it +is believed that one such instance, belonging to A.D. 1270, has been +obtained. + +The Jains have had, and still maintain, a reckoning from the death of +the founder of their faith, Vira, Mahavira, Vardhamana, which event is +placed by them in 528 B.C. This reckoning figures largely in the Jain +books, which put forward dates in it for very early times. But the +earliest known synchronous date in it--by which we mean a date given by +a writer who recorded the year in which he himself was writing--is one +of the year 980, or, according to a different view mentioned in the +passage itself, of the year 993. This reckoning, again, did not commend +itself for any official or other public use. And the only known +inscriptional instances of the use of it are modern ones, of the 19th +century. While it is certain that the Jain reckoning, as it exists, has +its initial point in 528 B.C. it has not yet been determined whether +that is actually the year in which Vira died. All that can be said on +this point is that the date is not inconsistent with certain statements +in Buddhist books, which mention, by a Prakrit name of which the +Sanskrit form is Nirgrantha-Jnata-putra, a contemporary of Buddha, in +whom there is recognized the original of the Jain Vira, Mahavira, or +Vardhamana, and who, the same books say, died while Buddha was still +alive. But there are some indications that Nirgrantha-Jnataputra may +have died only a short time before Buddha himself; and the event may +easily have been set back to 528 B.C. in circumstances, attending a +determination of the reckoning long after the occurrence, analogous to +those in which the Ceylonese Buddhavarsha set up the erroneous date of +544 B.C. for the death of Buddha. + + + Bygone Eras of royal origin. + + In the class of eras of royal origin, brought into existence in the + manner indicated above, the Hindus have had various reckonings which + have now mostly fallen into disuse. We may mention them, without + giving them the detailed treatment which the more important of the + still existing reckonings demand. + + The Kalachuri or Chedi era, commencing in A.D. 248 or 249, is known + best from inscriptional records, bearing dates which range from the + 10th to the 13th century A.D., of the Kalachuri kings of the Chedi + country in Central India; and it is from them that it derived the name + under which it passes. In earlier times, however, we find this era + well established, without any appellation, in Western India, in + Gujarat and the Thana district of Bombay, where it was used by kings + and princes of the Chalukya, Gurjara, Sendraka, Katachchuri and + Traikutaka families. It is traced back there to A.D. 457, at which + time there was reigning a Traikutaka king named Dahrasena. Beyond that + point, we have at present no certain knowledge about it. But it seems + probable that the founder of it may be recognized in an Abhira king + Isvarasena, or else in his father Sivadatta, who was reigning at Nasik + in or closely about A.D. 248-49. + + The Gupta era, commencing in A.D. 320, was founded by Chandragupta I., + the first paramount king in the great Gupta dynasty of Northern India. + When the Guptas passed away, their reckoning was taken over by the + Maitraka kings of Valabhi, who succeeded them in Kathiawar and some of + the neighbouring territories; and so it became also known as the + Valabhi era. + + From Halsi in the Belgaum district, Bombay, we have a record of the + Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, which was framed during the time when he + was the Yuvaraja or anointed successor to the sovereignty, and may be + referred to about A.D. 500. It is dated in "the eightieth victorious + year," and thus indicates the preservation of a reckoning running from + the foundation of the Kadamba dynasty by Mayuravarman, the + great-grandfather of Kakusthavarman. But no other evidence of the + existence of this era has been obtained. + + The records of the Ganga kings of Kalinganagara, which is the modern + Mukhalingam-Nagarikatakam in the Ganjam district, Madras, show the + existence of a Ganga era which ran for at any rate 254 years. And + various details in the inscriptions enable us to trace the origin of + the Ganga kings to Western India, and to place the initial point of + their reckoning in A.D. 590, when a certain + Satyasraya-Dhruvaraja-Indravarman, an ancestor and probably the + grandfather of the first Ganga king Rajasimha-Indravarman I., + commenced to govern a large province in the Konkan under the Chalukya + king Kirtivarman I. + + An era commencing in A.D. 605 or 606 was founded in Northern India by + the great king Harshavardhana, who reigned first at Thanesar and then + at Kanauj, and who was the third sovereign in a dynasty which traced + its origin to a prince named Naravardhana. A peculiarity about this + era is that it continued in use for apparently four centuries after + Harshavardhana, in spite of the fact that his line ended with him. + + The inscriptions assert that the Western Chalukya king Vikrama or + Vikramaditya VI. of Kalyani in the Nizam's dominions, who reigned from + A.D. 1076 to 1126, abolished the use of the Saka era in his dominions + in favour of an era named after himself. What he or his ministers did + was to adopt, for the first time in that dynasty, the system of regnal + years, according to which, while the Saka era also remained in use, + most of the records of his time are dated, not in that era, but in the + year so-and-so of the Chalukya-Vikrama-kala or + Chalukya-Vikrama-varsha, "the time or years of the Chalukya Vikrama." + There is some evidence that this reckoning survived Vikramaditya VI. + for a short time. But his successors introduced their own regnal + reckonings; and that prevented it from acquiring permanence. + + In Tirhut, there is still used a reckoning which is known as the + Lakshmanasena era from the name of the king of Bengal by whom it was + founded. There is a difference of opinion as to the exact initial + point of this reckoning; but the best conclusion appears to be that + which places it in A.D. 1119. This era prevailed at one time + throughout Bengal: we know this from a passage in the _Akbarnama_, + written in A.D. 1584, which specifies the Saka era as the reckoning of + Gujarat and the Dekkan, the Vikrama era as the reckoning of Malwa, + Delhi, and those parts, and the Lakshmanasena era as the reckoning of + Bengal. + + The last reckoning that we have to mention here is one known as the + Rajyabhisheka-Saka, "the era of the anointment to the sovereignty," + which was in use for a time in Western India. It dated from the day + Jyaishtha sukla 13 of the Saka year 1597 current, = 6 June, A.D. 1674, + when Sivaji, the founder of the Maratha kingdom, had himself + enthroned. + + + Miscellaneous Eras. + + There are four reckonings which it is difficult at present to class + exactly. Two inscriptions of the 15th and 17th centuries, recently + brought to notice from Jesalmer in Rajputana, present a reckoning + which postulates an initial point in A.D. 624 or in the preceding or + the following year, and bears an appellation, Bhatika, which seems to + be based on the name of the Bhatti tribe, to which the rulers of + Jesalmer belong. No historical event is known, referable to that time, + which can have given rise to an era. It is possible that the apparent + initial date represents an epoch, at the end of the Saka year 546 or + thereabouts, laid down in some astronomical work composed then or soon + afterwards and used in the Jesalmer territory. But it seems more + probable that it is a purely fictitious date, set up by an attempt to + evolve an early history Of the ruling family. + + In the Tinnevelly district of Madras, and in the territories of the + same presidency in which the Malayalam language prevails, namely, + South Kanara below Mangalore, the Malabar district, and the Cochin and + Travancore states, there is used a reckoning which is known sometimes + as the Kollam or Kolamba reckoning, sometimes as the era of + Parasurama. The years of it are solar: in the southern parts of the + territory in which it is current, they begin with the month Simha; in + the northern parts, they begin with the next month, Kanya. The initial + point of the reckoning is in A.D. 825; and the year 1076 commenced in + A.D. 1900. The popular view about this reckoning is that it consists + of cycles of 1000 years; that we are now in the fourth cycle; and that + the reckoning originated in 1176 B.C. with the mythical Parasurama, + who exterminated the Kshatriya or warrior caste, and reclaimed the + Konkan countries, Western India below the Ghauts, from the ocean. But + the earliest known date in it, of the year 149, falls in A.D. 973; and + the reckoning has run on in continuation of the thousand, instead of + beginning afresh in A.D. 1825. It seems probable, therefore, that the + reckoning had no existence before A.D. 825. The years are cited + sometimes as "the Kollam year (of such-and-such a number)," sometimes + as "the year (so-and-so) after Kollam appeared;" and this suggests + that the reckoning may possibly owe its origin to some event, + occurring in A.D. 825, connected with one or other of the towns and + ports named Kollam, on the Malabar coast; perhaps Northern Kollam in + the Malabar district, perhaps Southern Kollam, better known as Quilon, + in Travancore. But the introduction of Parasurama into the matter, + which would carry back (let us say) the foundation of Kollam to + legendary times, may indicate, rather, a purely imaginative origin. + Or, again, since each century of the Kollam reckoning begins in the + same year A.D. with a century of the Saptarshi reckoning (see below + under III. Other Reckonings), it is not impossible that this reckoning + may be a southern offshoot of the Saptarshi reckoning, or at least may + have had the same astrological origin. + + In Nepal there is a reckoning, known as the Newar era and commencing + in A.D. 879, which superseded the Gupta and Harsha eras there. One + tradition attributes the foundation of it to a king Raghavadeva; + another says that, in the time and with the permission of a king + Jayadevamalla, a merchant named Sakhwal paid off, by means of wealth + acquired from sand which turned into gold, all the debts then existing + in the country, and introduced the new era in commemoration of the + occurrence. It is possible that the era may have been founded by some + ruler of Nepal: but nothing authentic is known about the particular + names mentioned in connexion with it. This era appears to have been + discarded for state and official purposes, in favour of the Saka era, + in A.D. 1768, when the Gurkhas became masters of Nepal; but + manuscripts show that in literary circles it has remained in use up to + at any rate A.D. 1875. + + Inscriptions disclose the use in Kathiawar and Gujarat, in the 12th + and 13th centuries, of a reckoning, commencing in A.D. 1114, which is + known as the Simha-samvat. No historical occurrence is known, on which + it can have been based; and the origin of it is obscure. + + + Three great Eras in general use. + +The eras mentioned above have for the most part served their purposes +and died out. But there are three great reckonings, dating from a very +respectable antiquity, which have held their own and survived to the +present day. These are the Kaliyuga, Vikrama, and Saka eras. It will be +convenient to treat the Kaliyuga first, though, in spite of having the +greatest apparent antiquity, it is the latest of the three in respect of +actual date of origin. + + + The Kaliyuga Era of 3102 B.C. + +The Kaliyuga era is the principal astronomical reckoning of the Hindus. +It is frequently, if not generally, shown in the almanacs: but it can +hardly be looked upon as being now in practical use for civil purposes; +and, as regards the custom of previous times as far as we can judge it +from the inscriptional use, which furnishes a good guide, the position +is as follows: from Southern India we have one such instance of A.D. +634, one of A.D. 770, three of the 10th century, and then, from the 12th +century onwards, but more particularly from the 14th, a certain number +of instances, not exactly very small in itself, but extremely so in +comparison with the number of cases of the use of the Vikrama and Saka +eras and other reckonings: from Northern India the earliest known +instance of is A.D. 1169 or 1170, and the later ones number only four. +Its years are by nature sidereal solar years, commencing with the +Mesha-samkranti, the entrance of the sun into the Hindu constellation +and sign Mesha, i.e. Aries (for this and other technical details, see +above, under the Calendar);[6] but they were probably cited as lunar +years in the inscriptional records which present the reckoning; and the +almanacs appear to treat them either as Meshadi civil solar years with +solar months, or as Chaitradi lunar years with lunar months _amanta_ +(ending with the new-moon) or _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon) +as the case may be, according to the locality. Its initial point lies in +3102 B.C.; and the year 5002 began in A.D. 1900.[7] + + This reckoning is not an historical era, actually running from 3102 + B.C. It was devised for astronomical purposes at some time about A.D. + 400, when the Hindu astronomers, having taken over the principles of + the Greek astronomy, recognized that they required for purposes of + computation a specific reckoning with a definite initial occasion. + They found that occasion in a conjunction of the sun, the moon, and + the five planets which were then known, at the first point of their + sign Mesha. There was not really such a conjunction; nor, apparently, + is it even the case that the sun was actually at the first point of + Mesha at the moment arrived at. But there was an approach to such a + conjunction, which was turned into an actual conjunction by taking the + mean instead of the true positions of the sun, the moon, and the + planets. And, partly from the reckoning which has come down to us, + partly from the astronomical books, we know that the moment assigned + to the assumed conjunction was according to one school the midnight + between Thursday the 17th, and Friday the 18th, February, 3102 B.C., + and according to another school the sunrise on the Friday. + + The reckoning thus devised was subsequently identified with the + Kaliyuga as the iron age, the last and shortest, with a duration of + 432,000 years, of the four ages in each cycle of ages in the Hindu + system of cosmical periods. Also, traditional history was fitted to it + by one school, represented notably by the Puranas, which, referring + the great war between the Pandavas and the Kurus, which is the topic + of the Mahabharata, to the close of the preceding age, the Dvapara, + placed on the last day of that age the culminating event which ushered + in the Kali age; namely, the death of Krishna (the return to heaven of + Vishnu on the termination of his incarnation as Krishna), which was + followed by the abdication of the Pandava king Yudhishthira, who, + having installed his grand-nephew Parikshit as his successor, then set + out on his own journey to heaven. Another school, however, placed the + Pandavas and the Kurus 653 years later, in 2449 B.C. A third school + places in 3102 B.C. the anointment of Yudhishthira to the sovereignty, + and treats that event as inaugurating the Kali age; from this point of + view, the first 3044 years of the Kaliyuga--the period from its + commencement in 3102 B.C. to the commencement of the first historical + era, the so-called Vikrama era, in 58 B.C.--are also known as "the era + of Yudhishthira." + + + The Vikrama Era of 58 B.C. + +The Vikrama era, which is the earliest of all the Hindu eras in respect +of order of foundation, is the dominant era and the great historical +reckoning of Northern India--that is, of the territory on the north of +the rivers Narbada and Mahanadi--to which part of the country its use +has always been practically confined. Like, indeed, the Kaliyuga and +Saka eras, it is freely cited in almanacs in any part of India; and it +is sometimes used in the south by immigrants from the north: but it is, +by nature, so essentially foreign to the south that the earliest known +inscriptional instance of the use of it in Southern India only dates +from A.D. 1218, and the very few later instances that have been +obtained, prior to the 15th century A.D., come, along with the instance +of A.D. 1218, from the close neighbourhood of the dividing-line between +the north and the south. The Vikrama era has never been used for +astronomical purposes. Its years are lunar, with lunar months, but seem +liable to be sometimes regarded as solar, with solar months, when they +are cited in almanacs of Southern India which present the solar +calendar. Originally they were Kartti-kadi, with _purnimanta_ months +(ending with the full-moon). They now exist in the following three +varieties: in Kathiawar and Gujarat, they are chiefly Karttikadi, with +_amanta_ months (ending with the new-moon); and they are shown in this +form in almanacs for the other parts of the Bombay Presidency; but there +is also found in Kathiawar and that neighbourhood an Ashadhadi variety, +commencing with Ashadha sukla I, similarly with _amanta_ months; in the +rest of Northern India, they are Chaitradi, with _purnimanta_ months. +The era has its initial point in 58 B.C., and its first civil day, +Karttika sukla I, is 19th September in that year if we determine it with +reference to the Hindu Tula-samkranti, or 18th October if we determine +it with reference to the tropical equinox. The years of the three +varieties, Chaitradi, Ashadhadi, and Karttikadi, all commence in the +same year A.D.; and the year 1958 began in A.D. 1900. + + Hindu legend connects the foundation of this era with a king Vikrama + or Vikramaditya of Ujjain in Malwa, Central India: one version is that + he began to reign in 58 B.C.; another is that he died in that year, + and that the reckoning commemorates his death. Modern research, + however, based largely on the inscriptional records, has shown that + there was no such king, and that the real facts are very different. + The era owes its existence to the Kushan king Kanishka, a foreign + invader, who established himself in Northern India and commenced to + reign there in B.C. 58.[8] He was the founder of it, in the sense that + the opening years of it were the years of his reign. It was + established and set going as an era by his successor, who continued + the reckoning so started, instead of breaking it by introducing + another according to his own regnal years. And it was perpetuated as + an era, and transmitted as such to posterity by the Malavas, the + people from whom the modern territory Malwa derived its name, who were + an important section of the subjects of Kanishka and his successors. + In consonance with that, records ranging in date from A.D. 473 to 879 + style it "the reckoning of the Malavas, the years of the Malava lords, + the Malava time or era." Prior to that, it had no specific name; the + years of it were simply cited, in ordinary Hindu fashion, by the term + _samvatsara_, "the year (of such-and-such a number)," or by its + abbreviations _samvat_ and _sam_: and the same was frequently done in + later times also, and is habitually done in the present day; and so, + in modern times, this era has often been loosely styled "the Samvat + era." The idea of a king Vikrama in connexion with it appears to date + from only the 9th or 10th century A.D. + + + The Saka Era of A.D. 78. + +The Saka era, though it actually had its origin in the south-west corner +of Northern India, is the dominant era and the great historical +reckoning of Southern India; that is, of the territory below the rivers +Narbada and Mahanadi. It is also the subsidiary astronomical reckoning, +largely used, from the 6th century A.D. onwards, in the _Karanas_, the +works dealing with practical details of the calendar, for laying down +epochs or points of time furnishing convenient bases for computation. As +a result of that, it came to be used in past times for general purposes +also, to a limited extent, in parts of Northern India where it was not +indigenous. And it is now used more or less freely, and is cited in +almanacs everywhere. Its years are usually lunar, Chaitradi, and its +months are _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon) in Northern India, +and _amanta_ (ending with the new-moon) in Southern India; but in times +gone by it was sometimes treated for purposes of calculation as having +astronomical solar years, and it is now treated as having Mesh di civil +solar years and solar months in those parts of India where that form of +the solar calendar prevails. It has its initial point in A.D. 78; and +its first civil day, Chaitra sukla I, is 3rd March in that year, as +determined with reference either to the Hindu M'na-samkranti or to the +entrance of the sun into the tropical Pisces. The year 1823 began in +A.D. 1900. + +Regarding the origin of the Saka era, there was current in the 10th and +11th centuries A.D. a belief which, ignoring the difference of a hundred +and thirty-five years between the two reckonings, connected the +legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjain, mentioned above under the Vikrama +era, with the foundation of this era also. The story runs, from this +point of view, that the Sakas were a barbarous people who established +themselves in the western and north-western dominions of that king, but +were met in battle and destroyed by him, and that the era was +established in celebration of that event. The modern belief, however, +ascribes the foundation of this era to a king Salivahana of +Pratishthana, which is the modern Paithan, on the Godavari, in the +Nizam's dominions. But in this case, again, research has shown that the +facts are very different. Like the Vikrama era, the Saka era owes its +existence to foreign invaders. It was founded by the Chhaharata or +Kshaharata king Nahapana, who appears to have been a Pahlava or Palhava, +i.e. of Parthian extraction, and who reigned from A.D. 78 to about +125.[9] He established himself first in Kathiawar, but subsequently +brought under his sway northern Gujarat (Bombay) and Ujjain, and, below +the Narbada, southern Gujarat, Nasik and probably Khandesh. His capital +seems to have been Dohad, in the Panch Mahals. And he had two viceroys: +one, named Bhumaka, of the same family with himself, in Kathiawar; and +another, Chashtana, son of Ghsamotika, at Ujjain. Soon after A.D. 125, +Nahapana was overthrown, and his family was wiped out, by the +Satavahana-Satakarni king Gautamiputra-Sri-Satakarni, who thereby +recovered the territories on the south of the Narbada, and perhaps +secured for a time Kathiawar and some other parts on the north of that +river. Very soon, however, Chashtana, or else his son Jayadaman, +established his sway over all the territory which had belonged to +Nahapana on the north of the Narbada; founded a line of Hinduized +foreign kings, who ruled there for more than three centuries; and, +continuing Nahapana's regnal reckoning, established the era to which the +name Saka eventually became attached. Inscriptions and coins show that, +up to at least the second decade of its fourth century, this reckoning +had no specific appellation; its years were simply cited, in the usual +fashion, as _varsha_, "the year (of such-and-such a number)." The +reckoning was then taken up by the astronomers. And we find it first +called Sakakala, "the time or era of the Sakas," in an epochal date, the +end of the year 427, falling in A.D. 505, which was used by the +astronomer Varahamihira (d. A.D. 587) in his Panchasiddhantika. That +this name came to be attached to it appears to be due to the points +that, along with some of the Pahlavas or Palhavas and the Yavanas or +descendants of the Asiatic Greeks, some of the Sakas, the Scythians, had +made their way into Kathiawar and neighbouring parts by about A.D. 100, +and that the Sakas incidentally came to acquire prominence in the memory +of the Hindus regarding these occurrences, in such a manner that their +name was selected when the occasion arose to devise an appellation for +an era the exact origin of which had been forgotten. The name of the +imaginary king Salivahana first figures in connexion with the era in a +record of A.D. 1272, and seems plainly to have been introduced in +imitation of the coupling of the name Vikrama, Vikramaditya, with the +era of B.C. 58. + + That the Saka era, though it had its origin in the south-west corner + of Northern India, is essentially an era of Southern India, is proved + by its inscriptional and numismatic history. During the period before + the time when it was taken up by the astronomers, it is found only in + the inscriptions of Nahapana, and in the similar records and on the + coins of the descendants of Chashtana. After that same time, it + figures first in a record of the Chalukya king Kirtivarman I., at + Badami in the Bijapur district, Bombay, which is dated on the + full-moon day of the month Karttika, falling in A.D. 578, "when there + had elapsed five centuries of the years of the anointment of the Saka + king to the sovereignty." And from this date onwards the records of a + large part of Southern India are mostly dated in this era, by various + expressions all of which include the term Saka or Saka. In Northern + India the case is very different. We have a record dated in the month + Karttika, the Saka year 631 (expired), falling in A.D. 709: it comes + from Multai in the Betul district, Central Provinces, that is, from + the south of the Narbada; but it belongs to Gujarat (Bombay), and + perhaps to the north, though more probably to the south, of that + province. But, setting that aside, the earliest inscriptional instance + of the use of this era in Northern India, outside Kathiawar and + Gujarat, is found in a record of A.D. 862 at Deogarh near Lalitpur, + the headquarters town of the Lalitpur district, United Provinces of + Agra and Oude; here, however, the record is primarily dated, with the + full details of the month, &c., in "Samvat 919," that is, in the + Vikrama year 919; it is only as a subsidiary detail that the Saka year + 784 is given in a separate passage at the end of the record, a sort of + postscript. From this date onwards the era is found in other records + of Northern India, but to any appreciable extent only from A.D. 1137, + and to only a very small extent in comparison with the Vikrama and + other northern eras; and the cases in which it was used exclusively + there, without being coupled with one or other of the northern + reckonings, are still more conspicuously few. In short, the general + position is that the Saka era has been essentially foreign to Northern + India until recent times; it was used there quite exceptionally and + sporadically, and in very few cases indeed at any appreciable distance + from the dividing-line between the north and the south. That it found + its way into Northern India, outside Kathiawar and northern Gujarat at + all, is unquestionably due to its use by the astronomers. It also + travelled, across the sea, by the 7th century A.D. to Cambodia, and + somewhat later to Java; to which parts it was doubtless taken in + almanacs, or in invoices, statements of account, &c., by the persons + engaged in the trade between Broach and the far east via Tagara (Ter) + and the east coast. It also found its way in subsequent times to Assam + and Ceylon, and more recently still to Nepal. + + +III. OTHER RECKONINGS + + The Cycles of Jupiter. + +We come now to certain reckonings consisting of cycles, and will take +first the cycles of Guru or Brihaspati, Jupiter. This planet, a very +conspicuous object in eastern skies, requires a period of 4332.6 days, = +50.4 days less than twelve Julian years, to make a circuit of the +heavens, and has provided the Hindus with two reckonings, each in more +than one variety; a cycle of twelve years, and a cycle of sixty years. +The years of Jupiter, in all their varieties, are usually styled +_samvatsara_; and it is convenient to use this term here, in order to +preserve clearly the distinction between them and the solar and lunar +years. The _samvatsaras_ have no divisions of their own; the months, +days, &c., cited with them are those of the ordinary solar or lunar +calendar, as the case may be. + + + The 12-years Cycle. + +The older reckoning of Jupiter appears to be that of the 12-years cycle, +which is found in two varieties; in both of them the _samvatsaras_ bear, +according to certain rules which need not be explained here, the same +names with the lunar months, Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c. In one variety, each +_samvatsara_ runs from one of the planet's heliacal risings--that is, +from the day on which it becomes visible as a morning star on the +eastern horizon--to the next such rising; and the length of such a +_samvatsara_, according to the Hindu data, is from 392 to 405 days, with +an average of 399 days. Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle +are found in six of the Gupta records of Northern India, ranging from +A.D. 475 to 528. + +In the other variety of the 12-years cycle, which is mentioned in +astronomical works from the time of Aryabhata onwards (b. A.D. 476), the +_samvatsaras_ are regulated by Jupiter's course with reference to his +mean motion and mean longitude: a _samvatsara_ of this variety commences +when Jupiter thus enters a sign of the zodiac, and lasts for the time +occupied by him in traversing that sign from the same point of view; and +the period taken by him to do that--that is, the duration of such a +_samvatsara_--is slightly in excess, according to the Hindu data, of +361.02 days, which amount is very close to the actual fact, 361.05 days. +Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle are perhaps found in +two records of Southern India of the Kadamba series, belonging to about +A.D. 575. + +The 12-years mean-sign cycle seems to be still used in some parts. And +the heliacal risings of Jupiter, as also, indeed, those of the other +planets, are shown in almanacs for astrological purposes. In either +variety, however, the 12-years cycle is now chiefly of antiquarian +interest. + + + The 60-years cycle. + +The cycle of Jupiter now in general use is a cycle of sixty years, the +_samvatsaras_ of which bear certain special names, Prabhava, Vibhava, +Sukla, Pramoda, &c., again in accordance with certain rules which we +need not explain here. This cycle exists in three varieties. + +According to the original constitution of this cycle, the _samvatsaras_ +are determined as in the second or mean-sign variety of the 12-years +cycle: each _samvatsara_ commences when Jupiter enters a sign of the +zodiac with reference to his mean motion and longitude; and it lasts for +slightly more than 361.02 days. This variety is traced back in +inscriptional records to A.D. 602, and is still used in Northern India. + +Now, the _samvatsaras_ are calculated by means of the astronomical solar +year commencing with the Mesha-samkranti, the entrance of the sun into +the sign Mesha (Aries). The process gives the number of the _samvatsara_ +last expired before any particular Mesha-samkranti, with a remainder +denoting the portion of the current _samvatsara_ elapsed up to the same +time; and the remainder, reduced to months, &c., gives the moment of the +commencement of the current _samvatsara_, by reckoning back from the +Mesha-samkranti. As the result, apparently, of unwillingness to take the +trouble to work out the full details, at some time about A.D. 800 a +practice arose, in some quarters, according to which that _samvatsara_ +of the 60-years cycle which was current at any particular +Mesha-samkranti was taken as coinciding with the astronomical solar year +beginning at that _samkranti_, and with the Chaitradi lunar year +belonging to that same solar year. And this practice set up a lunisolar +variety of the cycle, in connexion with which we have to notice the +following point. While the duration of a mean-sign _samvatsara_ is +closely about 361.02 days, the length of the Hindu astronomical solar +year is closely about 365.258 days. It consequently happens, after every +85 or 86 years, that a mean-sign _samvatsara_ begins and ends between +two successive Mesha-samkrantis. In the mean-sign cycle, such a +_samvatsara_ retains its existence unaffected; and the names Prabhava, +Vibhava, &c., run on without any interruption. According to the +lunisolar system, however, the position is different; the _samvatsara_ +beginning and ending between the two Mesha-samkrantis is expunged or +suppressed, in the sense that its name is omitted and is replaced by the +next name on the list. The second variety of the 60-years cycle, thus +started, ran on alongside of the mean-sign variety, and, being +eventually transferred, with that variety, to Northern India, is now +known as the northern lunisolar variety. It preserves a connexion +between the _samvatsaras_ and the movements of Jupiter: but the +connexion is an imperfect one; and both in this variety, and still more +markedly in the remaining one still to be described, the _samvatsaras_ +practically became mere appellations for the solar and lunar years. + +Meanwhile, just after A.D. 900, another development occurred, and there +was started a third variety, which is now known as the southern +lunisolar variety. The precise year in which this happened depends on +the particular authority that we follow. If we take the elements adopted +in the Surya-Siddhanta as the proper data for that time and for the +locality--Western India below the Narbada--to which the early history of +the cycle belongs, the position was as follows. At the Mesha-samkranti +in A.D. 908 there was current, by the mean-sign system, the _samvatsara_ +No. 2, Vibhava: but No. 4, Pramoda, was current by the same system at +the Mesha-samkranti in A.D. 909; and No. 3, Sukla, began and ended +between the two Mesha-samkrantis. Accordingly, No. 2, Vibhava, was the +lunisolar _samvatsara_ for the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi +lunar year commencing in A.D. 908; and by the strict lunisolar system, +which was adhered to by some people and is now known as the northern +lunisolar system, it was followed in A.D. 909 by No. 4, Pramoda, the +name of the intermediate _samvatsara_, No. 3, Sukla, being passed over. +On the other hand, whether through oversight, or whatever the reason may +have been, by other people the name of No. 3, Sukla, was not passed +over, but that _samvatsara_ was taken as the lunisolar _samvatsara_ for +the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi lunar year beginning in A.D. +909, and No. 4, Pramoda, followed it in A.D. 910. On subsequent similar +occasions, also, there was, in the same quarters, no passing over of +the name of any _samvatsara_. And this practice established itself in +Southern India, to the exclusion there of the mean-sign and the northern +lunisolar varieties; the discrepancy between the last-mentioned variety +and the variety thus set up continuing, of course, to increase by one +_samvatsara_ after every 85 or 86 years. In this variety, the southern +lunisolar variety, all connexion between the _samvatsaras_ and the +movements of Jupiter has now been lost. + + The present position of the 60-years cycle in its three varieties may + be illustrated thus. In Northern India, by the mean-sign system the + _samvatsara_ No. 46, Paridhavin, began, according to different + authorities, in August, September or October, A.D. 1899. Consequently, + by the northern or expunging lunisolar system, that same _samvatsara_, + No. 46, Paridhavin, coincided with the Meshadi civil solar year + beginning with or just after 12th April, and with the Chaitradi lunar + year beginning with 31st March, A.D. 1900. But by the southern or + non-expunging lunisolar system those same solar and lunar years were + No. 34, Sarvarin. + + The treatment of the cycles of Jupiter in the Sanskrit books shows + that it was primarily from the astrological point of view that they + appealed to the Hindus; it was only as a secondary consideration that + they acquired anything of a chronological nature. For the practical + application of any of them to historical purposes, it is, of course, + necessary that, along with the mention of a _samvatsara_, there should + always be given the year of some known era, or some other specific + guide to the exact period to which that _samvatsara_ is to be + referred. But it is fortunately the case that the _samvatsaras_ have + been but rarely cited in the inscriptional records without such a + guide, of some kind or another. + + + The Saptarshi reckoning. + +The Saptarshi reckoning is used in Kashmir, and in the Kangra district +and some of the Hill states on the south-east of Kashmir; some nine +centuries ago it was also in use in the Punjab, and apparently in Sind. +In addition to being cited by such expressions as Saptarshi-samvat, "the +year (so-and-so) of the Saptarshis," and Sastra-samvatsara, "the year +(so-and-so) of the scriptures," it is found mentioned as Lokakala, "the +time or era of the people," and by other terms which mark it as a vulgar +reckoning. And it appears that modern popular names for it are +Pahari-samvat and Kachcha-samvat, which we may render by "the Hill era" +and "the crude era." The years of this reckoning are lunar, Chaitradi; +and the months are _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon). As matters +stand now, the reckoning has a theoretical initial point in 3077 B.C.; +and the year 4976, more usually called simply 76, began in A.D. 1900; +but there are some indications that the initial point was originally +placed one year earlier. + + The idea at the bottom of this reckoning is a belief that the + Saptarshis, "the Seven Rishis or Saints," Marichi and others, were + translated to heaven, and became the stars of the constellation Ursa + Major, in 3076 B.C. (or 3077); and that these stars possess an + independent movement of their own, which, referred to the ecliptic, + carries them round at the rate of 100 years for each _nakshatra_ or + twenty-seventh division of the circle. Theoretically, therefore, the + Saptarshi reckoning consists of cycles of 2700 years; and the + numbering of the years should run from 1 to 2700, and then commence + afresh. In practice, however, it has been treated quite differently. + According to the general custom, which has distinctly prevailed in + Kashmir from the earliest use of the reckoning for chronological + purposes, and is illustrated by Kalhana in his history of Kashmir, the + _Rajataramgini_, written in A.D. 1148-1150, the numeration of the + years has been centennial; whenever a century has been completed, the + numbering has not run on 101, 102, 103, &c., but has begun again with + 1, 2, 3, &c. Almanacs, indeed, show both the figures of the century + and the full figures of the entire reckoning, which is treated as + running from 3076 B. C., not from 376 B.C. as the commencement of a + new cycle, the second; thus, an almanac for the year beginning in A.D. + 1793 describes that year as "the year 4869 according to the course of + the Seven Rishis, and similarly the year 69." And elsewhere sometimes + the full. figures are found, sometimes the abbreviated ones; thus, + while a manuscript written in A.D. 1648 is dated in "the year 24" (for + 4724), another, written in A.D. 1224 is dated in "the year 4300." But, + as in the _Rajataramgini_, so also in inscriptions, which range from + A.D. 1204 onwards, only the abbreviated figures have hitherto been + found. Essentially, therefore, the Saptarshi reckoning is a centennial + reckoning, by suppressed or omitted hundreds, with its earlier + centuries commencing in 3076, 2976 B.C., and so on, and its later + centuries commencing in A.D. 25, 125, 225, &c.; on precisely the same + lines with those according to which we may use, e.g. 98 to mean A.D. + 1798, and 57 to mean A.D. 1857, and 9 to mean A.D. 1909. And the + practical difficulties attending the use of such a system for + chronological purposes are obvious; isolated dates recorded in such a + fashion cannot be allocated without some explicit clue to the + centuries to which they belong. Fortunately, however, as regards + Kashmir, we have the necessary guide in the facts that Kalhana + recorded his own date in the Saka era as well as in this reckoning, + and gave full historical details which enable us to determine + unmistakably the equivalent of the first date in this reckoning cited + by him, and to arrange with certainty the chronology presented by him + from that time. + + The belief underlying this reckoning according to the course of the + Seven Rishis is traced back in India, as an astrological detail, to at + least the 6th century A.D. But the reckoning was first adopted for + chronological purposes in Kashmir and at some time about A.D. 800; the + first recorded date in it is one of "the year 89," meaning 3889, = + A.D. 813-814, given by Kalhana. It was introduced into India between + A.D. 925 and 1025. + + + The Grahaparivritti cycle. + +The Grahaparivritti is a reckoning which is used in the southernmost +parts of Madras, particularly in the Madura district. It consists of +cycles of 90 Meshadi solar years, and is said, in conformity with its +name, which means "the revolution of planets," to be made up by the sum +of the days in 1 revolution of the sun, 22 of Mercury, 5 of Venus, 15 of +Mars, 11 of Jupiter, and 29 of Saturn. The first cycle is held to have +commenced in 24 B.C., the second in A.D. 67, and so on; and, in +accordance with that view, the year 34, which began in A.D. 1900, was +the 34th year of the 22nd cycle. + + No inscriptional use of this cycle has come to notice. There seems no + substantial reason for believing that the reckoning was really started + in 24 B.C. The alleged constitution of the cycle, which appears to be + correct within about twelve days, and might possibly be made + apparently exact, suggests an astrological origin. And, if a guess may + be hazarded, we would conjecture that the reckoning is an offshoot of + the southern lunisolar variety of the 60-years cycle of Jupiter, and + had its real origin in some year in which a Prabhava _samvatsara_ of + that variety commenced, and to which the first year of a + Grahaparivritti cycle can be referred: that was the case in A.D. 967 + and at each subsequent 180th year. + + + The Onko cycle. + +In part of the Ganjam district, Madras, there is a reckoning, known as +the Onko or Anka, i.e. literally "the number or numbers," consisting of +lunar years, each commencing with Bhadrapada sukla 12, which run +theoretically in cycles of 59 years. But the reckoning has the +peculiarity that, whether the explanation is to be found in a +superstition about certain numbers or in some other reason, the year 6, +and any year the number of which ends with 6 or 0 (except the year 10), +is omitted from the numbering; so that, for instance, the year 7 follows +next after the year 5. The origin of the reckoning is not known. But the +use of it seems to be traceable in records of the Ganga kings who +reigned in that part of the country and in Orissa in the 12th and +following centuries. And the initial day, Bhadrapada sukla 12, which +figures again in the Vilayati and Amli reckoning of Orissa (see farther +on), is perhaps to be accounted for on the view that this day was the +day of the anointment, in the 7th century, of the first Ganga king, +Rajasimha-Indravarman I. + + + The Maghi reckoning. + +In the Chittagong district, Bengal, there is a solar reckoning, known by +the name Maghi, of which the year 1262 either began or ended in A.D. +1900; so that it has an initial point in A.D. 639 or 638. It appears +that Chittagong was conquered by the king of Arakan in the 9th century, +and remained usually in the possession of the Maghs--the Arakanese or a +class of them--till A.D. 1666, when it was finally annexed to the Mogul +empire. In these circumstances it is plain that the Magh reckoning took +its name from the Maghs; its year, which is Meshadi, from Bengal; and +its numbering from the Sakkaraj, the ordinary era of Arakan and Burma, +which has its initial point in A.D. 638. + + + Hinduized offshoots of the Hijra era. + +The Hijra (Hegira) era, the reckoning from the flight of Mahomet, which +dates from the 16th of July, A.D. 662, is, of course, used by the +Mahommedans in India, and is customarily shown, with the details of its +calendar, in the Hindu almanacs. An account of it does not fall within +the scope of this article. But we have to mention it because we come now +to certain Hinduized reckonings which are hybrid offshoots of it. We +need only say, however, in explanation of some of the following figures, +that the years of the Hijra era are purely lunar, consisting of twelve +lunar months and no more; with the result that the initial day of the +year is always travelling backwards through the Julian year, and makes a +complete circuit in thirty-four years. The reckonings derived from it, +which we have to describe, have apparent initial points in A.D. 591, +593, 594, and 600. They had their real origin, however, in the 14th, +16th, and 17th centuries. + +The emperor Akbar succeeded to the throne in February, A.D. 1556, in the +Hijra year 963, which ran from 16th November 1555 to 3rd November 1556. +Amongst the reforms aimed at by him and his officials, one was to +abolish, or at least minimize, by introducing uniformity of numbering, +the confusion due to the existence of various reckonings, both +Mahommedan and Hindu. And one step taken in that direction was to assign +to the Hindu year the same number with the Hijra year. It is believed +that this was first done by the Persian clerks of the revenue and +financial offices at an early time in Akbar's reign, and that it +received authoritative sanction in the Hijra year 971 (21st August 1563 +to 8th August 1564). At any rate, the innovation was certainly first +made in Upper India; and the numbering started there was introduced into +Bengal and those parts as Akbar extended his dominions, but without +interfering with local customs as to the commencement of the Hindu year. +The result is that we now have the following reckonings, the years of +which are used as revenue years:-- + + + The Fasli reckoning of Upper India. + + In the United Provinces and the Punjab, there is an Asvinadi lunar + reckoning, known as the Fasli, according to which the year 1308 began + in A.D. 1900; so that the reckoning has an apparent initial point in + A.D. 593. The name of this reckoning is derived from _fasl_, "a + harvest," of which there are two; the _fasl-i-rabi_ or "spring + harvest," commencing in February, and the _fasl-i-kharif_, or "autumn + harvest" commencing in October. The years of this reckoning begin with + the _purnimanta_ Asvina krishna 1, which now falls in September. A + peculiar feature of it is that, though the months are lunar, they are + not divided into fortnights, and the numbering of the days runs on, as + in the Mahommedan month, from the first to the end of the month + without being affected by any expunction and repetition of _tithis_; + and, for this and other reasons, it seems that in this case a new form + of Hindu year was devised, of such a kind as to enable the + agriculturists to realize their produce and pay their assessments + comfortably within the year. The Hijra era has, of course, now drawn + somewhat widely away from this and the other reckonings derived from + it; the Hijra year commencing in A.D. 1900 was 1318, ten years in + advance of the Fasli year. + + + The Vilayati-san and Amli-san of Orissa. + + In Orissa and some other parts of Bengal, there is a reckoning, or two + almost identical reckonings, the facts of which are not quite clear. + According to one account, the term Amli-san, "the official year," is + only another name of the Vilayati-san, "the year received from the + _vilayat_ or province of Hindustan." But we are also told that the + Vilayati-san is a Kanyadi solar year, whereas the Amli-san, though it + too has solar months, changes its number on the lunar day Bhadrapada + sukla 12 (mentioned above in connexion with the Onko cycle of Orissa), + which comes sometimes in Kanya, but sometimes in the preceding month, + Simha. Elsewhere, again, it is the Vilayati-san which is shown as + changing its number on Bhadrapada sukla 12. In either case, the year + 1308 of this reckoning, also, began in A.D. 1900; and so, like the + Fasli of Upper India, this reckoning, too, has an apparent initial + point in A.D. 593. The day Bhadrapada sukla 12 now usually falls in + September, but may come during the last three days of August. The + first day of the solar month Kanya now falls on 15th or 16th + September. + + + The Bengali-san. + + In Bengal there is in more general use a Meshadi solar reckoning, + known as the Bengali-san or "Bengal year," according to which the year + 1307 began in A.D. 1900; so that this reckoning has an apparent + initial point in A.D. 594. The initial day of the year is the first + day of the solar month Mesha, now falling on 12th or 13th April. + + + The Fasli of Bombay and Madras. + + The system of Fasli reckonings was introduced into Southern India + under the emperor Shah Jahan, at some time in the Hijra year 1046, + which ran from 26th May, A.D. 1636, to 15th May, A.D. 1637. But the + numbering which was current in Northern India was not taken over. A + new start was made; and, as the year of the Hijra had gone back, + during the intervening seventy-three Julian years, by two years and a + quarter (less by only five days) from the date of its commencement in + the year 971, the Fasli reckoning of Southern India began with a + nominal year 1046 (instead of 971 + 73 = 1044), commencing in A.D. + 1636. The Fasli reckoning of Southern India exists in two varieties. + The years of the Bombay Fasli are popularly known as Mrigasal years, + because they commence when the sun enters the _nakshatra_ Mrigasiras, + which occurs now on 6th or 7th June: the reckoning seems to have taken + over this initial day from the Maratha Sur-san (see below). The Fasli + years of Madras originally began at the Karka-samkranti, the nominal + summer solstice: under the British government, the commencement of + them was first fixed to 12th July, on which day the _samkranti_ was + then usually occurring; but it was afterwards changed to 1st July as a + more convenient date. The years of the Bombay and Madras Fasli have no + division of their own into months, fortnights, &c.; the year is always + used along with one or other of the real Hindu reckonings, and the + details are cited according to that reckoning. + + + The Maratha Sur-san or Arabi-san. + + Another offshoot of the Hijra era, but one of earlier date and not + belonging to the class of Fasli reckonings, is found, in the Maratha + country, in the Sur-san or Shahur-san, "the year of months," also + known as Arabi-san, "the Arab year." This reckoning, which is met with + chiefly in old _sanads_ or charters, appears to have branched off in + or closely about the Hijra year 745, which ran from 15th May, A.D. + 1344, to 3rd May, A.D. 1345; but the exact circumstance in which it + originated is not known. The years of this reckoning begin, like those + of the Bombay Fasli, with the entrance of the sun into the _nakshatra_ + Mrigasiras, which now occurs on 6th or 7th June; but the months and + days are those of the Hijra year. The Sur-san year 1301 began in A.D. + 1900; and so the reckoning has an apparent initial point in A.D. 600. + A peculiarity attending this reckoning is that, whatever may be the + vernacular of a clerk, he uses the Arabic numeral words in reading out + the year; and the same words are given alongside of the figures in the + Hindu almanacs. + + AUTHORITIES.--The Hindu astronomy had already begun to attract + attention before the close of the 18th century. The investigation, + however, of the calendar and the eras, along with the verification of + dates, was started by Warren, whose _Kala Sankalita_ was published in + 1825. The inquiry was carried on by Prinsep in his _Useful Tables_ + (1834-1836), by Cowasjee Patell in his _Chronology_ (1866), and by + Cunningham in his _Book of Indian Eras_ (1883). But Warren's + processes, though mostly giving accurate results, were lengthy and + troublesome; and calculations made on the lines laid down by his + successors gave results which might or might not be correct, and could + only be cited as approximate results. The exact calculation of Hindu + dates by easy processes was started by Shankar Balkrishna Dikshit, in + an article published in the _Indian Antiquary_, vol. 16 (1887). This + was succeeded by methods and tables devised by Jacobi, which were + published in the next volume of the same journal. There then followed + several contributions in the same line by other scholars, some for + exact, others for closely approximate, results, and some valuable + articles by Kielhorn on some of the principal Hindu eras and other + reckonings, which were published in the same journal, vols. 17 (1888) + to 26 (1897). And the treatment of the matter culminated for the time + being in the publication, in 1896, of Sewell and Dikshit's _Indian + Calendar_, which contains an appendix by Schram on eclipses of the sun + in India, and was supplemented in 1898 by Sewell's _Eclipses of the + Moon in India_. The present article is based on the above-mentioned + and various detached writings, supplemented by original research. For + the exact calculation of Hindu dates and the determination of the + European equivalents of them, use may be made either of Sewell and + Dikshit's works mentioned above, or of the improved tables by Jacobi + which were published in the _Epigraphia Indica_, vols. 1 and 2 + (1892-1894). (J. F. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The disregard of precession, and the consequent travelling + forward of the year through the natural seasons, is, of course, a + serious defect in the Hindu calendar, the principles of which are + otherwise good. Accordingly, an attempt was made by a small band of + reformers to rectify this state of things by introducing a + precessional calendar, taking as the first lunar month the synodic + lunation in which the sun enters the tropical Aries, instead of the + sidereal Mesha; and the publication was started, in or about 1886, of + the Sayana-Panchang or "Precessional Almanac." + + Further, the Hindu sidereal solar year is in excess of the true mean + sidereal year by (if we use Aryabhata's value) 3 min. 20.4 sec. If we + take this, for convenience, at 3 min. 20 sec., the excess amounts to + exactly one day in 432 years. And so even the sidereal + Mesha-samkranti is now found to occur three or four days later than + the day on which it should occur. Accordingly, another reformer had + begun, in or about 1865, to publish the Navin athava Patwardhani + Panchang, the "New or Patwardhani Almanac," in which he determined + the details of the year according to the proper Mesha-samkranti. + + [2] It might also be called Pausha, because the sun enters Makara in + the course of it; and it may be observed that, in accordance with a + second rule which formerly existed, it would have been named Pausha + because it ends while the sun is in Makara, and the omitted name + would have been Margasira. But the more important condition of the + present rule, that Pausha begins while the sun is in Dhanus, is not + satisfied. + + [3] The well-known Metonic cycle, whence we have by rearrangement our + system of Golden Numbers, naturally suggests itself; and we have been + told sometimes that that cycle was adopted by the Hindus, and + elsewhere that the intercalation of a month by them generally takes + place in the years 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 19 of each cycle, + differing only in respect of the 14th year, instead of the 13th, from + the arrangement which is said to have been fixed by Meton. As regards + the first point, however, there is no evidence that a special period + of 19 years was ever actually used by the Hindus during the period + with which we are dealing, beyond the extent to which it figures as a + component of the number of years, 19 X 150 = 2850, forming the + lunisolar cycle of an early work entitled _Romaka-Siddhanta_; and, as + was recognized by Kalippos not long after the time of Meton himself, + the Metonic cycle has not, for any length of time, the closeness of + results which has been sometimes supposed to attach to it; it + requires to be readjusted periodically. As regards the second point, + the precise years of the intercalated months depend upon, and vary + with, the year that we may select as the apparent first year of a set + of 19 years, and it is not easy to arrange the Hindu years in sets + answering to a direct continuation of the Metonic cycle. + + [4] It is customary to render the term _tithi_ by "lunar day:" it is, + in fact, explained as such in Sanskrit works; and, as the _tithis_ do + mark the age of the moon by periods approximating to 24 hours, they + are, in a sense, lunar days. But the _tithi_ must not be confused + with the lunar day of western astronomy, which is the interval, with + a mean duration of about 24 hrs. 54 min., between two successive + meridian passages of the moon. + + [5] We illustrate the ordinary occurrences. But there are others. + Thus, a repeated _tithi_ may occasionally be followed by a suppressed + one: in this case the numbering of the civil days would be 6, 7, 7, + 9, &c., instead of 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, &c. Or it may occasionally be + preceded by a suppressed one: in this case the numbering would be 5, + 7, 7, 8, &c., instead of 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, &c. + + [6] It is always to be borne in mind that, as already explained, + while the Hindu Mesha answers to our Aries, it does not coincide with + either the sign or the constellation Aries. + + [7] We select A.D. 1900 as a gauge-year, in preference to the year in + which we are writing, because its figures are more convenient for + comparative purposes. In accordance with the general tendency of the + Hindus to cite expired years, the almanacs would mostly show 5001 + (instead of 5002) as the number for the Kaliyuga year answering to + A.D. 1900-1901. And, for the same reason, this reckoning has often + been called the Kaliyuga era of 3101 B.C. There is, perhaps, no + particular objection to that, provided that we then deal with the + Vikrama and Saka eras on the same lines, and bear in mind that in + each case the initial point of the reckoning really lies in the + preceding year. But we prefer to treat these reckonings with exact + correctness. + + [8] It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views + regarding the date of Kanishka and the origin of the Vikrama era. + Some writers hold that Kanishka began to reign in A.D. 78, and + founded the so-called Saka era beginning in that year; one writer + would place his initial date about A.D. 123, others would place it in + A.D. 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held at one + time by Sir A. Cunningham: and, as some others have already begun to + recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating in support of the + correctness of it. + + [9] See the preceding note. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 39353.txt or 39353.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/3/5/39353/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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