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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4
+       "Hero" to "Hindu Chronology"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 2, 2012 [EBook #39353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HERO: "... Arthur's foster-brother and seneschal, the type
+      of the bluff and boastful warrior, and Bedivere (Bedwyr), ..."
+      'seneschal' amended from 'sensechal'.
+
+    ARTICLE HERWEGH, GEORG: "He next studied law, but having gained the
+      interest of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he
+      returned to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic
+      post." 'journalistic' amended from 'journalisitic'.
+
+    ARTICLE HESSE-CASSEL: "The regent, without his father's coarseness,
+      had a full share of his arbitrary and avaricious temper."
+      'arbitrary' amended from 'arbitary'.
+
+    ARTICLE HIEL, EMMANUEL: "... Jakoba van Beieren ('Jacqueline of
+      Bavaria,' a poetic drama, 1880); ..." 'Jacqueline' amended from
+      'Jacquelein'.
+
+    ARTICLE HILL, JOHN: "Hill's botanical labours were undertaken at
+      the request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the
+      order of Vasa from the king of Sweden in 1774." 'undertaken'
+      amended from 'underaken'.
+
+    ARTICLE HILLEL: "The duty of considering oneself part of common
+      humanity, of not differing from others by any peculiarity of
+      behaviour, he sums up in the words:" 'common' amended from
+      'comman'.
+
+    ARTICLE HILLEL: "The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's
+      consciousness of God is shown in the words spoken by him on the
+      occasion of a feast in the Temple ..." 'consciousness' amended from
+      'conciousness'.
+
+    ARTICLE HINDOSTANI: "In the article Prakrit it is shown that the
+      same construction is obtained in that language." added 'is'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE IV
+
+         HERO to HINDU CHRONOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HERO                               HIAWATHA
+  HERO AND LEANDER                   HIBBING
+  HERO OF ALEXANDRIA                 HIBERNACULUM
+  HERO (the Younger)                 HIBERNATION
+  HEROD                              HIBERNIA
+  HERODAS                            HICKERINGILL, EDMUND
+  HERODIANS                          HICKES, GEORGE
+  HERODIANUS                         HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS
+  HERODIANUS, AELIUS                 HICKORY
+  HERODOTUS                          HICKS, ELIAS
+  HÉROET, ANTOINE                    HICKS, HENRY
+  HEROIC ROMANCES                    HICKS, WILLIAM
+  HEROIC VERSE                       HIDALGO (state of Mexico)
+  HÉROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND     HIDALGO (Spanish title)
+  HERON                              HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL
+  HERPES                             HIDDENITE
+  HERRERA, FERNANDO DE               HIDE
+  HERRERA, FRANCISCO                 HIEL, EMMANUEL
+  HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE  HIEMPSAL
+  HERRICK, ROBERT                    HIERAPOLIS
+  HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES              HIERARCHY
+  HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL              HIERATIC
+  HERRING                            HIERAX
+  HERRING-BONE                       HIERO
+  HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE            HIERO II.
+  HERRNHUT                           HIEROCLES
+  HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA        HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA
+  HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM    HIEROGLYPHICS
+  HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN WILLIAM         HIERONYMITES
+  HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL        HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA
+  HERSENT, LOUIS                     HIERRO
+  HERSFELD                           HIGDON, RANULF
+  HERSTAL                            HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES
+  HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF  HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH
+  HERTFORD (Hertfordshire, England)  HIGHAM FERRERS
+  HERTFORDSHIRE                      HIGHGATE
+  HERTHA                             HIGHLANDS, THE
+  HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF             HIGHNESS
+  HERTZ, HENRIK                      HIGH PLACE
+  HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH         HIGH SEAS
+  HERTZEN, ALEXANDER                 HIGHWAY
+  HERULI                             HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE
+  HERVÁS Y PANDURO, LORENZO          HILARION, ST
+  HERVEY, JAMES                      HILARIUS, ST (bishop of Pictavium)
+  HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, JEAN LÉON   HILARIUS (bishop of Rome)
+  HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY    HILARIUS (Latin poet)
+  HERVIEU, PAUL                      HILARIUS, ST (bishop of Arles)
+  HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, EBERHARD  HILDA, ST
+  HERWEGH, GEORG                     HILDBURGHAUSEN
+  HERZBERG (town in Hanover)         HILDEBERT
+  HERZBERG (town in Saxony)          HILDEBRAND, LAY OF
+  HERZL, THEODOR                     HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD
+  HERZOG, HANS                       HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR
+  HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB               HILDEGARD, ST
+  HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG      HILDEN
+  HESILRIGE, SIR ARTHUR              HILDESHEIM
+  HESIOD                             HILDRETH, RICHARD
+  HESPERIDES                         HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH
+  HESPERUS                           HILL, AARON
+  HESS (family of German artists)    HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
+  HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF       HILL, DANIEL HARVEY
+  HESSE                              HILL, DAVID BENNETT
+  HESSE-CASSEL                       HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN
+  HESSE-DARMSTADT                    HILL, JAMES J.
+  HESSE-HOMBURG                      HILL, JOHN
+  HESSE-NASSAU                       HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT
+  HESSE-ROTENBURG                    HILL, OCTAVIA and MIRANDA
+  HESSIAN                            HILL, ROWLAND
+  HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS             HILL, SIR ROWLAND
+  HESTIA                             HILL, ROWLAND HILL
+  HESYCHASTS                         HILL (elevation)
+  HESYCHIUS (Alexandrian grammarian) HILLAH
+  HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS               HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN
+  HETAERISM                          HILLEBRAND, KARL
+  HETEROKARYOTA                      HILLEL (Jewish rabbi)
+  HETERONOMY                         HILLER, FERDINAND
+  HETMAN                             HILLER, JOHANN ADAM
+  HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR           HILLIARD, LAWRENCE
+  HETTSTEDT                          HILLIARD, NICHOLAS
+  HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON               HILLSDALE
+  HEULANDITE                         HILL TIPPERA
+  HEUSCH, WILLEM                     HILTON, JOHN
+  HEVELIUS, JOHANN                   HILTON, WILLIAM
+  HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER       HILVERSUM
+  HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS              HIMALAYA
+  HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY             HIMERA
+  HEXAMETER                          HIMERIUS
+  HEXAPLA                            HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE
+  HEXAPODA                           HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY
+  HEXASTYLE                          HINCKLEY
+  HEXATEUCH                          HINCKS, EDWARD
+  HEXHAM                             HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS
+  HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER                HINCMAR
+  HEYLYN, PETER                      HIND
+  HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON            HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON
+  HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB           HINDI, EASTERN
+  HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG          HINDI, WESTERN
+  HEYSHAM                            HINDKI
+  HEYWOOD, JOHN                      HINDLEY
+  HEYWOOD, THOMAS                    HINDOSTANI
+  HEYWOOD (Lancashire, England)      HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
+  HEZEKIAH                           HINDU CHRONOLOGY
+  HIATUS
+
+
+
+
+HERO (Gr. [Greek: hêrôs]), a term specially applied to warriors of
+extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who were
+distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical or
+intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the word has been
+suggested.
+
+
+_Ancient Greek Heroes._
+
+In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult, and as
+such were intimately connected with its religious life. Various theories
+have been put forward as to the nature of these heroes. According to
+some authorities, they were idealized historical personages; according
+to others, symbolical representations of the forces of nature. The view
+most commonly held is that they were degraded or "depotentiated" gods,
+occupying a position intermediate between gods and men. According to E.
+Rohde (in _Psyche_) they are souls of the dead, which after separation
+from the body enter upon a higher, eternal existence. But it is only a
+select minority who attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the
+distinguished men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality
+an ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was
+preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being
+degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real heroes, the
+heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes were all persons
+who had lived the life of man on earth, and it was necessary for the
+degraded gods to pass through this stage. They did not at once become
+cult-heroes, but only after they had undergone death like other mortals.
+Only one who has been a man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of
+the dead, not demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods
+and men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class.
+
+In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to kings and
+kings' sons, even to distinguished persons of lower rank, and free men
+generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly confined to those who fought before
+Troy and Thebes; in view of their supposed divine origin, he calls them
+demi-gods ([Greek: hêmitheoi]). This name is also given them in an
+interpolated passage in the _Iliad_ (xii. 23), which is quite at
+variance with the general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more
+than men, even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess.
+But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea that
+the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over the lives of
+those who survived them; and consequently, no cult. Nevertheless, traces
+of an earlier ancestor worship appear, e.g. in funeral games in honour
+of Patroclus and other heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five
+ages of man is a reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence
+of souls in a higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a
+time obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry (_De
+abstinentia_, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica to honour
+the gods and heroes of their country "in accordance with the usage of
+their fathers" with offerings of first fruits and sacrificial cakes
+every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom of high antiquity.
+Solon also ordered that the tombs of the heroes should be treated with
+the greatest respect, and Cleisthenes (q.v.) sought to create a
+pan-Athenian enthusiasm by calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and
+setting up their statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first
+bestowed upon the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of
+families; if their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In
+many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the supposed
+ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica and elsewhere
+(Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus Ceryces at Eleusis), of the
+eponymi of the tribes and demes. Again, side by side with gods of
+superior rank, certain heroes were worshipped as protecting spirits of
+the country or state; such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans,
+Ajax son of Oïleus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at
+Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be
+responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes, while, on
+the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was equally
+beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic oracle, which was
+largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship and keeping alive its due
+observance. Special importance was attached to the grave of the hero and
+to his bodily remains, with which the spirit of the departed was
+inseparably connected. The grave was regarded as his place of abode,
+from which he could only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones
+were fetched from abroad (e.g. Cimon brought those of Theseus from
+Scyros), or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was
+erected in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the
+house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone on
+which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special shrines ([Greek:
+hêrôa]) were also erected in their honour, usually over their graves. In
+these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in accordance with the
+idea that the hero was essentially a warrior, who on occasion came forth
+from his grave and fought at the head of his countrymen, putting the
+enemy to flight as during his lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes
+were supposed to exercise an influence on human affairs, though not to
+the same extent, their sphere of action being confined to their own
+localities. Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the
+elevation of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of
+Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton and
+Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local Athenian hero
+Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank of a hero became far
+more common, and was even accorded to the living, such as Lysimachus in
+Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene
+instituted an order of priests to celebrate the anniversary of his birth
+and coronation in a special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed
+divine honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime. The
+birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month sacrifice was
+offered to him and games held in his honour. In addition to persons of
+high rank, poets, legendary and others (Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus
+and Sophocles), legislators and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the
+patrons of various trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers,
+potters), the heads of philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus,
+Epicurus) received the honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered
+before the statue of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some
+countries the honour became so general that every man after death was
+described as a hero in his epitaph--in Thessaly even slaves.
+
+The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that of the
+chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that of the
+ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not "depotentiated"
+gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at night or in the evening;
+not on a high, but on a low altar ([Greek: eschara]), surrounded by a
+trench to receive the blood of the victim, which was supposed to make
+its way through the ground to the occupant of the grave; the victims
+were black male animals, whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards;
+their blood was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed
+([Greek: haimakouria]); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no
+mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the
+sacrifice was not [Greek: thuein] but [Greek: enagizein] (less commonly
+[Greek: entemnein]). The chthonian aspect of the hero is further shown
+by his attribute the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form
+himself. On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set
+out for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake. The
+fullest description of such a festival is the account given by Plutarch
+(_Aristides_, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans in honour
+of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of Plataea. On the 16th
+of the month Maimacterion, a long procession, headed by a trumpeter
+playing a warlike air, set out for the graves; wagons decked with myrtle
+and garlands of flowers followed, young men (who must be of free birth)
+carried jars of wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull
+destined for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who
+wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand, in the
+other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew some water with
+which he washed the gravestones, afterwards anointing them with perfume;
+he then sacrificed the bull on the altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and
+Hermes Psychopompos, and inviting them in company with the heroes to the
+festival of blood. Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words:
+"I drink to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes."
+
+  See especially E. Rohde, _Psyche_ (1905) and in _Rheinisches Museum_,
+  li. (1895), 28; P. Stengel, _Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer_
+  (Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schömann, _Griechische Altertümer_, ii.
+  (1897), 159; J. Wassner, _De heroum apud Graecos cultu_ (Kiel, 1883);
+  article by F. Deneken in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, in which
+  a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild, _Étude sur les
+  démons_ (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquités_.
+
+
+_Teutonic Legend._
+
+Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek heroes are
+reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the parallel being in some
+cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance, like Achilles, is
+vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith, like Hephaestus, is
+lame. Superhuman qualities and powers, too, are commonly ascribed to
+both, an important difference, however, being that whatever worship may
+have been paid to the Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult.
+This applies equally to those who have a recognized historical origin
+and to those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the
+number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship. The
+fashion during the 19th century set strongly in the other direction, and
+the "degraded gods" theory was applied not only to such conspicuous
+heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and Beowulf, but to a host of minor
+characters, such as the good marquis Rüdeger of the Nibelungenlied and
+our own Robin Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The
+reaction from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until
+not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being traced to
+very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus M. Henri de Tourville,
+in his_ Histoire de la formation particulariste_ (1903), basing his
+argument on the _Ynglinga Saga_, interpreted in the light of "Social
+Science," reveals Odin, "the traveller," as a great "caravan-leader" and
+warrior, who, driven from Asgard--a trading city on the borders of the
+steppes east of the Don--by "the blows that Pompey aimed at
+Mithridates," brought to the north the arts and industries of the East.
+The argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be
+doubted whether it has permanently "rescued Odin from the misty
+dreamland of mythology and restored him to history." It is now, however,
+admitted that, whatever influence the one may have from time to time
+exercised on the other, Teutonic myth and Teutonic heroic legend were
+developed on independent lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main,
+historical personages, never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they
+are sometimes endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as
+symbolical representations of natural forces.
+
+The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded as including
+that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians, is to be
+looked for in the period of the so-called migration of nations (A.D.
+350-650). It consequently rests upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga
+(in the older and wider sense of any story said or sung) being indeed
+the oldest form of historical tradition; though this of course does not
+exclude the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round
+persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the heroic
+sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds of Arminius
+were still celebrated in song a hundred years after his death (_Annals_,
+ii. 88) and in the _Germania_ he speaks of "old songs" as the only kind
+of "annals" which the ancient Germans possessed; but, whatever relics of
+the old songs may be embedded in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no
+recognizable mark on the heroic poetry of the German peoples. The
+attempt to identify Arminius with Siegfried is now generally abandoned.
+Teutonic heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions
+connected with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are
+found in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus
+and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of Cassiodorus's
+_History of the Goths_) at the funeral of Attila his vassals, as they
+rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds. The next step in the
+development of epic narrative was the single lay of an episodic
+character, sung by a single individual, who was frequently a member of a
+distinguished family, not merely a professional minstrel. Then, as
+different stories grew up round the person of a particular hero, they
+formed a connected cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person
+of the hero (e.g. Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these
+cycles are the following.
+
+(1) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its present
+form was probably brought from the continent by the Angles. It is an
+amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the slayer of the water-demon and the
+dragon, with the historical legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of
+Hygelac (Chochilaicus), king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain
+(c. 520) while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel and
+the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally wounded, have been
+supposed to represent the powers of autumn and darkness, the floods
+which at certain seasons overflow the low-lying countries on the coast
+of the North Sea and sweep away all human habitations; Beowulf is the
+hero of spring and light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging
+waters, finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others
+regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours of the
+fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf-Scyld (i.e. Scyld
+Scefing, "the protector with the sheaf") lands on the Anglian or
+Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudderless ship, asleep on a sheaf
+of grain, symbolical of the means whereby his kingdom shall become
+great; the son indicates the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured
+against the attacks of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest
+German epic. A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when
+threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty years'
+absence, he returns to his home In Italy; his son Hadubrand, believing
+his father to be dead, suspects treachery and refuses to accept presents
+offered by the father in token of good-will. A fight takes place, in
+which the son is slain by the father. In a later version, recognition
+and reconciliation take place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and
+Telegonis, Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths,
+who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (c. 375) in terror at
+the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected the old German Dioscuri
+myth of the Harlungen. (4) Dietrich of Bern (Verona), the legendary name
+of Theodoric the Great. Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is
+supposed to have been his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been
+deprived by Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a
+typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes refuge in
+Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally recovers his
+kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented as fighting with
+giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears on a black horse.
+Some attempts have been made to identify him as a kind of Donar or god
+of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H. Ger. Sîvrit), the hero of the
+_Niebelungenlied_, the Sigurd of the related northern sagas, is usually
+regarded as a purely mythical figure, a hero of light who is ultimately
+overcome by the powers of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He
+is, however, closely associated with historical characters and events,
+e.g. with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the
+overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars have
+exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify him with
+various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (_Das Nibelungenlied_,
+Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to three groups of Burgundian
+legends, each based on fact: the Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the
+murder of Segeric, son of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by
+his father at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian
+story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. 11), of the defeat of the
+Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity and murder of
+Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation of their mother
+Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her father Chilperich and of
+her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish-Burgundian story of the ruin of
+Gundahari's kingdom by Attila's Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried
+(Sigurd) with Segeric, while--according to him--the heroine of the
+Nibelung sagas, Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two
+historical persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde),
+the wife of Attila. (See also the articles KRIEMHILD, NIBELUNGENLIED).
+
+(6) Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like that of
+Siegfried, is of Frankish origin. It is preserved in four versions, the
+best of which is the oldest, and has an historical foundation.
+Hugdietrich is the "Frankish Dietrich" (= Hugo Theodoric), king of
+Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and successor Theodebert, was
+illegitimate; both had to fight for their inheritance with relatives.
+The transference of the scene to Constantinople is a reminiscence of the
+events of the Crusades and Theodebert's projected campaign against that
+city. The version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife
+by disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As the
+myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so another Dioscuri
+myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend.
+The Hartungen are probably identical with the divine youths (mentioned
+in Tacitus as worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from
+whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent. Asdingi
+([Greek: Astiggoi]) would be represented in Gothic by Hazdiggos, "men
+with women's hair" (cf. _muliebri ornatu_ in Tacitus), and in middle
+high German by Hartungen. (7) Rother, king of Lombardy. Desiring to wed
+the daughter of Constantine, king of Constantinople, he sends twelve
+envoys to ask her in marriage. They are arrested and thrown into prison
+by the king. Rother, who appears under the name of Dietrich, sets out
+with an army, liberates the envoys and carries off the princess. One
+version places the scene in the land of the Huns. The character of
+Constantine in many respects resembles that of Alexius Comnenus; the
+slaying of a tame lion by one of the gigantic followers of Rother is
+founded on an incident which actually took place at the court of Alexius
+during the crusade of 1101 under duke Welf of Bavaria, when _King
+Rother_ was composed about 1160 by a Rhenish minstrel. Rother may be the
+Lombard king Rothari (636-650), transferred to the period of the
+Crusades. (8) Walther of Aquitaine, chiefly known from the Latin poem
+_Waltharius_, written by Ekkehard of St Gall at the beginning of the
+10th century, and fragments of an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Epic
+_Waldere_. Walther is not an historical figure, although the legend
+undoubtedly represents typical occurrences of the migration period, such
+as the detention and flight of hostages of noble family from the court
+of the Huns, and the rescue of captive maidens by abduction. (9) Wieland
+(Volundr), Wayland the Smith, the only Teutonic hero (his original home
+was lower Saxony) who firmly established himself in England. There is
+absolutely no historical background for his legend. He is a fire-spirit,
+who is pressed into man's service, and typifies the advance from the
+stone age to a higher stage of civilization (working in metals). As the
+lame smith he reminds us of Hephaestus, and in his flight with wings of
+Daedalus escaping from Minos. (10) Högni (Hagen) and Hedin (Hetel),
+whose personalities are overshadowed by the heroines Hilde and Gudrun
+(Kudrun, Kutrun). In one version occurs the incident of the never-ending
+battle between the forces of Hagen and Hedin. Every night Hilde revives
+the fallen, and "so will it continue till the twilight of the gods." The
+battle represents the eternal conflict between light and darkness, the
+alternation of day and night. Hilde here figures as a typical Valkyr
+delighting in battle and bloodshed, who frustrates a reconciliation.
+Hedin had sent a necklace as a peace-offering to Hagen, but Hilde
+persuades her father that it is only a ruse. This necklace occurs in the
+story of the goddess Freya (Frigg), who is said to have caused the
+battle to conciliate the wrath of Odin at her infidelity, the price paid
+by her for the possession of the necklace Brisnigamen; again, the light
+god Heimdal is said to have fought with Loki for the necklace (the sun)
+stolen by the latter. Hence the battle has been explained as the
+necklace myth in epic form. The historical background is the raids of
+the Teutonic maritime tribes on the coasts of England and Ireland.
+
+Famous heroes who are specially connected with England are Alfred the
+Great, Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King Horn, Havelok the Dane, Guy of
+Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton (or Southampton), Robin Hood and his
+companions.
+
+
+_Celtic Heroes._
+
+The Celtic heroic saga in the British islands may be divided into the
+two principal groups of Gaelic (Irish) and Brython (Welsh), the first,
+excluding the purely mythological, into the Ultonian (connected with
+Ulster) and the Ossianic. The Ultonianis grouped round the names of King
+Conchobar and the hero Cuchulainn, "the Irish Achilles," the defender of
+Ulster against all Ireland, regarded by some as a solar hero. The second
+cycle contains the epics of Finn (Fionn, Fingal) mac Cumhail, and his
+son Oisin (Ossian), the bard and warrior, chiefly known from the
+supposed Ossianic poems of Macpherson. (See CELT, sec. _Celtic
+Literature_.)
+
+Of Brython origin is the cycle of King Arthur (Artus), the adopted
+national hero of the mixed nationalities of whom the "English" people
+was composed. Here he appears as a chiefly mythical personality, who
+slays monsters, such as the giant of St Michel, the boar Troit, the
+demon cat, and goes down to the underworld. The original Welsh legend
+was spread by British refugees in Brittany, and was thus celebrated by
+both English and French Celts. From a literary point of view, however,
+it is chiefly French and forms "the matter of Brittany." Arthur, the
+leader (_comes Britanniae, dux bellorum_) of the Siluri or Dumnonii
+against the Saxons, flourished at the beginning of the 6th century. He
+is first spoken of in Nennius's _History of the Britons_ (9th century),
+and at greater length in Geoffrey of Monmouth's _History of the Kings of
+Britain_ (12th century), at the end of which the French Breton cycle
+attained its fullest development in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes and
+others.
+
+Speaking generally, the Celtic heroes are differentiated from the
+Teutonic by the extreme exaggeration of their superhuman, or rather
+extra-human, qualities. Teutonic legend does not lightly exaggerate, and
+what to us seems incredible in it may be easily conceived as credible to
+those by whom and for whom the tales were told; that Sigmund and his son
+Sinfiotli turned themselves into wolves would be but a sign of
+exceptional powers to those who believed in werewolves; Fafnir assuming
+the form of a serpent would be no more incredible to the barbarous
+Teuton than the similar transformation of Proteus to the Greek. But in
+the characterization of their heroes the Celtic imagination runs riot,
+and the quality of their persons and their acts becomes exaggerated
+beyond the bounds of any conceivable probability. Take, for instance,
+the description of some of Arthur's knights in the Welsh tale of
+_Kilhwch and Olwen_ (in the _Mabinogion_). Along with Kai and Bedwyr
+(Bedivere), Peredur (Perceval), Gwalchmai (Gawain), and many others, we
+have such figures as Sgilti Yscandroed, whose way through the wood lay
+along the tops of the trees, and whose tread was so light that no blade
+of grass bent beneath his weight; Sol, who could stand all day upon one
+leg; Sugyn the son of Sugnedydd, who was "broad-chested" to such a
+degree that he could suck up the sea on which were three hundred ships
+and leave nothing but dry land; Gweyyl, the son of Gwestad, who when he
+was sad would let one of his lips drop beneath his waist and turn up the
+other like a cap over his head; and Uchtry Varyf Draws, who spread his
+red untrimmed beard over the eight-and-forty rafters of Arthur's hall.
+Such figures as these make no human impression, and criticism has busied
+itself in tracing them to one or other of the shadowy divinities of the
+Celtic pantheon. However this may be, remnants of their primitive
+superhuman qualities cling to the Celtic heroes long after they have
+been transfigured, under the influence of Christianity and chivalry,
+into the heroes of the medieval Arthurian romance, types--for the most
+part--of the knightly virtues as these were conceived by the middle
+ages; while shadowy memories of early myths live on, strangely
+disguised, in certain of the episodes repeated uncritically by the
+medieval poets. So Merlin preserves his diabolic origin; Arthur his
+mystic coming and his mystic passing; while Gawain, and after him
+Lancelot, journey across the river, as the Irish hero Bran had done
+before them to the island of fair women--the Celtic vision of the realm
+of death.
+
+The chief heroes of the medieval Arthurian romances are the following.
+Arthur himself, who tends however to become completely overshadowed by
+his knights, who make his court the starting-point of their adventures.
+Merlin (Myrddin), the famous wizard, bard and warrior, perhaps an
+historical figure, first introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth, originally
+called Ambrose from the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, under whom
+he is said to have first served. Perceval (Parzival, Parsifal), the
+Welsh Peredur, "the seeker of the basin," the most intimately connected
+with the quest of the Grail (q.v.). Tristan (Tristram), the ideal lover
+of the middle ages, whose name is inseparably associated with that of
+Iseult. Lancelot, son of Ban king of Brittany, a creation of chivalrous
+romance, who only appears in Arthurian literature under French
+influence, known chiefly from his amour with Guinevere, perhaps in
+imitation of the story of Tristan and Iseult. Gawain (Welwain, Welsh
+Gwalchmai), Arthur's nephew, who in medieval romance remains the type of
+knightly courage and chivalry, until his character is degraded in order
+to exalt that of Lancelot. Among less important, but still conspicuous,
+figures may be mentioned Kay (the Kai of the _Mabinogion_), Arthur's
+foster-brother and seneschal, the type of the bluff and boastful
+warrior, and Bedivere (Bedwyr), the type of brave knight and faithful
+retainer, who alone is with Arthur at his passing, and afterwards
+becomes "a hermit and a holy man." (See ARTHUR, MERLIN, PERCEVAL,
+TRISTAN, LANCELOT, GAWAIN.)
+
+
+_Heroes of Romance._
+
+Another series of heroes, forming the central figures of stories
+variously derived but developed in Europe by the Latin-speaking peoples,
+may be conveniently grouped under the heading of "romance." Of these the
+most important are Alexander of Macedon and Charlemagne, while alongside
+of them Priam and other heroes of the Trojan war appear during the
+middle ages in strangely altered guise. Of all heroes of romance
+Alexander has been the most widely celebrated. His name, in the form of
+Iskander, is familiar in legend and story all over the East to this day;
+to the West he was introduced through a Latin translation of the
+original Greek romance (by the pseudo-Callisthenes) to which the
+innumerable Oriental versions are likewise traceable (see ALEXANDER
+III., KING OF MACEDON; sec. _The Romance of Alexander_). More important
+in the West, however, was the cycle of legends gathering round the
+figure of Charlemagne, forming what was known as "the matter of France."
+The romances of this cycle, of Germanic (Frankish) origin and developed
+probably in the north of France by the French (probably in the north of
+France) contain reminiscences of the heroes of the Merovingian period,
+and in their later development were influenced by the Arthurian cycle.
+Just as Arthur was eclipsed by his companions, so Charlemagne's vassal
+nobles, except in the _Chanson de Roland_, are exalted at the expense of
+the emperor, probably the result of the changed relations between the
+later emperors and their barons. The character of Charlemagne himself
+undergoes a change; in the _Chanson de Roland_ he is a venerable figure,
+mild and dignified, while later he appears as a cruel and typical tyrant
+(as is also the case with Ermanaric). The basis of his legend is mainly
+historical, although the story of his journey to Constantinople and the
+East is mythical, and incidents have been transferred from the reign of
+Charles Martel to his. Charlemagne is chiefly venerated as the champion
+of Christianity against the heathen and the Saracens. (See CHARLEMAGNE,
+_ad fin._ "The Charlemagne Legends.")
+
+The most famous heroes who are associated with him are Roland, praefect
+of the marches of Brittany, the Orlando of Ariosto, slain at Roncevaux
+(Roncevalles) in the Pyrenees, and his friend and rival Oliver
+(Olivier); Ogier the Dane, the Holger Danske of Hans Andersen, and Huon
+of Bordeaux, probably both introduced from the Arthurian cycle; Renaud
+(Rinaldo) of Montauban, one of the four sons of Aymon, to whom the
+wonderful horse Bayard was presented by Charlemagne; the traitor Doon of
+Mayence; Ganelon, responsible for the treachery that led to the death of
+Roland; Archbishop Turpin, a typical specimen of muscular Christianity;
+William Fierabras, William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and
+William of Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of
+the latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances
+originated the legends, in English form, of _Sowdone of Babylone_, _Sir
+Otnel_, _Sir Firumbras_ and _Huon of Bordeaux_ (in which Oberon, the
+king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the Fay, was
+first made known to England).
+
+The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems on the Cid,
+on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fernán Gonzalez, count of Castile.
+The legend of Charlemagne as told in the _Crónica general_ of Alfonso X.
+created the desire for a national hero distinguished for his exploits
+against the Moors, and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del
+Carpio. Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of
+romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish, although the
+Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from their own language.
+There is no trace of a French original.
+
+_Slavonic Heroes._--The Slavonic heroic saga of Russia centres round
+Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), the first Christian ruler of that country,
+whose personality is eclipsed by that of Ilya (Elias) of Mourom, the son
+of a peasant, who was said to have saved the empire from the Tatars at
+the urgent request of his emperor. It is not known whether he was an
+historical personage; many of the achievements attributed to him border
+on the miraculous. A much-discussed work is the _Tale of Igor_, the
+oldest of the Russian medieval epics. Igor was the leader of a raid
+against the heathen Polovtsi in 1185; at first successful, he was
+afterwards defeated and taken prisoner, but finally managed to escape.
+Although the Finns are not Slavs, on topographical grounds mention may
+here be made of Wainamoinen, the great magician and hero of the Finnish
+epic _Kalevala_ ("land of heroes"). The popular hero of the Servians and
+Bulgarians is Marko Kralyevich (q.v.), son of Vukashin, characterized by
+Goethe as a counterpart of the Greek Heracles and the Persian Rustem.
+For the Persian, Indian, &c., heroes see the articles on the literature
+and religions of the various countries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grässe, _Die
+  grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters_ (Dresden, 1842), forming part of
+  his _Lehrbuch einer Literärgeschichte der berühmtesten Völker des
+  Mittelalters_; W. P. Ker, _Epic and Romance_ (2nd ed., 1908).
+  TEUTONIC.--B. Symons, "Germanische Heldensage" in H. Paul's _Grundris
+  der germanischen Philologie_, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd revised
+  edition, separately printed (_ib._, 1905); W. Grimm, _Die deutsche
+  Heldensage_ (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most important
+  works; W. Müller, _Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage_ (Heilbronn,
+  1886) and supplement, _Zur Mythologie der griechischen und deutschen
+  Heldensage_ (_ib._, 1889); O. L. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensagen_, i.
+  (Strassburg, 1898) and _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (3rd revised edition,
+  Leipzig, 1906); Chantepie de la Saussaye, _The Religion of the
+  Teutons_ (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902); J. G. Robertson, _History
+  of German Literature_ (1902). See also HELDENBUCH.
+
+  CELTIC.--M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de littérature
+  celtique_ (12 vols., 1883-1902), one vol. trans. into English by R. I.
+  Best, _The Irish Mythological Cycle and Celtic Mythology_ (1903); L.
+  Petit de Julleville, _Hist. de la langue et de la litt. française_, i.
+  _Moyen âge_ (1896); C. Squire, _The Mythology of the British Isles: an
+  Introduction to Celtic Myth and Romance_ (1905); J. Rhys, _Celtic
+  Britain_ (3rd ed., 1904). SLAVONIC.--A. N. Rambaud, _La Russie épique_
+  (1876); W. Wollner, _Untersuchungen über die Volksepik der
+  Grossrussen_ (1879); W. R. Morfill, _Slavonic Literature_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HERO AND LEANDER, two lovers celebrated in antiquity. Hero, the
+beautiful priestess of Aphrodite at Sestos, was seen by Leander, a youth
+of Abydos, at the celebration of the festival of Aphrodite and Adonis.
+He became deeply enamoured of her; but, as her position as priestess and
+the opposition of her parents rendered their marriage impossible they
+agreed to carry on a clandestine intercourse. Every night Hero placed a
+lamp in the top of the tower where she dwelt by the sea, and Leander,
+guided by it, swam across the dangerous Hellespont. One stormy night the
+lamp was blown out and Leander perished. On finding his body next
+morning on the shore, Hero flung herself into the waves. The story is
+referred to by Virgil (_Georg._ iii. 258), Statius (_Theb._ vi. 535) and
+Ovid (_Her._ xviii. and xix.). The beautiful little epic of Musaeus has
+been frequently translated, and is expanded in the _Hero and Leander_ of
+C. Marlowe and G. Chapman. It is also the subject of a ballad by
+Schiller and a drama by F. Grillparzer.
+
+  See M. H. Jellinek, _Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Dichtung_
+  (1890), and G. Knaack "Hero und Leander" in _Festgabe für Franz
+  Susemihl_ (1898). A careful collection of materials will be found in
+  F. Köppner, _Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Literatur und Kunst
+  des Altertums_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+HERO OF ALEXANDRIA, Greek geometer and writer on mechanical and physical
+subjects, probably flourished in the second half of the 1st century.
+This is the more modern view, in contrast to the earlier theory most
+generally accepted, according to which he flourished about 100 B.C. The
+earlier theory started from the superscription of one of his works,
+[Greek: Hêrônos Ktêsibiou belopoiïka], from which it was inferred that
+Hero was a pupil of Ctesibius. Martin, Hultsch and Cantor took this
+Ctesibius to be a barber of that name who lived in the reign of Ptolemy
+Euergetes II. (d. 117 B.C.) and is credited with having invented an
+improved water-organ. But this identification is far from certain, as a
+Ctesibius _mechanicus_ is mentioned by Athenaeus as having lived under
+Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). Nor can the relation of master
+and pupil be certainly inferred from the superscription quoted (observe
+the omission of any article), which really asserts no more than that
+Hero re-edited an earlier treatise by Ctesibius, and implies nothing
+about his being an _immediate_ predecessor. Further, it is certain that
+Hero used physical and mathematical writings by Posidonius, the Stoic,
+of Apamea, Cicero's teacher, who lived until about the middle of the 1st
+century B.C. The positive arguments for the more modern view of Hero's
+date are (1) the use by him of Latinisms from which Diels concluded that
+the 1st century A.D. was the earliest possible date, (2) the description
+in Hero's _Mechanics_ iii. of a small olive-press with one screw which
+is alluded to by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ viii.) as having been introduced
+since A.D. 55, (3) an allusion by Plutarch (who died A.D. 120) to the
+proposition that light is reflected from a surface at an angle equal to
+the angle of incidence, which Hero proved in his _Catoptrica_, the words
+used by Plutarch fitting well with the corresponding passage of that
+work (as to which see below). Thus we arrive at the latter half of the
+1st century A.D. as the approximate date of Hero's activity.
+
+The geometrical treatises which have survived (though not interpolated)
+in Greek are entitled respectively _Definitiones_, _Geometria_,
+_Geodaesia_, _Stereometrica_ (i. and ii.), _Mensurae_, _Liber
+Geoponicus_, to which must now be added the _Metrica_ recently
+discovered by R. Schöne in a MS. at Constantinople. These books, except
+the _Definitiones_, mostly consist of directions for obtaining, from
+given parts, the areas or volumes, and other parts, of plane or solid
+figures. A remarkable feature is the bare statement of a number of very
+close approximations to the square roots of numbers which are not
+complete squares. Others occur in the _Metrica_ where also a method of
+finding such approximate square, and even approximate cube, roots is
+shown. Hero's expressions for the areas of regular polygons of from 5 to
+12 sides in terms of the squares of the sides show interesting
+approximations to the values of trigonometrical ratios. Akin to the
+geometrical works is that _On the Dioptra_, a remarkable book on
+land-surveying, so called from the instrument described in it, which was
+used for the same purposes as the modern theodolite. It is in this book
+that Hero proves the expression for the area of a triangle in terms of
+its sides. The _Pneumatica_ in two books is also extant in Greek as is
+also the _Automatopoietica_. In the former will be found such things as
+siphons, "Hero's fountain," "penny-in-the-slot" machines, a fire-engine,
+a water-organ, and arrangements employing the force of steam. Pappus
+quotes from three books of _Mechanics_ and from a work called
+_Barulcus_, both by Hero. The three books on _Mechanics_ survive in an
+Arabic translation which, however, bears a title "On the lifting of
+heavy objects." This corresponds exactly to _Barulcus_, and it is
+probable that _Barulcus_ and _Mechanics_ were only alternative titles
+for one and the same work. It is indeed not credible that Hero wrote
+two separate treatises on the subject of the mechanical powers, which
+are fully discussed in the _Mechanics_, ii., iii. The _Belopoiica_ (on
+engines of war) is extant in Greek, and both this and the _Mechanics_
+contain Hero's solution of the problem of the two mean proportionals.
+Hero also wrote _Catoptrica_ (on reflecting surfaces), and it seems
+certain that we possess this in a Latin work, probably translated from
+the Greek by Wilhelm van Moerbeek, which was long thought to be a
+fragment of Ptolemy's _Optics_, because it bore the title _Ptolemaei de
+speculis_ in the MS. But the attribution to Ptolemy was shown to be
+wrong as soon as it was made clear (especially by Martin) that another
+translation by an Admiral Eugenius Siculus (12th century) of an optical
+work from the Arabic was Ptolemy's _Optics_. Of other treatises by Hero
+only fragments remain. One was four books on _Water Clocks_ ([Greek:
+Peri hydriôn horoskopeiôn]), of which Proclus (_Hypotyp. astron._, ed.
+Halma) has preserved a fragment, and to which Pappus also refers.
+Another work was a commentary on Euclid (referred to by the Arabs as
+"the book of the resolution of doubts in Euclid") from which quotations
+have survived in an-Nairizi's commentary.
+
+  The _Pneumatica_, _Automatopoietica_, _Belopoiica_ and
+  _Cheiroballistra_ of Hero were published in Greek and Latin in
+  Thévenot's _Veterum mathematicorum opera graece et latine pleraque
+  nunc primum edita_ (Paris, 1693); the first important critical
+  researches on Hero were G. B. Venturi's _Commentari sopra la storia e
+  la teoria dell'ottica_ (Bologna, 1814) and H. Martin's "Recherches sur
+  la vie et les ouvrages d'Héron d'Alexandrie disciple de Ctésibius et
+  sur tous les ouvrages mathématiques grecs conservés ou perdus, publiés
+  ou inédits, qui ont été attribués à un auteur nommé Héron" (_Mém.
+  presentés à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, i. série,
+  iv., 1854). The geometrical works (except of course the _Metrica_)
+  were edited (Greek only) by F. Hultsch (_Heronis Alexandrini
+  geometricorum et stereometricorum reliquiae_, 1864), the _Dioptra_ by
+  Vincent (_Extraits des manuscrits relatifs à la géométrie pratique des
+  Grecs, Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque
+  Impériale_, xix. 2, 1858), the treatises on _Engines of War_ by C.
+  Wescher (_Poliorcétique des Grecs_, Paris, 1867). The _Mechanics_ was
+  first published by Carra de Vaux in the _Journal asiatique_ (ix.
+  série, ii., 1893). In 1899 began the publication in Teubner's series
+  of _Heronis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt omnia_. Vol. i. and
+  Supplement (by W. Schmidt) contains the _Pneumatica_ and _Automata_,
+  the fragment on _Water Clocks_, the _De ingeniis spiritualibus_ of
+  Philon of Byzantium and extracts on Pneumatics by Vitruvius. Vol. ii.
+  pt. i., by L. Nix and W. Schmidt, contains the _Mechanics_ in Arabic,
+  Greek fragments of the same, the _Catoptrica_ in Latin with appendices
+  of extracts from Olympiodorus, Vitruvius, Pliny, &c. Vol. iii. (by
+  Hermann Schöne) contains the _Metrica_ (in three books) and the
+  _Dioptra_. A German translation is added throughout. The approximation
+  to square roots in Hero has been the subject of papers too numerous to
+  mention. But reference should be made to the exhaustive studies on
+  Hero's arithmetic by Paul Tannery, "L'Arithmétique des Grecs dans
+  Héron d'Alexandrie" (_Mém. de la Soc. des sciences phys. et math. de
+  Bordeaux_, ii. série, iv., 1882), "La Stéréométrie d'Héron
+  d'Alexandrie" and "Études Héroniennes" (_ibid._ v., 1883), "Questions
+  Héroniennes" (_Bulletin des sciences math._, ii. série, viii., 1884),
+  "Un Fragment des Métriques d'Héron" (_Zeitschrift für Math. und
+  Physik_, xxxix., 1894; _Bulletin des sciences math._, ii. série,
+  xviii., 1894). A good account of Hero's works will be found in M.
+  Cantor's _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i.² (1894), chapters 18 and 19,
+  and in G. Loria's studies, _Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia_,
+  especially libro iii. (Modena, 1900), pp. 103-128.     (T. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERO, THE YOUNGER, the name given without any sufficient reason to a
+Byzantine land-surveyor who wrote (about A.D. 938) a treatise on
+land-surveying modelled on the works of Hero of Alexandria, especially
+the _Dioptra_.
+
+  See "Géodésie de Héron de Byzance," published by Vincent in _Notices
+  et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothéque Impériale_, xix. 2
+  (Paris, 1858), and T. H. Martin in _Mémoires présentés à l' Académie
+  des Inscriptions_, 1st series, iv. (Paris, 1854).
+
+
+
+
+HEROD, the name borne by the princes of a dynasty which reigned in
+Judaea from 40 B.C.
+
+HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT), the son of Antipater, who supported Hyrcanus
+II. against Aristobulus II. with the aid first of the Nabataean Arabs
+and then of Rome. The family seems to have been of Idumaean origin, so
+that its members were liable to the reproach of being half-Jews or even
+foreigners. Justin Martyr has a tradition that they were originally
+Philistines of Ascalon (_Dial._ c. 52), and on the other hand Nicolaus
+of Damascus (_apud_ Jos. _Ant._ xiv. 1. 3) asserted that Herod, his
+royal patron, was descended from the Jews who first returned from the
+Babylonian Captivity. The tradition and the assertion are in all
+probability equally fictitious and proceed respectively from the foes
+and the friends of the Herodian dynasty.
+
+Antipas (or Antipater), the father of Antipater, had been governor of
+Idumaea under Alexander Jannaeus. His son allied himself by marriage
+with the Arabian nobility and became the real ruler of Palestine under
+Hyrcanus II. When Rome intervened in Asia in the person of Pompey, the
+younger Antipater realized her inevitable predominance and secured the
+friendship of her representative. After the capture of Jerusalem in 63
+B.C. Pompey installed Hyrcanus, who was little better than a figurehead,
+in the high-priesthood; and when in 55 B.C. the son of Aristobulus
+renewed the civil war in Palestine, the Roman governor of Syria in the
+exercise of his jurisdiction arranged a settlement "in accordance with
+the wishes of Antipater" (Jos. _Ant._ xiv. 6. 4). To this policy of
+dependence upon Rome Antipater adhered, and he succeeded in commending
+himself to Mark Antony and Caesar in turn. After the battle of Pharsalia
+Caesar made him procurator and a Roman citizen.
+
+At this point Herod appears on the scene as ruler of Galilee (Jos.
+_Ant._ xiv. 9. 2) appointed by his father at the age of fifteen or,
+since he died at seventy, twenty-five. In spite of his youth he soon
+found an opportunity of displaying his mettle; for he arrested Hezekiah
+the arch-brigand, who had overrun the Syrian border, and put him to
+death. The Jewish nobility at Jerusalem seized upon this high-handed
+action as a pretext for satisfying their jealousy of their Idumaean
+rulers. Herod was cited in the name of Hyrcanus to appear before the
+Sanhedrin, whose prerogative he had usurped in executing Hezekiah. He
+appeared with a bodyguard, and the Sanhedrin was overawed. Only Sameas,
+a Pharisee, dared to insist upon the legal verdict of condemnation. But
+the governor of Syria had sent a demand for Herod's acquittal, and so
+Hyrcanus adjourned the trial and persuaded the accused to abscond. Herod
+returned with an army, but his father prevailed upon him to depart to
+Galilee without wreaking his vengeance upon his enemies. About this time
+(47-46 B.C.) he was created _strategus_ of Coelesyria by the provincial
+governor. The episode is important for the light which it throws upon
+Herod's relations with Rome and with the Jews.
+
+In 44 B.C. Cassius arrived in Syria for the purpose of filling his
+war-chest: Antipater and Herod collected the sum of money at which the
+Jews of Palestine had been assessed. In 43 B.C. Antipater was poisoned
+at the instigation of one Malichus, who was perhaps a Jewish patriot
+animated by hatred of the Herods and their Roman patrons.
+
+With the connivance of Cassius Herod had Malichus assassinated; but the
+country was in a state of anarchy, thanks to the extortions of Cassius
+and the encroachments of neighbouring powers. Antony, who became master
+of the East after Philippi, was ready to support the sons of his friend
+Antipater; but he was absent in Egypt when the Parthians invaded
+Palestine to restore Antigonus to the throne of his father Aristobulus
+(40 B.C.). Herod escaped to Rome: the Arabians, his mother's people, had
+repudiated him. Antony had made him tetrarch, and now with the assent of
+Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare him king of Judaea.
+
+In 39 B.C. Herod returned to Palestine and, when the presence of Antony
+put the reluctant Roman troops entirely at his disposal, he was able to
+lay siege to Jerusalem two years later. Secure of the support of Rome he
+was concerned also to legitimize his position in the eyes of the Jews by
+taking, for love as well as policy, the Hasmonaean princess Mariamne to
+be his second wife. Jerusalem was taken by storm; the Roman troops
+withdrew to behead Antigonus the usurper at Antioch. In 37 B.C. Herod
+was king of Judaea, being the client of Antony and the husband of
+Mariamne.
+
+The Pharisees, who dominated the bulk of the Jews, were content to
+accept Herod's rule as a judgment of God. Hyrcanus returned from his
+prison: mutilated, he could no longer hold office as high-priest; but
+his mutilation probably gave him the prestige of a martyr, and his
+influence--whatever it was worth--seems to have been favourable to the
+new dynasty. On the other hand Herod's marriage with Mariamne brought
+some of his enemies into his own household. He had scotched the faction
+of Hasmonaean sympathizers by killing forty-five members of the
+Sanhedrin and confiscating their possessions. But so long as there were
+representatives of the family alive, there was always a possible
+pretender to the throne which he occupied; and the people had not lost
+their affection for their former deliverers. Mariamne's mother used her
+position to further her plots for the overthrow of her son-in-law; and
+she found an ally in Cleopatra of Egypt, who was unwilling to be spurned
+by him, even if she was not weary of his patron, Antony.
+
+The events of Herod's reign indicate the temporary triumphs of his
+different adversaries. His high-priest, a Babylonian, was deposed in
+order that Aristobulus III., Mariamne's brother, might hold the place to
+which he had some ancestral right. But the enthusiasm with which the
+people received him at the Feast of Tabernacles convinced Herod of the
+danger; and the youth was drowned by order of the king at Jericho.
+Cleopatra had obtained from Antony a grant of territory adjacent to
+Herod's domain and even part of it. She required Herod to collect
+arrears of tribute. So it fell out that, when Octavian and the Senate
+declared war against Antony and Cleopatra, Herod was preoccupied in
+obedience to her commands and was thus prevented from fighting against
+the future emperor of Rome.
+
+After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Herod executed Hyrcanus and
+proceeded to wait upon the victorious Octavian at Rhodes. His position
+was confirmed and his territories were restored. On his return he took
+in hand to heal with the Hasmonaeans, and in 25 B.C. the old intriguers,
+their victims like Mariamne, and all pretenders were dead. From this
+time onwards Herod was free to govern Palestine, as a client-prince of
+the Roman Empire should govern his kingdom. In order to put down the
+brigands who still infested the country and to check the raids of the
+Arabs on the frontier, he built or rebuilt fortresses, which were of
+material assistance to the Jews in the great revolt against Rome. Within
+and without Judaea he erected magnificent buildings and founded cities.
+He established games in honour of the emperor after the ancient Greek
+model in Caesarea and Jerusalem and revived the splendour of the Olympic
+games. At Athens and elsewhere he was commemorated as a benefactor; and
+as Jew and king of the Jews he restored the temple at Jerusalem. The
+emperor recognized his successful government by putting the districts of
+Ulatha and Panias under him in 20 B.C.
+
+But Herod found new enemies among the members of his household. His
+brother Pheroras and sister Salome plotted for their own advantage and
+against the two sons of Mariamne. The people still cherished a loyalty
+to the Hasmonaean lineage, although the young princes were also the sons
+of Herod. The enthusiasm with which they were received fed the
+suspicion, which their uncle instilled into their father's mind, and
+they were strangled at Sebaste. On his deathbed Herod discovered that
+his eldest son, Antipater, whom Josephus calls a "monster of iniquity,"
+had been plotting against him. He proceeded to accuse him before the
+governor of Syria and obtained leave from Augustus to put him to death.
+The father died five days after his son in 4 B.C. He had done much for
+the Jews, thanks to the favour he had won and kept in spite of all from
+the successive heads of the Roman state; he had observed the Law
+publicly--in fact, as the traditional epigram of Augustus says, "it was
+better to be Herod's _swine_ than a _son_ of Herod."
+
+  Josephus, _Ant._ xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8, _B.J._ i. 18-33; Schürer,
+  _Gesch. d. jüd. Völk._, 4th ed., i. pp. 360-418.
+
+HEROD ANTIPAS, son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan Malthace, and
+full brother of Archelaus, received as his share of his father's
+dominions the provinces of Galilee and Peraea, with the title of
+tetrarch. Like his father, Antipas had a turn for architecture: he
+rebuilt and fortified the town of Sepphoris in Galilee; he also
+fortified Betharamptha in Peraea, and called it Julias after the wife of
+the emperor. Above all he founded the important town of Tiberias on the
+west shore of the Sea of Galilee, with institutions of a distinctly
+Greek character. He reigned 4 B.C.-A.D. 39. In the gospels he is
+mentioned as Herod. He it was who was called a "fox" by Christ (Luke
+xiii. 32). He is erroneously spoken of as a king in Mark vi. 14. It was
+to him that Jesus was sent by Pilate to be tried. But it is in connexion
+with his wife Herodias that he is best known, and it was through her
+that his misfortunes arose. He was married first of all to a daughter of
+Aretas, the Arabian king; but, making the acquaintance of Herodias, the
+wife of his brother Philip (not the tetrarch), during a visit to Rome,
+he was fascinated by her and arranged to marry her. Meantime his Arabian
+wife discovered the plan and escaped to her father, who made war on
+Herod, and completely defeated his army. John the Baptist condemned his
+marriage with Herodias, and in consequence was put to death in the way
+described in the gospels and in Josephus. When Herodias's brother
+Agrippa was appointed king by Caligula, she was determined to see her
+husband attain to an equal eminence, and persuaded him, though naturally
+of a quiet and unambitious temperament, to make the journey to Rome to
+crave a crown from the emperor. Agrippa, however, managed to influence
+Caligula against him. Antipas was deprived of his dominions and banished
+to Lyons, Herodias voluntarily sharing his exile.
+
+HEROD PHILIP, son of Herod the Great by Cleopatra of Jerusalem, received
+the tetrarchate of Ituraea and other districts to E. and N.E. of the
+Lake of Galilee, the poorest part of his father's kingdom. His subjects
+were mainly Greeks or Syrians, and his coins bear the image of Augustus
+or Tiberius. He is described as an excellent ruler, who loved peace and
+was careful to maintain justice, and spent his time in his own
+territories. He was also a builder of cities, one of which was Caesarea
+Philippi, and another was Bethsaida, which he called Julias. He died
+after a reign of thirty-seven years (4 B.C.-A.D. 34); and his dominions
+were incorporated in the province of Syria.     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERODAS (Gr. [Greek: Hêrôdas]), or HERONDAS (the name is spelt
+differently in the few places where he is mentioned), Greek poet, the
+author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written under the
+Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century B.C. Apart from the intrinsic
+merit of these pieces, they are interesting in the history of Greek
+literature as being a new species, illustrating Alexandrian methods.
+They are called [Greek: Mimiamboi], "Mimeiambics." Mimes were the Dorian
+product of South Italy and Sicily, and the most famous of them--from
+which Plato is said to have studied the drawing of character--were the
+work of Sophron. These were scenes in popular life, written in the
+language of the people, vigorous with racy proverbs such as we get in
+other reflections of that region--in Petronius and the _Pentamerone_.
+Two of the best known and the most vital among the _Idylls_ of
+Theocritus, the 2nd and the 15th, we know to have been derived from
+mimes of Sophron. What Theocritus is doing there, Herodas, his younger
+contemporary, is doing in another manner--casting old material into
+novel form, upon a small scale, under strict conditions of technique.
+The method is entirely Alexandrian: Sophron had written in a peculiar
+kind of rhythmical prose; Theocritus uses the hexameter and Doric,
+Herodas the _scazon_ or "lame" iambic (with a dragging spondee at the
+end) and the old Ionic dialect with which that curious metre was
+associated. That, however, hardly goes beyond the choice and form of
+words; the structure of the sentences is close-knit Attic. But the
+grumbling metre and quaint language suit the tone of common life which
+Herodas aims at realizing; for, as Theocritus may be called idealist,
+Herodas is a realist unflinching. His persons talk in vehement
+exclamations and emphatic turns of speech, with proverbs and fixed
+phrases; and occasionally, where it is designed as proper to the part,
+with the most naked coarseness of expression.
+
+The scene of the second and the fourth is laid at Cos, and the speaking
+characters in each are never more than three. In Mime I. the old nurse,
+now the professional go-between or bawd, calls on Metriche, whose
+husband has been long away in Egypt, and endeavours to excite her
+interest in a most desirable young man, fallen deeply in love with her
+at first sight. After hearing all the arguments Metriche declines with
+dignity, but consoles the old woman with an ample glass of wine, this
+kind being always represented with the taste of Mrs Gamp. II. is a
+monologue by the [Greek: Pornoboskos] ("Whoremonger") prosecuting a
+merchant-trader for breaking into his establishment at night and
+attempting to carry off one of the inmates, who is produced in court.
+The vulgar blackguard, who is a stranger to any sort of shame, remarking
+that he has no evidence to call, proceeds to a peroration in the regular
+oratorical style, appealing to the Coan judges not to be unworthy of
+their traditional glories. In fact, the whole oration is also a
+burlesque in every detail of an Attic speech at law; and in this case we
+have the material from which to estimate the excellence of the parody.
+In III. a desperate mother brings to the schoolmaster a truant urchin,
+with whom neither she nor his incapable old father can do anything. In a
+voluble stream of interminable sentences she narrates his misdeeds and
+implores the schoolmaster to flog him. The boy accordingly is hoisted on
+another's back and flogged; but his spirit does not appear to be
+subdued, and the mother resorts to the old man after all. IV. is a visit
+of two poor women with an offering to the temple of Asclepius at Cos.
+While the humble cock is being sacrificed, they turn, like the women in
+the _Ion_ of Euripides, to admire the works of art; among them a small
+boy strangling a vulpanser--doubtless the work of Boëthus that we
+know--and a sacrificial procession by Apelles, "the Ephesian," of whom
+we have an interesting piece of contemporary eulogy. The oily sacristan
+is admirably painted in a few slight strokes. V. brings us very close to
+some unpleasant facts of ancient life. The jealous woman accuses one of
+her slaves, whom she has made her favourite, of infidelity; has him
+bound and sent degraded through the town to receive 2000 lashes; no
+sooner is he out of sight than she recalls him to be branded "at one
+job." The only pleasing person in the piece is the little
+maidservant--permitted liberties as a _verna_ brought up in the
+house--whose ready tact suggests to her mistress an excuse for
+postponing execution of a threat made in ungovernable fury. VI. is a
+friendly chat or a private conversation. The subject is an ugly one, but
+the dialogue is as clever and amusing as the rest, with some delicious
+touches. Our interest is engaged here in a certain Kerdon, the artistic
+shoemaker, to whom we are introduced in VII. (the name had already
+become generic for the shoemaker as the typical representative of retail
+trade), a little bald man with a fluent tongue, complaining of hard
+times, who bluffs and wheedles by turns. VII. opens with a mistress
+waking up her maids to listen to her dream; but we have only the
+beginning, and the other fragments are very short.
+
+Within the limits of 100 lines or less Herodas presents us with a highly
+entertaining scene and with characters definitely drawn. Some of these
+had been perfected no doubt upon the Attic stage, where the tendency in
+the 4th century had been gradually to evolve accepted types--not
+individuals, but generalizations from a class, an art in which
+Menander's was esteemed the master-hand. The [Greek: Pornoboskos] and
+the [Greek: Mastropos] we can piece together from succeeding literature,
+and see how skilfully the established traits are indicated here. This is
+achieved by true dramatic means, with touches never wasted and the more
+delightful often because they do not clamour for attention. The
+execution has the qualities of first-rate Alexandrian work in miniature,
+such as the epigrams of Asclepiades possess, the finish and firm
+outlines; and these little pictures bear the test of all artistic
+work--they do not lose their freshness with familiarity, and gain in
+interest as one learns to appreciate their subtle points.
+
+  The papyrus MS., obtained from the Fayum, is in the possession of the
+  British Museum, and was first printed by F. G. Kenyon in 1891.
+  Editions by O. Crusius (1905, text only, in Teubner series) and J. A.
+  Nairn (1904), with introduction, notes and bibliography. There is an
+  English verse translation of the mimes by H. Sharpley (1906) under the
+  title _A Realist of the Aegean_.     (W. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERODIANS ([Greek: Hêrôdianoi]), a sect or party mentioned in Scripture
+as having on two occasions--once in Galilee, and again in
+Jerusalem--manifested an unfriendly disposition towards Jesus (Mark iii.
+6, xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 6; cf. also Mark viii. 15). In each of these
+cases their name is coupled with that of the Pharisees. According to
+many interpreters the courtiers or soldiers of Herod Antipas ("Milites
+Herodis," Jerome) are intended; but more probably the Herodians were a
+public political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great
+historical parties of post-exilian Judaism by the fact that they were
+and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great and to his dynasty
+(cf. such formations as "Caesariani," "Pompeiani"). It is possible that,
+to gain adherents, the Herodian party may have been in the habit of
+representing that the establishment of a Herodian dynasty would be
+favourable to the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may
+account for Tertullian's (_De praescr._) allegation that the Herodians
+regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called by the Rabbis
+Boethusians as being friendly to the family of Boethus, whose daughter
+Mariamne was one of Herod the Great's wives.     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERODIANUS, Greek historian, flourished during the third century A.D. He
+is supposed to have been a Syrian Greek. In 203 he was in Rome, where he
+held some minor posts. He does not appear to have attained high official
+rank; the statement that he was imperial procurator and legate of the
+Sicilian provinces rests upon conjecture only. His historical work
+([Greek: Hêrôdianou tês meta Markon basileias historiôn biblia oktô])
+narrates the events of the fifty-eight years between the death of Marcus
+Aurelius and the proclamation of Gordianus III. (180-238). The narrative
+is of special value as supplementing Dion Cassius, whose history ends
+with Alexander Severus. His work has the value that attaches to a record
+written by one chronicling the events of his own times, gifted with
+ordinary powers of observation, indubitable candour and independence of
+view. But while he gives a lively account of external events--such as
+the death of Commodus and the assassination of Pertinax--the barbarian
+invasions, the spread of Christianity, the extension of the franchise by
+Caracalla are unnoticed. The dates are often wrong, and little attention
+is paid to geographical details, which makes the narrative of military
+expeditions beyond the borders of the empire difficult to understand.
+Herodian has been accused of prejudice against Alexander Severus. His
+style, modelled on that of Thucydides and unreservedly praised by
+Photius, is on the whole pure, though somewhat rhetorical and showing a
+fondness for Latinisms.
+
+  Extensive use has been made of Herodianus by later chroniclers,
+  especially the "Scriptores historiae Augustae" and John of Antioch.
+  His history was first translated into Latin at the end of the 15th
+  century by Politian. The most complete edition is by G. W. Irmisch
+  (1789-1805), with elaborate indices, but the notes are very diffuse;
+  critical editions by I. Bekker (1855), L. Mendelssohn (1883); see also
+  C. Dändliker.
+
+
+
+
+HERODIANUS, AELIUS, called [Greek: ho technikos], Alexandrian
+grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He early took up his
+residence at Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of Marcus Aurelius
+(161-180), to whom he dedicated his great treatise on prosody. This work
+in twenty-one books ([Greek: Katholikê prosôdia]) included also an
+account of the etymological part of grammar. The work itself is lost,
+but several epitomes of it have been preserved. His [Greek:
+Hepimerismoi] dealt with difficult words and peculiar forms in Homer.
+Herodianus also wrote numerous grammatical treatises, of which only one
+has come down to us in a complete form ([Greek: Perí monêrous lexeôs],
+on peculiar style), articles on exceptional or anomalous words. Numerous
+quotations and fragments still exist, chiefly in the Homeric scholiasts
+and Stephanus of Byzantium. Herodianus enjoyed a great reputation as a
+grammarian, and Priscian styles him "maximus auctor artis grammaticae."
+
+  The best edition is by A. Lentz, _Herodiani. Technici reliquiae_
+  (1867-1870); a supplementary volume is included in Uhling's _Corpus
+  grammaticorum Graecorum_; for further bibliographical information see
+  W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.), Greek historian, called the Father of
+History, was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, then dependent upon
+the Persians, in or about the year 484 B.C. Herodotus was thus born a
+Persian subject, and such he continued until he was thirty or
+five-and-thirty years of age. At the time of his birth Halicarnassus was
+under the rule of a queen Artemisia (q.v.). The year of her death is
+unknown; but she left her crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498
+B.C.), who was succeeded upon the throne by his son Lygdamis about the
+time that Herodotus grew to manhood. The family of Herodotus belonged to
+the upper rank of the citizens. His father was named Lyxes, and his
+mother Rhaeo, or Dryo. He had a brother Theodore, and an uncle or cousin
+Panyasis (q.v.), the epic poet, a personage of so much importance that
+the tyrant Lygdamis, suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to
+death. It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative's political
+opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted it
+voluntarily at the time of his execution.
+
+Of the education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it was
+thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects essential to
+a Greek liberal education--grammar, gymnastic training and music. His
+studies would be regarded as completed when he attained the age of
+eighteen, and took rank among the _ephebi_ or _eirenes_ of his native
+city. In a free Greek state he would at once have begun his duties as a
+citizen, and found therein sufficient employment for his growing
+energies. But in a city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no
+political life worthy of the name existed. Herodotus may thus have had
+his thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory
+career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the example
+of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his writings when
+Herodotus was still an infant. At any rate it is clear from the extant
+work of Herodotus that he must have devoted himself early to the
+literary life, and commenced that extensive course of reading which
+renders him one of the most instructive as well as one of the most
+charming of ancient writers. The poetical literature of Greece was
+already large; the prose literature was more extensive than is generally
+supposed; yet Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of
+it. The _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ are as familiar to him as Shakespeare
+to the educated Englishman. He is acquainted with the poems of the epic
+cycle, the _Cypria_, the _Epigoni_, &c. He quotes or otherwise shows
+familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, Bacis,
+Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, Aesop,
+Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Aeschylus and
+Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the best of the prose
+writers who had preceded him, and makes numerous allusions to other
+authors of the same class.
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a mere
+student. It is probable that from an early age his inquiring disposition
+led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in foreign countries.
+He traversed Asia Minor and European Greece probably more than once; he
+visited all the most important islands of the Archipelago--Rhodes,
+Cyprus, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and
+Aegina. He undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the
+Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western shores
+of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he travelled in
+Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna Graecia, explored the
+antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores of Palestine, saw Gaza,
+and made a long stay in Egypt. At the most moderate estimate, his
+travels covered a space of thirty-one degrees of longitude, or 1700
+miles, and twenty-four of latitude, or nearly the same distance. At all
+the more interesting sites he took up his abode for a time; he examined,
+he inquired, he made measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in
+his mind the scheme of his great work, he gave ample time to the
+elaboration of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal
+observation a full knowledge of the various countries.
+
+The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished between
+his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 B.C.).[1] It was
+probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject he visited Susa
+and Babylon, taking advantage of the Persian system of posts which he
+describes in his fifth book. His residence in Egypt must, on the other
+hand, have been subsequent to 460 B.C., since he saw the skulls of the
+Persians slain by Inarus in that year. Skulls are rarely visible on a
+battlefield for more than two or three seasons after the fight, and we
+may therefore presume that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454
+B.C.),[2] when the Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he
+visited the country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and
+therefore receiving favour and attention on the part of the Egyptians,
+who were so much beholden to his countrymen (see ATHENS, CIMON,
+PERICLES). On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the Syrian
+shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence to have gone to
+Thasos. His Scythian travels are thought to have taken place prior to
+450 B.C.
+
+It is a question of some interest from what centre or centres these
+various expeditions were made. Up to the time of the execution of
+Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about the year 457
+B.C., there is every reason to believe that Herodotus lived at
+Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European Greece, and among
+the islands of the Aegean, probably belong to this period, as also his
+journey to Susa and Babylon. We are told that when he quitted
+Halicarnassus on account of the tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the
+year 457 B.C., he took up his abode in Samos. That island was an
+important member of the Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home
+Herodotus would have put himself under the protection of Athens. The
+fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian influence (see CIMON,
+PERICLES) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or 456 B.C., to that
+country. The stories that he had heard in Egypt of Sesostris may then
+have stimulated him to make voyages from Samos to Colchis, Scythia and
+Thrace. He was thus acquainted with almost all the regions which were to
+be the scene of his projected history.
+
+After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in Samos,
+events occurred in his native city which induced him to return thither.
+The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from bad to worse, and at last he was
+expelled. According to Suidas, Herodotus was himself an actor, and
+indeed the chief actor, in the rebellion against him; but no other
+author confirms this statement, which is intrinsically improbable. It is
+certain, however, that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary
+member of the Athenian confederacy. Herodotus would now naturally return
+to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those rights of free
+citizenship on which every Greek set a high value. He would also, if he
+had by this time composed his history, or any considerable portion of
+it, begin to make it known by recitation among his friends. There is
+reason to believe that these first attempts were not received with much
+favour, and that it was in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately
+withdrew from his native town, and sought a refuge in Greece proper
+(about 447 B.C.).[3] We learn that Athens was the place to which he
+went, and that he appealed from the verdict of his countrymen to
+Athenian taste and judgment. His work won such approval that in the year
+445 B.C., on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted a sum of
+ten talents (£2400) by decree of the people. At one of the recitations,
+it was said, the future historian Thucydides was present with his
+father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst into tears, whereupon
+Herodotus remarked to the father--"Olorus, your son has a natural
+enthusiasm for letters."[4]
+
+Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and could boast
+an almost unique galaxy of talent--Pericles, Thucydides the son of
+Melesias, Aspasia, Antiphon, the musician Damon, Pheidias, Protagoras,
+Zeno, Cratinus, Crates, Euripides and Sophocles. Accepted into this
+brilliant society, on familiar terms with all probably, as he certainly
+was with Olorus, Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted,
+like many another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home. It is to
+his credit that he did not yield to this temptation. At Athens he must
+have been a dilettante, an idler, without political rights or duties. As
+such he would have soon ceased to be respected in a society where
+literature was not recognized as a separate profession, where a Socrates
+served in the infantry, a Sophocles commanded fleets, a Thucydides was
+general of an army, and an Antiphon was for a time at the head of the
+state. Men were not men according to Greek notions unless they were
+citizens; and Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling,
+was anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to
+obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens the franchise, jealously guarded
+at this period, was not to be attained without great expense and
+difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following year he sailed
+from Athens with the colonists who went out to found the colony of
+Thurii (see PERICLES), and became a citizen of the new town.
+
+From this point of his career, when he had reached the age of forty, we
+lose sight of him almost wholly. He seems to have made but few journeys,
+one to Crotona, one to Metapontum, and one to Athens (about 430 B.C.)
+being all that his work indicates.[5] No doubt he was employed mainly,
+as Pliny testifies, in retouching and elaborating his general history.
+He may also have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of
+Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is quoted
+by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that he lived to a great age,
+and argued that "the never-to-be-mistaken fundamental tone of his
+performance is the quiet talkativeness of a highly cultivated, tolerant,
+intelligent, _old_ man" (Dahlmann). But the indications derived from the
+later touches added to his work, which form the sole evidence on the
+subject, would rather lead to the conclusion that his life was not very
+prolonged. There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been
+written as early as 430 B.C.; there is no touch which, even probably,
+points to a later date than 424 B.C. As the author was evidently engaged
+in polishing his work to the last, and even promises touches which he
+does not give, we may assume that he did not much outlive the date last
+mentioned, or in other words, that he died at about the age of sixty.
+The predominant voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii,
+where his tomb was shown in later ages.
+
+_The History._--In estimating the great work of Herodotus, and his
+genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to conceive
+aright what that work was intended to be. It has been called "a
+universal history," "a history of the wars between the Greeks and the
+barbarians," and "a history of the struggle between Greece and Persia."
+But these titles are all of them too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits
+wholly the histories of Phoenicia, Carthage and Etruria, three of the
+most important among the states existing in his day, cannot have
+intended to compose a "universal history," the very idea of which
+belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object was to
+record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians; but as he omits
+the Trojan war, in which he fully believes, the expedition of the
+Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace and Thessaly, the wars connected
+with the Ionian colonization of Asia Minor and others, it is evident
+that he does not really aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars
+between Greeks and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it
+even seem to have been his object to give an account of the entire
+struggle between Greece and Persia. That struggle was not terminated by
+the battle of Mycale and the capture of Sestos in 479 B.C. It continued
+for thirty years longer, to the peace of Callias (but see CALLIAS and
+CIMON). The fact that Herodotus ends his history where he does shows
+distinctly that his intention was, not to give an account of the entire
+long contest between the two countries, but to write the history of a
+particular war--the great Persian war of invasion. His aim was as
+definite as that of Thucydides, or Schiller, or Napier or any other
+writer who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined to
+treat it in a certain way. Every partial history requires an
+"introduction"; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples, resolved to give
+his history a magnificent introduction. Thucydides is content with a
+single introductory book, forming little more than one-eighth of his
+work; Herodotus has six such books, forming two-thirds of the entire
+composition.
+
+By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in the _grand_
+way, which is so characteristic of him. Making it his main object in his
+"introduction" to set before his readers the previous history of the two
+nations who were the actors in the great war, he is able in tracing
+their history to bring into his narrative some account of almost all the
+nations of the known world, and has room to expatiate freely upon their
+geography, antiquities, manners and customs and the like, thus giving
+his work a "universal" character, and securing for it, without trenching
+upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which are a principal
+charm of the best histories, and of none more than his. In tracing the
+growth of Persia from a petty subject kingdom to a vast dominant empire,
+he has occasion to set out the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria,
+Babylon, Egypt, Scythia, Thrace, and to describe the countries and the
+peoples inhabiting them, their natural productions, climate,
+geographical position, monuments, &c.; while, in noting the
+contemporaneous changes in Greece, he is led to tell of the various
+migrations of the Greek race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the
+arts, revolutions, internal struggles, wars with one another,
+legislation, religious tenets and the like. The greatest variety of
+episodical matter is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion
+and the mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made; the
+episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly interrupt the
+main narrative.
+
+It has been questioned, both in ancient and in modern times, whether the
+history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite of
+trustworthiness. Several ancient writers accuse him of intentional
+untruthfulness. Moderns generally acquit him of this charge; but his
+severer critics still urge that, from the inherent defects of his
+character, his credulity, his love of effect and his loose and
+inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the historian's
+office, and has produced a work of but small historical value. Perhaps
+it may be sufficient to remark that the defects in question certainly
+exist, and detract to some extent from the authority of the work, more
+especially of those parts of it which deal with remoter periods, and
+were taken by Herodotus on trust from his informants, but that they only
+slightly affect the portions which treat of later times and form the
+special subject of his history. In confirmation of this view, it may be
+noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances of the great
+Persian war, and for all local and other details which come under his
+immediate notice, is accepted by even the most sceptical of modern
+historians, and forms the basis of their narratives.
+
+Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most prominent are
+the diligence with which he collected his materials, the candour and
+impartiality with which he has placed his facts before the reader, the
+absence of party bias and undue national vanity, and the breadth of his
+conception of the historian's office. On the other hand, he has no claim
+to rank as a critical historian; he has no conception of the philosophy
+of history, no insight into the real causes that underlie political
+changes, no power of penetrating below the surface, or even of grasping
+the real interconnexion of the events which he describes. He belongs
+distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and picturesque
+description, the lively presentation of scenes and actions, characters
+and states of society, not the subtle analysis of motives, the power of
+detecting the undercurrents or the generalizing faculty.
+
+But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most
+conspicuous. "O that I were in a condition," says Lucian, "to resemble
+Herodotus, if only in some measure! I by no means say in all his gifts,
+but only in some single point; as, for instance, the beauty of his
+language, or its harmony, or the natural and peculiar grace of the Ionic
+dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by whatever name those thousand
+beauties are called which to the despair of his imitator are united in
+him." Cicero calls his style "copious and polished," Quintilian, "sweet,
+pure and flowing"; Longinus says he was "the most Homeric of
+historians"; Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucydides, and
+regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree the excellences of
+sublimity, beauty and the true historical method of composition. Modern
+writers are almost equally complimentary. "The style of Herodotus," says
+one, "is universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and
+sweetness." "The charm of his style," argues another, "has so dazzled
+men as to make them blind to his defects." Various attempts have been
+made to analyse the charm which is so universally felt; but it may be
+doubted whether any of them are very successful. All, however, seem to
+agree that among the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be
+admired are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of rhythm.
+Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical, and
+possessed of a delicate ear which instinctively suggested the most
+musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences, without art or
+effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt, never too diffuse,
+much less prolix or wearisome, and being himself simple, fresh, _naif_
+(if we may use the word), honest and somewhat quaint, he delights us by
+combining with this melody of sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts,
+perspicuously expressed, often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and
+always manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and
+unsophisticated mind. Reminding us in some respects of the quaint
+medieval writers, Froissart and Philippe de Comines, he greatly excels
+them, at once in the beauty of his language and the art with which he
+has combined his heterogeneous materials into a single perfect
+harmonious whole. See also GREECE, section _History_, "Authorities."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The history of Herodotus has been translated by many
+  persons and into many languages. About 1450, at the time of the
+  revival of learning, a Latin version was made and published by
+  Laurentius Valla. This was revised in 1537 by Heusbach, and
+  accompanies the Greek text of Herodotus in many editions. The first
+  complete translation into a modern language was the English one of
+  Littlebury, published in 1737. This was followed In 1786 by the French
+  translation of Larcher, a valuable work, accompanied by copious notes
+  and essays. Beloe, the second English translator, based his work on
+  that of Larcher. His first edition, in 1791, was confessedly very
+  defective; the second, in 1806, still left much to be desired. A good
+  German translation, but without note or comment, was brought out by
+  Friedrich Lange at Berlin in 1811. Andrea Mustoxidi, a native of
+  Corfu, published an Italian version in 1820. In 1822 Auguste Miot
+  endeavoured to improve on Larcher; and in 1828-1832 Dr Adolf Schöll
+  brought out a German translation with copious notes (new ed., 1855),
+  which has to some extent superseded the work of Lange. About the same
+  time a new English version was made by Isaac Taylor (London, 1829). In
+  1858-1860, the history of Herodotus was translated by Canon G.
+  Rawlinson, assisted in the copious notes and appendices accompanying
+  the work by Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Sir Henry Rawlinson. More
+  recently we have translations in English by G. C. Macaulay (2 vols.,
+  1890); in German by Bähr (Stuttgart, 1867) and Stein (Oldenburg,
+  1875); in French by Giguet (1857) and Talbot (1864); in Italian by
+  Ricci (Turin, 1871-1876), Grandi (Asti, 1872) and Bertini (Naples,
+  1871-1872). A Swedish translation by F. Carlstadt was published at
+  Stockholm in 1871.
+
+  The best of the older editions of the Greek text are the
+  following:--_Herodoti historiae_, ed. Schweighäuser (5 vols.,
+  Strassburg, 1816); _Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX._ (ed.
+  Gaisford, Oxford, 1840); _Herodotus, with a Commentary_, by J. W.
+  Blakesley (2 vols. London, 1854); _Herodoti musae_ (ed. Bähr, 4 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1856-1861, 2nd ed.); and _Herodoti historiae_ (ed. Abicht,
+  Leipzig, 1869).
+
+  The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with and
+  without commentaries are the following:--H. Stein, _Herodoti
+  Historiae_ (ed. Major, 2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1871, with _apparatus
+  criticus_; still the best edition of the text); H. Kellenberg,
+  _Historiarum libri IX._ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); van Herwerden,
+  [Greek: Historiai] (Leiden, 1885); H. Stein, _Herodotus, erklärt_
+  (Berlin, 1856-1861, and several editions since; the best short
+  commentary and introduction); A. H. Sayce, _The Ancient Empires of the
+  East, Herodotus I.-III., with introductions and appendices_ (1883; an
+  attempt to prove the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to
+  the extent of his travels, which has found little support amongst more
+  recent English or German writers); R. W. Macan, _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (2
+  vols., 1895) and _Herodotus VII.-IX._ (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive
+  introduction, appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of
+  these books in English; E. Abbott, _Herodotus V. and VI._ (Oxford,
+  1893); A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch mit sachlichen
+  Bemerkungen_ (Leipzig, 1890; the best and fullest commentary on book
+  ii.).
+
+  Among works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned
+  Bouhier, _Recherches sur Hérodote_ (Dijon, 1746); Rennell, _Geography
+  of Herodotus_ (London, 1800); Niebuhr, _Geography of Herodotus and
+  Scythia_ (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830); Dahlmann, _Herodot, aus seinem
+  Buche sein Leben_ (Altona, 1823); Eltz, _Quaestiones Herodoteae_
+  (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, _Egypt of Herodotus_ (London, 1841); Mure,
+  _Literature of Greece_, vol. iv. (London, 1852); Abicht, _Übersicht
+  über den Herodoteischen Dialekt_ (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed., 1874), and
+  _De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctoritate_ (Naumburg, 1869); Melander,
+  _De anacoluthis Herodoteis_ (Lund, 1869); Matzat, "Über die
+  Glaubenswürdigkeit der geograph. Angaben Herodots über Asien," in
+  _Hermes_, vi.; Büdinger, _Zur ägyptischen Forschung Herodots_ (Vienna,
+  1873, reprinted from the _Sitzungsber._ of the Vienna Acad.);
+  Merzdorf, _Quaestiones grammaticae de dialecto Herodotea_ (Leipzig,
+  1875); A. Kirchhoff, _Über die Entstehungszeit des Herodotischen
+  Geschichtswerkes_ (Berlin, 1878); Adolf Bauer, _Herodots Biographie_
+  (Vienna, 1878); H. Delbrück, _Perser und Burgunderkriege_ (Berlin,
+  1887; of great importance for the criticism of the Persian Wars); N.
+  Wecklein, _Über die Tradition der Perserkriege_ (Munich, 1876); A.
+  Hauvette-Besnault, _Hérodote historien des guerres médiques_ (Paris,
+  1894); J. A. R. Munro, _Some Observations on the Persian Wars_ (in
+  various vols. of the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; acute and
+  suggestive); G. B. Grundy, _The Great Persian War_ (London, 1901); J.
+  P. Mahaffy, _History of Greek Classical Literature_, ii. 16 ff.
+  (London, 1880); E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, i. 151
+  ff., and ii. 196 ff. (Halle, 1892-1899); Busolt, _Griechische
+  Geschichte_, ii. 602 ff. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1895); J. B. Bury, _Ancient
+  Greek Historians_ (1908), lecture 2. For notices of current literature
+  see Bursian's _Jahresbericht_. Students of the original may also
+  consult with advantage the lexicons of Aemilius Portus (Oxford, 1817)
+  and of Schweighäuser (London, 1824). On Herodotus' debt to Hecataeus
+  see Wells, in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1909, pt. i.     (G. R.; E. M. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The date of his travels is difficult to determine. E. Meyer
+    inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between
+    440 and 430 B.C. The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by C. F.
+    Lehmann c. 450 B.C., and by H. Stein before 450.
+
+  [2] Most recent critics (e.g. Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to
+    Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarus and Amyrtaeus
+    (i.e. after 449 B.C.), on the strength of Herod. 2. 30, which implies
+    the restoration of Persian authority.
+
+  [3] Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his
+    departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, e.g. the ascendancy
+    of the anti-Athenian party in the state.
+
+  [4] This story is on chronological grounds rejected by all recent
+    critics.
+
+  [5] Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his
+    settlement at Thurii. Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his
+    work (especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after
+    430 B.C. See further Wachsmuth, _Rheinisches Museum_, lvi. (1901)
+    215-218. Macan, _Herodotus_ VII.-IX. (_Introduction_, pp.
+    xlv.-lxvi.), seeks to prove that the last three books were the first
+    part of the _Histories_ to be composed. He is followed in this view
+    by Bury.
+
+
+
+
+HÉROET, ANTOINE, surnamed LA MAISON-NEUVE (d. 1568), French poet, was
+born in Paris of a family connected with the famous chancellor, François
+Olivier. His poetry belongs to his early years, for after he had taken
+orders he ceased to write profane poetry, no doubt because he considered
+it out of keeping with his calling, in which he attained the dignity of
+bishop of Digue. His chief work is _La Parfaicte Amye_ (Lyons, 1542) in
+which he developed the idea of a purely spiritual love, based chiefly on
+the reading of the Italian Neo-Platonists. The book aroused great
+controversy. La Borderie replied in _L'Amye de cour_ with a description
+of a very much more human woman, and Charles Fontaine contributed a
+_Contr' amye de cour_ to the dispute. Héroet, in addition to some
+translations from the classics, wrote the _Complainte d'une dame
+nouvellement surprise d'amour_, an _Épistre a François I^er_, and some
+pieces included in the now very rare _Opuscules d'amour par Héroet, La
+Borderie et autres divins poëtes_ (Lyons, 1547). Héroet belongs to the
+Lyonnese school of which Maurice Scève may be regarded as the leader.
+Clément Marot praises him, and Ronsard was careful to exempt him with
+one or two others from the scorn he poured on his immediate
+predecessors.
+
+  See H. F. Cary, _The Early French Poets_ (1846).
+
+
+
+
+HEROIC ROMANCES, the name by which is distinguished a class of
+imaginative literature which flourished in the 17th century, principally
+in France. The beginnings of modern fiction in that country took a
+pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated _Astrée_ (1610) of Honoré d'Urfé
+(1568-1625), which is the earliest French novel, is properly styled a
+pastoral. But this ingenious and diffuse production, in which all is
+artificial, was the source of a vast literature, which took many and
+diverse forms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and
+sentimental, there was a side of the _Astrée_ which encouraged that
+extravagant love of glory, that spirit of "panache," which was now
+rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which animated Marin
+le Roy, sieur de Gomberville (1600-1674), who was the inventor of what
+have since been known as the Heroical Romances. In these there was
+experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of
+romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible
+beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere
+of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to
+the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they
+were well-known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise.
+
+In the _Astrée_ of Honoré d'Urfé, which was a pure pastoral, in the
+religious romances of Pierre Camus (1582-1653), in the comic _Francion_
+of Charles Sorel, piquancy had been given to the recital by this belief
+that real personages could be recognized under the disguises. But in the
+_Carithée_ of Gomberville (1621) we have a pastoral which is already
+beginning to be a heroic romance, and a book in which, under a travesty
+of Roman history, an appeal is made to an extravagantly chivalrous
+enthusiasm. A further development was seen in the _Polyxène_ (1623) of
+François de Molière, and the _Endymion_ (1624) of Gombauld; in the
+latter the elderly queen, Marie de' Medici, was celebrated under the
+disguise of Diana, for whom a beautiful shepherd of Caria (the author
+himself) nourishes a hopeless passion. The earliest of the Heroic
+Romances, pure and simple, is, however, the celebrated _Polexandre_
+(1629) of Gomberville. The author began by intending his hero to
+represent Louis XIII., but he changed his mind, and drew a portrait of
+Cardinal Richelieu. In this novel, for the first time, the romantic
+character proper to this class of books is seen undiluted; there is no
+intrusion of a personage who is not celebrated for his birth, his beauty
+or his exploits. The story deals with the adventures of a hero who
+visits all the sea-coasts of the world, the most remote as well as the
+most fabulous, in search of an ineffable princess, Alcidiane. This
+absurd and pretentious, yet very original piece of invention enjoyed an
+immense success, and historical romances of a similar class competed for
+the favour of the public. There was an equal amount of geography and
+more of ancient history in the _Ariane_ (1632) of Desmarets de
+Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a book which, long neglected, has in late
+years been rediscovered, and which has been greeted by M. Paul Morillot
+as the most readable and the least tiresome of all the Heroic Romances.
+The type of that class of literature, however, has always been found in
+the highly elaborate writings of Gauthier de Coste de la Calprenède
+(1609-1663), which enjoyed for a time a prodigious celebrity, and were
+read and imitated all over Europe. La Calprenède was a Gascon soldier,
+imbued with all the extravagance of his race, and in full sympathy with
+the audacity and violence of the aristocratic society of France in his
+day. His _Cassandre_, which appeared in ten volumes between 1642 and
+1645, is perhaps the most characteristic of all the Heroic Romances. It
+deals with a highly romantic epoch of ancient history, the decline of
+the empire of Alexander the Great. The wars of the Persians and of the
+Scythians are introduced, and among the characters are discovered such
+personages as Artaxerxes, Roxana and Ephestion. It must not be supposed,
+however, that la Calprenède makes the smallest effort to deal with the
+subject accurately or realistically. The figures are those of his own
+day; they are seigneurs and great ladies of the court of Louis XIII.,
+masquerading in Macedonian raiment. The passion of love is dominant
+throughout, and it is treated in the most exalted and hyperbolical
+spirit. The central heroes of the story, Oroondate and Lysimachus, are
+dignified, eloquent and amorous; they undergo unexampled privations in
+the quest of incomparable ladies whose beauty and whose nobility is only
+equalled by their magnificent loyalty. These books were written with an
+aim that was partly didactic. Their object was to entertain the ladies
+and to gratify a taste for endlessly wire-drawn sentimentality, but it
+was also to teach fortitude and grandeur of soul and to inculcate
+lessons of practical chivalry. La Calprenède followed up the success of
+his _Cassandre_ with a _Cléopâtre_ (1647) in twelve volumes, and a
+_Faramond_ (1661) which he did not live to finish. He became more
+extravagant, more rhapsodical as he proceeded, and he lost all the
+little hold on history which he had ever held. _Cléopâtre_,
+nevertheless, enjoyed a prodigious popularity, and it became the fashion
+to emulate as far as possible the prowess of its magnificent hero, the
+proud Artaban. It should be said that la Calprenède objected to his
+books being styled romances, and insisted that they were specimens of
+"history embellished with certain inventions." He may, in opposition to
+his wishes, claim the doubtful praise of being, in reality, the creator
+of the modern historical novel. He was immediately imitated or
+accompanied by a large number of authors, of whom two have achieved a
+certain immortality, which, unhappily, must be confessed to be partly of
+ridicule. The vogue of the historical romance was carried to its height
+by a brother and a sister, Georges de Scudéry (1601-1667) and Madeleine
+de Scudéry (1608-1701), who represented in their own persons all the
+extravagant, tempestuous and absurd elements of the age, and whose
+elephantine romances remain as portents in the history of literature.
+These novels--there are five of them--were signed by Georges de Scudéry,
+but it is believed that all were in the main written by Madeleine. The
+earliest was _Ibrahim, ou l'Illustre Bassa_ (1641); it was followed by
+_Le Grand Cyrus_ (1648-1653) and the final, and most preposterous member
+of the series was _Clélie_ (1649-1654). The romances of Mlle de Scudéry
+(for to her we may safely attribute them) are much inferior in style to
+those of la Calprenède. They are pretentious, affected and sickly. The
+author abuses the element of analysis, and pushes a psychology, which
+was beyond the age in penetration, to a wearisome and excessive extent.
+Nothing, it is probable, in the whole evolution of the Historical
+Romances has attracted so much attention as the "Carte de Tendre" which
+occurs in the opening book of _Clélie_. This celebrated map, drawn by
+the heroine in order to show the route from New Friendship to Tender,
+and a geographical symbol, therefore, of the progress of love, with its
+city of Tender-upon-Esteem, its sea of Enmity, its river of Inclination,
+its rock-built citadel of Pride, its cold lake of Indifference, is a
+miracle of elaborate and incongruous ingenuity. But, amusing as it is,
+it shows into what depths of puerility the amorous casuistry of these
+romances had fallen. These novels formed the chief topic of conversation
+and of correspondence in the literary society which gathered at and
+around the Hotel de Rambouillet, and in the personages of Mlle de
+Scudéry's romances could be recognized all the famous leaders of that
+society. The mawkish love-making and the false heroism of these
+monstrous novels went rapidly out of fashion in France soon after 1660,
+when the epoch of the Heroic Romance came to an end. In England the
+Heroic Romance had a period of flourishing popularity. All the principal
+French examples were very promptly translated, and "he was not to be
+admitted into the academy of wit who had not read _Astrea_ and _The
+Grand Cyrus_." The great vogue of these books in England lasted from
+about 1645 to 1660. It led, of course, to the composition of original
+works in imitation of the French. The most remarkable and successful of
+these was _Parthenissa_, published in 1654 by Roger Boyle, Lord Broghill
+and afterwards Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), which was greatly admired by
+Dorothy Osborne and her correspondents. Addison speaks in the
+"Spectator" of the popularity of all these huge books, "the _Grand
+Cyrus_, with a pin stuck in one of the middle leaves, _Clélie_, which
+opened of itself in the place that describes two lovers in a bower."
+When the drama, and in particular tragedy, was reinstituted in England,
+sentimental readers found a field for their emotions on the stage, and
+the heroic romances immediately began to go out of fashion. They
+lingered, however, for a quarter of a century more, and M. Jusserand has
+analysed what may be considered the very latest of the race, _Pandion
+and Amphigenia_, published in 1665 by the dramatist, John Crowne.
+
+  See Gordon de Percel, _De l'usage des romans_ (1734); André Le Breton,
+  _Le Roman au XVII^e siècle_ (1890); Paul Morillot, _Le Roman en France
+  depuis 1610_ (1894); J. J. Jusserand, _Le Roman anglais au XVII^e
+  siècle_ (1888).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HEROIC VERSE, a term exclusively used in English to Indicate the rhymed
+iambic line or HEROIC COUPLET. In ancient literature, the heroic verse,
+[Greek: hêrôikon metron], was synonymous with the dactylic hexameter. It
+was in this measure that those typically heroic poems, the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_ and the _Aeneid_ were written. In English, however, it was
+not enough to designate a single iambic line of five beats as heroic
+verse, because it was necessary to distinguish blank verse from the
+distich, which was formed by the heroic couplet. This had escaped the
+notice of Dryden, when he wrote "The English Verse, which we call
+Heroic, consists of no more than ten syllables." If that were the case,
+then _Paradise Lost_ would be written in heroic verse, which is not
+true. What Dryden should have said is "consists of two rhymed lines,
+each of ten syllables." In French the alexandrine has always been
+regarded as the heroic measure of that language. The dactylic movement
+of the heroic line in ancient Greek, the famous [Greek: rhythmos hêrôos]
+of Homer, is expressed in modern Europe by the iambic movement. The
+consequence is that much of the rush and energy of the antique verse,
+which at vigorous moments was like the charge of a battalion, is lost.
+It is owing to this, in part, that the heroic couplet is so often
+required to give, in translation, the full value of a single Homeric
+hexameter. It is important to insist that it is the couplet, not the
+single line, which constitutes heroic verse. It is interesting to note
+that the Latin poet Ennius, as reported by Cicero, called the heroic
+metre of one line _versum longum_, to distinguish it from the brevity of
+lyrical measures. The current form of English heroic verse appears to be
+the invention of Chaucer, who used it in his _Legend of Good Women_ and
+afterwards, with still greater freedom, in the _Canterbury Tales_. Here
+is an example of it in its earliest development:--
+
+  "And thus the longë day in fight they spend,
+   Till, at the last, as everything hath end,
+   Anton is shent, and put him to the flight,
+   And all his folk to go, as best go might."
+
+This way of writing was misunderstood and neglected by Chaucer's English
+disciples, but was followed nearly a century later by the Scottish poet,
+called Blind Harry (_c._ 1475), whose _Wallace_ holds an important place
+in the history of versification as having passed on the tradition of the
+heroic couplet. Another Scottish poet, Gavin Douglas, selected heroic
+verse for his translation of the _Aeneid_ (1513), and displayed, in such
+examples as the following, a skill which left little room for
+improvement at the hands of later poets:--
+
+  "One sang, 'The ship sails over the salt foam,
+   Will bring the merchants and my leman home';
+   Some other sings, 'I will be blithe and light,
+   Mine heart is leant upon so goodly wight.'"
+
+The verse so successfully mastered was, however, not very generally used
+for heroic purposes in Tudor literature. The early poets of the revival,
+and Spenser and Shakespeare after them, greatly preferred stanzaic
+forms. For dramatic purposes blank verse was almost exclusively used,
+although the French had adopted the rhymed alexandrine for their plays.
+In the earlier half of the 17th century, heroic verse was often put to
+somewhat unheroic purposes, mainly in prologues and epilogues, or other
+short poems of occasion; but it was nobly redeemed by Marlowe in his
+_Hero and Leander_ and respectably by Browne in his _Britannia's
+Pastorals_. It is to be noted, however, that those Elizabethans who,
+like Chapman, Warner and Drayton, aimed at producing a warlike and
+Homeric effect, did so in shambling fourteen-syllable couplets. The one
+heroic poem of that age written at considerable length in the
+appropriate national metre is the _Bosworth Field_ of Sir John Beaumont
+(1582-1628). Since the middle of the 17th century, when heroic verse
+became the typical and for a while almost the solitary form in which
+serious English poetry was written, its history has known many
+vicissitudes. After having been the principal instrument of Dryden and
+Pope, it was almost entirely rejected by Wordsworth and Coleridge, but
+revised, with various modifications, by Byron, Shelley (in _Julian and
+Maddalo_) and Keats (in _Lamia_). In the second half of the 19th century
+its prestige was restored by the brilliant work of Swinburne in
+_Tristram_ and elsewhere.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HÉROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND (1791-1833), French musician, the son of
+François Joseph Hérold, an accomplished pianist, was born in Paris, on
+the 28th of January 1791. It was not till after his father's death that
+Hérold in 1806 entered the Paris conservatoire, where he studied under
+Catal and Méhul. In 1812 he gained the grand prix de Rome with the
+cantata _La Duchesse de la Vallière_, and started for Italy, where he
+remained till 1815 and composed a symphony, a cantata and several pieces
+of chamber music. During his stay in Italy also Hérold for the first
+time ventured on the stage with the opera _La Gioventù di Enrico V._,
+first performed at Naples in 1815 with moderate success. During a short
+stay in Vienna he was much in the society of Salieri. Returning to Paris
+he was invited by Boieldieu to collaborate with him on an opera called
+_Charles de France_, performed in 1816, and soon followed by Hérold's
+first French opera, _Les Rosières_ (1817), which was received very
+favourably. Hérold produced numerous dramatic works for the next fifteen
+years in rapid succession. Only the names of some of the more important
+need here be mentioned:--_La Clochette_ (1817), _L'Auteur mort et
+vivant_ (1820), _Marie_ (1826), and the ballets _La Fille mal gardée_
+(1828) and _La Belle au bois dormant_ (1829). Hérold also wrote a vast
+quantity of pianoforte music, in spite of his time being much occupied
+by his duties as accompanist at the Italian opera in Paris. In 1831 he
+produced the romantic opera _Zampa_, and in the following year _Le Pré
+aux clercs_ (first performance December 15, 1832), in which French
+_esprit_ and French chivalry find their most perfect embodiment. These
+two operas secured immortality for the name of the composer, who died on
+the 18th of January 1833, of the lung disease from which he had suffered
+for many years, and the effects of which he had accelerated by incessant
+work. Hérold's incomplete opera _Ludovic_ was afterwards printed by J.
+F. F. Halévy.
+
+
+
+
+HERON (Fr. _héron_; Ital. _aghirone_, _airone_; Lat. _ardea_; Gr.
+[Greek: erôdios]: A.-S. _hragra_; Icelandic, _hegre_; Swed. _häger_;
+Dan. _heire_; Ger. _Heiger_, _Reiher_, _Heergans_; Dutch, _reiger_), a
+long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical
+representative of the group _Ardeidae_. It is difficult or even
+impossible to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of
+_Ardeidae_ which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863 enumerated
+61, besides 5 of what he terms "conspecies," as contained in the
+collection at Leyden (_Mus. des Pays-Bas_, Ardeae, 64 pp.),--on the
+other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871 (_Handlist_, &c. iii. 26-34) admitted
+above 90, while Dr Anton Reichenow (_Journ. für Ornithologie_, 1877, pp.
+232-275) recognizes 67 as known, besides 15 "subspecies" and 3
+varieties, arranging them in 3 genera, _Nycticorax_, _Botaurus_ and
+_Ardea_, with 17 sub-genera. But it is difficult to separate the family,
+with any satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have
+to be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost
+insensibly into each other--though in common language it is easy to
+speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and boatbills. With the
+exception of the last, Professor Schlegel retains all in the genus
+_Ardea_, dividing it into _eight_ sections, the names of which may
+perhaps be Englished--great herons, small herons, egrets, semi-egrets,
+rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns and night-herons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heron.]
+
+The common heron of Europe, _Ardea cinerea_ of Linnaeus, is universally
+allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also be regarded as
+that of Professor Schlegel's first section. The species inhabits
+suitable localities throughout the whole of Europe, Africa and Asia,
+reaching Japan, many of the islands of the Indian Archipelago and even
+Australia. Though by no means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is
+still sufficiently common,[1] and there must be few persons who have not
+seen it rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing
+overhead in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its
+daily haunts; while they are many who have been entertained by watching
+it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly of fishes (especially eels
+and flounders) and amphibians--though young birds and small mammals come
+not amiss--wading midleg in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out
+of its depth, or standing motionless to strike its prey with its
+formidable and sure beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in
+societies, known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by
+law and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the sport
+their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly owing to
+the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and still more, it
+would seem, from agricultural improvement, which, by draining meres,
+fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding-places of a great population
+of herons, many of the larger heronries have broken up--the birds
+composing them dispersing to neighbouring localities and forming smaller
+settlements, most of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of
+heronry, though commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called
+heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and Wales,
+has become far greater than formerly, but no one can doubt that the
+number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen by the heron for its
+nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the top of a lofty tree, but
+not unfrequently (and this seems to have been much more usual in former
+days) near or on the ground among rough vegetation, on an island in a
+lake, or again on a rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a
+huge mass of sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs,
+and in it are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are
+clothed in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a
+considerable time, therein differing remarkably from the "pipers" of the
+crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched. The
+first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way resemble those
+of the adult, but the pure white breast, the black throat-streaks and
+especially the long pendent plumes, which characterize only the very old
+birds, and are most beautiful in the cocks, are subsequently acquired.
+The heron measures about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the
+expanse of its wings is sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs
+only between 3 and 4 lb.
+
+Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in size by the
+great blue heron of America (_Ardea herodias_), which generally
+resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are smaller than the _A.
+sumatrana_ or _A. typhon_ of India and the Malay Archipelago, while the
+_A. goliath_, of wide distribution in Africa and Asia, is the largest of
+all. The purple heron, _A. purpurea_, as a well-known European species
+having a great range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The
+species included in Professor Schlegel's second section inhabit the
+tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets, forming
+his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they are by their
+pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by the beautiful
+dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily droop over the tail,
+and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by Oriental magnates. The
+largest species is _A. occidentalis_, only known apparently from Florida
+and Cuba; but one not much less, the great egret (_A. alba_), belongs to
+the Old World, breeding regularly in south-eastern Europe, and
+occasionally straying to Britain. A third, _A. egretta_, represents it
+in America, while much the same may be said of two smaller species, _A.
+garzetta_, the little egret of English authors, and _A. candidissima_;
+and a sixth, _A. intermedia_, is common in India, China and Japan,
+besides occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing
+some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron (_A.
+bubulcus_), is the only species that is known to have occurred in
+Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except by
+their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species with
+slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons form
+Professor Schlegel's next section, but it can scarcely be satisfactorily
+differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its members have no
+rail-like affinities, though the typical species, which inhabits the
+south of Europe, and occasionally finds its way to England, has long
+been known as _A. ralloides_.[2] Nearly all these birds are tropical or
+subtropical. Then there is the somewhat better defined group of little
+bitterns, containing about a dozen species--the smallest of the whole
+family. One of them, _A. minuta_, though very local in its distribution,
+is a native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England. It
+has a close counterpart in the _A. exilis_ of North America, and is
+represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world, the _A.
+pusilla_ of Australia especially differing very slightly from it. Ranged
+by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all remarkable for
+their skulking habits, but more resembling the true herons in their
+nature, are the common green bittern of America (_A. virescens_) and its
+very near ally the African _A. atricapilla_, from which last it is
+almost impossible to distinguish the _A. javanica_, of wide range
+throughout Asia and its islands, while other species, less closely
+related, occur elsewhere as _A. flavicollis_--one form of which, _A.
+gouldi_, inhabits Australia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bittern.]
+
+The true bitterns, forming the genus _Botaurus_ of most authors, seem to
+be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their wholly
+nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage than on strictly
+structural grounds, though some differences of proportion are
+observable. The common bittern (q.v.) of Europe (_B. stellaris_), is
+widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere.[3] Australia and New
+Zealand have a kindred species, _B. poeciloptilus_, and North America a
+third, _B. mugitans_[4] or _B. lentiginosus_. Nine other species from
+various parts of the world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some
+of them should perhaps be excluded from the genus _Botaurus_.
+
+Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all of which
+may be reasonably placed in the genus _Nycticorax_, characterized by a
+shorter beak and a few other peculiarities, among which the large eyes
+deserve mention. The first is _N. griseus_, a bird widely spread over
+the Old World, and not unfrequently visiting England, where it would
+undoubtedly breed if permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the
+common night-heron of America; but this, though very closely allied, is
+generally deemed distinct, and is the _N. naevius_ or _N. gardeni_ of
+most writers. A clearly different American species, with a more southern
+habitat, is the _N. violaceus_ or _N. cayennensis_, while others are
+found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands and in
+West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species, _N. pauper_, and
+another, so far as is known, peculiar to Rodriguez, _N. megacephalus_,
+existed in that island at the time of its being first colonized, but is
+now extinct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Boatbill.]
+
+The boatbill, of which only one species is known, seems to be merely a
+night-heron with an exaggerated bill,--so much widened as to suggest its
+English name,--but has always been allowed generic rank. This curious
+bird, the _Cancroma cochlearia_ of most authors, is a native of tropical
+America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are essentially
+those of a _Nycticorax_.[5]
+
+Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in the peat of
+the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and Langy in France have been
+referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards to herons under the names of _Ardea
+perplexa_ and _A. formosa_; a tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am
+Albuch by Dr Fraas to an _A. similis_, while Sir R. Owen recognized a
+portion of a sternum from the London Clay as most nearly approaching
+this family.
+
+It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley's section
+_Pelargomorphae_, belonging to his larger group _Desmognathae_, and to
+draw attention to the singular development of the patches of
+"powder-down" which in the family _Ardeidae_ attain a magnitude hardly
+to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly unknown.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In many parts of England it is generally called a
+    "hernser"--being a corruption of "heronsewe," which, as Professor
+    Skeat states (_Etymol. Dictionary_, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct
+    word from "heronshaw," commonly confounded with it. The further
+    corruption of "hernser" into "handsaw," as in the well-known proverb,
+    was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was
+    unfamiliar.
+
+  [2] It is the "Squacco-Heron" of modern British authors--the
+    distinctive name, given "Sguacco" by Willughby and Ray from
+    Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham.
+
+  [3] The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England was
+    in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (_Birds of Norfolk_, ii. 164).
+
+  [4] Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (_Fauna
+    Boreali-Americana_, ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet)
+    exactly resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American
+    ornithologists seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes
+    when disturbed.
+
+  [5] The very wonderful shoe-bird (_Balaeniceps_) has been regarded by
+    many authorities as allied to _Cancroma_; but there can be little
+    doubt that it is more nearly related to the genus _Scopus_ belonging
+    to the storks. The sun-bittern (_Eurypyga_) forms a family of itself,
+    allied to the rails and cranes.
+
+
+
+
+HERPES (from the Gr. [Greek: herpein], to creep) an inflammation of the
+true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or its
+ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped vesicles of
+various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a clear fluid, and
+either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked varieties of herpes are
+frequently met with. (a) In _herpes labialis et nasalis_ the eruption
+occurs about the lips and nose. It is seen in cases of certain acute
+febrile ailments, such as fevers, inflammation of the lungs or even in a
+severe cold. It soon passes off. (b) In the _herpes zoster, zona_ or
+"shingles" the eruption occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous
+nerves, often on one side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs
+or other parts. It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently
+met with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually
+preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and, not
+only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long after they
+have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes continue and give
+rise to great suffering. The disease seldom recurs. The most that can be
+done for its relief is to protect the parts with cotton wool or some
+dusting powder, while the pain may be allayed by opiates or bromide of
+potassium. Quinine internally is often of service.
+
+
+
+
+HERRERA, FERNANDO DE (c. 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical poet, was born at
+Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed many impassioned poems
+to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro Colon de Portugal; but it is
+suggested that these should be regarded as Platonic literary exercises
+in the manner of Petrarch. As is shown by his _Anotaciones á las obras
+de Garcilaso de la Vega_ (1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for
+the Italian poets, and continued the work of Boscán in naturalizing the
+Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso involved
+him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal innovations laid
+him open to attack. But, even if his amatory sonnets are condemned as
+insincere in sentiment, their workmanship is admirable, while his odes
+on the battle of Lepanto, on Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King
+Sebastian of Portugal entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian
+poets and as the most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega
+(see VEGA). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with
+additions in 1619; they are reissued in the _Biblioteca de autores
+españoles_, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera's prose works only the _Vida y muerta
+de Tomas Moro_ (1592) survives; it is a translation of the life in
+Thomas Stapleton's _Tres Thomae_ (1588).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Bourciez, "Les Sonnets de Fernando de Herrera,"
+  _Annales de la Faculté des Lettres de Bordeaux_ (1891); _Fernando de
+  Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones á les obras de Garcilaso
+  de la Vega_ (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, _L'Hymne sur Lépante_
+  (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HERRERA, FRANCISCO (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the old), Spanish
+historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis Fernandez in Seville,
+his native city, where he spent most of his life. Although so rough and
+coarse in manners that neither scholar nor child could remain with him,
+the great talents of Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used
+them, brought him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in
+bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with coining
+base money. From this accusation, whether true or false, he sought
+sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermenegildo, which he adorned
+with a fine picture of its patron saint. Philip IV., on his visit to
+Seville in 1624, having seen this picture, and learned the position of
+the artist, pardoned him at once, warning him, however, that such powers
+as his should not be degraded. In 1650 Herrera removed to Madrid, where
+he lived in great honour till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first
+to relinquish the timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of
+painting, and to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which
+reached such perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his
+pupil. His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of
+execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is said to
+have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also said that,
+when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours on the canvas
+with a broom under his directions, and that he worked them up into his
+designs before they dried. The drawing in his pictures is correct, and
+the colouring original and skilfully managed, so that the figures stand
+out in striking relief. What has been considered his best easel-work,
+the "Last Judgment," in the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an
+original and striking composition, showing in its treatment of the nude
+how ill-founded the common belief was that Spanish painters, through
+ignorance of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his
+best fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura; but
+many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the weather
+and others by the artist's own carelessness in preparing his surfaces.
+He has, however, preserved several of his own designs in etchings. For
+his easel-works Herrera often chose such humble subjects as fairs,
+carnivals, ale-houses and the like.
+
+His son FRANCISCO HERRARA (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo (the young), was
+also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to endure his father's
+cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what money he could find, fled
+from Seville to Rome. There, instead of devoting himself to the
+antiquities and the works of the old Italian masters, he gave himself up
+to the study of architecture and perspective, with the view of becoming
+a fresco-painter. He did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became
+renowned for his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his
+skill in painting fish was called by the Italians _Lo Spagnuolo degli
+pesci_. In later life he painted portraits with great success. He
+returned to Seville on hearing of his father's death, and in 1660 was
+appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo. His
+vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and throwing up his
+appointment he went to Madrid. There he was employed to paint a San
+Hermenegildo for the barefooted Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco
+the roof of the choir of San Felipe el Real. The success of this last
+work procured for him a commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco
+the roof of the Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the
+Assumption of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title
+of painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the royal
+buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo was of a somewhat
+similar temperament to his father, and offended many people by his
+inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy. His pictures are inferior to
+the older Herrera's both in design and in execution; but in some of them
+traces of the vigour of his father, who was his first teacher, are
+visible. He was by no means an unskilful colourist, and was especially
+master of the effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund
+Head in his _Handbook_ names his "San Francisco," in Seville Cathedral.
+An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who died very
+young, gave great promise as a painter.
+
+
+
+
+HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE (1549-1625), Spanish historian, was
+born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia in Spain. His father,
+Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother, Agnes de Herrera, were both of
+good family. After studying for some time in his native country, Herrera
+proceeded to Italy, and there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago,
+with whom, on his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to
+Spain. Gonzago, sensible of his secretary's abilities, commended him to
+Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first
+historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of
+Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary, Herrera
+devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature, retaining his
+offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was appointed
+secretary of state very shortly before his death, which took place at
+Madrid on the 29th of March 1625. Of Herrera's writings, the most
+valuable is his _Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en
+las islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano_ (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a
+work which relates the history of the Spanish-American colonies from
+1492 to 1554. The author's official position gave him access to the
+state papers and to other authentic sources not attainable by other
+writers, while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS.,
+especially from that of Bartolomé de Las Casas. He used his facilities
+carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on the whole
+accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable to the student either
+of the history of the early colonies, or of the institutions and
+customs of the aboriginal American peoples. Although it is written in
+the form of annals, mistakes are not wanting, and several glaring
+anachronisms have been pointed out by M. J. Quintana. "If," to quote Dr
+Robertson, "by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New
+World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events in his
+work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected and obscure that
+it is an unpleasant task to collect from different parts of his book and
+piece together the detached shreds of a story, he might justly have been
+ranked among the most eminent historians of his country." This work was
+republished in 1730, and has been translated into English by J. Stevens
+(London, 1740), and into other European languages.
+
+  Herrera's other works are the following: _Historia de lo sucedido en
+  Escocia é Inglaterra en quarenta y quatro años que vivió la reyna
+  Maria Estuarda_ (Madrid, 1589); _Cinco libros de la historia de
+  Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Açores, 1582-1583_ (Madrid,
+  1591); _Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594_ (Madrid, 1598);
+  _Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II, desde 1559
+  hasta su muerte_ (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); _Tratado, relacion, y
+  discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon_ (Madrid, 1612);
+  _Comentarios de los hechos de los Españoles, Franceses, y Venecianos
+  en Italia, &c., 1281-1559_ (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H. Prescott,
+  _History of the Conquest of Mexico_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674), English poet, was born at Cheapside,
+London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591. He belonged to an old
+Leicestershire family which had settled in London. He was the seventh
+child of Nicholas Herrick, goldsmith, of the city of London, who died in
+1592, under suspicion of suicide. The children were brought up by their
+uncle, Sir William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to
+whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably been educated
+at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to Cambridge; and it was
+no doubt during his apprenticeship that the young poet was introduced to
+that circle of wits which he was afterwards to adorn. He seems to have
+been present at the first performance of _The Alchemist_ in 1610, and it
+was probably about this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical
+"son." He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John's
+College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his degree,
+he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen letters to his
+uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beaumanoir, and shows that
+Herrick suffered much from poverty at the university. He took his B.A.
+in 1617, and in 1620 he became master of arts. From this date until 1627
+we entirely lose sight of him; it has been variously conjectured that he
+spent these years preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much
+looser pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by
+the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in
+Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when he was
+ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed him at first; the
+village was dull and remote, and he felt very bitterly that he was cut
+off from all literary and social associations; but soon the quiet
+existence in Devonshire soothed and delighted him. He was pleased with
+the rural and semi-pagan customs that survived in the village, and in
+some of his most charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances,
+wakes and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night
+revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick never
+married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy family of pets,
+and tended by an excellent old servant named Prudence Baldwin. His first
+appearance in print was in some verses he contributed to _A Description
+of the King and Queen of Fairies_, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of _Wit's
+Recreations_ contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by
+Herrick in the _Hesperides_, and one not reprinted until our own day.
+These partial appearances make it probable that he visited London from
+time to time. We have few hints of his life as a clergyman. Anthony Wood
+says that Herricks's sermons were florid and witty, and that he was
+"beloved by the neighbouring gentry." A very aged woman, one Dorothy
+King, stated that the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation,
+cursing them for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his
+favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He was a
+devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil War, and
+immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his celebrated
+collection of lyrical poems, entitled _Hesperides; or the Works both
+Human and Divine of Robert Herrick_. The "divine works" bore the title
+of _Noble Numbers_ and the date 1647. That he was reduced to great
+poverty in London has been stated, but there is no evidence of the fact.
+In August 1662 Herrick returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own
+supplanter, Dr John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was
+buried at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his
+memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a descendant
+of a collateral branch of the family. The _Hesperides_ (and _Noble
+Numbers_) is the only volume which Herrick published, but he contributed
+poems to _Lachrymae Musarum_ (1649) and to _Wit's Recreations_.
+
+As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets. His
+genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious, but in its
+own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems--and of the thirteen hundred
+that he has left behind him not one is long--are like jewels of various
+value, heaped together in a casket. Some are of the purest water,
+radiant with light and colour, some were originally set in false metal
+that has tarnished, some were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of
+the unarranged, heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not
+worth reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is
+astonished at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains.
+Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his sylvan
+muse when he says:--
+
+  "I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers,
+   Of April, May, of June and July flowers,
+   I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes,
+   Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes."
+
+He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no one before him
+had seen it, and he described it in his verse with a certain purple glow
+of Arcadian romance over it, in tones of immortal vigour and freshness.
+His love poems are still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour
+and tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of modern
+lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace and in the
+poets of the Greek anthology.
+
+  After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the fame
+  of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his poems to
+  the readers of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ of 1796 and 1797. Dr Drake
+  followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810 interest had so
+  far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured to print a
+  selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable notice of the
+  _Quarterly Review_. In 1823 the _Hesperides_ and the _Noble Numbers_
+  were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland, afterwards Lord
+  Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick's have been too
+  numerous to be mentioned here; there are few English poets of the 17th
+  century whose writings are now more accessible. See F. W. Moorman,
+  _Robert Herrick_ (1910).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES (1778-1855), English politician, son of a London
+merchant, began his career as a junior clerk in the treasury, and became
+known for his financial abilities as private secretary to successive
+ministers. He was appointed commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the
+abolition of that office (1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he
+entered parliament as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became
+chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of
+internal differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries,
+the ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master of the
+mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade, and for the
+earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war. From 1841 to 1847 he was
+out of parliament, but during 1852 he was president of the board of
+control under Lord Derby. He was a consistent and upright Tory of the
+old school, who carried weight as an authority on financial subjects.
+His eldest son, SIR CHARLES JOHN HERRIES (1815-1882), was chairman of
+the board of inland revenue.
+
+  See the _Life_ by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL, 4TH LORD (c. 1512-1583), Scottish politician, was
+the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he
+married Agnes (d. 1594), daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries
+(d. 1543), a grandson of Herbert Herries (d. c. 1500) of Terregles,
+Kirkcudbrightshire, who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament
+about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries. But
+before this event Maxwell had become prominent among the men who rallied
+round Mary queen of Scots, although during the earlier part of his
+public life he had been associated with the religious reformers and had
+been imprisoned by the regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover--at
+least until 1563--very friendly with John Knox, who calls him "a man
+zealous and stout in God's cause." But the transition from one party to
+the other was gradually accomplished, and from March 1566, when Maxwell
+joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder of David Rizzio and her escape
+from Holyrood, he remained one of her staunchest friends, although he
+disliked her marriage with Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and
+after this battle she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with
+the queen into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of
+Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York. He
+continued to labour in Mary's cause after returning to Scotland, and was
+imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also incurred Elizabeth's
+displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard Dacres, but he soon made his
+peace with the English queen. He showed himself in general hostile to
+the regent Morton, but he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox
+until his death on the 20th of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord
+Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches.
+
+William's grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became 3rd earl of
+Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell, the 2nd earl, in
+1667. John's grandson was William, 5th earl of Nithsdale, the Jacobite
+(see NITHSDALE). William was deprived of his honours in 1716, but in
+1858 the House of Lords decided that his descendant William
+Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In
+1876 William's son Marmaduke Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became 12th
+Lord Herries, and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+HERRING (_Clupea harengus_, _Häring_ in German, _le hareng_ in French,
+_sill_ in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus _Clupea_, of which
+more than sixty different species are known in various parts of the
+globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad are species of the same
+genus. Of all sea-fishes _Clupeae_ are the most abundant; for although
+other genera may comprise a greater variety of species, they are far
+surpassed by _Clupea_ with regard to the number of individuals. The
+majority of the species of _Clupea_ are of greater or less utility to
+man; it is only a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their
+food, highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons
+eating them. But no other species equals the common herring in
+importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in incredible
+numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the Atlantic and the seas
+north of Asia. The herring inhabiting the corresponding latitudes of the
+North Pacific is another species, but most closely allied to that of the
+eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was the general belief that the herring
+inhabits the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates
+at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and America.
+This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we know now that this
+fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity of our shores, but at a
+greater depth, and at a greater distance from the coast, than at the
+time when it approaches land for the purpose of spawning.
+
+Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the other species
+of _Clupea_ by having an ovate patch of very small teeth on the vomer
+(that is, the centre of the palate). In the dorsal fin they have from 17
+to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from 16 to 18; there are from 53 to 59
+scales in the lateral line and 54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral
+column. They have a smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of
+bone which are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other _Clupeae_. The
+sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth on the
+vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line.
+
+The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on rough
+gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and always in
+comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning is different in
+different places, and even in the same district, e.g. the east coast of
+Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring and others in autumn.
+These are not the same fish but different races. Those which breed in
+winter or spring deposit their spawn near the coast at the mouths of
+estuaries, and ascend the estuaries to a considerable distance at
+certain times, as in the Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which
+spawn in summer or autumn belong more to the open sea, e.g. the great
+shoals that visit the North Sea annually.
+
+Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer's observations,
+they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during the first month after
+hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second, 45 to 50 mm. during the third,
+55 to 61 mm. during the fourth, and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The
+size which they finally attain and their general condition depend
+chiefly on the abundance of food (which consists of crustaceans and
+other small marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the
+season at which they have been hatched, &c. Their usual size is about 12
+in., but in some particularly suitable localities they grow to a length
+of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring 17 in. are on record. In
+the Baltic, where the water is gradually losing its saline constituents,
+thus becoming less adapted for the development of marine species, the
+herring continues to exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not
+growing either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring.
+The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically
+identical with that of Europe. A second species (_Clupea leachii_) has
+been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises only
+individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or late spawn.
+Also the so-called "white-bait" is not a distinct species, but consists
+chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings and sprats, and is obtained
+"in perfection" at localities where these small fishes find an abundance
+of food, as in the estuary of the Thames.
+
+  Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published, as by
+  Valenciennes in the 20th vol. of the _Histoire naturelle des
+  poissons_, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, _The Herring, its
+  Natural History and National Importance_ (Edinburgh, 1864). Recent
+  investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery _Board for
+  Scotland_, and in the reports of the German _Kommission zur
+  Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere_ (published at Kiel).     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERRING-BONE, a term in architecture applied to alternate courses of
+bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding courses above
+and below: this is said to give a better bond to the wall, especially
+when the stone employed is stratified, such as Stonefield stone, and too
+thin to be laid in horizontal courses. Although it is only occasionally
+found in modern buildings, it was a type of construction constantly
+employed in Roman, Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is
+regarded as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the
+Byzantine walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed
+decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the diagonal
+courses are reversed one above the other. Examples in France exist in
+the churches at Querqueville in Normandy and St Christophe at Suèvres
+(Loir et Cher), both dating from the 10th century, and in England
+herring-bone masonry is found in the walls of castles, such as at
+Guildford, Colchester and Tamworth. The term is also applied to the
+paving of stable yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating
+so that the head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the
+effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses.
+
+
+
+
+HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE, the name applied to the action of Rouvray,
+fought in 1429 between the French (and Scots) and the English, who,
+under Sir John Falstolfe (or Falstaff), were convoying Lenten
+provisions, chiefly herrings, to the besiegers of Orleans. (See ORLEANS
+and HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+HERRNHUT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 18 m. S.E. of
+Bautzen, and situated on the Löbau-Zittau railway. Pop. 1200. It is
+chiefly known as the principal seat of the Moravian or Bohemian
+brotherhood, the members of which are called _Herrnhuter_. A colony of
+these people, fleeing from persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut
+in 1722 on a site presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the
+society include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the
+sisters and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an
+ethnographical museum and other collections of interest. The town is
+remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous cleanliness.
+Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives its name), tobacco
+and various minor articles are manufactured. The Hutberg, at the foot of
+which the town lies, commands a pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village
+about a mile distant, has been the seat of the directorate of the
+community since about 1789.
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848), English astronomer, sister of
+Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and fourth daughter of her
+parents, was born at Hanover on the 16th of March 1750. On account of
+the prejudices of her mother, who did not desire her to know more than
+was necessary for being useful in the family, she received, in youth
+only the first elements of education. After the death of her father in
+1767 she obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a
+view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother in the
+management of the household until the autumn of 1772, when she joined
+her brother William, who had established himself as a teacher of music
+at Bath. At once she became a valuable co-operator with him both in his
+professional duties and in the astronomical researches to which he had
+already begun to devote all his spare time. She was the principal singer
+at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist
+that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which,
+however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office of
+astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant in his
+observations, and also executed the laborious calculations which were
+connected with them. For these services she received from the king in
+1787 a salary of £50 a year. Her chief amusement during her leisure
+hours was sweeping the heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this
+means she detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the
+eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with unquestioned
+priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal Society an Index to
+Flamsteed's observations, together with a catalogue of 561 stars
+accidentally omitted from the "British Catalogue," and a list of the
+errata in that publication. Though she returned to Hanover in 1822 she
+did not abandon her astronomical studies, and in 1828 she completed the
+reduction, to January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother.
+In 1828 the Astronomical Society, to mark their sense of the benefits
+conferred on science by such a series of laborious exertions,
+unanimously resolved to present her with their gold medal, and in 1835
+elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846 she received a
+gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on the 9th of January
+1848.
+
+  See _The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel_, by Mrs John
+  Herschel (1876).
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822), generally known as Sir
+William Herschel, English astronomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th of
+November 1738. His father was a musician employed as hautboy player in
+the Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony in the
+early part of the 17th century on account of religious troubles, they
+themselves being Protestants. Herschel's earlier education was
+necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly owing to the warlike
+commotions of his country; but being at all times an indomitable
+student, he, by his own exertions, more than repaired this deficiency.
+He became a very skilful musician, both theoretical and practical; while
+his attainments as a self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to
+the prosecution of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently
+advanced and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and
+thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret of what
+Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific success.
+
+
+In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the Hanoverian
+guard, and with his detachment visited England in 1755, accompanied by
+his father and eldest brother; in the following year he returned to his
+native country; but the hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years'
+War imperilling his health, his parents privately removed him from the
+regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to England. There,
+as might have been expected, the earlier part of his career was attended
+with formidable difficulties and much privation. We find him engaged in
+several towns in the north of England as organist and teacher of music,
+which were not lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began
+to flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to the
+Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth and
+fashion of the city.
+
+During the next five or six years he became the leading musical
+authority, and the director of all the chief public musical
+entertainments at Bath. His circumstances having thus become easier, he
+revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back with him his sister
+Caroline, whose services he much needed in his multifarious
+undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August 1772, being at that time in
+her twenty-third year. She thus describes her brother's life soon after
+her arrival: "He used to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass
+of water, with Smith's _Harmonics_ and Ferguson's _Astronomy_, &c., and
+so went to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first
+thoughts on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those
+objects himself of which he had been reading." It is not without
+significance that we find him thus reading Smith's _Harmonics_; to that
+study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a reward for his
+thoroughness this led him to Smith's _Optics_; and this, by a natural
+sequence, again led him to astronomy, for the purposes of which the
+chief optical instruments were devised. It was in this way that he was
+introduced to the writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to
+those of Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer of
+undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very expensive
+and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet perfected even
+their beautiful little achromatics of 2¾ in. aperture. So Herschel was
+obliged to content himself with hiring a small Gregorian reflector of
+about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen exposed for loan in a
+tradesman's shop. Not satisfied with this implement, he procured a small
+lens of about 18 ft. focal length, and set his sister to work on a
+pasteboard tube to match it, so as to make him a telescope. This
+unsatisfactory material was soon replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort
+of vision was obtained of Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought
+in London for a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such
+instrument was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a
+reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too
+exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own. So he
+was driven to the only alternative that remained; he must himself build
+a large telescope. His first step in this direction was to purchase the
+débris of an amateur's implements for grinding and polishing small
+mirrors; and thus, by slow degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he
+in 1774 had, as he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a
+Newtonian telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he
+was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary, he had from
+the very first conceived the gigantic project of surveying the entire
+heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining the plan of their general
+structure by a settled mode of procedure, if only he could provide
+himself with adequate instrumental means. For this purpose he, his
+brother and his sister toiled for many years at the grinding and
+polishing of hundreds of specula, always retaining the best and
+recasting the others, until the most perfect of the earlier products had
+been surpassed. This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of
+the year when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place,
+and had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774 every
+available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped-for scrutiny
+of the skies. In those days no machinery had been invented for the
+construction of telescopic mirrors; the man who had the hardihood to
+undertake polishing them doomed himself to walk leisurely and uniformly
+round an upright post for many hours, without removing his hands from
+the mirror, until his work was done. On these occasions Herschel
+received his food from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward
+was nigh.
+
+In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his
+observations on the variable star "Mira" and the mountains of the moon
+were communicated to the Royal Society through the influential
+introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel had made his acquaintance in
+a characteristic manner. In order to obtain a sight of the moon the
+astronomer had taken his telescope into the street opposite his house;
+the celebrated physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his
+eye removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission to
+take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversation which
+ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a solid and enduring
+regard.
+
+The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel as a guide to
+what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun, he knew, rotated on its
+axis, and he knew that dark spots often exist on its photosphere; the
+questions that he put to himself were--Are there dark spots also on
+variable stars? Do the stars also rotate on their axes? or are they
+sometimes partially eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And
+he went on to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and
+have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet? To
+these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts; and he
+communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less than six
+memoirs, occupying very many pages in the _Philosophical Transactions_,
+and extending in date from 1780 to 1801. It was in the latter year that
+these remarkable papers culminated in the inquiry whether any relation
+could be traced in the recurrence of sun-spots, regarded as evidences of
+solar activity, and the varying seasons of our planet, as exhibited by
+the varying price of corn. Herschel's reply was inconclusive; nor has a
+final solution of the related problems yet been obtained.
+
+In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a series of
+papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several satellites.
+The object which he had in view was not so much to ascertain the times
+of their rotation as to discover whether those rotations are strictly
+uniform. From the result he expected to gather, by analogy, the
+probability of an alteration in the length of our own day. These
+inquiries occupy the greater part of seven memoirs extending from 1781
+to 1797. While engaged on them he noticed the curious appearance of a
+white spot near to each of the poles of the planet Mars. On
+investigating the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and
+finding that it differed little from that of the earth, he concluded
+that its changes of climate also would resemble our own, and that these
+white patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have confirmed
+his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his observations
+extended, the times of the rotations of the various satellites round
+their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by equalling the times of
+their revolution round their primaries. Here again we perceive that his
+discoveries arose out of the systematic and comprehensive nature of his
+investigation. Nothing with such a man is accidental.
+
+In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which completely
+altered the character of his professional life. In the course of a
+methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an object which at first
+he supposed to be a comet, but which, by its subsequent motions and
+appearance, averred itself to be a new planet, moving outside the orbit
+of Saturn. The name of Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has
+by general consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was
+detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 6½ in.;
+subsequently, when he had provided himself with a much more powerful
+telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he believed, no
+less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations, while abolishing
+four of these supposed attendants, have added two others apparently not
+observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs on the subject were communicated by
+him to the Royal Society, extending from the date of the discovery in
+1781 to 1815. A noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel's mode of observation
+led to the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious
+diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magnifying
+powers, but that the case is different with other celestial objects;
+hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as unusual in
+aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power in order to decide
+its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered; and had a similar method been
+applied to Neptune, that planet would have been found at Cambridge some
+months before it was recognized at Berlin.
+
+We now come to the beginning of Herschel's most important series of
+observations, culminating in what ought probably to be regarded as his
+capital discovery. A material part of the task which he had set himself
+embraced the determination of the relative distances of the stars from
+our sun and from each other. Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the
+heavens, he had observed many stars in apparently very close contiguity,
+but often differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that,
+on the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the smaller
+enormously more distant; and considering that an astronomer on the
+earth, in consequence of its immense orbital displacement of some 180
+millions of miles every six months, would see such a pair of stars under
+different perspective aspects, he perceived that the measurement of
+these changes should lead to an approximate determination of the stars'
+relative distances. He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of
+all the double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and 1785
+very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very last
+scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in the year
+1822, when he was its first president and already in the eighty-fourth
+year of his age, related to these investigations. In the memoir of 1782
+he threw out the hint that these apparently contiguous stars might be
+genuine pairs in mutual revolution; but he significantly added that the
+time had not yet arrived for settling the question. Eleven years
+afterwards (1793), he remeasured the relative positions of many such
+couples, and we may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding
+his prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars
+circulated round each other, after the manner required by the laws of
+gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the distant members
+of the starry firmament of the same mechanical laws which bind together
+the harmonious motions of our solar system. This sublime discovery,
+announced in 1802, would of itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If
+only he had lived long enough to learn the approximate distances of some
+of these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to
+calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the
+quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would have
+found another of his analogical conjectures realized.
+
+In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by George III., and
+accepted the king's offer to become his private astronomer, and
+henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific career. His salary was
+fixed at £200 per annum, to which an addition of £50 per annum was
+subsequently made for the astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr
+Watson, to whom alone the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark,
+"Never before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate." In
+this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to Datchet and
+soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy access of his royal
+patron at Windsor.
+
+The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but with renewed
+vigour and without the former professional interruptions. The greater
+part, in fact, of the papers already referred to are dated from Datchet
+and Slough; for the magnificent astronomical speculations in which he
+was engaged, though for the most part conceived in the earlier portion
+of his philosophical career, required years of patient observation
+before they could be fully examined and realized.
+
+It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable paper on the
+"Motion of the Solar System in Space,"--a sublime speculation, yet
+through his genius realized by considerations of the utmost simplicity.
+He returned to the same subject with fuller details in 1805. It was also
+after his removal to Slough that he published his first memoir on the
+construction of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring
+idea of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers,
+addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from the year
+1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demonstrated the fact
+that our sun is a star situated not far from the bifurcation of the
+Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to us lie more or less in
+clusters scattered throughout a comparatively thin, but immensely
+extended stratum. At one time he imagined that his powerful instruments
+had pierced through this stellar stratum, and that he had approximately
+determined the form of some of its boundaries. In the last of his
+memoirs, having convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his
+telescopes the Milky Way was "fathomless." On either side of this
+assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their common
+centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of discrete nebulous
+masses, such as those from the condensation of which he supposed the
+whole stellar universe to have been formed,--a magnificent conception,
+pursued with a force of genius and put to the practical test of
+observation with an industry almost incredible.
+
+Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting telescope, of
+40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction of which is
+often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief performance. The full
+description of this celebrated instrument will be found in the 85th
+volume of the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society. On the day that it
+was finished (August 28, 1789) Herschel saw at the first view, in a
+grandeur not witnessed before, the Saturnian system with six satellites,
+five of which had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D.
+Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had, two
+years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little telescope of
+6½ in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable brightness with the
+towering giant he had just completed. On the 17th of September he
+discovered a seventh, which proved to be the nearest to the globe of
+Saturn. It has since received the name of Mimas. It is somewhat
+remarkable that, notwithstanding his long and repeated scrutinies of
+this planet, the eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should
+have escaped him.
+
+Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr John Pitt, a
+wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an only son, John Frederick
+William. The prince regent conferred a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in
+1816. But a far more valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley
+medal assigned to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781.
+
+He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-fourth year
+of his age, and was buried under the tower of St Laurence's Church,
+Upton, within a few hundred yards of the old site of the 40-ft.
+telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of the church bears a Latin
+inscription from the pen of the late Dr Goodall, provost of Eton
+College.
+
+  See Mrs John Herschel, _Memoir of Caroline Herschel_ (1876); E. S.
+  Holden, _Herschel, his Life and Works_ (1881); A. M. Clerke, _The
+  Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895); E. S. Holden and C. S.
+  Hastings, _Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William
+  Herschel_ (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, _Éloge historique_, Paris
+  Memoirs (1823), p. lxi.; F. Arago, _Analyse historique, Annuaire du
+  Bureau des Longitudes_ (1842), p. 249; Arago, _Biographies of
+  Scientific Men_, p. 167; Madame d'Arblay's _Diary, passim; Public
+  Characters_ (1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, _William
+  Herschel and his Work_ (1900). Herschel's photometric Star Catalogues
+  were discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in _Harvard Annals_,
+  vols. xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv.     (C. P.; A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BART. (1792-1871), English
+astronomer, the only son of Sir William Herschel, was born at Slough,
+Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792. His scholastic education commenced at
+Eton, but maternal fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of
+a private tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to
+St John's College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the
+mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material
+influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In due time
+the young student won the highest academical distinction of his year,
+graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was during his
+undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow-students who
+subsequently attained to very high eminence, Dean Peacock and Charles
+Babbage, entered into a compact that they would "do their best to leave
+the world wiser than they found it,"--a compact loyally and successfully
+carried out by all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable
+attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in the
+production of a work on the differential calculus, and on cognate
+branches of mathematical science, which changed the style and aspect of
+mathematical learning in England, and brought it up to the level of the
+Continental methods. Two or three memoirs communicated to the Royal
+Society on new applications of mathematical analysis at once placed him
+in the front rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of
+these his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the
+others were presented in his own right as a fellow.
+
+With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his name at
+Lincoln's Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed himself under the
+guidance of an eminent special pleader. Probably this temporary choice
+of a profession was inspired by the extraordinary success in legal
+pursuits which had attended the efforts of some noted Cambridge
+mathematicians. Be that as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr
+Wollaston in London soon changed the direction of his studies. He
+experimented in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820,
+assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a mirror
+of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subsequently improved
+by his own hands, became the instrument which enabled him to effect the
+astronomical observations forming the chief basis of his fame. In
+1821-1823 we find him associated with Sir James South in the
+re-examination of his father's double stars, by the aid of two excellent
+refractors, of 7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he
+was presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society's gold medal; and
+with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825; while the Royal
+Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the Copley medal for his
+mathematical contributions to their _Transactions_. From 1824 to 1827 he
+held the responsible post of secretary to that society; and was in 1827
+elected to the chair of the Astronomical Society, which office he also
+filled on two subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to
+the last-named society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote
+obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their combination of
+eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of knighthood was conferred on
+him by William IV., and two years later he again received the
+recognition of the Royal Society by the award of one of their medals for
+his memoir "On the Investigation of the Orbits of Revolving Double
+Stars." The award significantly commemorated his completion of his
+father's discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of
+a graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the two
+component stars of the binary system revolving under the prescription of
+the Newtonian law.
+
+Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years of age,
+Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father's double stars and
+nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his own lists; thus
+accomplishing, under the conditions then prevailing, the full work of a
+lifetime. For it should be remembered that astronomers were not as yet
+provided with those valuable automatic contrivances which at present
+materially abridge the labour and increase the accuracy of their
+determinations. Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork,
+electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena
+observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had no
+assistant.
+
+His scientific life now entered upon another and very characteristic
+phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was wont to declare, was
+towards chemistry and the phenomena of light, rather than towards
+astronomy. Indeed, very shortly after taking his degree at Cambridge, he
+proposed himself as a candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in
+that university; but, as he said with some humour, the result of the
+election was to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact
+Herschel had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by
+filial loyalty to his father's memory that he was now impelled to
+undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough. William
+Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John Herschel determined to
+explore the southern, besides re-exploring northern skies. "I resolved,"
+he said, "to attempt the completion of a survey of the whole surface of
+the heavens; and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere
+the same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give a
+unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to render them
+comparable with each other." In accordance with this resolution, he and
+his family embarked for the Cape on the 13th November 1833; they arrived
+in Table Bay on the 15th January 1834; and proceedings, he says, "were
+pushed forward with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was
+enabled to gratify my curiosity by a view of [kappa] Crucis, the nebula
+about [eta] Argûs, and some other remarkable objects in the 20-ft.
+reflector, and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular
+course of sweeping."
+
+  To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour completed
+  during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen would
+  require the transcription of a considerable portion of the _Cape
+  Observations_, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance;
+  although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from
+  Sir William's "Memoirs," now scattered through some thirty volumes of
+  the _Philosophical Transactions_. It was published, at the sole
+  expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till 1847, nine
+  years after the author's return to England, for the cogent reason,
+  that as he said, "The whole of the observations, as well as the entire
+  work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for the press, have
+  been executed by myself." There are 164 pages of catalogues of
+  southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then careful and
+  elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of the region
+  surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour and the thought
+  bestowed upon some of these objects are almost incredible; several
+  months were spent upon a minute spot in the heavens containing 1216
+  stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held at a distance of an arm's
+  length, would eclipse. These catalogues and charts being completed, he
+  proceeded to discuss their significance. He confirmed his father's
+  hypothesis that these wonderful masses of glowing vapours are not
+  irregularly scattered over the visible heavens, but are collected in a
+  sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of that vast stratum of
+  stars in which our solar system finds itself buried, as Herschel
+  supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average distance
+  from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his catalogue of
+  the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern double stars, to
+  one of which, [gamma] Virginis, he applied the beautiful method of
+  orbital determination invented by himself, and he had the satisfaction
+  of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the components
+  would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up into a
+  single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next chapter
+  he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying and relative
+  brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed how his father
+  began his scientific career by similar observations on stellar
+  light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years afterwards in
+  the question whether the radiative changes of our sun, due to the
+  presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests and the price
+  of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther, pointing out that
+  variations to the extent of half a magnitude in the sun's brightness
+  would account for those strange alternations of semi-arctic and
+  semi-tropical climates which geological researches show to have
+  occurred in various regions of our globe.
+
+Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838. As was
+natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic greeting. By the
+queen at her coronation he was created a baronet; and, what to him was
+better than all such rewards, other men caught the contagion of his
+example, and laboured in fields similar to his own, with an adequate
+portion of his success.
+
+Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery in 1819 of the
+solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the otherwise insoluble salts
+of silver was the prelude to its use as a fixing agent in photography;
+and he invented in 1839, independently of Fox Talbot, the process of
+photography on sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the
+now well-known terms _positive_ and _negative_ to photographic images,
+and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a sensitive
+film. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes's discovery of
+fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to the spectrum, and
+by his announcement in 1845 of "epipolic dispersion," as exhibited by
+sulphate of quinine. Several other important researches connected with
+the undulatory theory of light are embodied in his treatise on "Light"
+published in the _Encyclopaedia metropolitana_.
+
+Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or philosopher if
+devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel possessed this endowment to a
+large extent; and he solaced his declining years with the translation of
+the _Iliad_ into verse, having earlier executed a similar version of
+Schiller's _Walk_. But the main work of his later life was the
+collection of all his father's catalogues of nebulae and double stars
+combined with his own observations and those of other astronomers each
+into a single volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to
+the Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_, vol. cliv. The latter work he left
+unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astronomical
+Society. That society printed a portion of it, which serves as an index
+to the observations of various astronomers on double stars up to the
+year 1866.
+
+A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will be found
+in the Royal Society's great catalogue, and from them may be gathered
+most of the records of his busy scientific life. Sir John Herschel met
+with an amount of public recognition which was unusual in the time of
+his illustrious father. Naturally he was a member of almost every
+important learned society in both hemispheres. For five years he held
+the same office of master of the mint, which more than a century before
+had belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose
+him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of parliament
+for the university of Cambridge, but neither position was desired by
+him.
+
+In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active friend; he
+had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds; he gladly lent a
+helping hand to those who consulted him in scientific difficulties; he
+never discouraged, and still less disparaged, men younger than or
+inferior to himself; he was pleased by appreciation of his work without
+being solicitous for applause; it was said of him by a discriminating
+critic, and without extravagance, that "his was a life full of serenity
+of the sage and the docile innocence of a child."
+
+He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in Kent, on the
+11th of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his age, and his remains
+are interred in Westminster Abbey close to the grave of Sir Isaac
+Newton.
+
+  Besides the laborious _Cape Observations_, Sir John Herschel was the
+  author of several books, one of which at least, _On the Study of
+  Natural Philosophy_ (1830), possesses an interest which no future
+  advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In 1849
+  came the _Outlines of Astronomy_, a volume still replete with charm
+  and instruction. His articles, "Meteorology," "Physical Geography,"
+  and "Telescope," contributed to the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+  Britannica_, were afterwards published separately. When he was at the
+  Cape he was more than once assisted in the attempts there made to
+  diffuse a love of knowledge among men not engaged in literary
+  pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his return to England,
+  published, in _Good Words_ and elsewhere, a series of papers on
+  interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently collected in a
+  volume called _Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects_. Another less
+  widely known volume is his _Collected Addresses_, in which he is seen
+  in his happiest and most instructive mood.
+
+  See also Mrs John Herschel, "Memoir of Caroline Herschel," _Month.
+  Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); _Proceedings
+  Roy. Society_, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson); _Proceedings Roy.
+  Society of Edinburgh_ vii. 543 (P. G. Tait); _Nature_ iv. 69; E.
+  Dunkin, _Obituary Notices_, p. 47; _Report Brit. Association_ (1871),
+  p. lxxxv. (Lord Kelvin); _The Times_. (May 13, 1871); R. Grant,
+  _History of Phys. Astronomy_; A. M. Clerke, _Popular Hist. of
+  Astronomy_; A. M. Clerke, _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_; J. H.
+  Mädler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, Bd. ii.; _Mémoires de la
+  Société Physique de Genève_, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions, based
+  on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by Herschel in
+  sequences of relative brightness, were published by W. Doberck in the
+  _Astrophysical Journal_, xi. 192, 270, and in _Harvard Annals_, vol.
+  xli., No. viii.     (C. P.; A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL, 1ST BARON (1837-1899), lord chancellor of
+England, was born on the 2nd of November 1837. His father was the Rev.
+Ridley Haim Herschell, a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who,
+when a young man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a
+leading part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the
+Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled down to the
+charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware Road, in London, where
+he ministered to a large congregation. His mother was a daughter of
+William Mowbray, a merchant of Leith. He was educated at a private
+school and at University College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A.
+degree at the University of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in
+the school debating society, and he displayed there the same command of
+language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics during
+his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed during his
+school days was maintained after he became a law-student at Lincoln's
+Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of Thomas Chitty, the famous common
+law pleader, father of the late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils,
+amongst whom were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and
+Arthur Charles, afterwards judge of the queen's bench division, gave him
+the sobriquet of "the chief baron" in recognition of his superiority. He
+subsequently read with James Hannen, afterwards Lord Hannen. In 1860 he
+was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy
+days of undividedness. For four or five years he did not obtain much
+work. Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced into
+journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a living. Two
+of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved great eminence, found
+themselves in like case. One of these, Charles Russell, became lord
+chief justice of England; the other, William Court Gully, speaker of the
+House of Commons. It is said that these three friends, dining together
+during a Liverpool assize some years after they had been called, agreed
+that their prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that
+about this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and
+practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon made
+himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the northern circuit,
+and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff-gownsman. For the latter he
+was content to note briefs and draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain
+donned "silk," it was on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle
+descended.
+
+In 1872 Herschell was made a queen's counsel. He had all the necessary
+qualifications for a leader--a clear, though not resonant voice; a calm,
+logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal principles; and (greatest gift
+of all) an abundance of common sense. He never wearied the judges by
+arguing at undue length, and he knew how to retire with dignity from a
+hopeless cause. His only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a
+hostile witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins
+nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he made up for
+all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts as told in his
+client's favour with the most consummate skill. He very seldom made use
+of notes, but trusted to his memory, which he had carefully trained. By
+this means he was able to conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid
+advocate than as an outsider interested in the case anxious to assist
+the jury in arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell's business had
+become so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February of
+that year there was a general election, with the result that the
+Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty. The usual
+crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson and Henderson)
+who had been returned for Durham city were unseated, and an attack was
+then made on the seats of two other Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had
+been returned for Durham county. For one of these last Herschell was
+briefed. He made so excellent an impression on the local Radical leaders
+that they asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight's
+electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874 and 1880
+Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the House of Commons.
+He was not a frequent speaker, but a few great efforts sufficed in his
+case to gain for him a reputation as a debater. The best examples of his
+style as a private member will be found in _Hansard_ under the dates
+18th February 1876, 23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879. On the last occasion he
+carried a resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of
+promise of marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the
+damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such loss. The
+grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he acquitted himself
+during these displays obtained for him the notice of Gladstone, who in
+1880 appointed Herschell solicitor-general.
+
+Herschell's public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great value,
+particularly in dealing with the "cases for opinion" submitted by the
+Foreign Office and other departments. He was also very helpful in
+speeding government measures through the House, notably the Irish Land
+Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County
+Franchise Act 1884 and the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last
+was a bitter pill for Herschell, since it halved the representation of
+Durham city, and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the
+local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North Lonsdale
+division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful influence of Lord
+Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll, though Mr Gladstone again
+obtained a majority in the country. Herschell now thought he saw the
+solicitor-generalship slipping away from him, and along with it all
+prospect of high promotion. Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however,
+successively declined Gladstone's offer of the Woolsack, and in 1886
+Herschell, by a sudden turn of fortune's wheel, found himself in his
+forty-ninth year lord chancellor.
+
+Herschell's chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in August 1886
+Gladstone's Home Rule Bill was rejected in the Commons and his
+administration fell. In August 1892, when Gladstone returned to power,
+Herschell again became lord chancellor. In September 1893, when the
+second Home Rule Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords,
+Herschell took advantage of the opportunity to justify the "sudden
+conversion" to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by
+comparing it to the duke of Wellington's conversion to Catholic
+Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free Trade in
+1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship came to an end with
+the defeat of the Rosebery ministry.
+
+Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the judicial
+committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords, Lord
+Herschell's judgments were distinguished for their acute and subtle
+reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and, whenever the
+occasion arose, for their broad treatment of constitutional and social
+questions. He was not a profound lawyer, but his quickness of
+apprehension was such that it was an excellent substitute for great
+learning. In construing a real property will or any other document, his
+first impulse was to read it by the light of nature, and to decline to
+be influenced by the construction put by the judges on similar phrases
+occurring elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had
+acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed without
+fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield to the
+established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He was perhaps
+seen at his judicial best in _Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (1891) and
+_Allen_ v. _Flood_ (1898). Latterly he showed a tendency, which seems to
+grow on some judges, to interrupt counsel overmuch. The case last
+mentioned furnishes an example of this. The question involved was what
+constituted a molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling.
+At the close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently
+interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit, observed
+that although there might be a doubt as to what amounted to such
+molestation in point of law, the House could well understand, after that
+day's proceedings, what it was in actual practice. In addition to his
+political and judicial work, Herschell rendered many public services. In
+1888 he presided over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with
+regard to the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two
+royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccination. He
+took a great interest in the National Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts of 1889 and 1894, but
+also bestowing a good deal of time in sifting the truth of certain
+allegations which had been brought against the management of that
+society. In June 1893 he was appointed chancellor of the university of
+London in succession to the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new
+duties with the usual thoroughness. "His views of reform," according to
+Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university, "were
+always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at first they were
+not altogether popular with an important section of university opinion.
+He disarmed opposition by his intellectual power, rather than
+conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes was perhaps a little
+masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his treatment of the various
+burning questions that agitated the university during his tenure of
+office. His characteristic power of detachment was well illustrated by
+his treatment of the proposal to remove the university to the site of
+the Imperial Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time
+chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the
+removal never questioned his absolute impartiality." With the Imperial
+Institute Herschell had been officially connected from its inception. He
+was chairman of the provisional committee appointed by the prince of
+Wales to formulate a scheme for its organization, and he took an active
+part in the preparation of its charter and constitution in conjunction
+with Lord Thring, Lord James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He
+was the first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in
+India in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the
+Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting. For his
+special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in 1893, this
+being the only instance of a lord chancellor being decorated with an
+order.
+
+In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to
+represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission, which
+assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a business
+involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study of maps and
+historic documents. Not content with this, he accepted in 1898 a seat on
+the joint high commission appointed to adjust certain boundary and other
+important questions pending between Great Britain and Canada on the one
+hand and the United States on the other hand. He started for America in
+July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington. His
+fellow commissioners elected him their president. In February 1899,
+while the commission was in full swing, he had the misfortune to slip in
+the street and in falling to fracture a hip bone. His constitution,
+which at one time was a robust one, had been undermined by constant hard
+work, and proved unequal to sustaining the shock. On the 1st of March,
+only a fortnight after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel,
+Washington, a _post-mortem_ examination revealing disease of the heart.
+Mr Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the United
+States ambassador in London, the "deep sorrow" felt by President
+McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day, in the parliament
+chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell's death "as a misfortune
+to Canada and to the British Empire." A funeral service held in St
+John's Episcopal Church, Washington, was attended by the president and
+vice-president of the United States, by the cabinet ministers, the
+judges of the Supreme Court, the members of the joint high commission,
+and a large number of senators and other representative men. The body
+was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second funeral
+service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was conveyed to its
+final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the parish church of which
+he had been married. Herschell left a widow, granddaughter of
+Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son, Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who
+succeeded him as second baron; and two daughters.
+
+  A "reminiscence" of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (Lord Selby) will be
+  found in _The Law Quarterly Review_ for April 1899. _The Journal of
+  the Society of Comparative Legislation_ (of which he had been
+  president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July
+  of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord
+  Davey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend), and
+  also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks (both of
+  the United States).     (M. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERSENT, LOUIS (1777-1860), French painter, was born at Paris on the
+10th of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David, obtained the Prix de
+Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802 appeared his "Metamorphosis of
+Narcissus," and he continued to exhibit with rare interruptions up to
+1831. His most considerable works under the empire were "Achilles
+parting from Briseis," and "Atala dying in the arms of Chactas" (both
+engraved in Landon's _Annales du Musée_); an "Incident of the life of
+Fénelon," painted in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and "Passage of
+the Bridge at Landshut," which belongs to the same date, is now at
+Versailles. Hersent's typical works, however, belong to the period of
+the Restoration; "Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted" (Versailles) and
+"Daphnis and Chloë" (engraved by Langier and by Gelée) were both in the
+Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the "Abdication of Gustavus Vasa" brought
+to Hersent a medal of honour, but the picture, purchased by the duke of
+Orleans, was destroyed at the Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by
+Henriquel-Dupont is now its sole record. "Ruth," produced in 1822,
+became the property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent
+rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him officer of
+the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the Institute, where he
+replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in favour under Charles X., for
+whom was executed "Monks of Mount St Gotthard," exhibited in 1824. In
+1831 Hersent made his last appearance at the Salon with portraits of
+Louis Philippe, Marie-Amélie and the duke of Montpensier; that of the
+king though good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Berlin),
+which is probably Hersent's _chef-d'oeuvre_. After this date Hersent
+ceased to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an
+excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to the
+rooms of the Société d'Artistes, he could not be tempted from his usual
+reserve even by the international contest of 1855. He died on the 2nd of
+October 1860.
+
+
+
+
+HERSFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the Geis and Haun with the
+Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of
+Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688. Some of the old fortifications of the town
+remain, but the ramparts and ditches have been laid out as promenades.
+The principal buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic
+building, erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and
+a large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the ruins
+of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of the
+cathedral in the beginning of the 12th century; it was built in the
+Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761. Outside the
+town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on both of which are
+monastic ruins. Among the public institutions are a gymnasium and a
+military school. The town has important manufactures of cloth, leather
+and machinery; it has also dye-works, worsted mills and soap-boiling
+works.
+
+Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see below). It
+became a town in the 12th century and in 1370 the burghers, having
+meanwhile shaken off the authority of the abbots, placed themselves
+under the protection of the landgraves of Hesse. It was taken and
+retaken during the Thirty Years' War and later it suffered from the
+attacks of the French.
+
+The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus, afterwards
+archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly endowed by Charlemagne and
+became an ecclesiastical principality in the 12th century, passing under
+the protection of the landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in
+1648, having been previously administered for some years by a member of
+the ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed to
+Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in 1866. In the
+middle ages the abbey was famous for its library.
+
+  See Vigelius, _Denkwürdigkeiten von Hersfeld_ (Hersfeld, 1888); Demme,
+  _Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld_ (Hersfeld,
+  1891-1901), and P. Hafner, _Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte des
+  13ten Jahrhunderts_ (Hersfeld, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+
+HERSTAL, or HERISTAL, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N. of Liége and
+practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed to be derived from
+_Heerstelle_, i.e. "Permanent Camp." The second Pippin was born here,
+and this mayor of the palace acquired the control of the kingdom of the
+Franks. His grandson, Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in A.D. 768, and
+it disputes with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of
+Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and steel
+manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and cannon foundry
+are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114.
+
+
+
+
+HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The English earldom of Hertford was
+held by members of the powerful family of Clare from about 1138, when
+Gilbert de Clare was created earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl
+Gilbert was killed at Bannockburn. In 1537 EDWARD SEYMOUR, viscount
+Beauchamp, a brother of Henry VIII.'s queen, Jane Seymour, was created
+earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the dignity of duke
+of Somerset and becoming protector of England. His son EDWARD (c.
+1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from 1547 until the protector's
+attainder and death in January 1552, when the title was forfeited; in
+1559, however, he was created earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly
+married to Lady Catherine Grey (c. 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey,
+duke of Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth greatly
+disliked this union, and both husband and wife were imprisoned, while
+the validity of their marriage was questioned. Catherine died on the
+27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the 6th of April 1621. Their son
+Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561-1612), who inherited his mother's title to
+the English throne, predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded
+in the earldom by his grandson WILLIAM SEYMOUR (1588-1660), who was
+created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his ancestor's
+dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess of Hertford became
+extinct when JOHN, 4th duke of Somerset, died in 1675, and the earldom
+when ALGERNON, the 7th duke, died in February 1750.
+
+In August 1750 FRANCIS SEYMOUR CONWAY, 2nd Baron Conway (1718-1794), who
+was a direct descendant of the protector Somerset, was created earl of
+Hertford; this nobleman was the son of Francis Seymour Conway
+(1679-1732), who had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of
+Seymour, and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway.
+Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of the household from
+1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his "decorum and piety" and
+refers to him as a "perfect courtier," but says that he had "too great
+propensity to heap emoluments on his children." In 1793 he became earl
+of Yarmouth and marquess of Hertford, and he died on the 14th of June
+1794. His son, FRANCIS INGRAM SEYMOUR CONWAY (1743-1822), who was known
+during his father's lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a prominent part in
+the debates of the House of Commons from 1766 until he succeeded to the
+marquessate in 1794. He was sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in
+1793 and from 1812 to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son FRANCIS
+CHARLES, the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the
+prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the
+"Marquis of Steyne" in Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_ and of "Lord Monmouth"
+in Disraeli's _Coningsby_. The 4th marquess was his son, RICHARD
+(1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress, Maria Emily Fagniani,
+and whose brother was Lord Henry Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the
+Jockey Club at Paris. When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August
+1870 his title passed to his kinsman, FRANCIS HUGH GEORGE SEYMOUR
+(1812-1884), a descendant of the 1st marquess, whose son, HUGH DE GREY
+(b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th marquess left his great
+wealth and his priceless collection of art treasures to Sir Richard
+Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half-brother, and Wallace's widow, who
+died in 1897, bequeathed the collection to the British nation. It is now
+in Hertford House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of
+Hertford.
+
+
+
+
+
+HERTFORD, a market-town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parliamentary division of the
+county, 24 m. N. from London, the terminus of branch lines of the Great
+Eastern and Great Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly
+situated in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the
+modern churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old
+ones, a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and the
+old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating from the
+Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque Jacobean building of
+brick, largely modernized. There are several educational establishments,
+including the preparatory school for Christ's Hospital, a picturesque
+building (in great part, however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town,
+Hale's grammar school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat
+school for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of
+the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the East
+India Company for their civil service students, who were then
+temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies high above the
+Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a stretch of
+finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable agricultural trade,
+and there are maltings, breweries, iron foundries, and oriental printing
+works. The town is governed by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors.
+Area, 1134 acres.
+
+Hertford (_Herutford_, _Heorotford_, _Hurtford_) was the scene of a
+synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the Lea and the
+Thames gave it strategic importance during the Danish occupation of East
+Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a royal garrison and burgh. It made
+separate payments for aids to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331
+was governed by a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter
+incorporated the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed under
+Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor, aldermen and
+commonalty was effective until the Municipal Corporation Act. Hertford
+returned two burgesses to the parliament of 1298, and to others until,
+after 1375/6, such right became abeyant, to be restored by order of
+parliament in 1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation
+Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution Act in
+1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or confirmed those
+held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and of St Simon and St
+Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs were confirmed by Elizabeth
+and Charles II. Another on the vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity
+of the Virgin was granted by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day
+under James I. Modern fairs are on the third Saturday before Easter, the
+12th of May, the 5th of July and the 8th of November. Markets were held
+in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on Thursday and Saturday;
+and they returned to Wednesdays and Saturdays in 1680.
+
+
+
+
+HERTFORDSHIRE [HERTS], a county of England, bounded N. by
+Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex, S. by Middlesex, and
+S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 634.6 sq. m., the county being the
+sixth smallest in England. Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface
+generally undulating, while in some parts, where these undulations form
+a quick succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes
+very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood of
+Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and north
+considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing
+north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of the
+county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and
+Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills under the
+name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft. near Dunstable,
+sinking gradually north-eastward. These uplands are generally bare, and
+in parts remarkably sparsely populated as compared with the home
+counties at large. In the greater part of the county, however, rich
+arable lands are intermingled with the parks and woodlands of numerous
+fine country seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of
+the principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire,
+enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield, then
+E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and passing along the
+eastern boundary of the county falls into the Thames below London. It
+receives in its course the Maran, or Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the
+Stort, all joining on the north side; the Stort for some distance
+forming the county boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the
+south-western part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines. It
+receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel, rising in the
+N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the Great Ouse. To the south
+of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two streams of moderate size are lost in
+pot-holes, except in the highest floods. The New River, one of the water
+supplies of London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel
+with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout in
+the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are carefully
+preserved.
+
+  _Geology._--The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow syncline
+  known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-easterly
+  direction. The two most important formations are the Chalk, which
+  forms the high ground in the north and west; and the Eocene Reading
+  beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part of the
+  county. On the northern boundary, at the foot of the chalk hills, a
+  small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand above it falls just
+  within the county. The lowest subdivision of the chalk is the Chalk
+  Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it, lies at the base of
+  the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and Miswell to Tring. Above
+  these beds, the Lower Chalk, without flints, rises up sharply to form
+  the downs which are the easterly continuation of the Chiltern Hills.
+  Next comes the Chalk Rock, which being a hard bed, lies near the
+  hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk
+  slopes southward towards the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The
+  Reading beds consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter
+  are frequently hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous
+  cement, known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay,
+  a stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon
+  the Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at
+  Micklefield Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by
+  the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of
+  Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a
+  great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been
+  disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was formerly
+  used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime. Reading beds
+  and London clay are dug for brick-making at Watford, Hertford and
+  Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated from the base of the
+  Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop; the Marl is worked for
+  cement.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is mild, dry and generally
+healthy. On this account London physicians were formerly accustomed to
+recommend the county to persons in weak health, and it was so much
+coveted by the noble and wealthy as a place of residence that it was a
+common saying that "he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years'
+purchase for the air." Of the total area about four-fifths is under
+cultivation, and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture.
+The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of the
+area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties mostly grown
+are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of any English county.
+Wheathampstead on the upper Lea receives its name from the fine quality
+of the wheat grown in that district. Barley is largely used in the
+county for malting purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables,
+and the greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are
+some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near
+Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area occupied by
+green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds, many cows being kept
+for the supply of milk and butter to London. The quantity of stock is
+generally small, but increasing except in the case of sheep, of which
+the numbers have greatly decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the
+Suffolk variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between
+Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities of
+cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London market; and
+on the best soils near London vegetables are forced by the aid of
+manure, and more than one crop is sometimes obtained in a year. A
+considerable industry lies in the growth of watercresses in the pure
+water of the upper parts of the rivers and the smaller streams. There
+are a number of rose-gardens and nurseries.
+
+_Other Industries._--The manufacturing industries are slight; though the
+great brewing establishments at Watford may be mentioned, and
+straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building, tanning and brick-making
+are carried on in various towns.
+
+_Communications._--Owing to its proximity to the metropolis,
+Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the eastern
+border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line) with branches to
+Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line of the Great Northern passes
+through the centre by Hatfield, Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches
+from Hatfield to Hertford, to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and
+from Hitchin to Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes
+through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel Hempstead. The
+London & North-Western traverses the south-west by Watford,
+Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to Rickmansworth and to St
+Albans. The Metropolitan & Great Central joint line serves
+Rickmansworth, and suburban lines of the Great Northern the Barnet
+district. The existence of these communications has combined with the
+natural attractions of the county to cause many villages to become large
+residential centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford,
+Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the Lea and Stort
+Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from London to the north-west
+traverses the south-western corner of the county by Rickmansworth and
+Berkhampstead. Three great highways from London to the north traverse
+the county. The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and St
+Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great North Road
+branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and passes Potter's Bar,
+Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a branch from Welwyn to Hitchin
+and beyond. Another road follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs
+to Royston, being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known
+as the Old North Road.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162, and in 1901 of
+250,152. The area of the administrative county is 404,518 acres. The
+county comprises eight hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Hemel
+Hempstead (11,264), Hertford (9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The
+other urban districts are: Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead
+(Great Berkhampstead, 5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564),
+Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden (4725),
+Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711), Rickmansworth (5627), Royston
+(3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957), Tring (4349), Ware
+(5573) and Watford (29,327). The county is in the home circuit, and
+assizes are held at Hertford. It has two courts of quarter-sessions, and
+is divided into 15 petty-sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hertford
+and St Albans have separate commissions of the peace. The total number
+of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of, or in
+which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, London, are
+included in the metropolitan police district. The county contains 170
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part; it is nearly
+all in the diocese of St Albans, but small parts are in the dioceses of
+Ely, Oxford and London. It is divided into four parliamentary
+divisions--Northern or Hitchin, Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans,
+Western or Watford, each returning one member. There is no parliamentary
+borough within the county.
+
+_History._--Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in Hertfordshire
+for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin. The diocesan limits show
+that part of the shire was included in the West Saxon kingdom. The East
+Saxons, as early as the 6th century, were settled about Hertford, which
+in 673 was sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod
+convened by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the
+Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with
+Hatfield. In the 9th century the district was frequently visited by the
+Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east of the Lea was
+included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the Elder erected forts on both
+sides of the river at Hertford.
+
+After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertfordshire and
+ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest received its formal
+ratification. In the sweeping confiscation of estates which followed,
+the church was generously endowed, the abbey of St Albans alone holding
+172 hides, while Count Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a
+vast fief in the north-east of the county. Large estates were held by
+Geoffrey de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of
+the county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east of
+England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony. Berkhampstead
+was the head of an honour carved from the fief of Robert of Mortain. The
+Hertfordshire estates, however, for the most part changed hands very
+frequently and the county is noticeably lacking in historic families.
+Edmund Langley, fifth son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in
+this county.
+
+During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of Salisbury
+and Falkes de Breauté had the king's orders to ravage Hertfordshire, and
+in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and Berkhampstead Castle besieged
+by Louis of France, who had come over by invitation of the barons. At
+the time of the rising of 1381 the abbot's tenants broke into the abbey
+of St Albans and forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the
+Wars of the Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the
+second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen
+Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the earl at Barnet. On
+the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, Hertfordshire joined
+with Bedfordshire and Essex in petitioning for peace, and St Albans
+again played an important part in the struggle, being at different times
+the headquarters of Essex and Fairfax.
+
+As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the
+district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected at
+Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1011. At the
+time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were approximately those of
+the present day, but part of Meppershall in Bedfordshire formed a
+detached portion of the shire and is still assessed for land and income
+tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and
+Tring were consolidated about 1200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern
+hundred of Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known
+as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond approximately
+both in name and extent with those of the present day.
+
+Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of London and
+Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln diocese formed part
+of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and comprised the deaneries of
+Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and Baldock, and the archdeaconry and
+deanery of St Albans; while that part within the London diocese formed
+the deanery of Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535
+the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London
+diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the whole
+county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and archdeaconry of St
+Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of Welwyn, Bennington,
+Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware were created, and that of
+Braughing abolished. In 1864 the archdeaconries of Rochester and St
+Albans were united under the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and
+St Albans. In 1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of
+St Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries being
+unchanged.
+
+Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time of its
+first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and were united
+under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held at Hertford.
+The hundred of St Albans was at an early date constituted a separate
+liberty, with independent courts and coroners under the control of the
+abbot; it preserved a separate commission of the peace until 1874, when
+by act of parliament the county was arranged in two divisions, the
+eastern division being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of
+St Albans. These divisions have since been abolished.
+
+Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few
+manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth was
+derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their water meadows,
+woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and water-mills, the shire on
+its eastern side being noticeably free from waste land. In Norman times
+the woollen trade was considerable, and the great corn market at Royston
+has been famous since the reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil
+War the malting industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was
+produced in the county. In the 17th century Hertfordshire was famous for
+its horses, and the 18th century saw the introduction of several minor
+industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making and silk weaving.
+
+In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament, and in 1298
+the borough of Hertford was represented. St Albans, Bishop Stortford and
+Berkhampstead acquired representation in the 14th century, but from 1375
+to 1553 no returns were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained
+representation in 1553 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of
+1832 the county returned three members. St Albans was disfranchised on
+account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one member in 1868, and was
+disfranchised by the act of 1885.
+
+_Antiquities._--Among the objects of antiquarian interest may be
+mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a hermitage;
+Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where rested the body of
+Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to Westminster for interment;
+and the Great Bed of Ware referred to in Shakespeare's _Twelfth Night_
+and preserved at Rye House. The principal monastic buildings are the
+noble pile of St Albans abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine
+nunnery near St Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of
+Ware, dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of
+St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory at Hitchin
+built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the more interesting
+churches may be mentioned those of Abbots Langley and Hemel Hempstead,
+both of Late Norman architecture; Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic
+building supposed to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the
+reign of Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons
+regular; Hitchin of the 15th century; Hatfield, dating from the 13th
+century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in the
+Perpendicular style, with a tower of the 16th century. Sandridge church
+shows good Norman work with the use of Roman bricks; Wheathampstead
+church, mainly very fine Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains
+of secular buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle,
+Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight
+traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey. Among the
+numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in the reign of Henry
+VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the principal agents in the plot to
+assassinate Charles II. Moor Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of
+St Albans abbey, was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of
+Oxford, and was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who
+built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently cased with
+Portland stone and received various other additions. Knebworth, the seat
+of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman fortress, rebuilt in the time of
+Elizabeth in the Tudor style and restored in the 19th century. Hatfield
+House is the seat of the marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history
+is of great interest, as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger
+House, until recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid
+mansion in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the 19th century.
+The manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was
+formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was rebuilt in
+the beginning of the 19th century from designs by Wyatt. Gorhambury
+House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl of Verulam, formerly the
+seat of the Bacons, and the residence of the great chancellor, was
+rebuilt at the close of the 18th century. At Kings Langley and Hunsdon
+were also former royal residences.
+
+  See Sir H. Chauncy, _Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire_ (London,
+  1700, 2nd ed., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, _History of
+  Hertfordshire_ (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, _History and
+  Antiquities of the County of Hertford_ (London, 1815-1827); W. Berry,
+  _Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families_ (London, 1844); J. E.
+  Cussans, _History of Hertfordshire_ (London, 1870-1881); _Victoria
+  County History, Hertfordshire_ (London, 1902, &c.); see also
+  "Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634," in _Harleian Society's
+  Publ._ vol. xvii., and various papers in _Middlesex and Hertfordshire
+  Notes and Queries_ (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incorporated
+  in the _Home Counties_ Magazine.
+
+
+
+
+HERTHA, or NERTHUS, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess of fertility,
+"Mother Earth." Tacitus states that many Teutonic tribes worshipped her
+with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated at night. The chief seat of
+her cult was an island which has not been identified. A single priest
+performed the service. Her veiled statue was moved from place to place
+by sacred cows on which none but the priest might lay hands. At the
+conclusion of the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were
+bathed in a lake.
+
+
+
+
+HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857-1894), German physicist, was born at
+Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving school he determined to
+adopt the profession of engineering, and in the pursuance of this
+decision went to study in Munich in 1877. But soon coming to the
+conclusion that engineering was not his vocation he abandoned it in
+favour of physical science, and in October 1878 began to attend the
+lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In
+preparation for these he spent the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up
+original treatises like those of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and
+mechanics, and in attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von
+Jolly and J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few
+days of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into
+original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best
+solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the
+University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper which was
+published in 1880 on the "Kinetic Energy of Electricity in Motion." His
+next investigation, on "Induction in Rotating Spheres," he offered in
+1880 as his dissertation for his doctor's degree, which he obtained with
+the rare distinction of _summa cum laude_. Later in the same year he
+became assistant to Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin
+Institute. During the three years he held this position he carried out
+researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation and
+the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the special
+commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel, becoming
+_Privatdozent_, and there he began the studies in Maxwell's
+electromagnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the
+discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually made
+between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics in the Carlsruhe
+Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their origin is to be sought in a
+prize problem proposed by the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1879, having
+reference to the experimental establishment of some relation between
+electromagnetic forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators.
+Imagining that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by
+him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised him the
+assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the subject; but
+Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time, because he could not
+think of any procedure likely to prove effective. It was of course well
+known, as a necessity of Maxwell's mathematical theory, that the
+polarization and depolarization of an insulator must give rise to the
+same electromagnetic effects in the neighbourhood as a voltaic current
+in a conductor. The experimental proof, however, was still lacking, and
+though several experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was
+the first who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing
+his inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the
+progressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to
+measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to show
+that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their
+susceptibility to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in
+complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The result,
+was in Helmholtz's words, to establish beyond doubt that ordinary light
+consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading ether which
+possesses the properties of an insulator and of a magnetic medium. Hertz
+himself gave an admirable account of the significance of his discoveries
+in a lecture on the relations between light and electricity, delivered
+before the German Society for the Advancement of Natural Science and
+Medicine at Heidelberg in September 1889. Since the time of these early
+experiments, various other modes of detecting the existence of electric
+waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which he first
+employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest interest of
+which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of an abstruse
+mathematical theory, have been applied to the practical purposes of
+signalling over considerable distances (see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). In
+1889 Hertz was appointed to succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary
+professor of physics in the university of Bonn. There he continued his
+researches on the discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just
+missing the discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Röntgen a few
+years later, and produced his treatise on the _Principles of Mechanics_.
+This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on the
+1st of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one of her most
+promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one of all his pupils who
+had penetrated farthest into his own circle of scientific thought, and
+looked to him with the greatest confidence for the further extension and
+development of his work.
+
+  Hertz's scientific papers were translated into English by Professor D.
+  E. Jones, and published in three volumes: _Electric Waves_ (1893),
+  _Miscellaneous Papers_ (1896), and _Principles of Mechanics_ (1899).
+  The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the
+  introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard
+  and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with
+  statements of the scope and significance of his investigations.
+
+
+
+
+HERTZ, HENRIK (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of Jewish parents in
+Copenhagen on the 25th of August 1798. In 1817 he was sent to the
+university. His father died in his infancy, and the family property was
+destroyed in the bombardment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his
+relative, M. L. Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz
+passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for polite
+literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, _Mr
+Burchardt and his Family_ and _Love and Policy_; in 1828 followed the
+comedy of _Flyttedagen_. In 1830 he brought out what was a complete
+novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in rhymed verse, _Amor's Strokes
+of Genius_. In the same year Hertz published anonymously
+_Gengangerbrevene_, or Letters from a Ghost, which he pretended were
+written by Baggesen, who had died in 1826. The book was written in
+defence of J. L. Heiberg, and was full of satirical humour and fine
+critical insight. Its success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his
+anonymity, and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832
+he published a didactic poem, _Nature and Art_, and _Four Poetical
+Epistles_. _A Day on the Island of Als_ was his next comedy, followed in
+1835 by _The Only Fault_. Hertz passed through Germany and Switzerland
+into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and returned the
+following autumn through France to Denmark. In 1836 his comedy of _The
+Savings Bank_ enjoyed a great success. But it was not till 1837 that he
+gave the full measure of his genius in the romantic national drama of
+_Svend Dyrings Hus_, a beautiful and original piece. His historical
+tragedy _Valdemar Atterdag_ was not so well received in 1839; but in
+1845 he achieved an immense success with his lyrical drama _Kong René's
+Datter_ (King René's Daughter), which has been translated into almost
+every European language. To this succeeded the tragedy of _Ninon_ in
+1848, the romantic comedy of _Tonietta_ in 1849, _A Sacrifice_ in 1853,
+_The Youngest_ in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive
+collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he edited a
+literary journal entitled _Weekly Leaves_. His last drama, _Three Days
+in Padua_, was produced in 1869, and he died on the 25th of February of
+the next year.
+
+Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems are full of
+colour and passion, his versification has more witchcraft in it than any
+other poet's of his age, and his style is grace itself. He has all the
+sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity to the antique. As a
+romantic dramatist he is scarcely less original. He has bequeathed to
+the Danish theatre, in _Svend Dyrings Hus_ and _King René's Daughter_,
+two pieces which have become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he
+has little or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best
+when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing south.
+
+  His _Dramatic Works_ (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in
+  1854-1873; and his _Poems_ (4 vols.) in 1851-1862.
+
+
+
+
+HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH, COUNT VON (1725-1795), Prussian statesman,
+who came of a noble family which had been settled in Pomerania since the
+13th century, was born at Lottin, in that province, on the 2nd of
+September 1725. After 1739 he studied, chiefly classics and history at
+the gymnasium at Stettin, and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as
+a student of jurisprudence, becoming in due course a doctor of laws in
+1745. In addition to this principal study, he was also interested while
+at the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff)
+studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled _Jus publicum
+Brandenburgicum_, was not printed, because it contained a criticism of
+the existing condition of the state. Shortly afterwards Hertzberg
+entered the government service, in which he was first employed in the
+department of the state archives (of which he became director in 1750),
+soon after in the foreign office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister
+(_Cabinetsminister_). In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen,
+a marriage which was happy, but childless.
+
+For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part in the
+Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive influence on
+Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and Frederick William
+II. At the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756) he took part as a
+political writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg quarrel, both in his
+_Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, sich wider die
+Absichten des Wienerischen Hofes zu setzen und deren Ausführung
+zuvorzukommen_ ("Motives which have induced the king of Prussia to
+oppose the intentions of the court of Vienna, and to prevent them from
+being carried into effect"), and in his _Mémoire raisonné sur la
+conduite des cours de Vienne et de Saxe_, based on the secret papers
+taken by Frederick the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the
+defeat at Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the
+national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the
+protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the same year he
+conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden, and was of great service
+in bringing about the peace of Hubertsburg (1763), on the conclusion of
+which the king received him with the words, "I congratulate you. You
+have made peace as I made war, one against many."
+
+In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great's reign, Hertzberg
+played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a memoir based
+upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended the Prussian claims
+to certain provinces of Poland. He also took part successfully as a
+publicist in the negotiations concerning the question of the Bavarian
+succession (1778) and those of the peace of Teschen (1779). But in 1780
+he failed to uphold Prussian interests at the election of the bishop of
+Münster. In 1784 appeared Hertzberg's memoir containing a thorough study
+of the _Fürstenbund_. He championed this latest creation of Frederick
+the Great's mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the empire,
+though the idea of German unity was naturally still far from his mind.
+In 1785 followed "An explanation of the motives which have led the king
+of Prussia to propose to the other high estates of the empire an
+association for the maintenance of the system of the empire" (_Erklärung
+der Ursachen, welche S.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen
+Mitständen des Reichs eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems
+anzutragen_). By upholding the Fürstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies,
+prominent among whom was the king's brother, Prince Henry. Though the
+_Fürstenbund_ failed to effect a reform of the empire, it at any rate
+prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II.'s old desire for the
+incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of state in which
+Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great was the commercial treaty
+concluded in 1785 between Prussia and the United States.
+
+With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood in very
+intimate personal relations and was often the king's guest at
+Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential position at the
+court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king at once received him
+with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertzberg's elevation to the rank
+of count in 1786; and Mirabeau would never have attacked him with such
+violence in his _Secret History of the Court of Berlin_, which appeared
+in 1788, if he had not seen in him the most powerful man after the king.
+In this attack Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg's
+personal enemies at the court. Hertzberg's political system remained on
+the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had been under his
+predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a sharp opposition to the
+house of Habsburg and by a desire to win for Prussia the support of
+England, a policy supported by him in important memoirs of the years
+1786 and 1787. His diplomacy was directed also against Austria's old
+ally, France. Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in
+spite of the king's unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in
+Holland in support of the stadtholder William V. against the democratic
+French party (see HOLLAND: _History_). The success of this intervention,
+which was the practical realization of a plan very characteristic of
+Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in his career.
+
+But the opposition between him and the new king, which had already
+appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple alliance between
+Holland, England and Prussia, became more marked in the following years,
+when Hertzberg, relying upon this alliance, and in conscious imitation
+of Frederick II.'s policy at the time of the first partition of Poland,
+sought to take advantage of the entanglement of Austria with Russia in
+the war with Turkey to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by
+diplomatic intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her
+mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments
+that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and Thorn as her
+portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the restoration of the
+hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and secretly cherished the hope of
+restoring Frederick the Great's Russian alliance.
+
+With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims even when,
+owing to military and diplomatic events, they were already partly out of
+date. His personal position became increasingly difficult, as
+deep-rooted differences between him and the king were revealed during
+these diplomatic campaigns. Hertzberg wished to effect everything by
+peaceful means, while Frederick William II. was for a time determined on
+war with Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into
+conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the total
+annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the attitude of
+king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences at
+Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition became more and more
+acute, and Hertzberg was only with difficulty persuaded to come to an
+agreement merely on the basis of the _status_ quo, as demanded by Pitt.
+The king's renunciation of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's
+eyes impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. A
+letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which Hertzberg severely
+criticized the king's foreign policy, and especially his plans for
+attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on the 5th of July 1791. He
+afterwards made several attempts to exert an influence over foreign
+affairs, but in vain. The king showed himself more and more personally
+hostile to the ex-minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now
+quite embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering
+his letters to be opened.
+
+Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in the
+ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, made it so
+difficult for him to use the archives that in the end Hertzberg entirely
+gave up the attempt. He found, however, some recompense for all his
+disillusionment and discouragement in learning, and, Wilhelm von
+Humboldt excepted, he was the most learned of all the Prussian
+ministers. As a member of the Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786
+onwards, as its curator, Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable
+activity in the world of learning. His yearly reports dealt with
+history, statistics and political science. The most interesting is that
+of 1784: _Sur la forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure_.
+This is directed exclusively against the absolute system (following
+Montesquieu), upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending
+to the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke for
+the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages of
+monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation, since
+Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the financial situation,
+which in the days of absolutism seemed an unprecedented innovation.
+Besides this, Hertzberg exerted himself as an academician to change the
+strongly French character of the Academy and make it into a truly German
+institution. He showed a keen interest in the old German language and
+literature. A special "German deputation" was set aside at the Academy
+and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and dictionary. He
+also stood in very close relations with many of the German poets of the
+time, and especially with Daniel Schubart. Among the German historians
+in whom he took a great interest, he had the greatest esteem for
+Pufendorf. He was equally concerned in the improvement of the state of
+education. In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature,
+which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous writing
+_De la littérature allemande_.
+
+Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be a
+successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified many of
+his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is honoured. He died at
+Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(1) By Hertzberg himself: The _Mémoires de l'Académie_
+  from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most noteworthy of
+  them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: _Histoire de la
+  dissertation [du roi] sur la littérature allemande_; see also _Recueil
+  des déductions, &c., qui ont été rédigés ... pour la cour de Prusse
+  par le ministre_ (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Autobiographical
+  Sketch" published by Höpke in Schmidt's _Zeitschrift für
+  Geschichtswissenschaft_, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with
+  Hertzberg: Mirabeau, _Histoire secrète de la cour de Berlin_ (1788);
+  P. F. Weddigen, _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt,
+  _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Tübingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in _Neustettiner
+  Programm_ (1862); E. Fischer, in _Staatsanzeiger_ (1873); M. Duncker,
+  in _Historische Zeitschrift_ (1877); Paul Bailleu, in _Historische
+  Zeitschrift_ (1879); and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880); H.
+  Petrich, _Pommersche Lebensbilder_ i. (1880); G. Dressler, _Friedrich
+  II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den holländischen Wirren_,
+  Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, _Hertzberg als Minister
+  Friedrich Wilhelms II_. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in
+  _Historische Vierteljahrschrift_, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, _Ewald
+  Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg_ (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F.
+  K. Wittichen, _Preussen und England, 1785-1788_ (Heidelberg, 1902); F.
+  Luckwaldt, _Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den
+  Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte_, Bd. 15, and
+  in the _Delbrückfestschrift_ (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, _System der
+  preussischen Geheimpolitik_ 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation,
+  1903); P. Wittichen, _Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790_
+  (Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, _Preussische und russische Politik in
+  Polen_ 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck,
+  _Deutschland vor 100 Jahren_ (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack,
+  _Geschichte der preussischen Akademie_ (4 vols., 1899); Consentius,
+  _Preussische Jahrbücher_ (1904); J. Hashagen, "Hertzbergs Verhältnis
+  zur deutschen Literatur," in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie_ for
+  1903.     (J. Hn.)
+
+
+
+
+HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was born at Moscow, a
+very short time before the occupation of that city by the French. His
+father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal interview with Napoleon, was
+allowed to leave, when the invaders arrived, as the bearer of a letter
+from the French to the Russian emperor. His family attended him to the
+Russian lines. Then the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German
+Protestant of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von
+Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak Russian,
+was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's hut. A year
+later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen passed his
+youth--remaining there, after completing his studies at the university,
+till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a charge of having
+assisted, with some other youths, at a festival during which verses by
+Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary to the emperor, were sung. The
+special commission appointed to try the youthful culprits found him
+guilty, and in 1835 he was banished to Viatka. There he remained till
+the visit to that city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards
+Alexander II.), accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being
+allowed to quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of
+the official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the
+ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of having
+spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's violence, he
+was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, with the title of
+"state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father died, leaving him by
+his will a very large property. Early in 1847 he left Russia, never to
+return. From Italy, on hearing of the revolution of 1848, he hastened to
+Paris, whence he afterwards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted
+Geneva for London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned
+to Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the 21st
+of January 1870.
+
+His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an essay, in
+Russian, on _Dilettantism in Science_, under the pseudonym of
+"Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name--convicts, even when
+pardoned, not being allowed in those days to publish under their own
+names. His second work, also in Russian, was his _Letters on the Study
+of Nature_ (1845-1846). In 1847 appeared, his novel _Kto Vinovat?_
+(Whose Fault?), and about the same time were published in Russian
+periodicals the stories which were afterwards collected and printed in
+London in 1854, under the title of _Prervannuie Razskazui_ (Interrupted
+Tales). In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian
+manuscript, _Vom anderen Ufer_ (From another Shore) and _Lettres de
+France et d'Italie_. In French appeared also his essay _Du Développement
+des idées révolutionnaires en Russie_, and his _Memoirs_, which, after
+being printed in Russian, were translated under the title of _Le Monde
+russe et la Révolution_ (3 vols., 1860-1862), and were in part
+translated into English as _My Exile to Siberia_ (2 vols., 1855). From a
+literary point of view his most important work is _Kto Vinovat?_ a story
+describing how the domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the
+unacknowledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull,
+ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the new
+school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there being any
+possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the tragic
+termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen gained the
+vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having founded in London
+his "Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of which, during ten years, he
+gave an interesting account in a book published (in Russian) in 1863, he
+issued from it a great number of Russian works, all levelled against the
+system of government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays,
+such as his _Baptized Property_, an attack on serfdom; others were
+periodical publications, the _Polyarnaya Zvyezda_ (or Polar Star), the
+_Kolokol_ (or Bell), and the _Golosa iz Rossii_ (or Voices from Russia).
+The _Kolokol_ soon obtained an immense circulation, and exercised an
+extraordinary influence. For three years, it is true, the founders of
+the "Free Press" went on printing, "not only without selling a single
+copy, but scarcely being able to get a single copy introduced into
+Russia"; so that when at last a bookseller bought ten shillings' worth
+of _Baptized Property_, the half-sovereign was set aside by the
+surprised editors in a special place of honour. But the death of the
+emperor Nicholas in 1855 produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings,
+and the journals he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and
+their words resounded throughout that country, as well as all over
+Europe. Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden,
+evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into light and
+disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly expressed the thoughts
+which had long been secretly stirring Russian minds, and were now
+beginning to find a timid utterance at home. For some years his
+influence in Russia was a living force, the circulation of his writings
+was a vocation zealously pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a
+merchant, who had bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod,
+found that they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at
+another time a supposititious copy of the _Kolokol_ was printed for the
+emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading
+statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was omitted. At
+length the sweeping changes introduced by Alexander II. greatly
+diminished the need for and appreciation of Hertzen's assistance in the
+work of reform. The freedom he had demanded for the serfs was granted,
+the law-courts he had so long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury
+was established, liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It
+became clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish
+insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents' cause,
+his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From that time it was
+only with the revolutionary party that he was in full accord.
+
+  In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in Paris. A
+  volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published at Geneva in
+  1870. His _Memoirs_ supply the principal information about his life, a
+  sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's _Zeitgenossen_, pt.
+  7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the _Revue des deux mondes_ for July 15 and
+  Sept. 1, 1854. _Kto Vinovat?_ has been translated into German under
+  the title of _Wer ist schuld?_ in Wolffsohn's _Russlands
+  Novellendichter_, vol. iii. The title of _My Exile in Siberia_ is
+  misleading; he was never in that country.     (W. R. S.-R.)
+
+
+
+
+HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the history of the
+migration period. The name does not occur in writings of the first two
+centuries A.D. Where the original home of the Heruli was situated is
+never clearly stated. Jordanes says that they had been expelled from
+their territories by the Danes, from which it may be inferred that they
+belonged either to what is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern
+portion of the Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign
+of Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths
+ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly afterwards,
+in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth of the Rhine.
+During the 4th century they frequently served together with the Batavi
+in the Roman armies. In the 5th century we again hear of piratical
+incursions by the Heruli in the western seas. At the same time they had
+a kingdom in central Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the
+Elbe. Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by
+Theodoric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form
+an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly
+afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. A
+portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the Götar,
+while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, where
+they are frequently mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars.
+After the middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely
+disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian
+works they are never mentioned, and there can be little doubt that they
+were known, especially among the western Teutonic peoples, by some other
+name. Probably they are identical either with the North Suabi or with
+the Iuti. The name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S.
+_eorlas_ (nobles), O.S. _erlos_ (men), the singular of which (_erilaz_)
+frequently occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a
+title of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of
+their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. When
+threatened with death by disease or old age, they were required to call
+in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. Suttee was also
+customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare and served not only in
+the Roman armies, but also in those of all the surrounding nations. They
+disdained the use of helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves
+only with shields.
+
+  See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus _Paneg. Maximi_; Ammianus
+  Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, _Chronica_; Jordanes, _De origine
+  Getarum_; Procopius, esp. _Bellum Goticum_, ii. 14 f.; _Bellum
+  Persicum_, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, i. 20; K.
+  Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme_, pp. 476 ff. (Munich,
+  1837).     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HERVÁS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish philologist, was born at
+Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May 1735. He joined the Jesuits on the
+29th of September 1745 and in course of time became successively
+professor of philosophy and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and
+Murcia. When the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervás
+settled at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his _Idea
+dell' Universo_ (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, he
+published his famous _Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas_
+(6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological
+peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up grammars of forty
+languages. In 1802 he was appointed librarian of the Quirinal Palace in
+Rome, where he died on the 24th of August 1809. Max Müller credits him
+with having anticipated Humboldt, and with making "one of the most
+brilliant discoveries in the history of the science of language" by
+establishing the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of
+speech.
+
+
+
+
+HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at Hardingstone,
+near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, and was educated at the
+grammar school of Northampton, and at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he
+came under the influence of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists;
+ultimately, however, while retaining his regard for the men and his
+sympathy with their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic
+creed, and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken
+orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded his
+father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. He was
+never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous writer. His
+style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare appreciation of natural
+beauty, and his simple piety made him many friends. His earliest work,
+_Meditations and Contemplations_, said to have been modelled on Robert
+Boyle's _Occasional Reflexions on various Subjects_, within fourteen
+years passed through as many editions. _Theron and Aspasio, or a series
+of Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects_, which
+appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some
+adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies which
+were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly objected to
+by Wesley in his _Preservative against unsettled Notions in Religion_.
+Besides carrying into England the theological disputes to which the
+_Marrow of Modern Divinity_ had given rise in Scotland, it also led to
+what is known as the Sandemanian controversy as to the nature of saving
+faith. Hervey died on the 25th of December 1758.
+
+  A "new and complete" edition of his _Works_, with a memoir, appeared
+  in 1797. See also _Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, to which
+  is prefixed an account of his Life and Death_, by Dr Birch (1760).
+
+
+
+
+HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LÉON, MARQUIS D' (1823-1892), French
+Orientalist and man of letters, was born in Paris in 1823. He devoted
+himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1851 published his _Recherches
+sur l'agriculture et l'horticulture des Chinois_, in which he dealt with
+the plants and animals that might be acclimatized in the West. At the
+Paris Exhibition of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese
+exhibits; in 1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese
+at the Collège de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of the
+Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works include
+_Poésies de l'époque des T'ang_ (1862), translated from the Chinese;
+_Ethnographie des peuples étrangers à la Chine_, translated from
+Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); _Li-Sao_ (1870), from the Chinese; _Mémoires
+sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius et de l'école des lettres_
+(1887); and translations of some Chinese stories not of classical
+interest but valuable for the light they throw on oriental custom.
+Hervey de Saint Denys also translated some works from the Spanish, and
+wrote a history of the Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of
+November 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696-1743), English statesman
+and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl of Bristol, by his second
+marriage, was born on the 13th of October 1696. He was educated at
+Westminster school and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A.
+degree in 1715. In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to
+Hanover to pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the
+court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in 1720 he
+married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's ladies-in-waiting,
+and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received the courtesy title of Lord
+Hervey on the death of his half-brother Carr, and in 1725 he was elected
+M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He had been at one time on very friendly terms
+with Frederick, prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him,
+apparently because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These
+differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws of the
+prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William
+Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole, but in 1730 he
+definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he was thenceforward a
+faithful adherent. He was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of
+_Sedition and Defamation display'd with a Dedication to the patrons of
+The Craftsman_ (1731). Pulteney, who, up to this time, had been a firm
+friend of Hervey, replied with _A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous
+Libel_, and the quarrel resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly
+escaped with his life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of
+both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth,
+apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He was able
+to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence over the queen.
+Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George
+II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of
+the privy council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ
+in virtue of his father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he
+received no further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord
+privy seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed (July
+1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, _Miscellaneous
+Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and Domestic Affairs_, shows
+that he still retained his mental vigour, but he was liable to epilepsy,
+and his weak appearance and rigid diet were a constant source of
+ridicule to his enemies. He died on the 5th of August 1743. He
+predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively earls
+of Bristol.
+
+Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George
+II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the king,
+and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their family squabbles. For the
+queen and her daughter, Princess Caroline, he had a genuine respect and
+attachment, and the princess's affection for him was commonly said to be
+the reason for the close retirement in which she lived after his death.
+The MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son,
+Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that they
+should not be published until after the death of George III. In 1848
+they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, but the MS.
+had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into
+his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the
+original. Hervey's bitter account of court life and intrigues resembles
+in many points the memoirs of Horace Walpole, and the two books
+corroborate one another in many statements that might otherwise have
+been received with suspicion.
+
+Until the publication of the _Memoirs_ Hervey was chiefly known as the
+object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works he figured
+as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally
+put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's friendship with Lady Mary
+Wortley Montagu. In the first of the _Imitations of Horace_, addressed
+to William Fortescue, "Lord Fanny" and "Sappho" were generally
+identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal
+intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the _Dunciad_ and the
+_Bathos_, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a share
+in the _Verses to the Imitator of Horace_ (1732) and it is possible that
+he was the sole author. In the _Letter from a nobleman at Hampton Court
+to a Doctor of Divinity_ (1733), he scoffed at Pope's deformity and
+humble birth. Pope's reply was a _Letter to a Noble Lord_, dated
+November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the _Epistle to Dr
+Arbuthnot_ (1735), which forms the prologue to the satires. Many of the
+insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteney's
+libel. The malicious caricature of Sporus does Hervey great injustice,
+and he is not much better treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting
+his death in a letter (14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had
+outlived his last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him
+to have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics and
+distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the weapons of
+which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost adroitness. His wife
+Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), of whom an account is to be
+found in Lady Louisa Stuart's _Anecdotes_, was a warm partisan of the
+Stuarts. She retained her wit and charm throughout her life, and has the
+distinction of being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.
+
+  See Hervey's _Memoirs of the Court of George II._, edited by J. W.
+  Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the _Dict.
+  Nat. Biog._ (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the _Memoirs_ he wrote
+  numerous political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.
+
+
+
+
+HERVIEU, PAUL (1857-   ), French dramatist and novelist, was born at
+Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He was called to the bar in
+1877, and, after serving some time in the office of the president of the
+council, he qualified for the diplomatic service, but resigned on his
+nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship in the French legation in Mexico.
+He contributed novels, tales and essays to the chief Parisian papers and
+reviews, and published a series of clever novels, including _L'Inconnu_
+(1887), _Flirt_ (1890), _L'Exorcisée_ (1891), _Peints par eux-mêmes_
+(1893), an ironical study written in the form of letters, and
+_L'Armature_ (1895), dramatized in 1905 by Eugène Brieux. But his most
+important work consists of a series of plays: _Les Paroles restent_
+(Vaudeville, 17th of November 1892); _Les Tenailles_ (Théâtre Français,
+28th of September 1895); _La Loi de l'homme_ (Théâtre Français, 15th of
+February 1897); _La Course du flambeau_ (Vaudeville, 17th of April
+1901); _Point de lendemain_ (Odéon, 18th of October 1901), a dramatic
+version of a story by Vivaut Denon; _L'Ênigme_ (Théâtre Français, 5th of
+November 1901); _Théroigne de Méricourt_ (Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd
+of September 1902); _Le Dédale_ (Théâtre Français, 19th of December
+1903), and _Le Réveil_ (Théâtre Français, 18th of December 1905). These
+plays are built upon a severely logical method, the mechanism of which
+is sometimes so evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion.
+The closing words of _La Course du flambeau_--"_Pour ma fille, j'ai tué
+ma mère_"--are an example of his selection of a plot representing an
+extreme theory. The riddle in _L'Éngime_ (staged at Wyndham's Theatre,
+London, March 1st 1902, as _Caesar's Wife_) is, however, worked out with
+great art, and _Le Dédale_, dealing with the obstacles to the remarriage
+of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces of the modern
+French stage. He was elected to the French Academy in 1900.
+
+  See A. Binet, in _L'Année psychologique_, vol. x. Hervieu's _Théâtre_
+  was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904).
+
+
+
+
+HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796-1884), Prussian general
+field-marshal, came of an aristocratic family which had supplied many
+distinguished officers to the Prussian army. He entered the Guard
+infantry in 1811, and served through the War of Liberation (1813-15),
+distinguishing himself at Lützen and Paris. During the years of peace he
+rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 he was on
+duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. Major-general in
+1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general
+of infantry and the command of the VIIth (Westphalian) Army Corps in
+1860. In the Danish War of 1864 he succeeded to the command of the
+Prussians when Prince Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the
+Allies, and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the
+passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 Herwarth
+commanded the "Army of the Elbe" which overran Saxony and invaded
+Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. His troops won the actions
+of Hühnerwasser and Münchengrätz, and at Königgrätz formed the right
+wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against
+the Austrian left flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but
+was in charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing and
+forwarding all the reserves and material required for the armies in
+France. In 1871 his great services were recognized by promotion to the
+rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at
+Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since 1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian)
+Infantry has borne his name.
+
+  See _G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld_ (Münster, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HERWEGH, GEORG (1817-1875), German political poet, was born at Stuttgart
+on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant keeper. He was educated
+at the gymnasium of his native city, and in 1835 proceeded to the
+university of Tübingen as a theological student, where, with a view to
+entering the ministry, he entered the protestant theological seminary.
+But the strict discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was
+expelled in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest of
+August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned to
+Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic post. Called out
+for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment when he
+committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled to Switzerland to
+avoid punishment. Here he published his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_
+(1841), a volume of political poems, which gave expression to the
+fervent aspirations of the German youth of the day. The work immediately
+rendered him famous, and although confiscated, it soon ran through
+several editions. The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions
+of Prince Pückler-Muskau (q.v.) in his _Briefe eines Verstorbenen_. He
+next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, visiting Jena,
+Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin--a journey which was described as being a
+"veritable triumphal progress." His military insubordination appears to
+have been forgiven and forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William
+IV. had him introduced to him and used the memorable words: "_ich liebe
+eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition_" ("I admire an opposition, when
+dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned to Paris, where he
+published in 1844 the second volume of his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_,
+which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the German police. At
+the head of a revolutionary column of German working men, recruited in
+Paris, Herwegh took an active part in the South German rising in 1848;
+but his raw troops were defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in
+Baden and, after a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to
+escape to Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of
+his literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to
+Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th of April
+1875. A monument was erected to his memory there in 1904. Besides the
+above-mentioned works, Herwegh published _Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der
+Schweiz_ (1843), and translations into German of A. de Lamartine's works
+and of seven of Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared _Neue
+Gedichte_ (1877).
+
+  Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in 1898. See
+  also Johannes Scherr, _Georg Herwegh; literarische und politische
+  Blätter_ (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in the _Allgemeine
+  deutsche Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, on the Sieber,
+25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop.
+(1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and
+a botanical garden, and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and
+weaving and dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively
+carried on here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the
+town lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession
+of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of the
+residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.
+
+
+
+
+HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the
+Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Jüterbog by the railway
+Berlin-Röderau-Dresden. It has a church (Evangelical) dating from the
+13th century and a medieval town hall. Its industries include the
+founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making.
+Pop. (1905) 4043.
+
+
+
+
+HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political Zionism (q.v.),
+was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860, and died at Edlach on the
+3rd of July 1904. The greater part of his career was associated with
+Vienna, where he acquired high repute as a literary journalist. He was
+also a dramatist, and apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist
+would have found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to
+renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his work as
+the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political autonomy.
+Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of Jews under persecution,
+but he was even more powerfully moved by the difficulties experienced
+under conditions of assimilation. Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was
+both like and unlike the medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews
+continued in Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several
+national groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl
+believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the end of
+the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries had failed.
+The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but the Jews could find no
+entry into the comity of nations. The new nationalism of 1848 did not
+deprive the Jews of political rights, but it denied them both the
+amenities of friendly intercourse and the opportunity of distinction in
+the university, the army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this
+diagnosis, and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (q.v.) which
+spread over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against
+the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl published
+his famous pamphlet "Der Judenstaat." Holding that the only alternatives
+for the Jews were complete merging by intermarriage or self-preservation
+by a national re-union, he boldly advocated the second course. He did
+not at first insist on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he
+attach himself to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic
+restoration to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent, in
+the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject entirely on
+its secular side, and his solution was economic and political rather
+than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for the complete separation
+of Church and State. The influence of Herzl's pamphlet, the progress of
+the movement he initiated, the subsequent modifications of his plans,
+are told at length in the article ZIONISM.
+
+His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm, and though
+he almost completely failed to win to his cause the classes, he rallied
+the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly gained the
+accession of many Jews by race who were indifferent to the religious
+aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed to convince the leaders of Jewish
+thought, who from first to last remained (with such conspicuous
+exceptions as Nordau and Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox
+were at first cool because they had always dreamed of a nationalism
+inspired by messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to
+dissociate those universalistic ideals from all national limitations.
+Herzl, however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel
+(beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable
+scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader. At all
+these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: "the establishing for
+the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine."
+Herzl's personal charm was irresistible. Among his political opponents
+he had some close personal friends. His sincerity, his eloquence, his
+tact, his devotion, his power, were recognized on all hands. He spent
+his whole strength in the furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic
+interviews, exhausting journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant
+literary propaganda--all these methods were employed by him to the
+utmost limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the
+pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The British
+government was ready to grant land for an autonomous settlement in East
+Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl's peace of mind. Even as a
+temporary measure, the choice of an extra-Palestinian site for the
+Jewish state was bitterly opposed by many Zionists; others (with whom
+Herzl appears to have sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all
+events momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement
+elsewhere. Herzl's health had been failing and he did not long survive
+the initiation of the somewhat embittered "territorial" controversy. He
+died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation of supporters and the
+deep grief of opponents of his Zionistic aims.
+
+Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality of the
+19th century. He had no profound insight into the problem of Judaism,
+and there was no lasting validity in his view that the problem--the
+thousands of years' old mystery--could be solved by a retrogression to
+local nationality. But he brought home to Jews the perils that
+confronted them; he compelled many a "semi-detached" son of Israel to
+rejoin the camp; he forced the "assimilationists" to realize their
+position and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to "Jewish
+culture," including the popularization of Hebrew as a living speech; and
+he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an earnest and vital
+interest in their present and their future. Herzl thus left an indelible
+mark on his time, and his renown is assured whatever be the fate in
+store for the political Zionism which he founded and for which he gave
+his life.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HERZOG, HANS (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at Aarau. He became a
+Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then spent six years in
+travelling (visiting England among other countries), before he became a
+partner in his father's business in 1846. In 1847 he saw his first
+active service (as artillery captain) in the short Swiss _Sonderbund_
+war. In 1860 he abandoned mercantile pursuits for a purely military
+career, becoming colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery.
+In 1870 he was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the
+Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and in
+February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrières with
+General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the remains of
+Bourbaki's army, when it took refuge in Switzerland. In 1875 he became
+the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery, which he did much to
+reorganize, helping also in the re-organization of the other branches of
+the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at his native town of Aarau.
+     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882), German Protestant theologian, was born
+at Basel on the 12th of September 1805. He studied at Basel and Berlin,
+and eventually (1854) settled at Erlangen as professor of church
+history. He died there on the 30th of September 1882, having retired in
+1877. His most noteworthy achievement was the publication of the
+_Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche_ (1853-1868,
+22 vols.), of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt
+(1836-1880) in 1877, and after Plitt's death with Albert Hauck (b.
+1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in 1896
+(completed in 22 vols., 1909).
+
+  His other works include _Joh. Calvin_ (1843), _Leben Ökolampads_
+  (1843), _Die romanischen Waldenser_ (1853), _Abriss der gesamten
+  Kirchengeschichte_ (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig,
+  1890-1892).
+
+
+
+
+HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG (1819-1874), German author, was born on
+the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his father, distinguished as a
+writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran pastor. Hesekiel studied history
+and philosophy in Halle, Jena and Berlin, and devoted himself in early
+life to journalism and literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where
+he lived until his death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a
+considerable reputation as a writer and as editor of the _Neue
+Preussische Zeitung_. He attempted many different kinds of literary
+work, the most ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs
+_Preussenlieder_, of which he published a volume during the
+revolutionary excitement of 1848-1849. Another collection--_Neue
+Preussenlieder_--appeared in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in
+1870--_Gegen die Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Königslieder_. Among
+his novels may be mentioned _Unter dem Eisenzahn_ (1864) and _Der
+Schultheiss vom Zeyst_ (1875). The best known of his works is his
+biography of Prince Bismarck (_Das Buch vom Fürsten Bismarck_) (3rd ed.,
+1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie).
+
+
+
+
+HESILRIGE (or HESELRIG), SIR ARTHUR, 2nd Bart. (d. 1661), English
+parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Hesilrige, 1st baronet
+(c. 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a member of a very ancient
+family settled in Northumberland and Leicestershire, and of Frances,
+daughter of Sir William Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early
+imbibed strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism
+to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long Parliaments in
+1640, and took a principal part in Strafford's attainder, the Root and
+Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the 7th of December 1641, and was
+one of the five members impeached on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed
+much activity in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex,
+fought at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed
+his _fidus Achates_, and distinguished himself at the head of his
+cuirassiers, "The Lobsters," at Lansdown on the 5th of July 1643, at
+Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both of which battles he was
+wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th 1644. On the occasion of the breach
+between the army and the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former,
+took Cromwell's part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on
+the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and
+became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament. On the
+30th of December 1647 he was appointed governor of Newcastle, which he
+successfully defended, besides defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of
+July 1648 and regaining Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to
+Scotland, and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in
+1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king's execution, had
+declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the leading men in
+the Commonwealth, but Cromwell's expulsion of the Long Parliament threw
+him into antagonism, and he opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay
+taxes. He was returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656
+and 1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a seat in the
+Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him, and succeeded in again
+obtaining admission to the Commons in January 1658. On Cromwell's death
+Hesilrige refused support to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting
+his downfall. He was now one of the most influential men in the council
+and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican parliamentary
+administration, "to keep the sword subservient to the civil magistrate,"
+and opposed Lambert's schemes. On the latter succeeding in expelling the
+parliament, Hesilrige turned to Monk for support, and assisted his
+movements by securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched
+to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the 2nd of
+January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner for the army.
+He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting to his assurance of
+fidelity to "the good old cause" consented to the retirement of his
+regiment from London. At the Restoration his life was saved by Monk's
+intervention, but he was imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the
+7th of January 1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as "an absurd, bold
+man." He was rash, "hare-brained," devoid of tact and had little claim
+to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field and in
+parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary cause. He
+exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his exactions and
+appropriations of confiscated landed property, though the accusation
+brought against him by John Lilburne was examined by a parliamentary
+committee and adjudged to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances,
+daughter of Thomas Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had
+two sons and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville,
+2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters. The
+family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur Grey
+Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the _Dict. of
+  Nat. Biography_, and authorities there quoted; _Early History of the
+  Family of Hesilrige_, by W. G. D. Fletcher; _Cal. of State Papers,
+  Domestic_, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important
+  references, as also in _Hist. MSS._, _Comm. Series_, _MSS. of Earl
+  Cowper_, _Duke of Leeds_ and _Duke of Portland_; _Egerton MSS._ 2618,
+  _Harleian_ 7001 f. 198, and in the _Sloane_, _Stowe_ and _Additional_
+  collections in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, _Hist. of
+  England_, _Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth_; Clarendon's
+  _History, State Papers and Cal. of State Papers_, J. L. Sanford's
+  _Studies of the Great Rebellion_. His life is written by Noble in the
+  _House of Cromwell_, i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in
+  parliament see the catalogue of the British Museum.
+
+
+
+
+HESIOD, the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably flourished during
+the 8th century B.C. His father had migrated from the Aeolic Cyme in
+Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod and his brother Perses were born at
+Ascra, near mount Helicon (_Works and Days_, 635). Here, as he fed his
+father's flocks, he received his commission from the Muses to be their
+prophet and poet--a commission which he recognized by dedicating to them
+a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at some funeral
+games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at Helicon in the age of
+Pausanias (_Theogony_, 20-34, _W. and D._, 656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3).
+After the death of his father Hesiod is said to have left his native
+land in disgust at the result of a law-suit with his brother and to have
+migrated to Naupactus. There was a tradition that he was murdered by the
+sons of his host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in
+Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains were removed
+for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to Orchomenus in Boeotia,
+where the Ascraeans settled after the destruction of their town by the
+Thespians, and where, according to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.
+
+Hesiod's earliest poem, the famous _Works and Days_, and according to
+Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the experiences of his
+daily life and work, and, interwoven with episodes of fable, allegory,
+and personal history, forms a sort of Boeotian shepherd's calendar. The
+first portion is an ethical enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive
+of strife and idleness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules
+as to husbandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the
+months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary for rural or
+nautical employments. The connecting link of the whole poem is the
+author's advice to his brother, who appears to have bribed the corrupt
+judges to deprive Hesiod of his already scantier inheritance, and to
+whom, as he wasted his substance lounging in the agora, the poet more
+than once returned good for evil, though he tells him there will be a
+limit to this unmerited kindness. In the _Works and Days_ the episodes
+which rise above an even didactic level are the "Creation and Equipment
+of Pandora," the "Five Ages of the World" and the much-admired
+"Description of Winter" (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic). The poem
+also contains the earliest known fable in Greek literature, that of "The
+Hawk and the Nightingale." It is in the _Works and Days_ especially that
+we glean indications of Hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a
+stay-at-home farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea
+was a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned
+bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony have been
+conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having a wife as extravagant
+as himself.
+
+The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which has come down in
+great part to modern times is _The Theogony_, a work of grander scope,
+inspired alike by older traditions and abundant local associations. It
+is an attempt to work into system, as none had essayed to do before, the
+floating legends of the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This
+task Herodotus (ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato
+in the _Symposium_ (178 B) as the author of the _Theogony_. The first to
+question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias, the geographer
+(A.D. 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had no doubt on the subject; and
+indications of the hand that wrote the _Works and Days_ may be found in
+the severe strictures on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver
+Plutus and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt, of
+Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different
+recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. The
+_Theogony_ consists of three divisions--(1) a cosmogony, or creation;
+(2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of the dynasties of Zeus
+and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly terminated heroögony, the
+starting-point not improbably of the supplementary poem, the [Greek:
+katalogos], or "Lists of Women" who wedded immortals, of which all but
+a few fragments are lost.[1] The proem (1-116) addressed to the
+Heliconian and Pierian muses, is considered to have been variously
+enlarged, altered and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has
+interwoven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of Zeus
+and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description of the
+prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined, with the
+Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors (735 seq.).
+
+The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod's name is the
+_Shield of Heracles_, the opening verses of which are attributed by a
+nameless grammarian to the fourth book of _Eoiai_. The theme of the
+piece is the expedition of Heracles and Iolaus against the robber
+Cycnus; but its main object apparently is to describe the shield of
+Heracles (141-317). It is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of
+the shield of Achilles (_Iliad_, xviii. 479) and is now generally
+considered spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod
+have come down to us: didactic, as the _Maxims of Cheiron_;
+genealogical, as the _Aegimius_, describing the contest of that mythical
+ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and mythical, as the
+_Marriage of Ceyx_ and the _Descent of Theseus to Hades_.
+
+Recent editions of Hesiod include the [Greek: Agôn Homêrou kai
+Hêsiodou], the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the funeral
+games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. This little tract
+belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been
+present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by
+the sophist Alcidamas (q.v.). Quotations (old and new) are made from the
+works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience,
+the judge decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of
+Homer and Hesiod are also given.
+
+A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious and
+proverbial philosophy (as in _Works and Days_, 24-25, 40, 218, 345,
+371). There is naturally less of this in the _Theogony_, yet there too
+not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. He has undying
+fame as the first of didactic poets (see DIDACTIC POETRY), the
+accredited systematizer of Greek mythology and the rough but not
+unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which Virgil wrought out his
+exquisitely finished Georgics.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: _Editio princeps_ (Milan, 1493);
+  Göttling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of
+  publication; C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and
+  explanatory notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902),
+  including the fragments. Separate works: _Works and Days_: Van Lennep
+  (1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, _Die Werke und Tage des
+  Hesiodos_ (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement
+  of the poem; G. Wlastoff, _Prométhée, Pandore, et la légende des
+  siècles_ (1883). _Theogony_: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker (1865),
+  valuable edition; G. F. Schömann (1868), with text, critical notes and
+  exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, _Die Hesiodische Theogonie_ (1873),
+  with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma in Hesiod, _System
+  der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie_ (1874), and _Glossen und Scholien zur
+  Theogonie_ (1876); Meyer, _De compositione Theogoniae_ (1887). _Shield
+  of Heracles_: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van Lennep-Hullemann (1854); F.
+  Stegemann, _De scuti Herculis Hesiodei poëta Homeri carminum
+  imitatore_ (1904); the fragments were published by W. Marckscheffel in
+  1840; for the [Greek: Agôn Homêrou] (ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F.
+  Nietzsche in _Rheinisches Museum_ (new series), xxv. p. 528. For
+  papyrus fragments of the "Catalogue," some 50 lines on the wooing of
+  Helen, and a shorter fragment in praise of Peleus, see
+  Wilamowitz-Möllendorff in _Sitzungsber. der königl. preuss. Akad. der
+  Wissenschaften_, for 26th of July 1900; for fragments relating to
+  Meleager and the suitors of Helen, _Berliner Klassikertexte_, v.
+  (1907); of the _Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap._ vi. (1908).
+
+  On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schömann, _Opuscula_, ii.
+  (1857); H. Flach, _Die Hesiodischen Gedichte_ (1874); A. Rzach, _Der
+  Dialekt des Hesiodos_ (1876); P. O. Gruppe, _Die griechischen Kulte
+  und Mythen_, i. (1887); O. Friedel, _Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods_
+  (1879), from _Jahrbücher für classische Philologie_ (10th suppl. Band,
+  1879); J. Adam, _Religious Teachers of Greece_ (1908). There is a full
+  bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898) by A.
+  Rzach in Bursian's _Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der
+  klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, xxvii. (1900).
+
+  There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke
+  (1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W.
+  Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of
+  Translations, 1908); in German (metrical version) with valuable
+  introductions and notes by R. Peppmüller (1896) and in other modern
+  languages.     (J. Da.; J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of
+    each heroine began with [Greek: ê oiê], "or like as." (See
+    Bibliography.)
+
+
+
+HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded the golden apples
+which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to Zeus. According to Hesiod
+(_Theogony_, 215) they were the daughters of Erebus and Night; in later
+accounts, of Atlas and Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on
+Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to
+be three in number--Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa);
+according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away in the west
+at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence the sun (according to
+Mimnermus _ap._ Athenaeum xi. p. 470) sails in the golden bowl made by
+Hephaestus from the abode of the Hesperides to the land where he rises
+again. According to other accounts their home was among the
+Hyperboreans. The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the
+ever-watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian legends
+described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the nightly heaven,
+while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the light back from men till
+some beneficent power takes it from him. Heracles is the hero who brings
+back the golden apples to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies
+to the Nymphs, who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there
+he slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, like
+Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, like the Sirens,
+possessed of the gift of delightful song. The apples appear to have been
+the symbol of love and fruitfulness, and are introduced at the marriages
+of Cadmus and Harmonia and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the
+gift of Aphrodite to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also
+plucked from the garden of the Hesperides.
+
+
+
+
+HESPERUS (Gr. [Greek: Hesperos], Lat. Vesper), the evening star, son or
+brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii. 60, iv. 27), he
+ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of the stars, and was
+suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever afterwards he was honoured as a
+god, and the most brilliant star in the heavens was called by his name.
+Although as a mythological personality he is regarded as distinct from
+Phosphoros or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of
+light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars were
+early identified by the Greeks.
+
+  Diog. Laërt. viii. 1. 14; Cicero, _De nat. deorum_, ii. 20; Pliny,
+  _Nat. Hist._ ii. 6 [8].
+
+
+
+
+HESS, the name of a family of German artists.
+
+HEINRICH MARIA HESS (1798-1863)--von Hess, after he received a patent of
+personal nobility--was born at Düsseldorf and brought up to the
+profession of art by his father, the engraver Karl Ernst Christoph Hess
+(1755-1828). Karl Hess had already acquired a name when in 1806 the
+elector of Bavaria, having been raised to a kingship by Napoleon,
+transferred the Düsseldorf academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess
+accompanied the academy to its new home, and there continued the
+education of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently
+master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian. He was
+sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made of Raphael's
+Parnassus, and the study of great examples of monumental design,
+probably caused him to become a painter of ecclesiastical subjects on a
+large scale. In 1828 he was made professor of painting and director of
+all the art collections at Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the
+Glyptothek and the Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his
+cartoons were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne
+and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the basilica of
+St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture of the Virgin and
+Child enthroned between the four doctors, and receiving the homage of
+the four patrons of the Munich churches (now in the Pinakothek). His
+last work, the "Lord's Supper," was found unfinished in his atelier
+after his death in 1863. Before testing his strength as a composer
+Heinrich Hess tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering
+Rome, now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and twice
+had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack collections). But
+his fame rests on the frescoes representing scenes from the Old and New
+Testaments in the Allerheiligencapelle, and the episodes from the life
+of St Boniface and other German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here
+he holds rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting, being
+always true to nature though mindful of the traditions of Christian art,
+earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and powerful in expression.
+Through him and his pupils the sentiment of religious art was preserved
+and extended in the Munich school.
+
+PETER HESS (1792-1871)--afterwards von Hess--was born at Düsseldorf and
+accompanied his younger brother Heinrich Maria to Munich in 1806. Being
+of an age to receive vivid impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of
+the time and became a painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he
+was allowed to join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the
+Bavarians in the military operations which led to the abdication of
+Napoleon; and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for
+extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited
+Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho's election to the Greek
+throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather materials for
+pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches which he then made were
+placed, forty in number, in the Pinakothek, after being copied in wax on
+a large scale (and little to the edification of German feeling) by
+Nilsen, in the northern arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho's
+entrance into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now
+in the Pinakothek, which Hess executed in person. From these, and from
+battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal Palace, as well as
+from military episodes executed for the czar Nicholas, and the battle of
+Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery, we gather that Hess was a clever
+painter of horses. His conception of subject was lifelike, and his
+drawing invariably correct, but his style is not so congenial to modern
+taste as that of the painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully
+with thin medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a
+certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was not unaptly
+compared. He died suddenly, full of honours, at Munich, in April 1871.
+Several of his genre pictures, horse hunts, and brigand scenes may be
+found in the gallery of Munich.
+
+KARL HESS (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess, born at
+Düsseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped that he would
+obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however, after engraving one
+plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting under the guidance of
+Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied under his elder brother Peter.
+But historical composition proved to be as contrary to his taste as
+engraving, and he gave himself exclusively at last to illustrations of
+peasant life in the hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in
+representing the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and
+with constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood of
+Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced anything that
+was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly realism. Some of his
+pictures in the museum of Munich will serve as examples of his manner.
+He died at Reichenhall on the 16th of November 1874.
+
+
+
+
+HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF, FREIHERR VON (1788-1870), Austrian
+soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was soon employed as a staff
+officer on survey work. He distinguished himself as a subaltern at
+Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a captain, again served on the staff.
+In 1815 he was with Schwarzenberg. He had in the interval between the
+two wars been employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at
+the peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved
+invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky became
+commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as his
+chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two famous soldiers
+which, like that of Blücher and Gneisenau, is a classical example of
+harmonious co-operation of commander and chief-of-staff. Hess put into
+shape Radetzky's military ideas, in the form of new drill for each arm,
+and, under their guidance, the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a
+war footing, became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was
+employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of revolution
+and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to Radetzky as
+chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King Charles Albert which
+followed, culminating in the victory of Novara, Hess's assistance to his
+chief was made still more valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and
+the old field-marshal acknowledged his services in general orders.
+Lieut.-Fieldmarshal Hess was at once promoted _Feldzeugmeister_, made a
+member of the emperor's council, and _Freiherr_, assuming at the same
+time the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became chief
+of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in missions to
+various capitals, and he appeared in the field in 1854 at the head of
+the Austrian army which intervened so effectually in the Crimean war. In
+1859 he was sent to Italy after the early defeats. He became
+field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on resigning his position as
+chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the Trabant guard. He died in
+Vienna in 1870.
+
+  See "General Hess" in _Lebensgeschichtlichen Hinrissen_ (Vienna,
+  1855).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE (Lat. _Hessia_, Ger. _Hessen_), a grand duchy forming a state of
+the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-Darmstadt, the
+history of which is given under a separate heading below. It consists of
+two main parts, separated from each other by a narrow strip of Prussian
+territory. The northern part is the province of Oberhessen; the southern
+consists of the contiguous provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen.
+There are also eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg
+to the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on the
+north-west frontier of Württemberg. Oberhessen is hilly; though of no
+great elevation it extends over the water-parting between the basins of
+the Rhine and the Weser, and in the Vogelsberg it has as its culminating
+point the Taufstein (2533 ft.). In the north-west it includes spurs of
+the Taunus. Between these two systems of hills lies the fertile
+undulating tract known as the Wetterau, watered by the Wetter, a
+tributary of the Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main
+and the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the ranges
+of the Odenwald, the highest part being the Seidenbucher Höhe (1965
+ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by the Rhine, and has
+that river as its northern as well as its eastern frontier, though it
+extends across it at the north-east corner, where the Rhine, on
+receiving the Main, changes its course abruptly from south to west. The
+territory consists of a fertile tract of low hills, rising towards the
+south-west into the northern extremity of the Hardt range, but at no
+point reaching a height of more than 1050 ft.
+
+The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are as follow:
+
+  +-------------+------+---------------------+
+  |             | Area.|     Population.     |
+  |             +------+----------+----------+
+  |             |sq. m.|   1895.  |   1905.  |
+  |             +------+----------+----------+
+  | Oberhessen  | 1267 |  271,524 |  296,755 |
+  | Starkenburg | 1169 |  444,562 |  542,996 |
+  | Rheinhessen |  530 |  322,934 |  369,424 |
+  +-------------+------+----------+----------+
+  |    Total    | 2966 |1,039,020 |1,209,175 |
+  +-------------+------+----------+----------+
+
+The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the capital) and
+Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in Rheinhessen and Giessen in
+Oberhessen. More than two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants; the
+majority of the remainder are Roman Catholics, and there are about
+25,000 Jews. The grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education
+is compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by state
+grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical high school at
+Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than three-fifths of the total
+area being under cultivation. The largest grain crops are rye and
+barley, and nearly 40,000 acres are under vines. Minerals, in which
+Oberhessen is much richer than the two other provinces, include iron,
+manganese, salt and some coal.
+
+The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856, 1862, 1872
+and 1900. There are two legislative chambers. The upper consists of
+princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of mediatized houses, the head
+of the Roman Catholic and the superintendent of the Protestant church,
+the chancellor of the university, two elected representatives of the
+land-owning nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke.
+The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large towns and forty
+from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly elected, by
+deputy electors (_Wahlmänner_) nominated by the electors, who must be
+Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying direct taxes. The executive
+ministry of state is divided into the departments of the interior,
+justice and finance. The three provinces are divided for local
+administration into 18 circles and 989 communes. The ordinary revenue
+and expenditure amount each to about £4,000,000 annually, the chief
+taxes being an income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public
+debt, practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to
+£19,097,468 in 1907.
+
+_History_.--The name of Hesse, now used principally for the grand duchy
+formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a country which has had
+different boundaries and areas at different times. The name is derived
+from that of a Frankish tribe, the Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants
+of the country were the Chatti, who lived here during the 1st century
+A.D. (Tacitus, _Germania_, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the
+Eder, was burned by the Romans about A.D. 15. "Alike both in race and
+language," says Walther Schultze, "the Chatti and the Hessi are
+identical." During the period of the _Völkerwanderung_ many of these
+people moved westward, but some remained behind to give their name to
+the country, although it was not until the 8th century that the word
+Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was the district around the Fulda, the
+Werra, the Eder and the Lahn, and was part of the Frankish kingdom both
+during Merovingian and during Carolingian times. Soon _Hessegau_ is
+mentioned, and this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during
+his campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 it fell
+to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly in the duchy
+of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The Hessians were converted
+to Christianity mainly through the efforts of St Boniface; their land
+was included in the archbishopric of Mainz; and religion and culture
+were kept alive among them largely owing to the foundation of the
+Benedictine abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany
+during the 9th century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central power,
+and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great, several counts,
+among whom were Giso and Werner, had made themselves practically
+independent; but after the accession of Otto in 936 the land quietly
+accepted the yoke of the medieval emperors. About 1120 another Giso,
+count of Gudensberg, secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on
+his death in 1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis,
+landgrave of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the
+Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of Thuringia.
+The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of Thuringia, in 1247,
+caused a long war over the disposal of his lands, and this dispute was
+not settled until 1264 when Hesse, separated again from Thuringia, was
+secured by his niece Sophia (d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of
+Brabant. In the following year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry
+(1244-1308), who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took
+the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent rulers
+of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the Empire, and with
+him the history of Hesse properly begins.
+
+For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively uneventful.
+The land, which fell into two main portions, upper Hesse round Marburg,
+and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice divided between two members of
+the ruling family, but no permanent partition took place before the
+Reformation. A _Landtag_ was first called together in 1387, and the
+landgraves were constantly at variance with the electors of Mainz, who
+had large temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however,
+to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden,
+Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen were
+acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself under the
+protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the landgraves were perhaps
+Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the German throne in 1440, and
+William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of the German king, Maximilian I. In
+1509 William's young son, Philip (q.v.), became landgrave, and by his
+vigorous personality brought his country into prominence during the
+religious troubles of the 16th century. Following the example of his
+ancestors Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his
+land, and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes to
+him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided between his four
+sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Marburg and
+Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Marburg,
+or upper Hesse, became extinct in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these
+lands passed to the two remaining branches of the family. The small
+landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt.
+After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by Prussia in
+1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent part of Hesse, and it
+generally receives the common name.
+
+Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was founded in
+1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave William VI. In 1909 the
+representative of this family was the Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846).
+Hesse-Barchfeld was founded in 1721 by Philip's son, William (d. 1761),
+and in 1909 its representative was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The
+lands of both these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a
+province of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of
+the duchy of Nassau.
+
+  See H. B. Wenck, _Hessische Landesgeschichte_ (Frankfort, 1783-1803);
+  C. von Rommel, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Cassel, 1820-1858); F.
+  Münscher, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach, _Hesse
+  und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde_ (Marburg, 1899); Walther, _Literarisches
+  Handbuch für Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse_ (Darmstadt, 1841;
+  Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann, _Bibliotheca Hessiaca_ (Cassel,
+  1884-1899); Hoffmeister, _Historischgenealogisches Handbuch über alle
+  Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse_ (Marburg, 1874), and the _Zeitschrift
+  des Vereins für hessische Geschichte_ (1837-1904).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-CASSEL (in German _Kurhessen_, i.e. Electoral Hesse), now the
+government district of Cassel in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.
+It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate of Germany, consisting of
+several detached masses of territory, to the N.E. of
+Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial area of 3699 sq. m.,
+and its population in 1864 was 745,063.
+
+_History._--The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William IV.,
+surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous. On his father's
+death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with Cassel as his capital;
+and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel. Additions were made to
+it by inheritance from his brother's possessions. His son, Maurice the
+Learned (1592-1627), turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in
+the Thirty Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his
+territories to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son
+William V. (1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which
+created several cadet lines of the house, of which that of
+Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg survived till 1834. On the death of William
+V., whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his widow
+Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI. (1637-1663),
+reconquered the country and, with the aid of the French and Swedes, held
+it, together with part of Westphalia. At the peace of Westphalia (1648),
+accordingly, Hesse-Cassel was augmented by the larger part of the
+countship of Schaumburg and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a
+principality of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced
+the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650, was an
+enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son
+William VII., an infant, who died in 1670, and was succeeded by his
+brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles's chief claim to remembrance is
+that he was the first ruler to adopt the system of hiring his soldiers
+out to foreign powers as mercenaries, as a means of improving the
+national finances. Frederick I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had
+become by marriage king of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the
+landgraviate by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an
+ally of England during the Seven Years' War. From his successor
+Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic, 22,000
+Hessian troops were hired by England for about £3,191,000, to assist in
+the war against the North American colonies. This action, often bitterly
+criticized, has of late years found apologists (cf. v. Werthern, _Die
+hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerikanischen Unabhängigkeitskriege_,
+Cassel, 1895). It is argued that the troops were in any case
+mercenaries, and that the practice was quite common. Whatever opinion
+may be held as to this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money
+well: he did much for the development of the economic and intellectual
+improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave, William IX.
+(1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history of Hesse-Cassel.
+Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part in the war against France a
+few years later, but in 1795 peace was arranged by the treaty of Basel.
+For the loss in 1801 of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he
+was in 1803 compensated by some of the former French territory round
+Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector
+(_Kurfürst_) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality with
+Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspecting William's
+designs, occupied his country, and expelled him. Hesse-Cassel was then
+added to Jerome Bonaparte's new kingdom of Westphalia; but after the
+battle of Leipzig in 1813 the French were driven out and on the 21st of
+November the elector returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty
+concluded by him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to
+receive back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the
+same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country. This
+treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried out by the
+powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused, however, the elector's
+request to be recognized as "King of the Chatti" (_König der Katten_), a
+request which was again rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(1818). He therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with
+the predicate of "royal highness."
+
+The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing with a stroke
+of the pen all the reforms introduced under the French régime,
+repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring null and void the sale of
+the crown domains. Everything was set back to its condition on the 1st
+of November 1806; even the officials had to descend to their former
+rank, and the army to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails.
+The estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt to
+devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal diet at
+Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of the debt and the
+domains came to nothing owing to the intervention of Metternich; and in
+May 1816 they were dissolved, never to meet again. William I. died on
+the 27th of February 1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II.
+Under him the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He
+was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover shocked
+public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular Prussian
+princess, and his relations with his mistress, one Emilie Ortlöpp,
+created countess of Reichenbach, whom he loaded with wealth. The July
+revolution in Paris gave the signal for disturbances; the elector was
+forced to summon the estates; and on the 5th of January 1831 a
+constitution on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now
+retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent, and took
+no further part in public affairs.
+
+The regent, without his father's coarseness, had a full share of his
+arbitrary and avaricious temper. Constitutional restrictions were
+intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with the diet was
+aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (q.v.) was placed at the head of
+the administration. The whole efforts of the elector and his minister
+were directed to nullifying the constitutional control vested in the
+diet; and the Opposition was fought by manipulating the elections,
+packing the judicial bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of
+political "suspects," and this policy continued after the retirement of
+Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the
+revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public discontent;
+and Frederick William, who had become elector on his father's death
+(November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss his reactionary ministry and
+to agree to a comprehensive programme of democratic reform. This,
+however, was but short-lived. After the breakdown of the Frankfort
+National Parliament, Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern
+Union, and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt
+parliament. But as Austria recovered strength, the elector's policy
+changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again placed at
+the head of the administration and threw himself with renewed zeal into
+the struggle against the constitution and into opposition to Prussia. On
+the 2nd of September the diet was dissolved; the taxes were continued by
+electoral ordinance; and the country was placed under martial law. It
+was at once clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his
+officers or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the
+constitution. Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly
+with him, and on the 15th of October appealed for aid to the
+reconstituted federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of
+"intervention." On the 1st of November an Austrian and Bavarian force
+marched into the electorate.
+
+This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions with the
+elector had the right to the use of the military roads through Hesse
+that were her sole means of communication with her Rhine provinces. War
+seemed imminent; Prussian troops also entered the country, and shots
+were actually exchanged between the outposts. But Prussia was in no
+condition to take up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that
+followed issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmütz (1851). Hesse was
+surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the federal
+forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new order were
+dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished the constitution of
+1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and in April issued a new
+provisional constitution. The new diet had, under this, very narrow
+powers; and the elector was free to carry out his policy of amassing
+money, forbidding the construction of railways and manufactories, and
+imposing strict orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however,
+Hassenpflug--who had returned with the elector--was dismissed; and five
+years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new constitution was
+granted with the consent of the federal diet (May 30, 1860). The new
+chambers, however, demanded the constitution of 1831; and, after several
+dissolutions which always resulted in the return of the same members,
+the federal diet decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24,
+1862). This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it
+needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble the
+chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposition; and he
+revenged himself by refusing to transact any public business. In 1866
+the end came. The elector, full of grievances against Prussia, threw in
+his lot with Austria; the electorate was at once overrun with Prussian
+troops; Cassel was occupied (June 20); and the elector was carried a
+prisoner to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed to
+Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been, by the terms
+of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed property of his house.
+This was, however, sequestered in 1868 owing to his intrigues against
+Prussia; part of the income was paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the
+landgrave Frederick (d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles
+and palaces, was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and
+Philippsthal-Barchfeld.
+
+  See K. W. Wippermann, _Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen_ (Cassel,
+  1850); Röth, _Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel_ (Cassel, 1856; 2nd ed.
+  continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Gräfe, _Der Verfassungskampf in
+  Kurhessen_ (Leipzig, 1851) and works under HESSE.
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-DARMSTADT, a grand-duchy in Germany, the history of which begins
+with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I. (1547-1597), the youngest
+son of the landgrave Philip, received the upper county of
+Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt as his residence, became the
+founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt line. Additions to the landgraviate were
+made both in the reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V.
+(1577-1626), but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage
+for George's youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis V., who
+founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran, he and his
+son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the imperialists in the Thirty
+Years' War, during which Hesse-Darmstadt suffered very severely from the
+ravages of the Swedes. In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other
+side, and the rivalry between the two landgraviates was increased by a
+dispute over Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become
+extinct in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread of
+the Thirty Years' War, and was not finally settled until 1648, when the
+disputed territory was divided between the two claimants. Louis VI. (d.
+1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed the policy of the three
+previous landgraves, but the anxiety of his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739),
+to emulate the French court under Louis XIV. led his country into debt.
+Under Ernest Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768),
+another dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time it was
+over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was eventually
+divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg. During the 18th century
+the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War dealt heavy
+blows at the prosperity of the landgraviate, which was always loyal to
+the house of Austria. Louis IX. (1719-1790), who served in the Prussian
+army under Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of
+Caroline (1721-1774), "the great landgravine," who counted Goethe,
+Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by Frederick the
+Great as _femina sexu, ingenio vir_. In April 1790, just after the
+outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X. (1753-1830), an educated
+prince who shared the tastes and friendships of his mother, Caroline,
+became landgrave. In 1792 he joined the allies against France, but in
+1799 he was compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having
+formally surrendered the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine
+which had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution, Louis
+received in return a much larger district which had formerly belonged to
+the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz and the bishopric of
+Worms. In 1806, being a member of the confederation of the Rhine, he
+took the title of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse; he supported Napoleon
+with troops from 1805 to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined
+the allies. In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the
+area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again a district
+on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of Mainz and Worms,
+but he made cessions of territory to Prussia and to Bavaria and he
+recognized the independence of Hesse-Homburg, which had recently been
+incorporated with his lands. However, his title of grand-duke was
+confirmed, and as grand-duke of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the
+Germanic confederation. Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself
+felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land;
+various forms were carried through; the system of government was
+reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the Prussian
+_Zollverein_. Louis I., who did a great deal for the welfare of his
+country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was followed on the throne
+by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This grand-duke had some trouble with
+his _Landtag_, but, dying on the 16th of June 1848, he left his son,
+Louis III. (1806-1877), to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848.
+Many concessions were made to the popular will, but during the
+subsequent reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850
+and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk
+(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of
+Hesse-Darmstadt, was one of repression, although some benefits were
+conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia's enemies, and
+during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on the Austrian side, the
+result being that he was compelled to pay a heavy indemnity and to cede
+certain districts, including Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just
+acquired, to Prussia. In 1867 Louis entered the North German
+Confederation, but only for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871
+Hesse-Darmstadt became one of the states of the new German empire. After
+the withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more liberal
+policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesiastical,
+educational, financial and administrative matters were introduced, and
+in general the grand-duchy may be said to have passed largely under the
+influence of Prussia, which, by an arrangement made in 1896, controls
+the Hessian railway system. The constitution of 1820, subject to four
+subsequent modifications, is still the law of the land, the legislative
+power being vested in two chambers and the executive power being
+exercised by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the
+annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy has been
+known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the 13th of June 1877, and was
+succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV. (1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen
+Victoria; he died on the 13th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his
+son, Ernest Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke's marriage with Victoria
+(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was
+dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently in 1902 a
+law regulating the succession was passed. By this the landgrave
+Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative of the family which
+ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared the heir to Hesse in case
+the grand-duke died without sons. However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married
+Elenore, princess of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a
+son George (b. 1906).
+
+  See L. Baur, _Urkunden zur hessischen Landes-, Orts- und
+  Familiengeschichte_ (Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, _Geschichte des
+  Grossherzogtums Hesse_n (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, _Das
+  Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, _Historische Übersicht
+  der Territorialveränderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des
+  Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, _Geschichte des
+  Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, _Kirchengeschichte
+  beider Hessen_ (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, _Geschichte von
+  Hessen_ (Cassel, 1891), and _Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde_
+  (Marburg, 1904-1906); F. Küchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber,
+  _Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen_
+  (Darmstadt, 1894-1897); H. Künzel, _Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Giessen,
+  1893); and W. Zeller, _Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung im
+  Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also _Archiv für
+  hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde_ (Darmstadt, 1894 fol.) and
+  _Hessisches Urkundenbuch_ (Leipzig, 1879 fol.).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-HOMBURG, formerly a small landgraviate in Germany. It consisted of
+two parts, the district of Homburg on the right side of the Rhine, and the
+district of Meisenheim, which was added in 1815, on the left side of the
+same river. Its area was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was
+27,374. Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-Homburg was formed into
+a separate landgraviate in 1622 by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George
+I., landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, although it did not become independent
+of Hesse-Darmstadt until 1768. By two of Frederick's sons it was divided
+into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but these parts were
+again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick's third son, Frederick
+II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign of the landgrave Frederick
+V., which extended from 1751 to 1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and
+incorporated with Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna
+the latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of
+Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisenheim.
+Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a sovereign prince in
+1817, and after his death his five sons in succession filled the throne.
+The last of these, Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal
+constitution to his people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852.
+When he died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited by
+Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim fell to
+Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis was forced to cede
+his new possession to Prussia, as he had supported Austria during the war
+between these two powers.
+
+  See R. Schwartz, _Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und seine
+  Familie_ (1878); and von Herget, _Das landgräfliche Haus Homburg_
+  (Homburg, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-NASSAU (Ger. _Hessen-Nassau_), a province of Prussia, bounded,
+from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia, Waldeck, Hanover,
+the province of Saxony, the Thuringian States, Bavaria, Hesse and the
+Rhine Province. There are small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia,
+&c.; on the other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen
+belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar
+belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed in 1867-1868
+out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after the war of 1866,
+namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and the duchy of Nassau, in
+addition to the greater part of the territory of Frankfort-on-Main,
+parts of the grand-duchy of Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the
+countship of Hesse-Homburg, together with certain small districts which
+belonged to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel
+and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former
+territory of Nassau (q.v.).
+
+The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population in 1905 of
+2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated province in Prussia,
+after Berlin, the Rhine Province and Westphalia. The east and north
+parts lie in the basin of the river Fulda, which near the north-eastern
+boundary joins with the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of
+the southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the western part
+of the province lies mostly in the basin of the Lahn, a tributary of the
+Rhine. The province is generally hilly, the highest hills occurring in
+the east and west. The Fulda rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an
+eminence of the Rhöngebirge, the highest in the province. In the
+south-west are the Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west
+of the Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser
+Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The congeries of
+small groups of lower hills in the north are known as the Hessische
+Bergland.
+
+The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but in forests
+it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is large. The chief
+trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-breeding is extensively
+practised. The vine is cultivated chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus,
+in the south-west, where the names of several towns are well known for
+their wines--Schierstein, Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg,
+Geisenheim, Rüdesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese
+are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those at
+Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlangenbad and Soden.
+The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel, Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort,
+Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and Hersfeld. The province is divided for
+administration into 42 circles (_Kreise_), 24 in the government of
+Cassel and 18 in that of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the
+Reichstag. Marburg is the seat of a university.
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-ROTENBURG, a German landgraviate which was broken up in 1834. In
+1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son of Maurice, landgrave of
+Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheinsfels and lower Katzenelnbogen as
+his inheritance, and some years later, on the deaths of two of his
+brothers, he added Eschwege, Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to
+his possessions. Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church,
+was a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two sons,
+William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their territories, and
+founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and Hesse-Wanfried. The latter
+family died out in 1755, when William's grandson, Constantine (d. 1778),
+reunited the lands except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by
+Hesse-Cassel in 1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At
+the peace of Lunéville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on the left
+bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in 1815 other parts
+were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor Amadeus being compensated
+by the abbey of Corvey and the Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the
+last male member of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he
+bequeathed his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and
+Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (see HOHENLOHE). When
+the landgrave died on the 12th of November 1834 the remaining parts of
+Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-Cassel according to the
+arrangement of 1627. It may be noted that Hesse-Rotenburg was never
+completely independent of Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated
+member of this family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son
+of the landgrave Constantine, who was called "citoyen Hesse," and who
+took part in the French Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, in various
+degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, or standard, hessian
+is 40 in. wide, weighs 10½ oz. per yd., and in the finished state
+contains about 12 threads and 12½ picks per in. The name is probably of
+German origin, and the fabric was originally made from flax and tow.
+Small quantities of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but
+the jute fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost
+supplanted all others.
+
+This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for packing
+all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different qualities,
+are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, ore, manure,
+sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made from one or other quality
+of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging or tarpaulin, form the most
+convenient, and at the same time the cheapest covering for any kind of
+goods which are not damaged by being crushed.
+
+Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other colour, or
+left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for paddings and
+linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags and other articles. When
+dyed in art shades the cloth forms an attractive decoration for stages
+and platforms, and generally for any temporary erection, and in many
+cases it is stencilled and then used for wall decoration.
+
+The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this fabric
+for the foundation of its products, while large quantities are used for
+the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the upholstery of
+furniture.
+
+The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are Dundee and
+Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all kinds of hand- and
+machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are made in the former city. The
+American name for hessian is burlap; this particular kind is 40 in.
+wide, and is now largely made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other
+places.
+
+
+
+
+HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (1488-1540), German Latin poet, was born at
+Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of January 1488. His family name
+is said to have been Koch; Eoban was the name of a local saint; Hessus
+indicates the land of his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on
+Sunday. In 1504 he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his
+graduation was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post
+he soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop
+of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great straits
+owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length (in 1517) he was
+appointed professor of Latin in the university. He was prominently
+associated with the distinguished men of the time (Johann Reuchlin,
+Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten, Conrad Mutianus), and took part in
+the political, religious and literary quarrels of the period, finally
+declaring in favour of Luther and the Reformation, although his
+subsequent conduct showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The
+university was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new
+university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without success)
+to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through the influence of
+Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post at Nuremberg (1526), but,
+finding a regular life distasteful, he again went back to Erfurt (1533).
+But It was not the Erfurt he had known; his old friends were dead or had
+left the place; the university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him
+the favour of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536
+as professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the 5th
+of October 1540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost Latin poet of
+his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true poet. He wrote what he
+thought was likely to pay or secure him the favour of some important
+person. He wrote local, historical and military poems, idylls, epigrams
+and occasional pieces, collected under the title of _Sylvae_. His most
+popular works were translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which
+reached forty editions) and of the _Iliad_ into hexameters. His most
+original poem was the _Heroïdes_ in imitation of Ovid, consisting of
+letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to Kunigunde, wife of
+the emperor Henry II.
+
+  His _Epistolae_ were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote
+  his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860),
+  G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss,
+  _Ulrich von Hutten_ (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg and
+  other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-century
+  illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and S.
+  Szamatolski's _Lateinische Literaturdenkmäler des XV. u. XVI.
+  Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HESTIA, in Greek mythology, the "fire-goddess," daughter of Cronus and
+Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is not mentioned in Homer,
+although the hearth is recognized as a place of refuge for suppliants;
+this seems to show that her worship was not universally acknowledged at
+the time of the Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of
+the twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the
+household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and Poseidon became
+suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a maiden for ever; whereupon
+Zeus bestowed upon her the honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To
+her the opening sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal
+the first and last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always
+kept burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred
+fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from the
+sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of the family
+union, the personification of the idea of home; and as the city union is
+only the family union on a large scale, she was regarded as the goddess
+of the state. In this character her special sanctuary was in the
+prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire round which the magistrates meet
+is ever burning, and where the sacred rites that sanctify the concord of
+city life are performed. From this fire, as the representative of the
+life of the city, intending colonists took the fire which was to be
+kindled on the hearth of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected
+with Zeus, the god of the family both in its external relation of
+hospitality and its internal unity round its own hearth; in the
+_Odyssey_ a form of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again,
+Hestia is often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and
+domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on the
+other; or, according to others, the association is local--that of the
+god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In later philosophy
+Hestia became the hearth of the universe--the personification of the
+earth as the centre of the universe, identified with Cybele and Demeter.
+As Hestia had her home in the prytaneum, special temples dedicated to
+her are of rare occurrence. She is seldom represented in works of art,
+and plays no important part in legend. It is not certain that any really
+Greek statues of Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta
+in the Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is
+represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her head, the
+left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman deity corresponding to
+the Greek Hestia is Vesta (q.v.).
+
+  See A. Preuner, _Hestia-Vesta_ (1864), the standard treatise on the
+  subject, and his article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; J. G.
+  Frazer, "The Prytaneum," &c., in _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885);
+  G. Hagemann, _De Graecorum prytaneis_ (1881), with bibliography and
+  notes; _Homeric Hymns_, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes (1904);
+  Farnell, _Cults, the Greek States_, v. (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HESYCHASTS ([Greek: hêsychastai] or [Greek: hêsychazontes], from [Greek:
+hêsychos], quiet, also called [Greek: omphalopsychoi], Umbilicanimi, and
+sometimes referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a
+quietistic sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine
+empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at Mount Athos,
+then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of
+Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. Owing to various
+adventitious circumstances the sect came into great prominence
+politically and ecclesiastically for a few years about the middle of the
+14th century. Their opinion and practice will be best represented in the
+words of one of their early teachers (quoted by Gibbon, _Decline and
+Fall_, c. 63): "When thou art alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat
+thyself in a corner; raise thy mind above all things vain and
+transitory; recline thy beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes
+and thy thought towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel
+([Greek: omphalos]); and search the place of the heart, the seat of the
+soul. At first all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere
+day and night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the
+soul discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic
+and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which is
+obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental mysticism,
+attracted the attention of the learned and versatile Barlaam, a
+Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of abbot in the
+Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople, and who had
+visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of inspection. Amid
+much that he disapproved, what he specially took exception to as
+heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine entertained as to the nature
+of this divine light, the fruition of which was the supposed reward of
+hesychastic contemplation. It was maintained to be the pure and perfect
+essence of God Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to
+the disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam held
+to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a
+visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic side the controversy
+was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards archbishop of Thessalonica,
+who laboured to establish a distinction between eternal [Greek: ousia]
+and eternal [Greek: energeia]. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod
+held at Constantinople and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the
+assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the
+pseudo-Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, who
+recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop of Hierace
+in the Latin communion. One of his friends, Gregory Acindynus, continued
+the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the
+second of which the Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351
+under the presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated
+light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for the
+Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an additional
+ground of separation from the Roman Church. The contemporary historians
+Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this
+subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. It may
+be mentioned that in the time of Justinian the word hesychast was
+applied to monks in general simply as descriptive of the quiet and
+contemplative character of their pursuits.
+
+  See article "Hesychasten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd
+  ed., 1900), where further references are given.
+
+
+
+
+HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished in the 5th
+century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the explanations of words from
+Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian writers (_glossae sacrae_) are
+interpolations of a later time. He has left a Greek dictionary,
+containing a copious list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an
+explanation of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author
+who used them or to the district of Greece where they were current.
+Hence the book is of great value to the student of the Greek dialects;
+while in the restoration of the text of the classical authors generally,
+and particularly of such writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used
+many unusual words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The
+explanations of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts
+about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory
+letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of
+Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), but
+that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, Heliodorus
+and others.
+
+  The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been
+  disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the
+  Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to us from a
+  single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the editio
+  princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt (1858-1868);
+  in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish the additions
+  made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.
+
+
+
+
+HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed
+_Illustrius_, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople in the
+5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian. According to Photius
+(cod. 69) he was the author of three important works, (1) _A Compendium
+of Universal History_ in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of
+the Assyrian empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment
+has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled [Greek: Patria
+Kônstantinoupoleôs], a history of Byzantium from its earliest beginnings
+till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) _A Biographical Dictionary_
+([Greek: Onomatologos] or [Greek: Pinax]) _of Learned Men_, arranged
+according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief sources of which
+were the [Greek: Mousikê historia] of Aelius Dionysius and the works of
+Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated in the lexicon of
+Suidas, as we learn from that author. It is disputed, however, whether
+the words in Suidas ("of which this book is an epitome") mean that
+Suidas himself epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are
+part of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas. The
+second view is more generally held. The epitome referred to, in which
+alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement in classes and some
+articles on Christian writers added as a concession to the times, is
+assigned from internal indications to the years 829-837. Both it and the
+original work are lost, with the exception of the excerpts in Photius
+and Suidas. A smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laërtius and
+Suidas, with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the
+11th or 12th century. (3) A _History_ of the Reign of Justin I.
+(518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost. Photius
+praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with being a veracious
+historian.
+
+  Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in C. W.
+  Müller, _Frag. hist. Graec._ iv. 143 and in T. Preger's _Scriptores
+  originis Constantinopolitanae_, i. (1901); _Pseudo-Hesychius_, by J.
+  Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der
+  byzantinischen Literatur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+HETAERISM (Gr. [Greek: hetaira] mistress), the term employed by
+anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man in his sexual
+relations. The earliest social organization of the human race was
+characterized by the absence of the institution of marriage in any form.
+Women were the common property of their tribe, and the children never
+knew their fathers.
+
+
+
+
+HETEROKARYOTA, a zoological name proposed by S. J. Hickson for the
+Infusoria (q.v.) on the ground of the differentiation of their nuclear
+apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus (or nuclei).
+
+  See Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903).
+
+
+
+
+HETERONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: heteros] and [Greek: nomos], the rule of
+another), the state of being under the rule of another person. In ethics
+the term is specially used as the antithesis of "autonomy," which,
+especially in Kantian terminology, treats of the true self as will,
+determining itself by its own law, the moral law. "Heteronomy" is
+therefore applied by Kant to all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they
+place the individual in subjection to external laws of conduct.
+
+
+
+
+HETMAN (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger. _Hauptmann_,
+head-man or captain; the Russian form is _ataman_), a military title
+formerly in use in Poland; the _Hetman Wielki_, or Great Hetman, was the
+chief of the armed forces of the nation, and commanded in the field,
+except when the king was present in person. The office was abolished in
+1792. From Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form
+_ataman_, and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head,
+who was practically an independent prince, when under the suzerainty of
+Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule by the Cossacks in 1654,
+the post was shorn of its power. The title of "ataman" or "hetman of all
+the Cossacks" is held by the Cesarevitch. "Ataman" or "hetman" is also
+the name of the elected elder of the _stanitsa_, the unit of Cossack
+administration. (See COSSACKS.)
+
+
+
+
+HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882), German literary historian and
+writer on the history of art, was born at Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in
+Silesia, on the 12th of March 1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle
+and Heidelberg he devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but
+in 1843 turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a
+view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy, and, on
+his return, published a _Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten_ (1848)
+and an essay on _Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen_. He became
+_Privatdozent_ for aesthetics and the history of art at Heidelberg and,
+after the publication of his suggestive volume on _Die romantische Schule
+in ihrem Zusammenhang mit Goethe und Schiller_ (1850), accepted a call as
+professor to Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and
+literature. In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of
+antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which posts
+were subsequently added that of director of the historical museum and a
+professorship at the royal _Polytechnikum_. He died in Dresden on the
+29th of May 1882. Hettner's chief work is his _Literaturgeschichte des
+18ten Jahrhunderts_, which appeared in three parts, devoted respectively
+to English, French and German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed.
+of I. and II., revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III.,
+revised by O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the
+political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, since
+Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times losing sight of
+the main issues of literary development over questions of social
+evolution, this work belongs to the best histories that the 19th century
+produced. Hettner's judgment is sound and his point of view always
+original and stimulating. His other works include _Griechische
+Reiseskizzen_ (1853), _Das moderne Drama_ (1852)--a book that arose from
+a correspondence with Gottfried Keller--_Italienische Studien_ (1879),
+and several works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His _Kleine
+Schriften_ were collected and published in 1884.
+
+  See A. Stern, _Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild_ (1885); H. Spitzer,
+  _H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfänge und Literaturästhetik_
+  (1903).
+
+
+
+
+HETTSTEDT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Wipper, and at
+the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim and Hettstedt-Halle, 23
+m. N.W. of the last town. Pop. (1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and
+four Evangelical churches, and has manufactures of machinery,
+pianofortes and artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of
+argentiferous copper, and the surrounding district and villages are
+occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric acid are
+the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found in small
+quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the first
+steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August 1785.
+Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it possessed a castle;
+and in 1380 it received civic privileges. When the countship of Mansfeld
+was sequestrated, Hettstedt came into the possession of Saxony, passing
+to Prussia in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON (1824-1876), German traveller in north-east Africa,
+was born on the 20th of March 1824 at Hirschlanden near Leonberg in
+Württemberg. His father was a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to
+be a mining engineer. He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific
+investigator of unknown regions, and with that object studied the
+natural sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where he
+learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852 he
+accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a journey to
+Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed Dr Reitz's successor in
+the consulate. While he held this post he travelled in Abyssinia and
+Kordofan, making a valuable collection of natural history specimens. In
+1857 he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the Red
+Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen leader of an
+expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions including Werner
+Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the
+party landed at Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and
+thence to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin,
+accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide detour through
+Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence the leadership of
+the expedition was taken from him. He and Steudner reached Khartum in
+1862 and there joined the party organized by Miss Tinné. With her or on
+their own account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and
+explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner died of
+fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to Europe at the end
+of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable series of explorations in
+Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but 1875 found him again in north-east
+Africa, in the country of the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was
+preparing for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at
+Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by his
+zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours that Heuglin
+has taken rank as an independent authority.
+
+  His chief works are _Systematische Übersicht der Vögel
+  Nordost-Afrikas_ (1855); _Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853_ (Gotha,
+  1857); _Syst. Übersicht der Säugetiere Nordost-Afrikas_ (Vienna,
+  1867); _Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Ländern_, &c., _1861-1862_
+  (Jena, 1868); _Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil_, &c. _1862-1864_
+  (Leipzig, 1869); _Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871_
+  (Brunswick, 1872-1874); _Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika_ (Cassel,
+  1869-1875); _Reise in Nordost-Afrika_ (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A
+  list of the more important of his numerous contributions to
+  _Petermann's Mitteilungen_ will be found in that serial for 1877 at
+  the close of the necrological notice.
+
+
+
+
+HEULANDITE, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous
+calcium and aluminium silicate, H4CaAl2(SiO3)6 + 3H20. Small amounts of
+sodium and potassium are usually present replacing part of the calcium.
+Crystals are monoclinic, and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit.
+They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (M in the
+figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces the
+lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is usually colourless or
+white, sometimes brick-red, and varies from transparent to translucent.
+The hardness is 3½-4, and the specific gravity 2.2.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (q.v.) in appearance, and differs
+from it chemically only in containing rather less water of
+crystallization. The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished
+by the fact that in heulandite the acute positive bisectrix of the optic
+axes emerges perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was first
+separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and named by him
+euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently, in 1822, H. J.
+Brooke arrived at the same result, giving the name heulandite, after the
+mineral collector, Henry Heuland.
+
+Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the amygdaloidal
+cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally in gneiss and
+metalliferous veins. The best specimens are from the basalts of
+Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, and the
+Deccan traps of the Sahyadri mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a
+brick-red colour are from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the
+Fassathal in Tirol. A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small
+yellow crystals on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.
+
+Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and barium zeolite
+brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster. The greyish monoclinic
+crystals have the composition H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(SiO3)6 + 3H2O, and are
+found in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with
+harmotome in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HEUSCH, WILLEM, or GUILLIAM DE, a Dutch landscape painter in the 17th
+century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist's birth and death are
+unknown. Nothing certain is recorded of him except that he presided over
+the gild of Utrecht, whilst Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix
+formed the council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of
+historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan Both. But
+each of these statements seems open to doubt; and although it is obvious
+that the style of Heusch is identical with that of Both, it may be that
+the two masters during their travels in Italy fell under the influence
+of Claude Lorraine, whose "Arcadian" art they imitated. Heusch certainly
+painted the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied
+by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both. There is
+little to distinguish one master from the other, except that of the two
+Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist. The gild of Utrecht in the
+middle of the 17th century was composed of artists who clung faithfully
+to each other. Poelemburg, who painted figures for Jan Both, did the
+same duty for Heusch. Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the
+battlepieces of Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in
+the galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at Vienna,
+the Städel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures are signed with the
+full name, beginning with a monogram combining a G (for Guilliam), D and
+H. Heusch's etchings, of which thirteen are known, are also in the
+character of those of Both.
+
+After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew, Jacob de
+Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an initial J for the
+initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657, learnt drawing from his
+uncle, and travelled early to Rome, where he acquired friends and
+patrons for whom he executed pictures after his return. He settled for a
+time at Berlin, but finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701.
+Jacob was an "Arcadian," like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and
+he chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now
+scarce. Two of his canvases, the "Ponte Rotto" at Rome, in the Brunswick
+Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the Lichtenstein collection
+at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour with a tower and distant mountains,
+in the Belvedere at Vienna, was executed in 1699. Other examples may be
+found in English private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg
+and the museums of Rouen and Montpellier.
+
+
+
+
+HEVELIUS [HEVEL or HÖWELCKE], JOHANN (1611-1687), German astronomer, was
+born at Danzig on the 28th of January 1611. He studied jurisprudence at
+Leiden in 1630; travelled in England and France; and in 1634 settled in
+his native town as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief
+interest became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his
+life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an
+observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental outfit,
+including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal length,
+constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th of January 1660, by
+John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and queen of Poland. Hevelius made
+observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645, devoted four years to charting the
+lunar surface, discovered the moon's libration in longitude, and
+published his results in _Selenographia_ (1647), a work which entitles
+him to be called the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four
+comets in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested the
+revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun. On the 26th
+of September 1679, his observatory, instruments and books were
+maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe being described in the
+preface to his _Annus climactericus_ (1685). He promptly repaired the
+damage, so far as to enable him to observe the great comet of December
+1680; but his health suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of
+January 1687. Among his works were: _Prodromus cometicus_ (1665);
+_Cometographia_ (1668); _Machina coelestis_ (first part, 1673),
+containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is
+extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the
+conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius on the variable
+star named by him "Mira" are included in _Annus climactericus_. His
+catalogue of 1564 stars appeared posthumously in _Prodromus astronomiae_
+(1690). Its value was much impaired by his preference of the antique
+"pinnules" to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an
+acrimonious controversy with Robert Hooke. In an _Atlas_ of 56 sheets,
+corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled _Firmamentum Sobiescianum_
+(1690), he delineated seven new constellations, still in use. Hevelius
+had his book printed in his own house, at lavish expense, and himself
+not only designed but engraved many of the plates.
+
+  See J. H. Westphal, _Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen
+  Johann Hevelius_ (1820); C. B. Lengnich, _Anekdoten und Nachrichten_
+  (1780); _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns); J. B. J.
+  Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler,
+  _Historia astronomiae_, p. 486; F. Baily's edition of the Catalogue of
+  Hevelius, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf,
+  _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit.
+  Handwörterbuch_. For an account of the epistolary remains of Hevelius,
+  see C. G. Hecker, _Monatl. Correspondenz_, viii. 30; also _Astr.
+  Nachrichten_, vols. xxiii., xxiv.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER, Bart. (1812-1891), British surgeon, was
+born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son of a Yorkshire country
+gentleman. He lived for some years in early life in Paris, and started
+on a career as an artist, but abandoned it for surgery. He entered St
+George's Hospital, London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett,
+was physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy and
+curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate friend of Sir B. C.
+Brodie, and helped him in much of his work. Eventually he rose to be
+anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon and surgeon to the hospital. In
+1876 he was president of the College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made
+serjeant-surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884
+serjeant-surgeon, and in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very
+good lecturer, but shrank from authorship; his lectures on _Surgical
+Affections of the Head_ were, however, embodied in his treatise on the
+subject in Holmes's _System of Surgery_. As a surgeon he was always
+extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however severe,
+when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect operator, and one of
+the most trustworthy of counsellors. He died on the 19th of June 1891.
+
+
+
+
+HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS (1822-1903), American manufacturer and political
+leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York, on the 31st of July 1822. His
+father, John, a Staffordshire man, was one of a party of four mechanics
+who were sent by Boulton and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a
+steam engine for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at
+Belleville, N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America;
+he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it by the
+burning of his factories. The boy's mother was of Huguenot descent. He
+graduated with high rank from Columbia College in 1842, having supported
+himself through his course. He taught mathematics at Columbia, and in
+1845 was admitted to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never
+practised. With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt greatly
+assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter he married) he
+went into the manufacture of iron girders and beams under the firm name
+of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study of the making of gun-barrel iron in
+England enabled him to be of great assistance to the United States
+government during the Civil War, when he refused any profit on such
+orders. The men in his works never struck--indeed in 1873-1878 his plant
+was run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat. In
+1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany after the fall
+of the "Tweed Ring"; from 1875 until the end of 1886 (except in
+1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress; in 1876 he left Tammany
+for the County Democracy; in the Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he
+was chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and in Congress he
+was one of the House members of the joint committee which drew up the
+famous Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission. In
+1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination having been
+forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength of the other nominees,
+Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt; his administration (1887-1888) was
+thoroughly efficient and creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not
+renominated, ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In
+1896 and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself
+with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of January
+1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of sound money and civil
+service reform; in municipal politics he was in favour of business
+administrations and opposed to partisan nominations. He was a leader of
+those who contended for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous
+for his public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only
+in New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous speech was
+that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883. He was a terse,
+able and lucid speaker, master of wit and sarcasm, and a fearless
+critic. He gave liberally to Cooper Union, of which he was trustee and
+secretary, and which owes much of its success to him; was a trustee of
+Columbia University from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of
+trustees of Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first
+chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive
+committee of the Carnegie Institution.
+
+
+
+
+HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY (1861-   ), English novelist, was born on the 22nd
+of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall,
+Addington, Kent. He was educated at the London International College,
+Spring Grove, Isleworth, and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to
+1900 he was keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He
+published in 1895 two books on Italy, _Earthwork out of Tuscany_, and
+(in verse) _The Masque of Dead Florentines_. _Songs and Meditations_
+followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate reputation by his
+_Forest Lovers_, a romance of medieval England, full of rapid movement
+and passion. In the same year he printed the pastoral and pagan drama of
+_Pan and the Young Shepherd_, shortened for purposes of representation
+and produced at the Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by
+the _Youngest of the Angels_, dramatized from a chapter in his _Fool
+Errant_. In _Little Novels of Italy_ (1899), a collection of brilliant
+short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression together
+with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and vivid portraits of
+Richard Coeur de Lion in his _Richard Yea-and-Nay_ (1900), and of Mary,
+queen of Scots, in _The Queen's Quair_ (1904) showed the combination of
+fiction with real history at its best. _The New Canterbury Tales_ (1901)
+was another volume of stories of English life, but he returned to
+Italian subjects with _The Road in Tuscany_ (1904); in _Fond Adventures,
+Tales of the Youth of the World_ (1905), two are Italian tales, and _The
+Fool Errant_ (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis Antony
+Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel _The Stooping
+Lady_ (1907), and a volume of poems, _Artemision_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HEXAMETER, the name of the earliest and most important form of classical
+verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due to each line containing six
+feet or measures ([Greek: metra]), the last of which must be a spondee
+and the penultimate a dactyl, though occasionally, for some special
+effect, a spondee may be allowed in the fifth foot, when the line is
+said to be spondaic. The four other feet may be either spondees or
+dactyls. All the great heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman
+poets is in this metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in
+Homer and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential to
+this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the ear. The
+most usual places for the caesura are at the middle of the third, or the
+middle of the fourth foot: the former is known as the penthemimeral and
+the latter as hepthemimeral caesura. There are several more or less
+successful examples of English poems in this metre, for example
+Longfellow's _Evangeline_, Kingsley's _Andromeda_ and Clough's _Bothie
+of Tober-na-Vuoilich_, but it does not really suit the genius of the
+English language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely felt,
+even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek and Latin, on
+the distinction between long and short syllables, but on that between
+accented and unaccented syllables. The accent must always (or it sounds
+very ugly) fall on the first syllable, whatever may have been the case
+in Greek and Latin--Voss, Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter
+poems of varying merit and the metre suits the German language
+distinctly better than the English. The customary form of hexameter in
+English verse is exemplified by Coleridge's descriptive line:--
+
+  "In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column."
+
+Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning, and Lord Bowen
+(1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated hexameter consisting of
+the usual verse deprived of its last syllable. Thus Browning:--
+
+  "Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared."
+
+It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek poets
+introduced considerable variations into their treatment of the
+hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in G. Hermann's _De
+aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum_. The differences in the hexameters of
+the Latin poets were not so remarkable, but even these varied, in
+various epochs, their treatment of the separate feet, and the position
+of the caesura. The satirists in particular allowed themselves an
+extraordinary licence: these hexameters, from Persius, are as far
+removed from the rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if
+they are to remain hexameters:--
+
+  "Mane piger stertis. 'Surge!' inquit Avaritia, 'heia
+   Surge!' negas; instat 'Surge!' inquit 'Non queo.' 'Surge!'
+  'Et quid agam?' 'Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.'"
+
+It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally
+to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed and
+repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived in later ages,
+by writers who slavishly copied the most antique examples of the art of
+verse.
+
+  See Wilhelm Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und Römer_, 2te Aufl. (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HEXAPLA (Gr. for "sixfold"), the term for an edition of the Bible in six
+versions, and especially the edition of the Old Testament compiled by
+Origen, which placed side by side (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek
+character, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion.
+See BIBLE: _Old Testament, Texts and Versions_.
+
+
+
+
+HEXAPODA (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: pous], foot), a term used
+in systematic zoology for that class of the ARTHROPODA, popularly known
+as insects. Linnaeus in his _Systema naturae_ (1735) grouped under the
+class Insecta all segmented animals with firm exoskeleton and jointed
+limbs--that is to say, the insects, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans,
+spiders, scorpions and their allies. This assemblage is now generally
+regarded as a great division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal
+kingdom and known by K. T. E. von Siebold's (1848) name of Arthropoda.
+For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus's
+old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J. Brisson
+(1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others prefer the
+name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its modern sense by P. A.
+Latreille in 1825 (_Familles naturelles du règne animal_), since it has
+the advantage of expressing, in a single word, an important
+characteristic of the group. The terms "Hexapoda" and "hexapod" had
+already been used by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th
+century to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice,
+fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.
+
+
+_Characters._
+
+A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be known by the
+grouping of its body-segments in three distinct regions--a head, a
+thorax and an abdomen--each of which consists of a definite number of
+segments. In the terminology proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement
+is "nomomeristic" and "nomotagmic." The head of an insect carries
+usually four pairs of conspicuous appendages--feelers, mandibles and two
+pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive somites is
+immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects resemble so closely
+the similar organs in Crustaceans that there can hardly be reasonable
+doubt of their homology, and the primitively appendicular nature of the
+eyes in the latter class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they
+represent the appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind
+the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an "intercalary" or
+tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M. Wheeler (1893) and
+others in various insect embryos, while in the lowest insect order--the
+Aptera--a pair of minute jaws--the maxillulae--in close association with
+the tongue are present, as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J.
+W. Folsom (1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the
+earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Börner (1904),
+and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The number of
+limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus seen to be seven. All
+of these are to be regarded as primitively post-oral, but in the course
+of development the mouth moves back to the mandibular segment, so that
+the first three somites--ocular, antennal and intercalary--lie in front
+of it. In Lankester's terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is
+"triprosthomerous." The maxillae of the hinder pair become more or less
+fused together to form a "lower lip" or labium, and the segment of these
+appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly united with the
+head-capsule.
+
+The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair of jointed
+legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost bear each a
+pair of wings. From these three pairs of thoracic legs comes the
+name--Hexapoda--which distinguishes the class. And the wings, though not
+always present, are highly characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no
+other group of the Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the
+more generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments,
+the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers, (cerci or
+cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases, however, it can
+be shown that the cerci really belong to an eleventh abdominal segment
+which usually becomes fused with the tenth. With very few exceptions the
+abdomen is without locomotor limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and
+ninth abdominal segments may be specialized as external organs of
+reproduction, but these are probably not appendages. The female genital
+opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the male
+duct opens on the ninth.
+
+In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda agree with
+other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the class, however, is the
+presence of a complex system of air-tubes (tracheae) for respiration,
+usually opening to the exterior by a series of paired spiracles on
+certain of the body segments. The possession of a variable number of
+excretory tubes (Malpighian tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of
+the hind-gut and pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a
+distinctive character of the Hexapoda.
+
+The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching, the
+younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in other
+respects. In such cases the development of wings and the attainment of
+the adult form depend upon a more or less profound transformation or
+metamorphosis.
+
+With this brief summary of the essential characters of the Hexapoda, we
+may pass to a more detailed account of their structure.
+
+
+  EXOSKELETON
+
+  The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or "hypodermis") of insects as of
+  other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be
+  periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal. The
+  regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement, and the
+  definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are in close
+  contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united by
+  regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membranous,
+  so as to permit freedom of movement.
+
+  _Head._--The head-capsule of an insect (figs. 1, 2) is composed of a
+  number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive
+  segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (_vertex_ or _epicranium_),
+  on which or on the "front" may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli).
+  Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a
+  very distinct upper lip (_labrum_) is usually jointed. Behind the
+  labrum arises a process--the _epipharynx_--which in some blood-sucking
+  insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a variable
+  amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye; in many insects
+  of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are very large and
+  sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the head. Below
+  each eye is a cheek area (_gena_), often divided into an anterior and
+  a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (_gula_) is often
+  developed behind the mouth.
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 1.--Head and Jaws of Cockroach (_Blatta_). Magnified 10 times. A,
+  Front; B, side; C, back; v, vertex; f, frons; cl, clypeus; lbr,
+  labrum; oc, compound eye; ge, gena; mn, mandible; ca, st, pa, ga, la,
+  cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; sm, m, pa´, pg,
+  sub-mentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.]
+
+  _Feelers._--Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are the
+  feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers
+  (antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are long
+  and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory and tactile
+  nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers, often a
+  secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from a distal
+  broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes serrate, or
+  from the development of processes bearing sensory organs, so that the
+  structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other hand, the number of
+  segments may be reduced, certain of them often becoming highly
+  modified in form.
+
+  [Illustration: After Marlatt, _Entom. Bull._ 14, n. s. (U.S. Dept.
+  Agric.).
+
+  FIG. 2.--Head of Cicad, front view. Ia, frons; b, clypeus (the pointed
+  labrum beneath it); II, mandible; III, first maxilla; (a, base; b,
+  sheath; c, piercer), III', inner view of sheath; IV, second maxillae
+  forming rostrum (b, mentum; c, ligula).]
+
+  _Jaws._--The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws with
+  one or more teeth at the apex (fig. 1, A, B, mn), articulating at
+  their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles, and
+  provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which they can
+  be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or seize
+  objects which have to be carried about. They never bear segmented
+  limbs (palps) and only exceptionally (as in the chafers) is the
+  skeleton composed of more than one sclerite. The mandibles often
+  furnish a good example of "secondary sexual characters," being more
+  strongly developed in the male than in the female of the same species.
+  In most insects that feed by suction the mandibles are modified. In
+  bugs (Heteroptera) and many flies, for example, they are changed into
+  needle-like piercers (fig. 2, II), while in moths and caddis-flies
+  they are reduced to mere vestiges or altogether suppressed.
+
+  As previously mentioned, a pair of minute jaws--the _maxillulae_--are
+  present in the lowest order of insects, between the mandibles and the
+  first maxillae. They usually consist of an inner and an outer lobe
+  arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a small
+  palp (see APTERA).
+
+  In their typical state of development, the _first maxillae_ offer a
+  striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented
+  basal piece (_cardo_ and _stipes_, fig. 1, C, ca, st) bearing a
+  distinct inner and outer lobe (_lacinia_ and _galea_, fig. 1, C, la,
+  ga) and externally a jointed limb or palp (fig. 1, C, pa). Such
+  maxillae are found in most biting insects. In insects whose mouths are
+  adapted for sucking and piercing, remarkable modifications may occur.
+  In many blood-sucking flies, for example, the galea is absent, while
+  the lacinia becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well
+  developed. In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a slender needle-like
+  piercer (fig. 2, III), while the palp is wanting. In butterflies and
+  moths the lacinia is absent while the galea becomes a flexible
+  process, grooved on its inner face, so as to make with its fellow a
+  hollow sucking-trunk, and the palp is usually very small.
+
+  The _second pair of maxillae_ are more or less completely fused
+  together to form what is known as the _labium_ or "lower lip." In
+  generalized biting insects, such as cockroaches and locusts
+  (Orthoptera), the parts of a typical maxilla can be easily recognized
+  in the labium. The fused cardines form a broad basal plate
+  (_sub-mentum_) and the stipites a smaller plate (_mentum_)--see fig.
+  1, C, sm, m--jointed on to the sub-mentum, while the galeae, laciniae
+  and palps remain distinct. In specialized biting insects, such as
+  beetles (Coleoptera), the labium tends to become a hard transverse
+  plate bearing the pair of palps, a median structure--known as the
+  _ligula_--formed of the conjoined laciniae, and a pair of small
+  rounded processes--the reduced galeae--often called the "paraglossae,"
+  a term better avoided since it has been applied also to the maxillulae
+  of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long sucking "tongue" of
+  bees is probably a modification of the ligula. In bugs and aphids
+  (Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form a jointed grooved beak or
+  rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender piercers (mandibles and
+  first maxillae) work to and fro.
+
+  This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder or lower
+  boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth is bounded by the
+  labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae lie on either side of
+  it. A median process, known as the _hypopharynx_ or tongue, arises
+  from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium, and becomes most
+  variously developed or specialized in different insects. The salivary
+  duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not appear to represent a
+  pair of appendages, but the maxillulae of the Aptera become closely
+  associated with it. According to the view of R. Heymons, the
+  hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the jaw-bearing somites, but
+  other students consider that it belongs to the mandibular and first
+  maxillary segments, or entirely to the segment of the first maxillae.
+
+  _Neck._--The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct
+  membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with
+  small chitinous plates (_cervical sclerites_). These have been
+  interpreted as indicating one or more primitive segments between the
+  head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H. Huxley
+  (_Anat. Invert. Animals_, 1877), they really belong to the labial
+  segment which has not become completely fused with the head-capsule.
+  It has been shown by C. Janet (1889), from careful studies of the
+  musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built up of
+  the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has the
+  mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main
+  supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock
+  and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904).
+
+  _Thorax._--The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-trunk
+  are known as the _prothorax_, _mesothorax_ and _metathorax_ (see fig.
+  3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single sclerite,
+  the _pronotum_ (fig. 3, d), which is large and conspicuous in those
+  insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles, which
+  have the prothorax free--i.e. readily movable on the segment
+  (mesothorax) immediately behind--smaller and of less importance where
+  the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies. The
+  dorsal area of the mesothorax, and also of the metathorax, may be made
+  up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the
+  other--_prescutum_, _scutum_, _scutellum_ and _post-scutellum_ (fig.
+  3, e, f, g, h), the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially
+  conspicuous. Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a _sternum_
+  with which a median _pre-sternum_ and paired _episterna_ and _epimera_
+  are often associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W.
+  Verhoeff (1904) that the hexapodan thorax in reality contains six
+  primitive segments is entirely without embryological support.
+
+  _Legs._--Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In most
+  insects the leg is built up of nine segments: (1) a broad triangular,
+  sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (_coxa_); (2) a small
+  _trochanter_; (3) an elongate stout thigh (_femur_); (4) a more
+  slender shin (_tibia_); and (5-9) a foot consisting of five _tarsal
+  segments_. The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive
+  pad--the _pulvillus_--on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus
+  is probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the
+  leg, while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles
+  are usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of
+  them so delicate as to be termed "hairs," others so stout and hard
+  that they are named "spines" or "spurs." In the relative development
+  and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless
+  variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and the
+  special function--walking, running, climbing, digging or swimming--for
+  which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects has been carefully
+  studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890), who find that the
+  legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first and third legs
+  of one side moving with the second leg of the other. One tripod thus
+  affords a firm base of support while the legs of the other tripod are
+  brought forward to their new positions.
+
+  [Illustration: After Marlat, _Ent. Bull._ 3, n.s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+  FIG. 3.--Thorax of Saw-Fly (_Pachynematus_).
+
+      I, Dorsal view.
+     II, Ventral view.
+    III, Lateral view.
+     IV, Lateral view with segments separated. _Prothorax_:
+      a, Episternum.
+      b, Sternum.
+      c, Coxa of fore-leg.
+      d, Pronotum. _Mesothorax_:
+      e, Prescutum.
+      f, Scutum.
+      g, Scutellum.
+      h, Post-scutellum.
+      i, Mesophragma.
+      j, _Epimeron_.
+      k, _Episternum_.
+      l, Coxa of middle leg. _Metathorax_:
+      m, Scutum.
+      o, Epimeron.
+      p, Coxa of hind leg.
+      n, _First Abdominal Segment_.
+      t, Tegula at base of fore-wing.]
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach
+
+  (_Blatta_).
+
+    I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the ventral
+       cervical sclerites (c).
+      cx, Coxa.              tr, Trochanter.
+      fe, Thigh.             tb, Shin.
+      ta, Tarsal segments.
+    II, Middle leg and mesosternum.
+    III, Hind-leg and metasternum.
+    In IIIA, the episternum (a) and epimeron (b) are slightly separated.]
+
+  _Wings._--Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of
+  insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax. At the
+  base of the wing, i.e. its attachment to the trunk, we find a highly
+  complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied movements
+  necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata) have been
+  described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long axis of the
+  wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this position
+  the outer margin of the wing is the _costa_, the inner the _dorsum_,
+  and the hind-margin the _termen_. The angle between the costa and
+  termen is the _apex_. When the wing is spread, its long axis is more
+  or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth from
+  the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment that bears it,
+  and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a double layer of
+  cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact except where they
+  are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular nervures, which
+  serve as a supporting framework for the wing membrane, enclose
+  air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures consist of a series of
+  trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually branching as they
+  approach the wing-margins, the branches being often connected by short
+  transverse nervures, so that the wing-area is marked off into a number
+  of "cells" or areolets.
+
+  [Illustration: After Quail, _Natural Science_, vol. xiii., J. M. Dent
+  & Co.
+
+  FIG. 5.--Wing-Neuration in a Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3, radial; 4,
+  median; 5, cubital; 6, 7, 8, anal nervures.]
+
+  The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders,
+  but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899) shown
+  that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal or
+  radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see fig. 5).
+  Along the costa runs a costal nervure. This is followed by a
+  sub-costal which sometimes shows two main branches. Then comes the
+  radial--usually the most important nervure of the wing--typically with
+  five branches, and the median with four. These sets arise from a main
+  trunk towards the front region of the wing-base. From another hinder
+  trunk arise the two-branched cubital nervure and three separate anal
+  nervures. In the hind-wing of many insects the number of radial
+  branches becomes reduced, while the anal area is especially well
+  developed and undergoes a fan-like folding when the wings are closed.
+  Great diversity exists in the texture and functions of fore and
+  hind-wings in different insects; these differences are discussed in
+  the descriptions of the various orders. The wings often afford
+  secondary sexual characters, being not infrequently absent or reduced
+  in the female when well developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the
+  male is the wingless sex.
+
+  In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the
+  thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on
+  the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and
+  other insects there are small plates (tegulae)--see Fig. 3, t--on the
+  mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.
+
+  _Abdomen._--In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure is
+  very clearly marked, a series of sclerites--dorsal terga and abdominal
+  sterna--being connected by pale, feebly chitinized cuticle, so that
+  considerable freedom of movement between the segments is possible. The
+  first and second abdominal sterna are often suppressed or reduced, on
+  account of the strong development of the hind-legs. In many insects
+  ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal segments can be clearly
+  distinguished in addition to a small terminal anal segment. The female
+  genital opening usually lies between the seventh and eighth segments,
+  the male on the ninth. Prominent paired limbs are often borne on the
+  tenth segment, the elongate tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and
+  may-flies, or the forceps of earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a
+  family of Isoptera, it has been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that
+  these cerci clearly belong to a partially suppressed eleventh segment,
+  and R. Heymons (1895-1896) has proved by embryological study that in
+  all cases they really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the
+  course of development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages
+  (such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth
+  segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments
+  often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see
+  fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification
+  of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects, the
+  sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those of
+  the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments may
+  be altogether suppressed.
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 6.--Outline of Male ([Male sign]) and Female ([Female sign])
+  Cockroaches (_Blatta_) from the side, showing Abdominal Segments
+  (numbered 1-10).]
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny (after Newton), _The Cockroach_,
+  Lovell Reeve & Co.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Brain of Cockroach from side. oe, Gullet; op, optic nerve;
+  sb, sub-oesophageal ganglion; mn, mx, mx', nerves to jaws; t,
+  tentorium.]
+
+
+  INTERNAL ORGANS
+
+  _Nervous System._--The nervous system in the Hexapoda is built up on
+  the typical arthropodan plan of a double ventral nerve-cord with a
+  pair of ganglia in each segment, the cords passing on either side of
+  the gullet and connecting with an anterior nerve-centre or brain (fig.
+  7) in the head. The brain innervates the eyes and feelers, and must be
+  regarded as a "syncerebrum" representing the ganglia of the three
+  foremost limb-bearing somites united with the primitive cephalic
+  lobes. Behind the gullet lies the sub-oesophageal nerve-centre (fig.
+  7, sb), composed of the ganglia of the four hinder head-somites and
+  sending nerves to the jaws. A pair of ganglia in each thoracic segment
+  is usual (fig. 8), and as many as eight distinct pairs of abdominal
+  ganglia may often be distinguished, the hindmost of which represents
+  the fused ganglia of the last four segments. But in many highly
+  organized insects a remarkable concentration of the trunk-ganglia
+  takes place, all the nerve-centres of the thorax and abdomen in the
+  chafers and in the Hemiptera, for instance, being represented by a
+  single mass situated in the thorax. The legs, wings and other organs
+  of the trunk receive their nerves from the thoracic and abdominal
+  ganglia, and the fusion of several pairs of these ganglia may be
+  regarded as corresponding to a centralization of individuality. A
+  special "sympathetic" system arises by paired nerves from the
+  oesophageal connectives; these nerves unite, and send back a median
+  recurrent nerve associated with ganglia on the gullet and crop, whence
+  proceed cords to various parts of the digestive system.
+
+  In connexion with the central nervous system there are usually
+  numerous organs of special sense. Most insects possess a pair of
+  compound eyes, and many have, in addition, three simple eyes or ocelli
+  on the vertex. The nature of these organs is described in the article
+  ARTHROPODA. The surface of a compound eye is seen to be covered with a
+  large number of hexagonal corneal facets, each of which overlies an
+  ommatidium or series of cell elements (fig. 9, A, B). There are over
+  25,000 ommatidia in the eye of a hawk moth.
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 8.--Ventral Muscles and Nerve Cord of Cockroach.]
+
+  Auditory organs of a simple type are present in most insects. These
+  consist of fine rods suspended between two points of the cuticle, and
+  connected with nerve-fibres; they are known as chordotonal organs. In
+  many cases a more complex ear is developed, which may be situated in
+  strangely diverse regions of the insect's body. In locusts
+  (_Acridiidae_) a large ovate, tympanic membrane (fig. 9, G) is
+  conspicuous on either side of the first abdominal segment; on the
+  inner surface of this membrane are two horn-like processes in contact
+  with a delicate sac containing fluid, connected with which are the
+  actual nerve-endings. In the nearly-related crickets and long-horned
+  grasshoppers (_Locustidae_) the ears are situated in the shins of the
+  fore-legs (see fig. 9, F). Just below the knee-joint there is a
+  swelling, along which two narrow slits run lengthwise. They lead into
+  chambers, formed by inpushing of the cuticle, whose delicate inner
+  walls are in contact with air-tubes; on the outer surface of these
+  latter are ridges, along which the special nerve-endings are arranged.
+  An ear of another type is found in the swollen second segment of the
+  feeler in many male gnats and midges, the cuticle between this segment
+  and the third forming an annular drum which is connected with numerous
+  nerve-endings, while the fine bristles on the more distal segments
+  vibrate in response to the note produced by the humming of the female.
+
+  [Illustration: From Ridley, _Insect Life_, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+  FIG. 9.--Single Ommatidium of Cockroach's Eye (after Grenacher). B,
+  Section through compound eye (after Miall and Denny); C, organs of
+  smell in cockchafer (after Kraepelin); D, a, b, sensory pits on
+  cercopods of golden-eye fly; c, sensory pit on palp of stone-fly
+  (after Packard); E, sensory hair (after Miall and Denny); F, ear of
+  long-horned grasshopper; a, Front shin showing outer opening and
+  air-tube; b, section (after Graber); G, ear of locust from within
+  (after Graber). All highly magnified.]
+
+  Many of the numerous hairs (fig. 9, E) that cover the body of an
+  insect have a tactile function. The sense of smell resides chiefly in
+  the feelers, on whose segments occur tiny pits, often guarded by
+  peg-like or tooth-like structures and containing rod-like cells (fig.
+  9, C) in connexion with large nerve-cells. It is said that 13,000 such
+  olfactory organs are present on the feeler of a wasp, and 40,000 on
+  the complex antennae of a male cockchafer. Organs of similar type on
+  the maxillae and epipharynx appear to exercise the function of taste.
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 10.--Dorsal Muscles, Heart and Pericardial Tendons of Cockroach.]
+
+  _Muscular System._--The muscles in the Hexapoda are striated, as in
+  Arthropods generally, the large fibres being associated in bundles
+  which are attached from point to point of the cuticle, so as to move
+  adjacent sclerites with respect to one another (see figs. 8, 10). For
+  example, the contraction of the tergo-sternal muscles, connecting the
+  dorsal with the ventral sclerites of the abdomen, lessens the capacity
+  of the abdominal region, while the contraction of the powerful muscles
+  arising from the thoracic walls, and inserted into the proximal ends
+  of the thighs, flexes or extends the legs.
+
+  _Circulatory System._--Insects afford an excellent illustration of the
+  remarkable type of blood-system characterizing the Arthropoda. The
+  dorsal vessel is an elongate tube, whose abdominal portion is usually
+  chambered, forming a contractile heart (fig. 10). At the constrictions
+  between the chambers are paired slits, through which the blood passes
+  from the surrounding pericardial sinus. The dorsal vessel is prolonged
+  anteriorly into an aorta, through which the blood is propelled into
+  the great body-cavity or haemocoel. After bathing the various tissues
+  and organs, the blood returns dorsalwards into the pericardial sinus
+  through fine perforations of its floor, and so makes its way into the
+  heart again. Some water-bugs, e.g. of the families _Belostomatidae_,
+  _Nepidae_, _Corixidae_ and _Hydrometridae_ have a pulsating sac at
+  each knee-joint to assist the flow of blood through the legs, while in
+  dragon-flies and locusts (_Acridiidae_) there is a ventral pulsating
+  diaphragm, which forms the roof of a sinus enclosing the nerve-cords.
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 11.--Ventral Portion of Air-Tubes in Cockroach.]
+
+  _Respiratory System._--As mentioned above, respiration by means of
+  air-tubes (tracheae) is a most characteristic feature of the Hexapoda.
+  An air-tube consists of an epithelium of large polygonal cells with a
+  thin basement-membrane externally and a chitinous layer internally,
+  the last-named being continuous with the outer cuticle. The chitinous
+  layer is usually strengthened by thread-like thickenings which, in the
+  region close to the outer opening of the tube, form a network
+  enclosing polygonal areas, but which, through most of the tracheal
+  system, are arranged spirally, the strengthening thread not forming a
+  continuous spiral, but being interrupted after a few turns around the
+  tube. The tracheal system in Hexapods is very complex, forming a
+  series of longitudinal trunks with transverse anastomosing connexions
+  (fig. 11), and extending by the finest sub-division and by repeated
+  branching into all parts of the body. In insects of active flight the
+  tubes swell out into numerous air-sacs, by which the breathing
+  capacity is much increased.
+
+  Atmospheric air gains access to the air-tubes through paired
+  _spiracles_ or _stigmata_, which usually occur laterally on most of
+  the body-segments. These spiracles have firm chitinous edges, and can
+  be closed by valves moved by special muscles. When the spiracles are
+  open and the body contracts, air is expired. The subsequent expansion
+  of the body causes fresh air to enter the tracheal system, and if the
+  spiracles be then closed and the body again contracted, this air is
+  driven to the finest branches of the air-tubes, where a direct
+  oxygenation of the tissues takes place. The physiology of respiration
+  has been carefully studied by F. Plateau (1884). In aquatic insects
+  various devices for obtaining or entangling air are found; these
+  modifications are described in the special articles on the various
+  orders of insects (COLEOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, &c.). Many insects have
+  aquatic larvae, some of which take in atmospheric air at intervals,
+  while others breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills. These
+  modifications are mentioned below in the section on metamorphosis.
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 12.--Food Canal of Cockroach.
+
+    s,   Salivary glands and reservoir.
+    c,   Crop (the gizzard below it).
+    coe, Caecal tubes (below them the stomach).
+    k,   Kidney tubes.
+    i,   Intestine.
+    r,   Rectum.]
+
+  _Digestive System._--A striking feature in the food-canal of the
+  Hexapoda, as in other Arthropods, is the great extent of the
+  "fore-gut" and "hind-gut," lined with a chitinous cuticle, continuous
+  with the exoskeleton. The fore-gut is composed of a tubular gullet, a
+  large sac-like crop (fig. 12, c) and a proventriculus or "gizzard,"
+  whose function is to strain the food-substances before they pass on
+  into the tubular stomach, which has no chitinous lining. This organ,
+  usually regarded as a "mid-gut," gives off a number of secretory
+  caecal tubes (fig. 12, coe). At its hinder end it is continuous with
+  the hind-gut, which is usually differentiated into a tubular coiled
+  intestine (fig. 12, i) and a swollen rectum (fig. 12, r). From the
+  fore-end of the hind-gut arise the slender Malpighian tubes (fig. 12,
+  k), which have a renal function.
+
+  On either side of the gullet are from one to ten pairs of salivary
+  glands (fig. 12, s) whose ducts open into the mouth. Some of these
+  glands may be modified for special purposes--as silk-producing glands
+  in caterpillars or as poison-glands in blood-sucking flies and bugs.
+  The food passing into the crop is there acted on by the saliva and
+  also by an acid gastric juice which passes forwards from the stomach
+  through the proventriculus. As the various portions of the food
+  undergo digestion, they are allowed to pass through the proventriculus
+  into the stomach, where the nutrient substances are absorbed.
+
+  _Excretory System._--Nitrogenous waste-matter is removed from the body
+  by the Malpighian tubes which open into the food-canal, usually where
+  the hind-gut joins the stomach. These tubes vary in number from four
+  to over a hundred in different orders of insects. The cells which line
+  them and also the cavities of the tubes contain urates, which are
+  excreted from the blood in the surrounding body-cavity. This cavity
+  contains an irregular mass of whitish tissue, the fat-body, consisting
+  of fat-cells which undergo degradation and become more or less filled
+  with urates. When the worn-out cells are broken down, the urates are
+  carried dissolved in the blood to the Malpighian tubes for excretion.
+  The fat-body is therefore the seat of important metabolic processes in
+  the hexapod body.
+
+  _Reproductive System._--All the Hexapoda are of separate sexes. The
+  ovaries (fig. 13) in the female are paired, each ovary consisting of a
+  variable number of tubes (one in the bristle-tail _Campodea_ and
+  fifteen hundred in a queen termite) in which the eggs are developed.
+  From each ovary an oviduct (fig. 13, od) leads, and in some of the
+  more primitive insects (bristle-tails, earwigs, may-flies) the two
+  oviducts open separately direct to the exterior. Usually they open
+  into a median vagina, formed by an ectodermal inpushing and lined with
+  chitin. The vagina usually opens in front of the eighth abdominal
+  sternite. Behind it is situated a spermatheca (fig. 14, sp) and the
+  ovipositor previously mentioned, with its three pairs of processes
+  (Fig. 14, G, g).
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 13.--Ovaries of Cockroach, with Oviducts Od and Colleterial
+  Glands CG.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 14.--Hinder Abdominal Segment and Ovipositor of Female Cockroach.
+  Magnified.
+
+    T^8 &c. Tergites.
+    S^7, 7th Sternite.
+    S^8, Sclerite between 7th and 8th sterna.
+    S^9, 8th Sclerite.
+    Od, Vagina.
+    sp, Spermatheca.
+    G, Anterior, and g, posterior gonapophyses.]
+
+  The paired testes of the male consist of a variable number of seminal
+  tubes, those of each testis opening into a _vas deferens_. In some
+  bristle-tails and may-flies, the two _vasa deferentia_ open
+  separately, but usually they lead into a sperm-reservoir, whence
+  issues a median ejaculatory duet. The male opening is on the ninth
+  abdominal segment, to which belong the processes that form the
+  claspers or genital armature. Accessory glands are commonly present in
+  connexion both with the male and the female reproductive organs. The
+  poison-glands of the sting in wasps and bees are well-known examples
+  of these.
+
+
+  EMBRYOLOGY
+
+  _The Egg._--Among the Hexapoda, as in Arthropods generally, the egg is
+  large, containing an accumulation of yolk for the nourishment of the
+  growing embryo. Most insect eggs are of an elongate oval shape; some
+  are globular, others flattened, while others again are flask-shaped,
+  and the outer envelope (_chorion_) is often beautifully sculptured
+  (figs. 20, d; 21, a, b). Various devices are adopted for the
+  protection of the eggs from mechanical injury or from the attacks of
+  enemies, and for fixing them in appropriate situations. For example,
+  the egg may be raised above the surface on which it is laid by an
+  elongate stalk; the eggs may be protected by a secretion, which in
+  some cases forms a hard protective capsule or "purse"; or they may be
+  covered with shed hairs of the mother, while among water-insects a
+  gelatinous envelope, often of rope-like form, is common. In various
+  groups of the Hexapoda--aphids and some flesh-flies (_Sarcophaga_),
+  for example--the egg undergoes development within the body of the
+  mother, and the young insect is born in an active state; such insects
+  are said to be "viviparous."
+
+  _Parthenogenesis._--A number of cases are known among the Hexapoda of
+  the development of young from the eggs of virgin females. In insects
+  so widely separated as bristle-tails and moths this occurs
+  occasionally. In certain gall-flies (_Cynipidae_) no males are known
+  to exist at all, and the species seems to be preserved entirely by
+  successive parthenogenetic generations. In other gall-flies and in
+  aphids we find that a sexual generation alternates with one or with
+  many virgin generations. The offspring of the virgin females are in
+  most of these instances females; but among the bees and wasps
+  parthenogenesis occurs normally and always results in the development
+  of males, the "queen" insect laying either a fertilized or
+  unfertilized egg at will.
+
+  _Maturation, Fertilization and Segmentation._--Polar bodies were first
+  observed in the eggs of Hexapoda by F. Blochmann in 1887. The two
+  nuclei are successively divided from the egg nucleus in the usual way,
+  but they frequently become absorbed in the peripheral protoplasm
+  instead of being extruded from the egg-cell altogether. It appears
+  that in parthenogenetic eggs two polar nuclei are formed. According to
+  A. Petrunkevich (1901-1903), the second polar nucleus uniting with one
+  daughter-nucleus of the first polar body gives rise to the germ-cells
+  of the parthenogenetically-produced male. There is no reunion of the
+  second polar nucleus with the female pronucleus, but, according to the
+  recent work of L. Doncaster (1906-1907) on the eggs of sawflies, the
+  number of chromosomes is not reduced in parthenogenetic egg-nuclei,
+  while, in eggs capable of fertilization, the usual reduction-divisions
+  occur. Fertilization takes place as the egg is laid, the spermatozoa
+  being ejected from the spermatheca of the female and making their way
+  to the protoplasm of the egg through openings (micropyles) in its firm
+  envelope. The segmentation of the fertilized nucleus results in the
+  formation of a number of nuclei which arrange themselves around the
+  periphery of the egg and, the protoplasm surrounding them becoming
+  constricted, a blastoderm or layer of cells, enclosing the central
+  yolk, is formed. Within the yolk the nuclei of some "yolk cells" can
+  be distinguished.
+
+  [Illustration: From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny's, _Cockroach_,
+  Lovell, Reeve & Co.
+
+  FIG. 15.--Diagram showing Formation of Germinal Layers. E, ectoderm;
+  M, inner layer. Magnified.]
+
+  _Germinal Layers and Food-Canal._--The embryo begins to develop as an
+  elongate, thickened, ventral region of the blastoderm which is known
+  as the ventral plate or germ band. Along this band a median furrow
+  appears, and a mass of cells sinks within, the one-layered germ band
+  thus becoming transformed into a band of two cell-layers (fig. 15). In
+  some cases the inner layer is formed not by invagination but by
+  proliferation or by delamination. The outer of these two layers (fig.
+  15, E) is the ectoderm. With regard to the inner layer (_endoblast_ of
+  some authors, fig. 15, M) much difference of opinion has prevailed. It
+  has usually been regarded as representing both endoderm and mesoderm,
+  and the groove which usually leads to its formation has been compared
+  to the abnormally elongated blastopore of a typical gastrula. No doubt
+  can be entertained that the greater part of the inner layer
+  corresponds to the mesoderm of more ordinary embryos, for the coelomic
+  pouches, the germ-cells, the musculature and the vascular system all
+  arise from it. Further, there is general agreement that the
+  chitin-lined fore-gut and hind-gut, which form the greater part of
+  the digestive tract, arise from ectodermal invaginations (stomodaeum
+  and proctodaeum respectively) at the positions of the future mouth and
+  anus. The origin of the mid-gut (mesenteron), that has no chitinous
+  lining in the developed insect, is the disputed point. According to
+  the classical researches of A. Kowalevsky (1871 and 1887) on the
+  embryology of the water-beetle _Hydrophilus_ and of the muscid flies,
+  an anterior and a posterior endoderm-rudiment both derived from the
+  "endoblast" become apparent at an early stage, in close association
+  with the stomodaeum and the proctodaeum respectively. These two
+  endoderm-rudiments ultimately grow together and give rise to the
+  epithelium of the mid-gut. These results were confirmed by the
+  observations of K. Heider and W. M. Wheeler (1889) on the embryos of
+  two beetles--_Hydrophilus_ and _Doryphora_ respectively. V. Graber,
+  however (1889), stated that in the _Muscidae_, while the anterior
+  endoderm-rudiment arises as Kowalevsky had observed, the posterior
+  part of the "mid-gut" has its origin as a direct outgrowth from the
+  proctodaeum. The recent researches of R. Heymons (1895) on the
+  Orthoptera, and of A. Lécaillon (1898) on various leaf beetles, tend
+  to show that the whole of the "mid-gut" arises from the proliferation
+  of cells at the extremity of the stomodaeum and of the proctodaeum. On
+  this view the entire food-canal in most Hexapoda must be regarded as
+  of ectodermal origin, the "endoblast" represents mesoderm only, and
+  the median furrow whence it arises can be no longer compared with the
+  blastopore. According to Heymons, the yolk-cells must be regarded as
+  the true endoderm in the hexapod embryo, for he states (1897) that in
+  the bristle-tail _Lepisma_ and in dragon-flies they give rise to the
+  mid-gut. These views are not, however, supported by other recent
+  observers. J. Carrière's researches (1897) on the embryology of the
+  mason bee (_Chalicodoma_) agree entirely with the interpretations of
+  Kowalevsky and Heider, and so on the whole do those of F. Schwangart,
+  who has studied (1904) the embryonic development of Lepidoptera. He
+  finds that the endoderm arises from an anterior and a posterior
+  rudiment derived from the "endoblast," that many of the cells of these
+  rudiments wander into the yolk, and that the mesenteric epithelium
+  becomes reinforced by cells that migrate from the yolk. K. Escherich
+  (1901), after a new research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera,
+  claims that the fore and hind endodermal rudiments arise from the
+  blastoderm by invagination, and are from their origin distinct from
+  the mesoderm. On the whole it seems likely that the endoderm is
+  represented in part by the yolk, and in part by those anterior and
+  posterior rudiments which usually form the mesenteron, but that in
+  some Hexapoda the whole digestive tract may be ectodermal. It must be
+  admitted that some or the later work on insect embryology has
+  justified the growing scepticism in the universal applicability of the
+  "germ-layer theory." Heider has suggested, however, that the apparent
+  origin of the mid-gut from the stomodaeum and proctodaeum may be
+  explained by the presence of a "latent endoderm-group" in those
+  invaginations.
+
+  [Illustration: From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_,
+  Lovell Reeve & Co.
+
+  FIG. 16.--Cross section of Embryo of German Cockroach
+  (_Phyllodromia_). S, serosa; A, amnion; E, ectoderm; N, rudiment of
+  nerve-cord; M, mesodermal pouches.]
+
+  _Embryonic Membranes._--A remarkable feature in the embryonic
+  development of most Hexapoda is the formation of a protective membrane
+  analogous to the amnion of higher Vertebrates and known by the same
+  term. Usually there arises around the edge of the germ band a double
+  fold in the undifferentiated blastoderm, which grows over the surface
+  of the embryo, so that its inner and outer layers become continuous,
+  forming respectively the _amnion_ and the _serosa_ (fig. 16, A, S).
+  The embryo of a moth, a dragon-fly or a bug is invaginated into the
+  yolk at the head end, the portion of the blastoderm necessarily pushed
+  in with it forming the amnion. The embryo thus becomes transferred to
+  the dorsal face of the egg, but at a later stage it undergoes
+  reversion to its original ventral position. In some parasitic
+  Hymenoptera there is only a single embryonic membrane formed by
+  delamination from the blastoderm, while in a few insects, including
+  the wingless spring-tails, the embryonic membranes are vestigial or
+  entirely wanting. In the bristle-tails _Lepisma_ and _Machilis_, an
+  interesting transitional condition of the embryonic membranes has
+  lately been shown by Heymons. The embryo is invaginated into the yolk,
+  but the surface edges of the blastoderm do not close over, so that a
+  groove or pore puts the insunken space that represents the amniotic
+  cavity into communication with the outside. Heymons believes that the
+  "dorsal organ" in the embryos of the lower Arthropoda corresponds with
+  the region invaginated to form the serosa of the hexapod embryo.
+  Wheeler, however, compares with the "dorsal organ" the peculiar extra
+  embryonic membrane or indusium which he has observed between serosa
+  and amnion in the embryo of the grasshopper _Xiphidium_.
+
+  _Metameric Segmentation._--The segments are perceptible at a very
+  early stage of the development as a number of transverse bands
+  arranged in a linear sequence. The first segmentation of the ventral
+  plate is not, however, very definite, and the segmentation does not
+  make its appearance simultaneously throughout the whole length of the
+  plate; the anterior parts are segmented before the posterior. In
+  Orthoptera and Thysanura, as well as some others of the lower insects,
+  twenty-one of these divisions--not, however, all similar--may be
+  readily distinguished, six of which subsequently enter into the
+  formation of the head, three going to the thorax and twelve to the
+  abdomen. In Hemiptera only eleven and in Collembola only six abdominal
+  segments have been detected. The first and last of these twenty-one
+  divisions are so different from the others that they can scarcely be
+  considered true segments.
+
+  _Head Segments._--In the adult insect the head is insignificant in
+  size compared with the thorax or abdomen, but in the embryo it forms a
+  much larger portion of the body than it does in the adult. Its
+  composition has been the subject of prolonged difference of opinion.
+  Formerly it was said that the head consisted of four divisions, viz.
+  three segments and the procephalic or prae-oral lobes. It is now
+  ascertained that the procephalic lobes consist of three divisions, so
+  that the head must certainly be formed from at least six segments. The
+  first of these, according to the nomenclature of Heymons (see fig.
+  17), is the mouth or oral piece; the second, the antennal segment; the
+  third, the intercalary or prae-mandibular segment; while the fourth,
+  fifth, and sixth are respectively the segments of the mandibles and of
+  the first and second maxillae. These six divisions of the head are
+  diverse in kind, and subsequently undergo so much change that the part
+  each of them takes in the formation of the head-capsule is not finally
+  determined. The labrum and clypeus are developed as a single
+  prolongation of the oral piece, not as a pair of appendages. The
+  antennal segment apparently entirely disappears, with the exception of
+  a pair of appendages it bears; these become the antennae; it is
+  possible that the original segment, or some part of it, may even
+  become a portion of the actual antennae. The intercalary segment has
+  no appendages, nor rudiments thereof, except, according to H. Uzel
+  (1897), in the thysanuran _Campodea_, and probably entirely
+  disappears, though J. H. Comstock and C. Kochi believe that the labrum
+  belongs to it. The appendages of the posterior three or trophal
+  segments become the parts of the mouth. The appendages of the two
+  maxillary segments arise as treble instead of single projections, thus
+  differing from other appendages. From these facts it appears that the
+  anterior three divisions of the head differ strongly from the
+  posterior three, which greatly resemble thoracic segments; hence it
+  has been thought possible that the anterior divisions may represent a
+  primitive head, to which three segments and their leg-like appendages
+  were subsequently added to form the head as it now exists. This is,
+  however, very doubtful, and an entirely different inference is
+  possible. Besides the five limb-bearing somites just enumerated, two
+  others must now be recognized in the head. One of these is the ocular
+  segment, in front of the antennal, and behind the primitive pre-oral
+  segment. The other is the segment of the maxillulae (see above, under
+  _Jaws_), behind the mandibular somite; the presence of this in the
+  embryo of the collembolan _Anurida_ has been lately shown (1900) by J.
+  W. Folsom (fig. 18, v. 5), who terms the maxillulae "superlinguae" on
+  account of their close association with the hypopharynx or lingua. In
+  reference to the structure of the head-capsule in the imago, it
+  appears that the clypeus and labrum represent, as already said, an
+  unpaired median outgrowth of the oral piece. According to W. A. Riley
+  (1904) the epicranium or "vertex," the compound eyes and the front
+  divisions of the genae are formed by the cephalic lobes of the embryo
+  (belonging to the ocular segment), while the mandibular and maxillary
+  segments form the hinder parts of the genae and the hypopharynx.
+
+  [Illustration: After Heymons.
+
+  FIG. 17.--Morphology of an Insect: the embryo of _Gryllotalpa_,
+  somewhat diagrammatic. The longitudinal segmented band along the
+  middle line represents the early segmentation of the nervous system
+  and the subsequent median field of each sternite; the lateral
+  transverse unshaded bands are the lateral fields of each segment; the
+  shaded areas indicate the more internally placed mesoderm layer. The
+  segments are numbered 1-21; 1-6 will form the head, 7-9 the thorax,
+  10-21 the abdomen. A, anus; Abx1 Abx11, appendage of 1st and of 11th
+  abdominal segments; Ans, anal piece = telson or 12th abdominal
+  segment; Ant, antenna; De, deuterencephalon; Md, mandible; Mx1, first
+  maxilla; Mx2, second maxilla or labium; O, mouth; Obcl, rudimentary
+  labrum and clypeus; Pre, protencephalon; St1 St10, stigmata 1 and 10;
+  Terg, tergite; Thx1, appendage of first thoracic segment; Tre,
+  tritencephalon; Ul, a thickening at hinder margin of the mouth.]
+
+  Great difference of opinion exists as to the hypopharynx, which has
+  even been thought to represent a distinct segment, or the pair of
+  appendages of a distinct segment. Heymons considers that it represents
+  the sternites of the three trophal segments, and that the gula is
+  merely a secondary development. Folsom looks on the hypopharynx as a
+  secondary development. Riley holds that the hypopharynx belongs to the
+  mandibular and maxillary segments, while the cervical sclerites or
+  gula represent the sternum of the labial segment. The ganglia of the
+  nervous system offer some important evidence as to the morphology of
+  the head, and are alluded to below.
+
+  _Thoracic Segments._--These are always three in number. The three
+  pairs of legs appear very early as rudiments. Though the thoracic
+  segments bear the wings, no trace of these appendages exists till the
+  close of the embryonic life, nor even, in many cases, till much later.
+  The thoracic segments, as seen in an early stage of the ventral plate,
+  display in a well-marked manner the essential elements of the insect
+  segment. These elements are a central piece or sternite, and a lateral
+  field on each side bearing the leg-rudiment. The external part of the
+  lateral field subsequently grows up, and by coalescence with its
+  fellow forms the tergite or dorsal part of the segment.
+
+  _Abdominal Segments and Appendages._--We have already seen that in
+  numerous lower insects the abdomen is formed from twelve divisions
+  placed in linear fashion. Eleven of these may perhaps be considered as
+  true segments, but the twelfth or terminal one is different, and is
+  called by Heymons a telson; in it is placed the anal orifice, and the
+  mass subsequently becomes the upper and lower laminae anales. In
+  Hemiptera this telson is absent, and the anal orifice is placed quite
+  at the termination of the eleventh segment. Moreover, in this order
+  the abdomen shows at first a division into only nine segments and a
+  terminal mass, which last subsequently becomes divided into two. The
+  appendages of the abdomen are called cerci, stylets and gonapophyses.
+  They differ much according to the kind of insect, and in the adult
+  according to sex. Difference of opinion as to the nature of the
+  abdominal appendages prevails. The cerci, when present, appear in the
+  mature insect to be attached to the tenth segment, but according to
+  Heymons they are really appendages of the eleventh segment, their
+  connexion with the tenth being secondary and the result of
+  considerable changes that take place in the terminal segments. It has
+  been disputed whether any true cerci exist in the higher insects, but
+  they are probably represented in the Diptera and in the scorpion-flies
+  (Mecaptera). In those insects in which a median terminal appendage
+  exists between the two cerci this is considered to be a prolongation
+  of the eleventh tergite. The stylets, when present, are placed on the
+  ninth segment, and in some Thysanura exist also on the eighth segment;
+  their development takes place later in life than that of the cerci.
+  The gonapophyses are the projections near the extremity of the body
+  that surround the sexual orifices, and vary extremely according to the
+  kind of insect. They have chiefly been studied in the female, and form
+  the sting and ovipositor, organs peculiar to this sex. They are
+  developed on the ventral surface of the body and are six in number,
+  one pair arising from the eighth ventral plate and two pairs from the
+  ninth. This has been found to be the case in insects so widely
+  different as Orthoptera and Aculeate Hymenoptera. The genital armature
+  of the male is formed to a considerable extent by modifications of the
+  segments themselves. The development of the armature has been little
+  studied, and the question whether there may be present gonapophyses
+  homologous with those of the female is open.
+
+  [Illustration: A. After Wheeler, _Journ. Morph._ vol. viii., and
+  Folsom, _Bull. Mus. Harvard_, xxxvi.
+
+  B. After Folsom.
+
+  FIG. 18.--Embryos of Springtail (_Anuridamaritima_). Magnified. A,
+  Head-region of germ band. B, Section through head and thorax. The
+  neuromeres are shown in Arabic, the appendages in Roman numerals.
+
+    1, Ocular segment.
+    2, Antennal.
+    3, Trito-cerebral.
+    4, Mandibular.
+    5, Maxillular.
+    6, Maxillary.
+    7, Labial.
+    8, Prothoracic.
+    9, Mesothoracic.
+    10, Metathoracic.]
+
+  In the adult state no insect possesses more than six legs, and they
+  are always attached to the thorax; in many Thysanura there are,
+  however, processes on the abdomen that, as to their position, are
+  similar to legs. In the embryos of many insects there are projections
+  from the segments of the abdomen similar, to a considerable extent, to
+  the rudimentary thoracic legs. The question whether these projections
+  can be considered an indication of former polypody in insects has been
+  raised. They do not long persist in the embryo, but disappear, and the
+  area each one occupied becomes part of the sternite. In some embryos
+  there is but a single pair of these rudiments (or vestiges) situate on
+  the first abdominal segment, and in some cases they become
+  invaginations of a glandular nature. Whether cerci, stylets and
+  gonapophyses are developed from these rudiments has been much debated.
+  It appears that it is possible to accept cerci and stylets as
+  modifications of the temporary pseudopods, but it is more difficult to
+  believe that this is the case with the gonapophyses, for they
+  apparently commence their development considerably later than cerci
+  and stylets and only after the apparently complete disappearance of
+  the embryonic pseudopods. The fact that there are two pairs of
+  gonapophyses on the ninth abdominal segment would be fatal to the view
+  that they are in any way homologous with legs, were it not that there
+  is some evidence that the division into two pairs is secondary and
+  incomplete. But another and apparently insuperable objection may be
+  raised--that the appendages of the ninth segment are the stylets, and
+  that the gonapophyses cannot therefore be appendicular. The pseudopods
+  that exist on the abdomen of numerous caterpillars may possibly arise
+  from the embryonic pseudopods, but this also is far from being
+  established.
+
+  _Nervous System._--The nervous system is ectodermal in origin, and is
+  developed and segmented to a large extent in connexion with the outer
+  part of the body, so that it affords important evidence as to the
+  segmentation thereof. The continuous layer of cells from which the
+  nervous system is developed undergoes a segmentation analogous with
+  that we have described as occurring in the ventral plate; there is
+  thus formed a pair of contiguous ganglia for each segment of the body,
+  but there is no ganglion for the telson. The ganglia become greatly
+  changed in position during the later life, and it is usually said that
+  there are only ten pairs of abdominal ganglia even in the embryo. In
+  Orthoptera, Heymons has demonstrated the existence of eleven pairs,
+  the terminal pair becoming, however, soon united with the tenth. The
+  nervous system of the embryonic head exhibits three ganglionic masses,
+  anterior to the thoracic ganglionic masses; these three masses
+  subsequently amalgamate and form the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which
+  supplies the trophal segments. In front of the three masses that will
+  form the sub-oesophageal ganglion the mass of cells that is to form
+  the nervous system is very large, and projects on each side; this
+  anterior or "brain" mass consists of three lobes (the prot-, deut-,
+  and tritencephalon of Viallanes and others), each of which might be
+  thought to represent a segmental ganglion. But the protocerebrum
+  contains the ganglia of the ocular segment in addition to those of the
+  procephalic lobes. These three divisions subsequently form the
+  supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain proper. There are other ganglia in
+  addition to those of the ventral chain, and Janet supposes that the
+  ganglia of the sympathetic system indicate the existence of three
+  anterior head-segments; the remains of the segments themselves are, in
+  accordance with this view, to be sought in the stomodaeum. Folsom has
+  detected in the embryo of _Anurida_ a pair of ganglia (fig. 18, 5)
+  belonging to the maxillular (or superlingual) segment, thus
+  establishing seven sets of cephalic ganglia, and supporting his view
+  as to the composition of the head.
+
+  _Air-tubes._--The air-tubes, like the food-canal, are formed by
+  invaginations of the ectoderm, which arise close to the developing
+  appendages, the rudimentary spiracles appearing soon after the budding
+  limbs. The pits leading from these lengthen into tubes, and undergo
+  repeated branching as development proceeds.
+
+  _Dorsal Closure._--The germ band evidently marks the ventral aspect of
+  the developing insect, whose body must be completed by the extension
+  of the embryo so as to enclose the yolk dorsally. The method of this
+  dorsal closure varies in different insects. In the Colorado beetle
+  (_Doryphora_), whose development has been studied by W. M. Wheeler,
+  the amnion is ruptured and turned back from covering the germ band,
+  enclosing the yolk dorsally and becoming finally absorbed, as the
+  ectoderm of the germ band itself spreads to form the dorsal wall. In
+  some midges and in caddis-flies the serosa becomes ruptured and
+  absorbed, while the germ band, still clothed with the amnion, grows
+  around the yolk. In moths and certain saw-flies there is no rupture of
+  the membranes; the Russian zoologists Tichomirov and Kovalevsky have
+  described the growth of both amnion and embryonic ectoderm around the
+  yolk, the embryo being thus completely enclosed until hatching time by
+  both amnion and serosa. V. Graber has described a similar method of
+  dorsal closure in the saw-fly _Hylotoma_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Heymons, _Zeit. Wiss. Zoolog._ vol. 53.
+
+  FIG. 19.--Cross sections through Abdomen of German Cockroach Embryo. A
+  (later than fig. 16) magnified. B (still more advanced, dorsal closure
+  complete) magnified.
+
+    ec, Ectoderm.
+    en, Endoderm.
+    sp, Splanchnic layer of mesoderm.
+    y,  Yolk.
+    h,  Heart.
+    p,  Pericardial septum.
+    c,  Coelom.
+    g,  Germ-cells surrounded by rudiment-cells of ovarian tubes.
+    m,  Muscle-rudiment.
+    n,  Nerve-chain.
+    f,  Fat body.
+    s,  Inpushing of ectoderm to form air-tubes.
+    x,  Secondary body-cavity.]
+
+  _Mesoderm, Coelom and Blood-System._--From the mesoderm most of the
+  organs of the body--muscular, circulatory, reproductive--take their
+  origin. The mass of cells undergoes segmentation corresponding with
+  the outer segmentation of the embryo, and a pair of cavities--the
+  coelomic pouches (fig. 16, M)--are formed in each segment. Each
+  coelomic pouch--as traced by Heymons in his study on the development
+  of the cockroach (_Phyllodromia_)--divides into three parts, of which
+  the most dorsal contains the primitive germ-cells, the median
+  disappears, and the ventral loses its boundaries as it becomes filled
+  up with the growing fat body (fig. 19). This latter, as well as the
+  heart and the walls of the blood spaces, arises by the modification of
+  mesodermal cells, and the body cavity is formed by the enlargement and
+  coalescence of the blood channels and by the splitting of the fat
+  body. It is therefore a haemocoel, the coelom of the developed insect
+  being represented only by the cavities of the genital glands and their
+  ducts.
+
+  _Reproductive Organs._--In the cockroach embryo, before the
+  segmentation of the germ-band has begun, the primitive germ-cells can
+  be recognized at the hinder end of the mesoderm, from whose ordinary
+  cells they can be distinguished by their larger size. At a later stage
+  further germ-cells arise from the epithelium of the coelomic pouches
+  from the second to the seventh abdominal segments, and become
+  surrounded by other mesoderm cells which form the ovarian or
+  testicular tubes and ducts (fig. 19, g). In the male of _Phyllodromia_
+  the rudiment of a vestigial ovary becomes separated from the
+  developing testis, indicating perhaps an originally hermaphrodite
+  condition. An exceedingly early differentiation of the primitive
+  germ-cells occurs in certain Diptera. E. Metchnikoff observed (1866)
+  in the development of the parthenogenetic eggs produced by the
+  precocious larva of the gall-midge _Cecidomyia_ that a large
+  "polar-cell" appeared at one extremity during the primitive
+  cell-segmentation. This by successive divisions forms a group of four
+  to eight cells, which subsequently pass through the blastoderm, and
+  dividing into two groups become symmetrically arranged and surrounded
+  by the rudiments of the ovarian tubes. E. G. Balbiani and R. Ritter
+  (1890) have since observed a similar early origin for the germ-cells
+  in the midge _Chironomus_ and in the _Aphidae_.
+
+  The paired oviducts and vasa deferentia are, as we have seen,
+  mesodermal in origin. The median vagina, spermatheca and ejaculatory
+  duct are, on the other hand, formed by ectodermal inpushings. The
+  classical researches of J. A. Palmén (1884) on these ducts have shown
+  that in may-flies and in female earwigs the paired mesodermal ducts
+  open directly to the exterior, while in male earwigs there is a single
+  mesodermal duct, due either to the coalescence of the two or to the
+  suppression of one. In the absence of the external ectodermal ducts
+  usual in winged insects, these two groups resemble therefore the
+  primitive Aptera. The presence of rudiments of the genital ducts of
+  both sexes in the embryo of either sex is interesting and suggestive.
+  The ejaculatory duct which opens on the ninth abdominal sternum in the
+  adult male arises in the tenth abdominal embryonic segment and
+  subsequently moves forward.
+
+
+GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Ent. Bull._ 4, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+FIG. 20.--a, Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularis_, Linn.); newly hatched young
+from beneath; b, from above; d, egg, magnified; c, foot with claws; e,
+serrate spine, more highly magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: From Mally, _Ent. Bull._ 24 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+FIG. 21.--e, f, Owl moth (_Heliothis armigera_); a, b, egg, highly
+magnified; c, larva or caterpillar; d, pupa in earthen cell.]
+
+After hatching or birth an insect undergoes a process of growth and
+change until the adult condition is reached. The varied details of this
+post-embryonic development furnish some of the most interesting facts
+and problems to the students of the Hexapoda. Wingless insects, such as
+spring-tails and lice, make their appearance in the form of miniature
+adults. Some winged insects--cockroaches, bugs (fig. 20) and earwigs,
+for example--when young closely resemble their parents, except for the
+absence of wings. On the other hand, we find in the vast majority of the
+Hexapoda a very marked difference between the perfect insect (imago) and
+the young animal when newly hatched and for some time after hatching.
+From the moth's egg comes a crawling caterpillar (fig. 21, c), from the
+fly's a legless maggot (fig. 25, a). Such a young insect is a _larva_--a
+term used by zoologists for young animals generally that are decidedly
+unlike their parents. It is obvious that the hatching of the young as a
+larva necessitates a more or less profound transformation or
+metamorphosis before the perfect state is attained. Usually this
+transformation comes with apparent suddenness, at the penultimate stage
+of the insect's life-history, when the passive pupa (fig. 21, d) is
+revealed, exhibiting the wings and other imaginal structures, which have
+been developed unseen beneath the cuticle of the larva. Hexapoda with
+this resting pupal stage in their life-history are said to undergo "a
+complete transformation," to be metabolic, or holometabolic, whereas
+those insects in which the young form resembles the parent are said to
+be ametabolic. Such insects as dragon-flies and may-flies, whose young,
+though unlike the parent, develop into the adult form without a resting
+pupal stage are said to undergo an "incomplete transformation" or to be
+hemimetabolic. The absence of the pupal stage depends upon the fact that
+in the ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda the wing-rudiments appear
+as lateral outgrowths (fig. 22) of the two hinder thoracic segments and
+are visible externally throughout the life-history, becoming larger
+after each moult or casting of the cuticle. Hence, as has been pointed
+out by D. Sharp (1898), the marked divergence among the Hexapoda, as
+regards life-history, is between insects whose wings develop outside the
+cuticle (Exopterygota) and those whose wings develop inside the cuticle
+(Endopterygota), becoming visible only when the casting of the last
+larval cuticle reveals the pupa. Metamorphosis among the Hexapoda
+depends upon the universal acquisition of wings during post-embryonic
+development--no insect being hatched with the smallest external
+rudiments of those organs--and on the necessity for successive castings
+or "moults" (ecdyses) of the cuticle.
+
+[Illustration: After Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. vii.
+
+FIG. 22.--Nymph of Locust (_Schistocera americana_), showing
+wing-rudiments.]
+
+_Ecdysis._--The embryonic ectoderm of an insect consists of a layer of
+cells forming a continuous structure, the orifices in it--mouth,
+spiracles, anus and terminal portions of the genital ducts--being
+invaginations of the outer wall. This cellular layer is called the
+hypodermis; it is protected externally by a cuticle, a layer of matter
+it itself excretes, or in the excretion of which it plays, at any rate,
+an important part. The cuticle is a dead substance, and is composed in
+large part of chitin. The cuticle contrasts strongly in its nature with
+the hypodermis it protects. It is different in its details in different
+insects and in different stages of the life of the same insect. The
+"sclerites" that make up the skeleton of the insect (which skeleton, it
+should be remembered, is entirely external) are composed of this
+chitinous excretion. The growth of an insect is usually rapid, and as
+the cuticle does not share therein, it is from time to time cast off by
+moulting or ecdysis. Before a moult actually occurs the cuticle becomes
+separated from its connexion with the underlying hypodermis. Concomitant
+with this separation there is commencement of the formation of a new
+cuticle within the old one, so that when the latter is cast off the
+insect appears with a partly completed new cuticle. The new instar--or
+temporary form--is often very different from the old one, and this is
+the essential fact of metamorphosis. Metamorphosis is, from this point
+of view, the sum of the changes that take place under the cuticle of an
+insect between the ecdyses, which changes only become externally
+displayed when the cuticle is cast off. The hypodermis is the immediate
+agent in effecting the external changes.
+
+[Illustration: Adapted from Koerschelt and Herder and Lowne.
+
+FIG. 23.--Diagram showing position of imaginal buds in larva of fly. I.,
+II., III., the three thoracic segments of the larva; 1, 2, 3, buds of
+the legs of the imago; h, bud of head-lobes; f, of feeler; e of eye; b,
+brain.]
+
+  The study of the physiology of ecdysis in its simpler forms has
+  unfortunately been somewhat neglected, investigators having directed
+  their attention chiefly to the cases that are most striking, such as
+  the transformation of a maggot into a fly, or of a caterpillar into a
+  butterfly. The changes have been found to be made up of two sets of
+  processes: histolysis, by which the whole or part of a structure
+  disappears: and histogenesis, or the formation of the new structure.
+  By histolysis certain parts of the hypodermis are destroyed, while
+  other portions of it develop into the new structures. The hypodermis
+  is composed of parts of two different kinds, viz. (1) the larger part
+  of the hypodermis that exists in the maggot or caterpillar and is
+  dissolved at the metamorphosis; (2) parts that remain comparatively
+  quiescent previously, and that grow and develop when the other parts
+  degenerate. These centres of renovation are called imaginal disks or
+  folds. The adult caterpillar may be described as a creature the
+  hypodermis of which is studded with buds that expand and form the
+  butterfly, while the parts around them degenerate. In some insects
+  (e.g. the maggots of the blowfly, _Calliphora vomitoria_) the imaginal
+  disks are to all appearance completely separated from the hypodermis,
+  with which they are, however, really organically connected by strings
+  or pedicels. This connexion was not at first recognized and the true
+  nature of imaginal disks was not at first perceived, even by Weismann,
+  to whom their discovery in Diptera is due. In other insects the
+  imaginal disks are less completely disconnected from the superficies
+  of the larval hypodermis, and may indeed be merely patches thereof.
+  The number of imaginal disks in an individual is large, upwards of
+  sixty having been discovered to take part in the formation of the
+  outer body of a fly. With regard to the internal organs, we need only
+  say that transformation occurs in an essentially similar manner, by
+  means of a development from centres distributed in the various organs.
+  The imaginal disks for the outer wall of the body, some of them, at
+  any rate, include mesodermal rudiments (from which the muscles are
+  developed) as well as hypodermis. The imaginal disks make their
+  appearance (that is, have been first detected) at very different
+  epochs in the life; their absolute origin has been but little
+  investigated. Pratt has traced them in the sheep-tick (_Melophagus_)
+  to an early stage of the embryonic life.
+
+  _Histolysis and Histogenesis._--The process of destruction of the
+  larval tissues was first studied in the forms where metamorphosis is
+  greatest and most abrupt, viz. in the Muscid Diptera. It was found
+  that the tissues were attacked by phagocytic cells that became
+  enlarged and carried away fragments of the tissue; the cells were
+  subsequently identified as leucocytes or blood-cells. Hence the
+  opinion arose that histolysis is a process of phagocytosis. It has,
+  however, since been found that in other kinds of insects the tissues
+  degenerate and break down without the intervention of phagocytes. It
+  has, moreover, been noticed that even in cases where phagocytosis
+  exists a greater or less extent of degeneration of the tissue may be
+  observed before phagocytosis occurs. This process can therefore only
+  be looked on as a secondary one that hastens and perfects the
+  destruction necessary to permit of the accompanying histogenesis. This
+  view is confirmed by the fate of the phagocytic cells. These do not
+  take a direct part in the formation of the new tissue, but it is
+  believed merely yield their surplus acquisitions, becoming ordinary
+  blood-cells or disappearing altogether. As to the nature of
+  histogenesis, nothing more can be said than that it appears to be a
+  phenomenon similar to embryonic growth, though limited to certain
+  spots. Hence we are inclined to look on the imaginal disks as cellular
+  areas that possess in a latent condition the powers of growth and
+  development that exist in the embryo, powers that only become evident
+  in certain special conditions of the organism. What the more essential
+  of these conditions may be is a question on which very little light
+  has been thrown, though it has been widely discussed.
+
+Much consideration has been given to the nature of metamorphosis in
+insects, to its value to the creatures and to the mode of its origin.
+Insect metamorphosis may be briefly described as phenomena of
+development characterized by abrupt changes of appearance and of
+structure, occurring during the period subsequent to embryonic
+development and antecedent to the reproductive state. It is, in short, a
+peculiar mode of growth and adolescence. The differences in appearance
+between the caterpillar and the butterfly, striking as they are to the
+eye, do not sufficiently represent the phenomena of metamorphosis to the
+intelligence. The changes that take place involve a revolution in the
+being, and may be summarized under three headings: (1) The
+food-relations of the individual are profoundly changed, an entirely
+different set of mouth-organs appears and the kind and quantity of the
+food taken is often radically different. (2) A wingless, sedentary
+creature is turned into a winged one with superlative powers of aerial
+movement. (3) An individual in which the reproductive organs and powers
+are functionally absent becomes one in which these structures and powers
+are the only reason for existence, for the great majority of insects die
+after a brief period of reproduction. These changes are in the higher
+insects so extreme that it is difficult to imagine how they could be
+increased. In the case of the common drone-fly, _Eristalis tenax_, the
+individual, from a sedentary maggot living in filth, without any
+relations of sex, and with only unimportant organs for the ingestion of
+its foul nutriment, changes to a creature of extreme alertness, with
+magnificent powers of flight, living on the products of the flowers it
+frequents, and endowed with highly complex sexual structures.
+
+[Illustration: After Westwood, _Modern Classification_.
+
+FIG. 24.--Campodeiform Larva of a Ground-Beetle (_Aepus marinus_).
+Magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: After Howard, _Ent. Bull._ 4, n. s. (_U.S. Dept. Agr._).
+
+FIG. 25.--Vermiform Larva (maggot) of House-fly (_Musca domestica_).
+Magnified. b, spiracle on prothorax; c, protruded head region; d,
+tail-end with functional spiracles; e, f, head region with mouth hooks
+protruded; g, hooks retracted; h, eggs. All magnified.]
+
+_Forms of Larva._--The unlikeness of the young insect to its parent is
+one of the factors that necessitates metamorphosis. It is instructive,
+further, to trace among metabolic insects an increase in the degree of
+this dissimilarity. An adult Hexapod is provided with a firm,
+well-chitinized cuticle and six conspicuous jointed legs. Many larval
+Hexapods might be defined in similar general terms, unlike as they are
+to their parents in most points of detail. Examples of such are to be
+seen in the grubs of may-flies, dragon-flies, lacewing-flies and
+ground-beetles (fig. 24). This type of active, armoured larva--often
+bearing conspicuous feelers on the head and long jointed cercopods on
+the tenth abdominal segment--was styled campodeiform by F. Brauer
+(1869), on account of its likeness in shape to the bristle-tail
+_Campodea_. As an extreme contrast to this campodeiform type, we take
+the maggot of the house-fly (fig. 25)--a vermiform larva, with soft,
+white, feebly-chitinized cuticle and without either head-capsule or
+legs. Between these two extremes, numerous intermediate forms can be
+traced: the grub (wireworm) of a click-beetle, with narrow elongate
+well-armoured body, but with the legs very short; the grub of a chafer,
+with the legs fairly developed, but with the cuticle of all the
+trunk-segments soft and feebly chitinized; the well-known caterpillar of
+a moth (fig. 21, e) or saw-fly, with its long cylindrical body, bearing
+the six shortened thoracic legs and a variable number of pairs of
+"pro-legs" on the abdomen (this being the eruciform type of larva); the
+soft, white, wood-boring grub of a longhorn-beetle or of the saw-fly
+_Sirex_, with its stumpy vestiges of thoracic legs; the large-headed but
+entirely legless, fleshy grub of a weevil; and the legless larva, with
+greatly reduced head, of a bee. The various larvae of the above series,
+however, have all a distinct head-capsule, which is altogether wanting
+in the degraded fly maggot. These differences in larval form depend in
+part on the surroundings among which the larva finds itself after
+hatching; the active, armoured grub has to seek food for itself and to
+fight its own battles, while the soft, defenceless maggot is provided
+with abundant nourishment. But in general we find that elaboration of
+imaginal structure is associated with degradation in the nature of the
+larva, eruciform and vermiform larvae being characteristic of the
+highest orders of the Hexapoda, so that unlikeness between parent and
+offspring has increased with the evolution of the class.
+
+_Hypermetamorphosis._--Among a few of the beetles or Coleoptera (q.v.),
+and also in the neuropterous genus _Mantispa_, are found life-histories
+in which the earliest instar is campodeiform and the succeeding larval
+stages eruciform. These later stages, comprising the greater part of the
+larval history, are adapted for an inquiline or a parasitic life, where
+shelter is assured and food abundant, while the short-lived, active
+condition enables the newly-hatched insect to make its way to the spot
+favourable for its future development, clinging, for example, in the
+case of an oil-beetle's larva, to the hairs of a bee as she flies
+towards her nest. The presence of the two successive larval forms in the
+life-history constitutes what is called hypermetamorphosis. Most
+significant is the precedence of the eruciform by the campodeiform type.
+In conjunction with the association mentioned above of the most highly
+developed imaginal with the most degraded larval structure, it indicates
+clearly that the active, armoured grub preceded the sluggish
+soft-skinned caterpillar or maggot in the evolution of the Hexapoda.
+
+_Nymph._--The term nymph is applied by many writers on the Hexapoda to
+all young forms of insects that are not sufficiently unlike their
+parents to be called larvae. Other writers apply the term to a "free"
+pupa (see _infra_). It is in wellnigh universal use for those instars of
+ametabolous and hemimetabolous insects in which the external
+wing-rudiments have become conspicuous (fig. 27). The mature dragon-fly
+nymph, for example, makes its way out of the water in which the early
+stages have been passed and, clinging to some water-plant, undergoes the
+final ecdysis that the imago may emerge into the air. Like most
+ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda, such nymphs continue to move and
+feed throughout their lives. But examples are not wanting of a more or
+less complete resting habit during the latest nymphal instar. In some
+cicads the mature nymph ceases to feed and remains quiescent within a
+pillar-shaped earthen chamber. The nymph of a thrips-insect
+(Thysanoptera) is sluggish, its legs and wings being sheathed by a
+delicate membrane, while the nymph of the male scale-insect rests
+enclosed beneath a waxy covering.
+
+_Sub-imago._--Among the Hexapoda generally there is no subsequent
+ecdysis nor any further growth after the assumption of the winged state.
+The may-flies, however, offer a remarkable exception to this rule. After
+a prolonged aquatic larval and nymphal life-history, the winged insect
+appears as a sub-imago, whence, after the casting of a delicate cuticle,
+the true imago emerges.
+
+_Pupa._--In the metabolic Hexapoda the resting pupal instar shows
+externally the wings and other characteristic imaginal organs which have
+been gradually elaborated beneath the larval cuticle. It is usual to
+distinguish between the free pupae (fig. 26, b)--of Coleoptera and
+Hymenoptera, for example--in which the wings, legs and other appendages
+are not fixed to the trunk, and the obtect pupae (fig. 21, d)--such as
+may be noticed in the majority of the Lepidoptera--whose appendages are
+closely and immovably pressed to the body by a general hardening and
+fusion of the cuticle. In the degree of mobility there is great
+diversity among pupae. A gnat pupa swims through the water by powerful
+strokes of its abdomen, while the caddis-fly pupa, in preparation for
+its final ecdysis, bites its way out of its subaqueous protective case
+and rises through the water, so that the fly may emerge into the air.
+Some pupae are thus more active than some nymphs; the essential
+character of a pupa is not therefore its passivity, but that it is the
+instar in which the wings first become evident externally. The division
+of the winged Hexapoda into Exopteryga and Endopteryga is thus again
+justified.
+
+[Illustration: From Chittenden, _Bull._ 4 (n.s.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 26.--a, Saw-toothed Grain-Beetle (_Silvanus surinamensis_); b,
+pupa; c, larva, magnified--; d, feeler of larva.]
+
+  If we admit that the larva has, in the phylogeny of insects, gradually
+  diverged from the imago, and if we recollect that in the ontogeny the
+  larva has always to become the imago (and of course still does so)
+  notwithstanding the increased difficulty of the transformation, we
+  cannot but recognize that a period of helplessness in which the
+  transformation may take place is to be expected. It is generally
+  considered that this is sufficient as an explanation of the existence
+  of the pupa. This, however, is not the case, because the greater part
+  of the transformation precedes the disclosure of the pupa, which, as
+  L. C. Miall remarks, is structurally little other "than the fly
+  enclosed in a temporary skin." Moreover, in many insects with
+  imperfect metamorphosis the change from larva or (as the later stage
+  of the larva is called in these cases) nymph to imago is about as
+  great as the corresponding change in the Holometabola, as the student
+  will recognize if he recalls the histories of _Ephemeridae_, Odonata
+  and male _Coccidae_. But in none of these latter cases have the wings
+  to be changed from a position inside the body to become external and
+  actively functional organs. The difference between the nymph or false
+  pupa and the true pupa is that in the latter a whole stage is devoted
+  to the perfecting of the wings and body-wall after the wings have
+  become external organs; the stage is one in which no food is or can be
+  taken, however prolonged may be its existence. Amongst insects with
+  imperfect metamorphosis the nearest approximations to the true pupa of
+  the Holometabola are to be found in the sub-imago of _Ephemeridae_ and
+  in the quiescent or resting stages of Thysanoptera, _Aleurodidae_ and
+  _Coccidae_. A much more thorough appreciation than we yet possess of
+  the phenomena in these cases is necessary in order completely to
+  demonstrate the special characteristics of the holometabolous
+  transformation. But even at present we can correctly state that the
+  true pupa is invariably connected with the transference of the wings
+  from the interior to the exterior of the body. It cannot but suggest
+  itself that this transference was induced by some peculiarity as to
+  formation of cuticle, causing the growth of the wings to be directed
+  inwards instead of outwards. We may remark that fleas possess no
+  wings, but are understood to possess a true pupa. This is a most
+  remarkable case, but unfortunately very little information exists as
+  to the details of metamorphosis in this group.
+
+_Life-Relations._--Only a brief reference can be made here to the
+fascinating subject of the life-relations of the larva, nymph and pupa,
+as compared with those of the imago. For details, the reader may consult
+the special articles on the various orders and groups of insects. A
+common result of metamorphosis is that the larva and imago differ
+markedly in their habitat and mode of feeding. The larva may be aquatic,
+or subterranean, or a burrower in wood, while the imago is aerial. It
+may bite and devour solid food, while the imago sucks liquids. It may
+eat roots or refuse, while the imago lives on leaves and flowers. The
+aquatic habit of many larvae is associated with endless beautiful
+adaptations for respiration. The series of paired spiracles on most of
+the trunk-segments is well displayed, as a rule, in terrestrial
+larvae--caterpillars and the grubs of most beetles, for example. In many
+aquatic larvae we find that all the spiracles are closed up, or become
+functionless, except a pair at the hinder end which are associated with
+some arrangement--such as the valvular flaps of the gnat larva or the
+telescopic "tail" of the drone-fly larva--for piercing the surface film
+and drawing periodical supplies of atmospheric air. A similar
+restriction of the functional spiracles to the tail-end (fig. 25, d) is
+seen in many larvae of flies (Diptera) that live and feed buried in
+carrion or excrement. Other aquatic larvae have the tracheal system
+entirely closed, and are able to breathe dissolved air by means of
+tubular or leaf-like gills. Such are the grubs of stone-flies, may-flies
+(fig. 27) and some dragon-flies and midges. An interesting feature is
+the difference often to be observed between an aquatic larva and pupa of
+the same insect in the matter of breathing. The gnat larva, for example,
+breathes at the tail-end, hanging head-downwards from the surface-film.
+But the pupa hangs from the surface by means of paired respiratory
+trumpets on the prothorax, the dorsal thoracic surface, where the
+cuticle splits to allow the emergence of the fly, being thus directed
+towards the upper air.
+
+[Illustration: From Miall and Denny (after Vayssière), _The Cockroach_,
+Lovell Reeve & Co.
+
+FIG. 27.--Nymph of May-fly (_Chloeon dipterum_), with wing rudiments (a)
+and tracheal gill-plates (b, b). Magnified--. (The feelers and legs are
+cut short.)]
+
+A marked disproportion between the life-term of larva and imago is
+common; the former often lives for months or years, while the latter
+only survives for weeks or days or hours. Generally the larval is the
+feeding, the imaginal the breeding, stage of the life-cycle. The extreme
+of this "division of labour" is seen in those insects whose jaws are
+vestigial in the winged state, when, the need for feeding all behind
+them, they have but to pair, to lay eggs and to die. The acquisition of
+wings is the sign of developed reproductive power.
+
+_Paedogenesis._--Nevertheless, the function of reproduction is
+occasionally exercised by larvae. In 1865 N. Wagner made his classical
+observations on the production of larvae from unfertilized eggs
+developed in the precociously-formed ovaries of a larval gall-midge
+(Cecidomyid), and subsequent observers have confirmed his results by
+studies on insects of the same family and of the related _Chironomidae_.
+The larvae produced by this remarkable method (paedogenesis) of
+virgin-reproduction are hatched within the parent larva, and in some
+cases escape by the rupture of its body.
+
+_Polyembryony._--Occasionally the power of reproduction is thrown still
+farther back in the life-history, and it is found that from a single egg
+a large number of embryos may be formed. P. Marchal has (1904) described
+this power in two small parasitic Hymenoptera--a Chalcid (_Encyrtus_)
+which lays eggs in the developing eggs of the small moth _Hyponomeuta_,
+and a Proctotrypid (_Polygnotus_) which infests a gall-midge
+(Cecidomyid) larva. In the egg of these insects a small number of nuclei
+are formed by the division of the nucleus, and each of these nuclei
+originates by division the cell-layers of a separate embryo. Thus a mass
+or chain of embryos is produced, lying in a common cyst, and developing
+as their larval host develops. In this way over a hundred embryos may
+result from a single egg. Marchal points out the analogy of this
+phenomenon to the artificial polyembryony that has been induced in
+Echinoderm and other eggs by separating the blastomeres, and suggests
+that the abundant food-supply afforded by the host-larva is favourable
+for this multiplication of embryos, which may be, in the first instance,
+incited by the abnormal osmotic pressure on the egg.
+
+_Duration of Life._--The flour-moth (_Ephestia kuhniella_) sometimes
+passes through five or six generations in a single year. Although one of
+the characteristics of insects is the brevity of their adult lives, a
+considerable number of exceptions to the general rule have been
+discovered. These exceptions may be briefly summarized as follows: (1)
+Certain larvae, provided with food that may be adequate in quantity but
+deficient in nutriment, may live and go on feeding for many years;
+(2) certain stages of the life that are naturally "resting stages" may
+be in exceptional cases prolonged, and that to a very great extent; in
+this case no food is taken, and the activity of the individual is almost
+_nil_; (3) the life of certain insects in the adult state may be much
+prolonged if celibacy be maintained; a female of _Cybister roeselii_ (a
+large water-beetle) has lived five and a half years in the adult state
+in captivity. In addition to these abnormal cases, the life of certain
+insects is naturally more prolonged than usual. The females of some
+social insects have been known to live for many years. In _Tibicen
+septemdecim_ the life of the larva extends over from thirteen to
+seventeen years. The eggs of locusts may remain for years in the ground
+before hatching; and there may thus arise the peculiar phenomenon of
+some species of insect appearing in vast numbers in a locality where it
+has not been seen for several years.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION
+
+_Number of Species._--It is now considered that 2,000,000 is a moderate
+estimate of the species of insects actually existing. Some authorities
+consider this total to be too small, and extend the number to
+10,000,000. Upwards of 300,000 species have been collected and
+described, and at present the number of named forms increases at the
+rate of about 8000 species per annum. The greater part by far of the
+insects existing in the world is still quite unknown to science. Many of
+the species are in process of extinction, owing to the extensive changes
+that are taking place in the natural conditions of the world by the
+extension of human population and of cultivation, and by the destruction
+of forests; hence it is probable that a considerable proportion of the
+species at present existing will disappear from the face of the earth
+before we have discovered or preserved any specimens of them.
+Nevertheless, the constant increase of our knowledge of insect forms
+renders classification increasingly difficult, for gaps in the series
+become filled, and while the number of genera and families increases,
+the distinctions between these groups become dependent on characters
+that must seem trivial to the naturalist who is not a specialist.
+
+_Orders of Hexapoda._--In the present article it is only possible to
+treat of the division of the Hexapoda into orders and sub-orders and of
+the relations of these orders to each other. For further classificatory
+details, reference must be made to the special articles on the various
+orders. As regards the vast majority of insects, the orders proposed by
+Linnaeus are acknowledged by modern zoologists. His classification was
+founded mainly on the nature of the wings, and five of his orders--the
+Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps, &c.), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera
+(two-winged flies), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), and Hemiptera
+(bugs, cicads, &c.)--are recognized to-day with nearly the same limits
+as he laid down. His order of wingless insects (Aptera) included
+Crustacea, spiders, centipedes and other creatures that now form classes
+of the Arthropoda distinct from the Hexapoda; it also included Hexapoda
+of parasitic and evidently degraded structure, that are now regarded as
+allied more or less closely to various winged insects. Consequently the
+modern order Aptera comprises only a very small proportion of Linnaeus's
+"Aptera"--the spring-tails and bristle-tails, wingless Hexapoda that
+stand evidently at a lower grade of development than the bulk of the
+class. The earwigs, cockroaches and locusts, which Linnaeus included
+among the Coleoptera, were early grouped into a distinct order, the
+Orthoptera. The great advance in modern zoology as regards the
+classification of the Hexapoda lies in the treatment of a heterogeneous
+assembly which formed Linnaeus's order Neuroptera. The characters of the
+wings are doubtless important as indications of relationship, but the
+nature of the jaws and the course of the life-history must be considered
+of greater value. Linnaeus's Neuroptera exhibit great diversity in these
+respects, and the insects included in it are now therefore distributed
+into a number of distinct orders. The many different arrangements that
+have been proposed can hardly be referred to in this article. Of special
+importance in the history of systematic entomology was the scheme of F.
+Brauer (1885), who separated the spring tails and bristle-tails as a
+sub-class Apterygogenea from all the other Hexapoda, these forming the
+sub-class Pterygogenea distributed into sixteen orders. Brauer in his
+arrangement of these orders laid special stress on the nature of the
+metamorphosis, and was the first to draw attention to the number of
+Malpighian tubes as of importance in classification. Subsequent writers
+have, for the most part, increased the number of recognized orders; and
+during the last few years several schemes of classification have been
+published, in the most revolutionary of which--that of A. Handlirsch
+(1903-1904)--the Hexapoda are divided into four classes and thirty-four
+orders! Such excessive multiplication of the larger taxonomic divisions
+shows an imperfect sense of proportion, for if the term "class" be
+allowed its usual zoological value, no student can fail to recognize
+that the Hexapoda form a single well-defined class, from which few
+entomologists would wish to exclude even the Apterygogenea. In several
+recent attempts to group the orders into sub-classes, stress has been
+laid upon a few characters in the imago. C. Börner (1904), for example,
+considers the presence or absence of cerci of great importance, while F.
+Klapalek (1904) lays stress on a supposed distinction between
+appendicular and non-appendicular genital processes. A natural system
+must take into account the nature of the larva and of the metamorphosis
+in conjunction with the general characters of the imago. Hence the
+grouping of the orders of winged Hexapoda into the divisions
+Exopterygota and Endopterygota, as suggested by D. Sharp, is unlikely to
+be superseded by the result of any researches into minute imaginal
+structure. Sharp's proposed association of the parasitic wingless
+insects in a group Anapterygota cannot, however, be defended as natural;
+and recent researches into the structure of these forms enables us to
+associate them confidently with related winged orders. The
+classification here adopted is based on Sharp's scheme, with the
+addition of suggestions from some of the most recent authors--especially
+Börner and Enderlein.
+
+    Class: HEXAPODA.
+
+    Sub-class: APTERYGOTA.
+
+  Primitively (?) wingless Hexapods with cumacean mandibles, distinct
+  maxillulae, and locomotor abdominal appendages. Without ectodermal
+  genital ducts. Young closely resemble adults.
+
+  The sub-class contains a single
+
+    Order: _Aptera_,
+
+  which is divided into two sub-orders:
+
+  1. _Thysanura_ (Bristle-tails): with ten abdominal segments; number of
+  abdominal appendages variable. Cerci prominent. Developed tracheal
+  system.
+
+  2. _Collembola_ (Spring-tails): with six abdominal segments;
+  appendages of the first forming an adherent ventral tube, those of the
+  third a minute "catch," those of the fourth (fused basally) a
+  "spring." Tracheal system reduced or absent.
+
+    Sub-class: EXOPTERYGOTA.
+
+  Hexapoda mostly with wings, the wingless forms clearly degraded.
+  Maxillulae rarely distinct. No locomotor abdominal appendages. The
+  wing-rudiments develop visibly outside the cuticle. Young like or
+  unlike parents.
+
+    Order: _Dermaptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; minute but distinct-maxillulae; second maxillae
+  incompletely fused. When wings are present, the fore-wings are small
+  firm elytra, beneath which the delicate hind-wings are complexly
+  folded. Many forms wingless. Genital ducts entirely mesodermal. Cerci
+  always present; usually modified into unjointed forceps. Numerous (30
+  or more) Malpighian tubes. Young resembling parents.
+
+  Includes two families--the _Forficulidae_ or _earwigs_ (q.v.) and the
+  _Hemimeridae_.
+
+    Order: _Orthoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; vestigial maxillulae; second maxillae incompletely
+  fused. Wings usually well developed, net-veined; the fore-wings of
+  firmer texture than the hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise
+  beneath them. Jointed cerci always present; ovipositor well developed.
+  Malpighian tubes numerous (100-150). Young resemble parents.
+
+  Includes stick and leaf insects, cockroaches, mantids, grasshoppers,
+  locusts and crickets (see ORTHOPTERA).
+
+    Order: _Plecoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings
+  similar in texture to hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise.
+  Jointed, often elongate, cerci. Numerous (50-60) Malpighian tubes.
+  Young resembling parents, but aquatic in habit, breathing dissolved
+  air by thoracic tracheal gills.
+
+  Includes the single family of the _Perlidae_ (Stone-flies), formerly
+  grouped with the Neuroptera.
+
+    Order: _Isoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings
+  similar in shape and texture to hind-wings, which do not fold. In most
+  species the majority of individuals are wingless. Short, jointed
+  cerci. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Young resembling adults;
+  terrestrial throughout life.
+
+  Includes two families, formerly reckoned among the Neuroptera--the
+  _Embiidae_ and the _Termitidae_ or "White Ants" (see TERMITE).
+
+    Order: _Corrodentia_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused; maxillulae often
+  distinct. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes.
+
+  Includes two sub-orders, formerly regarded as Neuroptera:--
+
+  1. _Copeognatha_: Corrodentia with delicate cuticle. Wings usually
+  developed; the fore-wings much larger than the hind-wings. One family,
+  the _Psocidae_ (Book-lice). These minute insects are found amongst old
+  books and furniture.
+
+  2. _Mallophaga_: Parasitic wingless Corrodentia (Bird-lice).
+
+    Order: _Ephemeroptera_.
+
+  Jaws vestigial. Fore-wings much larger than hind-wings. Elongate,
+  jointed cerci. Genital ducts paired and entirely mesodermal.
+  Malpighian tubes numerous (40). Aquatic larvae with distinct
+  maxillulae, breathing dissolved air by abdominal tracheal gills.
+  Penultimate instar a flying sub-imago. [Includes the single family of
+  the _Ephemeridae_ or may-flies. See also NEUROPTERA, in which this
+  order was formerly comprised.]
+
+    Order: _Odonata_.
+
+  Biting mandibles. Wings of both pairs closely alike; firm and glassy
+  in texture. Prominent, unjointed cerci, male with genital armature on
+  second abdominal segment. Malpighian tubes numerous (50-60). Aquatic
+  larvae with caudal leaf-gills or with rectal tracheal system.
+
+  Includes the three families of dragon-flies. Formerly comprised among
+  the Neuroptera.
+
+    Order: _Thysanoptera_.
+
+  Piercing mandibles, retracted within the head-capsule. First maxillae
+  also modified as piercers; maxillae of both pairs with distinct palps.
+  Both pairs of wings similar, narrow and fringed. Four Malpighian
+  tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor usually present. Young resembling
+  parents, but penultimate instar passive and enclosed in a filmy
+  pellicle.
+
+  Includes three families of Thrips (see THYSANOPTERA).
+
+    Order: _Hemiptera_.
+
+  Mandibles and first maxillae modified as piercers; second maxillae
+  fused to form a jointed, grooved rostrum. Wings usually present. Four
+  Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor developed.
+
+  Includes two sub-orders:--
+
+  1. _Heteroptera_: Rostrum not in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
+  Fore-wings partly coriaceous. Young resembling adults.
+
+  Includes the bugs, terrestrial and aquatic.
+
+  2. _Homoptera_: Rostrum in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
+  Fore-wings uniform in texture. Young often larvae. Penultimate instar
+  passive in some cases.
+
+  Includes the cicads, aphides and scale-insects (see HEMIPTERA).
+
+    Order: _Anoplura_.
+
+  Piercing jaws modified and reduced, a tubular, protrusible
+  sucking-trunk being developed; mouth with hooks. Wingless, parasitic
+  forms. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. Young resembling adults.
+
+  Includes the family of the Lice (_Pediculidae_), often reckoned as
+  Hemiptera (q.v.). See also LOUSE.
+
+    Sub-class: ENDOPTERYGOTA.
+
+  Hexapoda mostly with wings; the wingless forms clearly degraded or
+  modified. Maxillulae vestigial or absent. No locomotor abdominal
+  appendages (except in certain larvae). Young animals always unlike
+  parents, the wing-rudiments developing beneath the larval cuticle and
+  only appearing in a penultimate pupal instar, which takes no food and
+  is usually passive.
+
+    Order: _Neuroptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae completely fused. Prothorax large
+  and free. Membranous, net-veined wings, those of the two pairs closely
+  alike. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Larva
+  campodeiform, usually feeding by suction (exceptionally
+  hypermetamorphic with subsequent eruciform instars). Pupa free.
+
+  Includes the alder-flies, ant-lions and lacewing-flies. See
+  NEUROPTERA.
+
+    Order: _Coleoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae very intimately fused. Prothorax
+  large and free. Fore-wings modified into firm elytra, beneath which
+  the membranous hind-wings (when present) can be folded. Cerci absent.
+  Four or six Malpighian tubes. Larva campodeiform or eruciform. Pupa
+  free.
+
+  Includes the beetles and the parasitic _Stylopidae_, often regarded as
+  a distinct order (_Strepsiptera_). (See COLEOPTERA.)
+
+    Order: _Mecaptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; first maxillae elongate; second maxillae completely
+  fused. Prothorax small. Two pairs of similar, membranous wings, with
+  predominantly longitudinal neuration. Six Malpighian tubes. Larva
+  eruciform. Pupa free. Cerci present.
+
+  Includes the single family of _Panorpidae_ (scorpion-flies), often
+  comprised among the Neuroptera.
+
+    Order: _Trichoptera_.
+
+  Mandibles present in pupa, vestigial in imago; maxillae suctorial
+  without specialization; first maxillae with lacinia, galea and palp.
+  Prothorax small. Two pairs of membranous, hair-covered wings, with
+  predominantly longitudinal neuration. Larvae aquatic and eruciform.
+  Pupa free. Six Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.
+
+  Includes the caddis-flies. See NEUROPTERA, among which these insects
+  were formerly comprised.
+
+    Order: _Lepidoptera_.
+
+  Mandibles absent in imago, very exceptionally present in pupa; first
+  maxillae nearly always without laciniae and often without palps, or
+  only with vestigial palps, their galeae elongated and grooved inwardly
+  so as to form a sucking trunk. Prothorax small. Wings with
+  predominantly longitudinal neuration, covered with flattened scales.
+  Fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Cerci absent. Four (rarely 6 or 8)
+  Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform, with rarely more than five pairs
+  of abdominal prolegs. Pupa free in the lowest families, in most cases
+  incompletely or completely obtect.
+
+  Includes the moths and butterflies. See LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+    Order: _Diptera_.
+
+  Mandibles rarely present, adapted for piercing; first maxillae with
+  palps; second maxillae forming with hypopharynx a suctorial proboscis.
+  Prothorax small, intimately united to mesothorax. Fore-wings well
+  developed; hind-wings reduced to stalked knobs ("halteres"). Cerci
+  present but usually reduced. Four Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform
+  without thoracic legs, or vermiform without head-capsule. Pupa
+  incompletely obtect or free, and enclosed in the hardened cuticle of
+  the last larval instar (puparium).
+
+  Includes the two-winged flies (see DIPTERA), which may be divided into
+  two sub-orders:--
+
+  1. _Orthorrhapha_: Larva eruciform. Cuticle of pupa or puparium
+  splitting longitudinally down the back, to allow escape of imago.
+
+  Comprises the midges, gnats, crane-flies, gad-flies, &c.
+
+  2. _Cyclorrhapha_: Larva vermiform (no head-capsule). Puparium opening
+  by an anterior "lid."
+
+  Comprises the hover-flies, flesh-flies, bot-flies, &c.
+
+    Order: _Siphonaptera_.
+
+  Mandibles fused into a piercer; first maxillae developed as piercers;
+  palps of both pairs of maxillae present; hypopharynx wanting.
+  Prothorax large. Wings absent or vestigial. Larva eruciform, limbless.
+
+  Includes the fleas.
+
+    Order: _Hymenoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely or completely fused;
+  often forming a suctorial proboscis. Prothorax small, and united to
+  mesothorax. First abdominal segment united to metathorax. Wings
+  membranous, fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Ovipositor always well
+  developed, and often modified into a sting. Numerous (20-150)
+  Malpighian tubes (in rare cases, 6-12 only). Larva eruciform, with
+  seven or eight pairs of abdominal prolegs, or entirely legless. Pupa
+  free.
+
+  Includes two sub-orders:--
+
+  1. _Symphyta_: Abdomen not basally constricted. Larvae caterpillars
+  with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs.
+
+  Comprises the saw-flies.
+
+  2. _Apocrita_: Abdomen markedly constricted at second segment. Larvae
+  legless grubs.
+
+  Comprises gall-flies, ichneumon-flies, ants, wasps, bees. See
+  HYMENOPTERA.
+
+
+GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
+
+The classification just given has been drawn up with reference to
+existing insects, but the great majority of the extinct forms that have
+been discovered can be referred with some confidence to the same orders,
+and in many cases to recent families. The Hexapoda, being aerial,
+terrestrial and fresh-water animals, are but occasionally preserved in
+stratified rocks, and our knowledge of extinct members of the class is
+therefore fragmentary, while the description, as insects, of various
+obscure fossils, which are perhaps not even Arthropods, has not tended
+to the advancement of this branch of zoology. Nevertheless, much
+progress has been made. Several Silurian fossils have been identified as
+insects, including a Thysanuran from North America, but upon these
+considerable doubt has been cast.
+
+The Devonian rocks of Canada (New Brunswick) have yielded several
+fossils which are undoubtedly wings of Hexapods. These have been
+described by S. H. Scudder, and include gigantic forms related to the
+Ephemeroptera.
+
+In the Carboniferous strata (Coal measures) remains of Hexapods become
+numerous and quite indisputable. Many European forms of this age have
+been described by C. Brongniart, and American by S. H. Scudder. The
+latter has established, for all the Palaeozoic insects, an order
+Palaeodictyoptera, there being a closer similarity between the
+fore-wings and the hind-wings than is to be seen in most living orders
+of Hexapoda, while affinities are shown to several of these
+orders--notably the Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Hemiptera. It
+is probable that many of these Carboniferous insects might be referred
+to the Isoptera, while others would fall into the existing orders to
+which they are allied, with some modification of our present diagnoses.
+Of special interest are cockroach-like forms, with two pairs of similar
+membranous wings and a long ovipositor, and gigantic insects allied to
+the Odonata, that measured 2 ft. across the outspread wings. A
+remarkable fossil from the Scottish Coal-measures (_Lithomantis_) had
+apparently small wing-like structures on the prothorax, and in allied
+genera small veined outgrowths--like tracheal gills--occurred on the
+abdominal segments. To the Permian period belongs a remarkable genus
+_Eugereon_, that combines hemipteroid jaws with orthopteroid
+wing-neuration. With the dawn of the Mesozoic epoch we reach Hexapods
+that can be unhesitatingly referred to existing orders. From the Trias
+of Colorado, Scudder has described cockroaches intermediate between
+their Carboniferous precursors and their present-day descendants, while
+the existence of endopterygotous Hexapods is shown by the remains of
+Coleoptera of several families. In the Jurassic rocks are found
+Ephemeroptera and Odonata, as well as Hemiptera, referable to existing
+families, some representatives of which had already appeared in the
+oldest of the Jurassic ages--the Lias. To the Lias also can be traced
+back the Neuroptera, the Trichoptera, the orthorrhaphous Diptera and,
+according to the determination of certain obscure fossils, also the
+Hymenoptera (ants). The Lithographic stone of Kimmeridgian age, at
+Solenhofen in Bavaria, is especially rich in insect remains,
+cyclorrhaphous Diptera appearing here for the first time. In Tertiary
+times the higher Diptera, besides Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, referable
+to existing families, become fairly abundant. Numerous fossil insects
+preserved in the amber of the Baltic Oligocene have been described by G.
+L. Mayr and others, while Scudder has studied the rich Oligocene faunas
+of Colorado (Florissant) and Wyoming (Green River). The Oeningen beds of
+Baden, of Miocene age, have also yielded an extensive insect fauna,
+described fifty years ago by O. Heer. Further details of the geological
+history of the Hexapoda will be found in the special articles on the
+various orders. Fragmentary as the records are, they show that the
+Exopterygota preceded the Endopterygota in the evolution of the class,
+and that among the Endopterygota those orders in which the greatest
+difference exists between imago and larva--the Lepidoptera, Diptera and
+Hymenoptera--were the latest to take their rise.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
+
+The class Hexapoda has a world-wide range, and so have most of its
+component orders. The Aptera have perhaps the most extensive
+distribution of all animals, being found in Franz Josef Land and South
+Victoria Land, on the snows of Alpine glaciers, and in the depths of the
+most extensive caves. Most of the families and a large proportion of the
+genera of insects are exceedingly widespread, but a study of the genera
+and species in any of the more important families shows that faunas can
+be distinguished whose headquarters agree fairly with the regions that
+have been proposed to express the distribution of the higher
+vertebrates. Many insects, however, can readily extend their range, and
+a careful study of their distribution leads us to discriminate between
+faunas rather than definitely to map regions. A large and dominant
+Holoarctic fauna, with numerous subdivisions, ranges over the great
+northern continents, and is characterized by the abundance of certain
+families like the _Carabidae_ and _Staphylinidae_ among the Coleoptera
+and the _Tenthredinidae_ among the Hymenoptera. The southern territory
+held by this fauna is invaded by genera and species distinctly tropical.
+Oriental types range far northwards into China and Japan. Ethiopian
+forms invade the Mediterranean area. Neotropical and distinctively
+Sonoran insects mingle with members of the Holoarctic fauna across a
+wide "transition zone" in North America. "Wallace's line" dividing the
+Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan sub-regions is frequently transgressed
+in the range of Malayan insects. The Australian fauna is rich in
+characteristic and peculiar genera, and New Zealand, while possessing
+some remarkable insects of its own, lacks entirely several families with
+an almost world-wide range--for example, the _Notodontidae_,
+_Lasiocampidae_, and other families of Lepidoptera. Interesting
+relationships between the Ethiopian and Oriental, the Neotropical and
+West African, the Patagonian and New Zealand faunas suggest great
+changes in the distribution of land and water, and throw doubt on the
+doctrine of the permanence of continental areas and oceanic basins.
+Holoarctic types reappear on the Andes and in South Africa, and even in
+New Zealand. The study of the Hexapoda of oceanic islands is full of
+interest. After the determination of a number of cosmopolitan insects
+that may well have been artificially introduced, there remains a large
+proportion of endemic species--sometimes referable to distinct
+genera--which suggest a high antiquity for the truly insular faunas.
+
+
+RELATIONSHIPS AND PHYLOGENY
+
+The Hexapoda form a very clearly defined class of the Arthropoda, and
+many recent writers have suggested that they must have arisen
+independently of other Arthropods from annelid worms, and that the
+Arthropoda must, therefore, be regarded as an "unnatural," polyphyletic
+assemblage. The cogent arguments against this view are set forth in the
+article on Arthropoda. A near relationship between the Apterygota and
+the Crustacea has been ably advocated by H. J. Hansen (1893). It is
+admitted on all hands that the Hexapoda are akin to the Chilopoda.
+Verhoeff has lately (1904) put forward the view that there are really
+six segments in the hexapodan thorax and twenty in the abdomen--the
+cerci belonging to the seventeenth abdominal segment thus showing a
+close agreement with the centipede _Scolopendra_. On the other hand, G.
+H. Carpenter (1899, 1902-1904) has lately endeavoured to show an exact
+numerical correspondence in segmentation between the Hexapoda, the
+Crustacea, the Arachnida, and the most primitive of the Diplopoda. On
+either view it may be believed that the Hexapoda arose with the allied
+classes from a primitive arthropod stock, while the relationships of the
+class are with the Crustacea, the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda, rather
+than with the Arachnida.
+
+_Nature of Primitive Hexapoda._--Two divergent views have been held as
+to the nature of the original hexapod stock. Some of those zoologists
+who look to _Peripatus_, or a similar worm-like form, as representing
+the direct ancestors of the Hexapoda have laid stress on a larva like
+the caterpillar of a moth or saw-fly as representing a primitive stage.
+On the other hand, the view of F. Müller and F. Brauer, that the
+Thysanura represent more nearly than any other existing insects the
+ancestors of the class, has been accepted by the great majority of
+students. And there can be little doubt that this belief is justified.
+The caterpillar, or the maggot, is a specialized larval form
+characteristic of the most highly developed orders, while the
+campodeiform larva is the starting-point for the more primitive insects.
+The occurrence in the hypermetamorphic Coleoptera (see _supra_) of a
+campodeiform preceding an eruciform stage in the life-history is most
+suggestive. Taken in connexion with the likeness of the young among the
+more generalized orders to the adults, it indicates clearly a
+thysanuroid starting-point for the evolution of the hexapod orders. And
+we must infer further that the specialization of the higher orders has
+been accompanied by an increase in the extent of the metamorphosis--a
+very exceptional condition among animals generally, as has been ably
+pointed out by L. C. Miall (1895).
+
+_Origin of Wings._--The post-embryonic growth of Hexapods with or
+without metamorphosis is accompanied in most cases by the acquisition of
+wings. These organs, thus acquired during the lifetime of the
+individual, must have been in some way acquired during the evolution of
+the class. Many students of the group, following Brauer, have regarded
+the Apterygota as representing the original wingless progenitors of the
+Pterygota, and the many primitive characters shown by the former group
+lend support to this view. On the other hand, it has been argued that
+the presence of wings in a vast majority of the Hexapoda suggests their
+presence in the ancestors of the whole class. It is most unlikely that
+wings have been acquired independently by various orders of Hexapoda,
+and if we regard the Thysanura as the slightly modified representatives
+of a primitively wingless stock, we must postulate the acquisition of
+wings by some early offshoot of that stock, an offshoot whence the whole
+group of the Pterygota took its rise. How wings were acquired by these
+primitive Pterygota must remain for the present a subject for
+speculation. Insect wings are specialized outgrowths of certain thoracic
+segments, and are quite unrepresented in any other class of Arthropods.
+They are not, therefore, like the wings of birds, modified from some
+pre-existing structures (the fore-limbs) common to their phylum; they
+are new and peculiar structures. Comparison of the tracheated wings with
+the paired tracheated outgrowths on the abdominal segments of the
+aquatic campodeiform larva of may-flies (see fig. 27) led C. Gegenbaur
+to the brilliant suggestion that wings might be regarded as specialized
+and transformed gills. But a survey of the Hexapoda as a whole, and
+especially a comparative study of the tracheal system, can hardly leave
+room for doubt that this system is primitively adapted for atmospheric
+breathing, and that the presence of tracheal gills in larvae must be
+regarded as a special adaptation for temporary aquatic life. The origin
+of insect wings remains, therefore, a mystery, deepened by the
+difficulty of imagining any probable use for thoracic outgrowths,
+comparable to the wing-rudiments of the Exopterygota, in the early
+stages of their evolution.
+
+_Origin of Metamorphosis._--In connexion with the question whether
+metamorphosis has been gradually acquired, we have to consider two
+aspects, viz. the bionomic nature of metamorphosis, and to what extent
+it existed in primitive insects. Bionomically, metamorphosis may be
+defined as the sum of adaptations that have gradually fitted the larva
+(caterpillar or maggot) for one kind of life, the fly for another. So
+that we may conclude that the factors of evolution would favour its
+development. With regard to its occurrence in primitive insects, our
+knowledge of the geological record is most imperfect, but so far as it
+goes it supports the conclusion that holometabolism (i.e. extreme
+metamorphosis) is a comparatively recent phenomenon of insect life. None
+of the groups of existing Endopterygota have been traced with certainty
+farther back than the Mesozoic epoch, and all the numerous Palaeozoic
+insect-fossils seem to belong to forms that possessed only imperfect
+metamorphosis. The only doubt arises from the existence of insect
+remains, referred to the order Coleoptera, in the Silesian Culm of
+Steinkunzendorf near Reichenbach. The oldest larva known, _Mormolucoides
+articulatus_, is from the New Red Sandstone of Connecticut; it belongs
+to the _Sialidae_, one of the lowest forms of Holometabola. It is now,
+in fact, generally admitted that metamorphosis has been acquired
+comparatively recently, and Scudder in his review of the earliest fossil
+insects states that "their metamorphoses were simple and incomplete, the
+young leaving the egg with the form of the parent, but without wings,
+the assumption of which required no quiescent stage before maturity."
+
+It has been previously remarked that the phenomena of holometabolism are
+connected with the development of wings inside the body (except in the
+case of the fleas, where there are no wings in the perfect insect). Of
+existing insects 90% belong to the Endopterygota. At the same time we
+have no evidence that any Endopterygota existed amongst Palaeozoic
+insects, so that the phenomena of endopterygotism are comparatively
+recent, and we are led to infer that the Endopterygota owe their origin
+to the older Exopterygota. In Endopterygota the wings commence their
+development as invaginations of the hypodermis, while in Exopterygota
+the wings begin--and always remain--as external folds or evaginations.
+The two modes of growth are directly opposed, and at first sight it
+appears that this fact negatives the view that Endopterygota have been
+derived from Exopterygota.
+
+Only three hypotheses as to the origin of Endopterygota can be suggested
+as possible, viz.:--(1) That some of the Palaeozoic insects, though we
+infer them to have been exopterygotous, were really endopterygotous, and
+were the actual ancestors of the existing Endopterygota; (2) that
+Endopterygota are not descended from Exopterygota, but were derived
+directly from ancestors that were never winged; (3) that the predominant
+division--i.e. Endopterygota--of insects of the present epoch are
+descended from the predominant--if not the sole--group that existed in
+the Palaeozoic epoch, viz. the Exopterygota. The first hypothesis is not
+negatived by direct evidence, for we do not actually know the ontogeny
+of any of the Palaeozoic insects; it is, however, rendered highly
+improbable by the modern views as to the nature and origin of wings in
+insects, and by the fact that the Endopterygota include none of the
+lower existing forms of insects. The second hypothesis--to the effect
+that Endopterygota are the descendants of apterous insects that had
+never possessed wings (i.e. the Apterygogenea of Brauer and others,
+though we prefer the shorter term Apterygota)--is rendered improbable
+from the fact that existing Apterygota are related to Exopterygota, not
+to Endopterygota, and by the knowledge that has been gained as to the
+morphology and development of wings, which suggest that--if we may so
+phrase it--were an apterygotous insect gradually to develop wings, it
+would be on the exopterygotous system. From all points of view it
+appears, therefore, probable that Endopterygota are descended from
+Exopterygota, and we are brought to the question as to the way in which
+this has occurred.
+
+It is almost impossible to believe that any species of insect that has
+for a long period developed the wings outside the body could change this
+mode of growth suddenly for an internal mode of development of the
+organs in question, for, as we have already explained, the two modes of
+growth are directly opposed. The explanation has to be sought in another
+direction. Now there are many forms of Exopterygota in which the
+creatures are almost or quite destitute of wings. This phenomenon occurs
+among species found at high elevations, among others found in arid or
+desert regions, and in some cases in the female sex only, the male being
+winged and the female wingless. This last state is very frequent in
+_Blattidae_, which were amongst the most abundant of Palaeozoic insects.
+The wingless forms in question are always allied to winged forms, and
+there is every reason to believe that they have been really derived from
+winged forms. There are also insects (fleas, &c.) in which metamorphosis
+of a "complete" character exists, though the insects never develop
+wings. These cases render it highly probable that insects may in some
+circumstances become wingless, though their ancestors were winged. Such
+insects have been styled anapterygotous. In these facts we have one
+possible clue to the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism,
+namely, by an intermediate period of anapterygotism.
+
+Although we cannot yet define the conditions under which exopterygotous
+wings are suppressed or unusually developed, yet we know that such
+fluctuations occur. There are, in fact, existing forms of Exopterygota
+that are usually wingless, and that nevertheless appear in certain
+seasons or localities with wings. We are therefore entitled to assume
+that the suppressed wings of Exopterygota tend to reappear; and,
+speaking of the past, we may say that if after a period of suppression
+the wings began to reappear as hypodermal buds while a more rigid
+pressure was exerted by the cuticle, the growth of the buds would
+necessarily be inwards, and we should have incipient endopterygotism.
+The change that is required to transform Exopterygota into Endopterygota
+is merely that a cell of hypodermis should proliferate inwards instead
+of outwards, or that a minute hypodermal evaginated bud should be forced
+to the interior of the body by the pressure of a contracted cuticle.
+
+If it should be objected that the wings so developed would be
+rudimentary, and that there would be nothing to encourage their
+development into perfect functional organs, we may remind the reader
+that we have already pointed out that imperfect wings of Exopterygota
+do, even at the present time under certain conditions, become perfect
+organs; and we may also add that there are, even among existing
+Endopterygota, species in which the wings are usually vestiges and yet
+sometimes become perfectly developed. In fact, almost every condition
+that is required for the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism
+exists among the insects that surround us.
+
+But it may perhaps be considered improbable that organs like the wings,
+having once been lost, should have been reacquired on the large scale
+suggested by the theory just put forward. If so, there is an alternative
+method by which the endopterygotous may have arisen from the
+exopterygotous condition. The sub-imago of the Ephemeroptera suggests
+that a moult, after the wings had become functional, was at one time
+general among the Hexapoda, and that the resting nymph of the
+Thysanoptera or the pupa of the Endopterygota represents a formerly
+active stage in the life-history. Further, although the wing-rudiments
+appear externally in an early instar of an exopterygotous insect, the
+earliest instars are wingless and wing-rudiments have been previously
+developing beneath the cuticle, growing however outwards, not inwards as
+in the larva of an endopterygote. The change from an exopterygote to an
+endopterygote development could, therefore, be brought about by the
+gradual postponement to a later and later instar of the appearance of
+the wing-rudiments outside the body, and their correlated growth inwards
+as imaginal disks. For in the post-embryonic development of the
+ancestors of the Endopterygota we may imagine two or three instars with
+wing-rudiments to have existed, the last represented by the sub-imago of
+the may-flies. As the life-conditions and feeding-habits of the larva
+and imago become constantly more divergent, the appearance of the
+wing-rudiments would be postponed to the pre-imaginal instar, and that
+instar would become predominantly passive.
+
+_Relationships of the Orders._--Reasons have been given for regarding
+the Thysanura as representing, more nearly than any other living group,
+the primitive stock of the Hexapoda. It is believed that insects of this
+group are represented among Silurian fossils. We may conclude,
+therefore, that they were preceded, in Cambrian times or earlier, by
+Arthropods possessing well developed appendages on all the
+trunk-segments. Of such Arthropods the living Symphyla--of which the
+delicate little _Scutigerella_ is a fairly well-known example--give us
+some representation.
+
+No indications beyond those furnished by comparative anatomy help us to
+unravel the phylogeny of the Collembola. In most respects, the shortened
+abdomen, for example, they are more specialized than the Thysanura, and
+most of the features in which they appear to be simple, such as the
+absence of a tracheal system and of compound eyes, can be explained as
+the result of degradation. In their insunken mouth and their jaws
+retracted within the head-capsule, the Collembola resemble the
+entotrophous division of the Thysanura (see APTERA), from which they are
+probably descended.
+
+From the thysanuroid stock of the Apterygota, the Exopterygota took
+their rise. We have undoubted fossil evidence that winged insects lived
+in the Devonian and became numerous in the Carboniferous period. These
+ancient Exopterygota were synthetic in type, and included insects that
+may, with probability, be regarded as ancestral to most of the existing
+orders. It is hard to arrange the Exopterygota in a linear series, for
+some of the orders that are remarkably primitive in some respects are
+rather highly specialized in others. As regards wing-structure, the
+Isoptera with the two pairs closely similar are the most primitive of
+all winged insects; while in the paired mesodermal genital ducts, the
+elongate cerci and the conspicuous maxillulae of their larvae the
+Ephemeroptera retain notable ancestral characters. But the vestigial
+jaws, numerous Malpighian tubes, and specialized wings of may-flies
+forbid us to consider the order as on the whole primitive. So the
+Dermaptera, which retain distinct maxillulae and have no ectodermal
+genital ducts, have either specialized or aborted wings and a large
+number of Malpighian tubes. The Corrodentia retain vestigial maxillulae
+and two pairs of Malpighian tubes, but the wings are somewhat
+specialized in the Copeognatha and absent in the degraded and parasitic
+Mallophaga. The Plecoptera and Orthoptera agree in their numerous
+Malpighian tubes and in the development of a folding anal area in the
+hind-wing. As shown by the number and variety of species, the Orthoptera
+are the most dominant order of this group. Eminently terrestrial in
+habit, the differentiation of their fore-wings and hind-wings can be
+traced from Carboniferous, isopteroid ancestors through intermediate
+Mesozoic forms. The Plecoptera resemble the Ephemeroptera and Odonata in
+the aquatic habits of their larvae, and by the occasional presence of
+tufted thoracic gills in the imago exhibit an aquatic character unknown
+in any other winged insects. The Odonata are in many imaginal and larval
+characters highly specialized; yet they probably arose with the
+Ephemeroptera as a divergent offshoot of the same primitive isopteroid
+stock which developed more directly into the living Isoptera,
+Plecoptera, Dermaptera and Orthoptera.
+
+All these orders agree in the possession of biting mandibles, while
+their second maxillae have the inner and outer lobes usually distinct.
+The Hemiptera, with their piercing mandibles and first maxillae and with
+their second maxillae fused to form a jointed beak, stand far apart from
+them. This order can be traced with certainty back to the early Jurassic
+epoch, while the Permian fossil _Eugereon_, and the living
+order--specially modified in many respects--of the Thysanoptera indicate
+steps by which the aberrant suctorial and piercing mouth of the
+Hemiptera may have been developed from the biting mouth of primitive
+Isopteroids, by the elongation of some parts and the suppression of
+others. The Anoplura may probably be regarded as a degraded offshoot of
+the Hemiptera.
+
+The importance of great cardinal features of the life-history as
+indicative of relationship leads us to consider the Endopterygota as a
+natural assemblage of orders. The occurrence of weevils--among the most
+specialized of the Coleoptera--in Triassic rocks shows us that this
+great order of metabolous insects had become differentiated into its
+leading families at the dawn of the Mesozoic era, and that we must go
+far back into the Palaeozoic for the origin of the Endopterygota. In
+this view we are confirmed by the impossibility of deriving the
+Endopterygota from any living order of Exopterygota. We conclude,
+therefore, that the primitive stock of the former sub-class became early
+differentiated from that of the latter. So widely have most of the
+higher orders of the Hexapoda now diverged from each other, that it is
+exceedingly difficult in most cases to trace their relationships with
+any confidence. The Neuroptera, with their similar fore- and hind-wings
+and their campodeiform larvae, seem to stand nearest to the presumed
+isopteroid ancestry, but the imago and larva are often specialized. The
+campodeiform larvae of many Coleoptera are indeed far more primitive
+than the neuropteran larvae, and suggest to us that the
+Coleoptera--modified as their wing-structure has become--arose very
+early from the primitive metabolous stock. The antiquity of the
+Coleoptera is further shown by the great diversity of larval form and
+habit that has arisen in the order, and the proof afforded by the
+hypermetamorphic beetles that the campodeiform preceded the eruciform
+larva has already been emphasized.
+
+In all the remaining orders of the Endopterygota the larva is eruciform
+or vermiform. The Mecaptera, with their predominantly longitudinal
+wing-nervuration, serve as a link between the Neuroptera and the
+Trichoptera, their retention of small cerci being an archaic character
+which stamps them as synthetic in type, but does not necessarily remove
+them from orders which agree with them in most points of structure but
+which have lost the cerci. The standing of the Trichoptera in a position
+almost ancestral to the Lepidoptera is one of the assured results of
+recent morphological study, the mobile mandibulate pupa and the
+imperfectly suctorial maxillae of the Trichoptera reappearing in the
+lowest families of the Lepidoptera. This latter order, which is not
+certainly known to have existed before Tertiary times, has become the
+most highly specialized of all insects in the structure of the pupa.
+Diptera of the sub-order Orthorrhapha occur in the Lias and Cyclorrhapha
+in the Kimmeridgian. The order must therefore be ancient, and as no
+evidence is forthcoming as to the mode of reduction of the hind-wings,
+nor as to the stages by which the suctorial mouth-organs became
+specialized, it is difficult to trace the exact relationship of the
+group, but the presence of cerci and a degree of correspondence in the
+nervuration of the fore-wings suggest the Mecaptera as possible allies.
+There seems no doubt that the suctorial mouth-organs of the Diptera have
+arisen quite independently from those of the Lepidoptera, for in the
+former order the sucker is formed from the second maxillae, in the
+latter from the first. The eruciform larva of the Orthorrhapha leads on
+to the headless vermiform maggot of the Cyclorrhapha, and in the latter
+sub-order we find metamorphosis carried to its extreme point, the muscid
+flies being the most highly specialized of all the Hexapoda as regards
+structure, while their maggots are the most degraded of all insect
+larvae. The Siphonaptera appear by the form of the larva and the nature
+of the metamorphosis to be akin to the Orthorrhapha--in which division
+they have indeed been included by many students. They differ from the
+Diptera, however, in the general presence of palps to both pairs of
+maxillae, and in the absence of a hypopharynx, so it is possible that
+their relationship to the Diptera is less close than has been supposed.
+The affinities of the Hymenoptera afford another problem of much
+difficulty. They differ from other Endopterygota in the multiplication
+of their Malpighian tubes, and from all other Hexapoda in the union of
+the first abdominal segment with the thorax. Specialized as they are in
+form, development and habit, they retain mandibles for biting, and in
+their lower sub-order--the Symphyta--the maxillae are hardly more
+modified than those of the Orthoptera. From the evidence of fossils it
+seems that the higher sub-order--Apocrita--can be traced back to the
+Lias, so that we believe the Hymenoptera to be more ancient than the
+Diptera, and far more ancient than the Lepidoptera. They afford an
+example--paralleled in other classes of the animal kingdom--of an order
+which, though specialized in some respects, retains many primitive
+characters, and has won its way to dominance rather by perfection of
+behaviour, and specially by the development of family life and helpful
+socialism, than by excessive elaboration of structure. We would trace
+the Hymenoptera back therefore to the primitive endopterygote stock. The
+specialization of form in the constricted abdomen and in the suctorial
+"tongue" that characterizes the higher families of the order is
+correlated with the habit of careful egg-laying and provision of food
+for the young. In some way it is assured among the highest of the
+Hexapoda--the Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera--that the larva finds
+itself amid a rich food-supply. And thus perfection of structure and
+instinct in the imago has been accompanied by degradation in the larva,
+and by an increase in the extent of transformation and in the degree of
+reconstruction before and during the pupal stage. The fascinating
+difficulties presented to the student by the metamorphosis of the
+Hexapoda are to some extent explained, as he ponders over the evolution
+of the class.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the older classical writings on the
+  Hexapoda are given in the article on Entomology. At present about a
+  thousand works and papers are published annually, and in this place it
+  is possible to enumerate only a few of the most important among
+  (mostly) recent memoirs that bear upon the Hexapoda generally. Further
+  references will be found appended to the special articles on the
+  orders (APTERA, COLEOPTERA, &c.).
+
+  General Works.--A. S. Packard, _Text-book of Entomology_ (London,
+  1898); V. Graber, _Die Insekten_ (Munich, 1877-1879); D. Sharp,
+  _Cambridge Natural History_, vols. v., vi. (London, 1895-1899); L. C.
+  Miall and A. Denny, _Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach_
+  (London, 1886); B. T. Lowne, _The Anatomy, Physiology, Morphology and
+  Development of the Blow-fly_ (2 vols., London, 1890-1895); G. H.
+  Carpenter, _Insects: their Structure and Life_ (London, 1899); L. F.
+  Henneguy, _Les Insectes_ (Paris, 1904); J. W. Folsom, _Entomology_
+  (New York and London, 1906); A. Berlese, _Gli Insetti_ (Milan, 1906),
+  &c. (Extensive bibliographies will be found in several of the above.)
+
+  Head and Appendages.--J. C. Savigny, _Mémoires sur les animaux sans
+  vertèbres_ (Paris, 1816); C. Janet, _Essai sur la constitution
+  morphologique de la tête de l'insecte_ (Paris, 1899); J. H. Comstock
+  and C. Kochi (_American Naturalist_, xxxvi., 1902); V. L. Kellogg
+  (ibid.); W. A. Riley (_American Naturalist_, xxxviii., 1904); F.
+  Meinert (_Entom. Tidsskr._ i., 1880); H. J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi.,
+  1893); J. B. Smith (_Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc._ xix., 1896); H. Holmgren
+  (_Zeitsch. wiss. Zoolog._ lxxvi., 1904); K. W. Verhoeff (_Abhandl. K.
+  Leop.-Carol. Akad._ lxxxiv., 1905).
+
+  Thorax, Legs and Wings.--K. W. Verhoeff (_Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol.
+  Akad._ lxxxii., 1903); F. Voss (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ lxxviii., 1905);
+  F. Dahl (_Arch. f. Naturgesch._ 1, 1884); J. Demoor (_Arch. de biol._
+  x., 1890); J. Redtenbacher (_Ann. Kais. naturhist. Museum, Wien_, i.,
+  1886); R. von Lendenfeld (_S. B. Akad. Wissens., Wien_, lxxxiii.,
+  1881); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham (_Amer. Nat._, xxxii.,
+  xxxiii., 1898-1899); C. W. Woodworth (_Univ. California Entom. Bull._
+  i., 1906).
+
+  Abdomen and Appendages.--E. Haase (_Morph. Jahrb._ xv., 1889); R.
+  Heymons (_Morph. Jahrb._ xxiv., 1896; _Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad._
+  lxxiv., 1899); K. W. Verhoeff (_Zool. Anz._ xix., xx., 1896-1897); S.
+  A. Peytoureau, _Contribution à l'étude de la morphologie de l'armure
+  génitale des insectes_ (Bordeaux, 1895); H. Dewitz (_Zeits. wiss.
+  Zool._ xxv., xxviii., 1874, 1877); E. Zander (ibid. lxvi., lxvii.,
+  1899-1900).
+
+  Nervous System.--H. Viallanes (_Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ [6], xvii.,
+  xviii., xix., [7] ii., iv., 1884-1887); S. J. Hickson (_Quart. Journ.
+  Micr. Sci._ xxv., 1885); W. Patten (_Journ. Morph._ i., ii.,
+  1887-1888); F. Plateau (_Mém. Acad. Belg._ xliii., 1888); V. Graber
+  (_Arch. mikr. Anat._ xx., xxi., 1882).
+
+  Respiratory System.--J. A. Palmén, _Zur Morphologie des
+  Tracheensystems_ (Leipzig, 1877); F. Plateau (_Mém. Acad. Belg._ xiv.,
+  1884); L. C. Miall, _Natural History of Aquatic Insects_ (London,
+  1895).
+
+  Digestive System, &c.--L. Dufour (_Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1824-1860); V.
+  Faussek (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlv., 1887).
+
+  Malpighian Tubes.--E. Schindler (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xxx., 1878); W.
+  M. Wheeler (_Psyche_ vi., 1893); L. Cuénot (_Arch. de biol._ xiv.,
+  1895).
+
+  Reproductive Organs.--H. V. Wielowiejski (Zool. Anz. ix., 1886); J. A.
+  Palmén, _Über paarige Ausführungsgänge der Geschlechtsorgane bei
+  Insekten_ (Helsingfors, 1884); H. Henking (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlix.,
+  li., liv., 1890-1892); F. Leydig (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ iii., 1889).
+
+  Embryology.--F. Blochmann (_Morph. Jahrb._ xii., 1887); A. Kovalevsky
+  (_Mém. Acad. St-Pétersbourg_, xvi., 1871; _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlv.,
+  1887); V. Graber (_Denksch. Akad. Wissens., Wien_, lvi., 1889); K.
+  Heider, _Die Embryonalentwicklung von Hydrophilus piceus_ (Jena,
+  1889); W. M. Wheeler (_Journ. Morph._ iii., viii., 1889-1893); E.
+  Korschelt and K. Heider, _Handbook of the Comparative Embryology of
+  Invertebrates_ (trans. M. Bernard), (vol. iii., London, 1899); R.
+  Heymons, _Die Embryonalentwicklung von Dermapteren und Orthopteren_
+  (Jena, 1895) (also _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ liii., 1891, lxii., 1897;
+  _Anhang zu den Abhandl. K. Akad. d. Wissens., Berlin_, 1896); A.
+  Lécaillon (_Arch. d'anat. micr._ ii., 1898); J. Carrière and O. Burger
+  (_Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad._ lxix., 1897); K. Escherich (ibid.
+  lxxvii., 1901); F. Schwangart (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ lxxvi., 1904); R.
+  Ritter (_ib._ li., 1890); E. Metchnikoff (_ib._ xvi., 1866); H. Uzel
+  (_Zool. Anz._ xx., 1897); J. W. Folsom (_Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
+  Harvard_., xxxvi., 1900).
+
+  Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis.--T. H. Huxley (_Trans. Linn. Soc._
+  xxii., 1858); R. Leuckart, _Zur Kenntnis des Generationswechsels und
+  der Parthogenesis bei den Insekten_ (Frankfurt, 1858); N. Wagner
+  (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xv., 1865); L. F. Henneguy (_Bull. Soc.
+  Philomath._ [9], i. 1899); A. Petrunkevich (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xiv.,
+  xvii., 1901-1903); P. Marchal (_Arch. zool. exp. et gén._ [4], ii.,
+  1904); L. Doncaster (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlix., li.,
+  1906-1907).
+
+  Growth and Metamorphosis.--A. Weismann (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xiii.,
+  xiv., 1863-1864); F. Brauer (_Verh. zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Wien_,
+  xix., 1869); Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Origin and Metamorphosis
+  of Insects_ (London, 1874); L. C. Miall (_Nature_, liii., 1895); L. C.
+  Miall and A. R. Hammond, _Structure and Life-history of the
+  Harlequin-fly_ (Oxford, 1900); J. Gonin (_Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat._
+  xxx., 1894); C. de Bruyne (_Arch. de biol._ xv. (1898); D. Sharp
+  (_Proc. Inter. Zool. Congress_, 1898); E. B. Poulton (_Trans. Linn.
+  Soc._ v., 1891); T. A. Chapman (_Trans. Ent. Soc._, 1893).
+
+  Classification.--F. Brauer (_S. B. Akad. Wiss., Wien_, xci., 1885); A.
+  S. Packard (_Amer. Nat._ xx.; 1886); C. Börner, A. Handlirsch, F.
+  Klapalek (_Zool. Anz._ xxvii., 1904); G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._
+  xxvi., 1903).
+
+  Palaeontology.--S. H. Scudder, in Zittel's _Palaeontology_ (French
+  trans., vol. ii., Paris, 1887, and Eng. trans., vol. i., London,
+  1900); C. Brongniart, _Insectes fossiles des temps primaires_
+  (St-Étienne, 1894); A. Handlirsch, _Die fossilen Insekten und die
+  Phylogenie der rezenten Formen_ (Leipzig, 1906).
+
+  Phylogeny.--Brauer, Lubbock, Sharp, Börner, &c. (opp. cit.); P. Mayer
+  (_Jena, Zeits. Naturw._ x., 1876); B. Grassi (_Atti R. Accad. dei
+  Lincei, Roma_ [4], iv., 1888, and _Archiv ital. biol._ xi., 1889); F.
+  Müller, _Facts and Arguments for Darwin_ (trans. W. S. Dallas, London,
+  1869); N. Zograf (_Congr. Zool. Int._, 1892); E. R. Lankester (_Quart.
+  Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvii., 1904); G. H. Carpenter (_Proc. R. Irish
+  Acad._ xxiv., 1903; _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlix., 1905).
+       (D. S.*; G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HEXASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: stylos], column), an
+architectural term given to a temple in the portico of which there are
+six columns in front.
+
+
+
+
+HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the Old Testament
+(the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact that these form one
+literary whole, describing the early traditional history of the
+Israelites from the creation of the world to the conquest of Palestine
+and the origin of their national institutions. These books are the
+result of an intricate literary process, on which see BIBLE (Old
+Testament: _Canon_), and the articles on the separate books (GENESIS,
+EXODUS, LEVITICUS, NUMBERS, DEUTERONOMY and JOSHUA).
+
+
+
+
+HEXHAM, a market town in the Hexham parliamentary division of
+Northumberland, England, 21 m. W. from Newcastle by the Carlisle branch
+of the North-Eastern railway, served also from Scotland by a branch of
+the North British railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7107. It is
+pleasantly situated beneath the hills on the S. bank of the Tyne, and
+its market square and narrow streets bear many marks of antiquity. It is
+famous for its great abbey church of St Andrew. This building, as
+renovated in the 12th century, was to consist of nave and transepts,
+choir and aisles, and massive central tower. The Scots are believed to
+have destroyed the nave in 1296, but it may be doubted if it was ever
+completed. In 1536 the last prior was hanged for being concerned in the
+insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace. The church as it stands is
+a fine monument of Early English work, with Transitional details.
+Within, although it suffered much loss during a restoration c. 1858,
+there are several objects of interest. Among these are a Roman slab,
+carved with figures of a horseman trampling upon an enemy, several fine
+tombs and stones of the 13th and 14th centuries, the frith or fridstool
+of stone, believed to be the original bishop's throne, and the fine
+Perpendicular roodscreen of oak, retaining its loft. The crypt,
+discovered in 1726, is part of the Saxon church, and a noteworthy
+example of architecture of the period. Its material is Roman, some of
+the stones having Roman inscriptions. These were brought from the Roman
+settlement at Corbridge, 4 m. E. of Hexham on the N. bank of the Tyne;
+for Hexham itself was not a Roman station. In 1832 a vessel containing
+about 8000 Saxon coins was discovered in the churchyard. Fragments of
+the monastic buildings remain, and west of the churchyard is the monks'
+park, known as the Seal, and now a promenade, commanding beautiful
+views. In the town are two strong castellated towers of the 14th
+century, known as the Moot Hall and the Manor Office. Their names
+explain their use, but they were doubtless also intended as defensive
+works. In the interesting and beautiful neighbourhood of Hexham there
+should be noticed Aydon castle near Corbridge, a fortified house of the
+late 13th century; and Dilston or Dyvilston, a typical border fortress
+dating from Norman times, of which only a tower and small chapel remain.
+It is replete with memories of the last earl of Derwentwater, who was
+beheaded in 1716 for his part in the Stuart rising of the previous year,
+and was buried in the chapel. There is an Elizabethan grammar school.
+Hexham and Newcastle form a Roman Catholic bishopric, with the cathedral
+at Newcastle. There are manufactures of leather gloves and other goods,
+and in the neighbourhood barytes and coal mines and extensive market
+gardens.
+
+The church and monastery at Hexham (Hextoldesham) were founded about 673
+by Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who is said to have received a grant of
+the whole of Hexhamshire from Æthelhryth, queen of Northumbria, and a
+grant of sanctuary in his church from the king. The church in 678
+became the head of the new see of Bernicia, which was united to that of
+Lindisfarne about 821, when the bishop of Lindisfarne appears to have
+taken possession of the lordship which he and his successors held until
+it was restored to the archbishop of York by Henry II. The archbishops
+appear to have had almost royal power throughout the liberty, including
+the rights of trying all pleas of the crown in their court, of taking
+inquisitions and of taxation. In 1545 the archbishop exchanged
+Hexhamshire with the king for other property, and in 1572 all the
+separate privileges which had belonged to him were taken away, and the
+liberty was annexed to the county of Northumberland. Hexham was a
+borough by prescription, and governed by a bailiff at least as early as
+1276, and the same form of government continued until 1853. In 1343 the
+men of Hexham were accused of pretending to be Scots and imprisoning
+many people of Northumberland and Cumberland, killing some and extorting
+ransoms for others. The Lancastrians were defeated in 1464 near Hexham,
+and legend says that it was in the woods round the town that Queen
+Margaret and her son hid until their escape to Flanders. In 1522 the
+bishop of Carlisle complained to Cardinal Wolsey, then archbishop of
+York, that the English thieves committed more thefts than "all the Scots
+of Scotland," the men of Hexham being worst of all, and appearing 100
+strong at the markets held in Hexham, so that the men whom they had
+robbed dared not complain or "say one word to them." This state of
+affairs appears to have continued until the accession of James I., and
+in 1595 the bailiff and constables of Hexham were removed as being
+"infected with combination and toleration of thieves." Hexham was at one
+time the market town of a large agricultural district. In 1227 a market
+on Monday and a fair on the vigil and day of St Luke the Evangelist were
+granted to the archbishop, and in 1320 Archbishop Melton obtained the
+right of holding two new fairs on the feasts of St James the Apostle
+lasting five days and of SS. Simon and Jude lasting six days. The market
+day was altered to Tuesday in 1662, and Sir William Fenwick, then lord
+of the manor, received a grant of a cattle market on the Tuesday after
+the feast of St Cuthbert in March and every Tuesday fortnight until the
+feast of St Martin. The market rights were purchased from Wentworth B.
+Beaumont, lord of the manor, in 1886. During the 17th and 18th centuries
+Hexham was noted for the leather trade, especially for the manufacture
+of gloves, but in the 19th century the trade began to decline. Coal
+mines which had belonged to the archbishop, were sold to Sir John
+Fenwick, Kt., in 1628. Hexham has never been represented in parliament,
+but gives its name to one of the four parliamentary divisions of the
+county.
+
+  See Edward Bateson and A. B. Hinds, _A History of Northumberland_ vol.
+  iii. (1893-1896); A. B. Wright, _An Essay towards the History of
+  Hexham_ (1823); James Hewitt, _A Handbook to Hexham and its
+  Antiquities_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER (1637-1712), Dutch painter, was born at Gorcum in
+1637, and died at Amsterdam on the 12th of September 1712. He was an
+architectural landscape painter, a contemporary of Hobbema and Jacob
+Ruysdael, with the advantage, which they lacked, of a certain
+professional versatility; for, whilst they painted admirable pictures
+and starved, he varied the practice of art with the study of mechanics,
+improved the fire engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and
+director of the firemen's company at Amsterdam. Till 1672 he painted in
+partnership with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian's death, and
+probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him, he
+accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At no period
+of artistic activity had the system of division of labour been more
+fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in Holland towards
+the close of the 17th century. Van der Heyden, who was perfect as an
+architectural draughtsman in so far as he painted the outside of
+buildings and thoroughly mastered linear perspective, seldom turned his
+hand to the delineation of anything but brick houses and churches in
+streets and squares, or rows along canals, or "moated granges," common
+in his native country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent
+and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to Cologne, where
+he copied over and over again the tower and crane of the great
+cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or vale, or stream or wood. He
+could reproduce the rows of bricks in a square of Dutch houses sparkling
+in the sun, or stunted trees and lines of dwellings varied by steeples,
+all in light or thrown into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the
+art of painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping. But
+he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts; and this was
+his disadvantage. His good genius under these circumstances was Adrian
+van der Velde, who enlivened his compositions with spirited figures; and
+the joint labour of both is a delicate, minute, transparent work,
+radiant with glow and atmosphere.
+
+
+
+
+HEYLYN (or HEYLIN), PETER (1600-1662), English historian and
+controversialist, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire. Having made great
+progress in his studies, he entered Hart Hall, Oxford, in 1613,
+afterwards joining Magdalen College; and in 1618 he began to lecture on
+cosmography, being made fellow of Magdalen in the same year. His
+lectures, under the title of [Greek: Mikrokosmos], were published in
+1621, and many editions of this useful book, each somewhat enlarged,
+subsequently appeared. Having been ordained in 1624 Heylyn attracted the
+notice of William Laud, then bishop of Bath and Wells; and in 1628 he
+married Laetitia, daughter of Thomas Highgate, or Heygate, of Hayes,
+Middlesex; but he appears to have kept his marriage secret and did not
+resign his fellowship. After serving as chaplain to Danby in the Channel
+Islands, he became chaplain to Charles I. in 1630, and was appointed by
+the king to the rectory of Hemingford, Huntingdonshire. John Williams,
+bishop of Lincoln, however, refused to institute Heylyn to this living,
+owing to his friendship with Laud; and in return Charles appointed him a
+prebendary of Westminster, where he made himself very objectionable to
+Williams, who held the deanery _in commendam_. In 1633 he became rector
+of Alresford, soon afterwards vicar of South Warnborough, and he became
+treasurer of Westminster Abbey in 1637; but before this date he was
+widely known as one of the most prominent and able controversialists
+among the high-church party. Entering with great ardour into the
+religious controversies of the time he disputed with John Prideaux,
+regius professor of divinity at Oxford, replied to the arguments of
+Williams in his pamphlets, "A Coal from the Altar" and "Antidotum
+Lincolnense," and was hostile to the Puritan element both within and
+without the Church of England. He assisted William Noy to prepare the
+case against Prynne for the publication of his _Histriomastix_, and made
+himself useful to the Royalist party in other ways. However, when the
+Long Parliament met he was allowed to retire to Alresford, where he
+remained until he was disturbed by Sir William Waller's army in 1642,
+when he joined the king at Oxford. At Oxford Heylyn edited _Mercurius
+Aulicus_, a vivacious but virulent news-sheet, which greatly annoyed the
+Parliamentarians; and consequently his house at Alresford was plundered
+and his library dispersed. Subsequently he led for some years a
+wandering life of poverty, afterwards settling at Winchester and then at
+Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire; and he refers to his hardships in his
+pamphlet "Extraneus Vapulans," the cleverest of his controversial
+writings, which was written in answer to Hamon l'Estrange. In 1653 he
+settled at Lacy's Court, Abingdon, where he resided undisturbed by the
+government of the Commonwealth, and where he wrote several books and
+pamphlets, both against those of his own communion, like Thomas Fuller,
+whose opinions were less unyielding than his own, and against the
+Presbyterians and others, like Richard Baxter.
+
+His works, all of which are marred by political or theological rancour,
+number over fifty. Among the most important are: a legendary and learned
+_History of St. George of Cappadocia_, written in 1631; _Cyprianus
+Anglicus, or the history of the Life and Death of William Laud_, a
+defence of Laud and a valuable authority for his life; _Ecclesia
+restaurata, or the History of the Reformation of the Church of England_
+(1661; ed. J. C. Robertson, Cambridge, 1849); _Ecclesia vindicata, or
+the Church of England justified_; _Aërius redivivus, or History of the
+Presbyterians_; and _Help to English History_, an edition of which, with
+additions by P. Wright, was published in 1773. In 1636 he wrote a
+_History of the Sabbath_, by order of Charles I. to answer the Puritans;
+and in consequence of a journey through France in 1625 he wrote _A
+Survey of France_, a work, frequently reprinted, which was termed by
+Southey "one of the liveliest books of travel in its lighter parts, and
+one of the wisest and most replete with information that was ever
+written by a young man." Some verses of merit also came from his active
+pen, and his poetical memorial of William of Waynflete was published by
+the Caxton Society in 1851.
+
+Heylyn was a diligent writer and investigator, a good ecclesiastical
+lawyer, and had always learning at his command. His principles, to which
+he was honestly attached, were defended with ability; but his efforts to
+uphold the church passed unrecognized at the Restoration, probably owing
+to his physical infirmities. His sight had been very bad for several
+years; yet he rejoiced that his "bad old eyes" had seen the king's
+return, and upon this event he preached before a large audience in
+Westminster Abbey on the 29th of May 1661. He died on the 8th of May
+1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where he had been sub-dean for
+some years.
+
+  Lives of Heylyn were written by his son-in-law Dr John Barnard or
+  Bernard, and by George Vernon (1682). Bernard's work was reprinted
+  with Robertson's edition of Heylyn's _History of the Reformation_ in
+  1849.
+
+
+
+
+HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON [commonly abbreviated to PIET] (1578-1629),
+Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein,
+who was engaged in the herring fishery. The son went early to sea. In
+his youth he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row
+in the galleys during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an
+exchange of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant skipper
+with success. The then dangerous state of the seas at all times, and the
+continuous war with Spain, gave him ample opportunity to gain a
+reputation as a resolute fighting man. Wills which he made before 1623
+show that he had been able to acquire considerable property. When the
+Dutch West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotterdam
+Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of the fleet which
+took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos in Brazil. Till 1628 he
+continued to serve the Company, both on the coast of Brazil, and in the
+West Indies. In the month of September of that year he made himself
+famous, gained immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous
+loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was bringing
+the bullion from the American mines home to Spain. The Spanish ships
+were outnumbered chiefly because the convoy had become scattered by bad
+management and bad seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting
+of the four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king's share
+of the treasure was being carried, became separated from the rest, and
+on being chased by the superior force of Heyn endeavoured to take refuge
+at Matanzas in the island of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion
+in the bush before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de
+Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision, was
+overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before the silver could
+be discharged. The total loss was estimated by the Spaniards at four
+millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now returned home, and bought himself a
+house at Delft with the intention of retiring from the sea. In the
+following year, however, he was chosen at a crisis to take command of
+the naval force of the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of
+Holland, in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers,
+who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Netherlands.
+In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action, and they were
+severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live to enjoy his victory. He was
+struck early in the battle by a cannon shot on the shoulder and fell
+dead on the spot. His memory has been preserved by his capture of the
+Treasure Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also
+the traditional representative of the Dutch "sea dogs" of the 17th
+century.
+
+  See de Jonge, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen_; I. Duro,
+  _Armada espanola_, iv.; der Aa, _Biograph. Woordenboek der
+  Nederlanden_.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB (1729-1812), German classical scholar and
+archaeologist, was born on the 25th of September 1729, at Chemnitz in
+Saxony. His father was a poor weaver, and the expenses of his early
+education were paid by one of his godfathers. In 1748 he entered the
+university of Leipzig, where he was frequently in want of the
+necessaries of life. His distress had almost amounted to despair, when
+he procured the situation of tutor in the family of a French merchant in
+Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. After he had
+completed his university course, he was for many years in very
+straitened circumstances. An elegy written by him in Latin on the death
+of a friend attracted the attention of Count von Brühl, the prime
+minister, who expressed a desire to see the author. Accordingly, in
+April 1752, Heyne journeyed to Dresden, believing that his fortune was
+made. He was well received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary,
+but nothing came of it. Another period of want followed, and it was only
+by persistent solicitation that Heyne was able to obtain the post of
+under-clerk in the count's library, with a salary of somewhat less than
+twenty pounds sterling. He increased his scanty pittance by translation;
+in addition to some French novels, he rendered into German the _Chaereas
+and Callirrhoe_ of Chariton, the Greek romance writer. He published his
+first edition of _Tibullus_ in 1755, and in 1756 his _Epictetus_. In the
+latter year the Seven Years' War broke out, and Heyne was once more in a
+state of destitution. In 1757 he was offered a tutorship in the
+household of Frau Von Schönberg, where he met his future wife. In
+January 1759 he accompanied his pupil to the university of Wittenberg,
+from which he was driven in 1760 by the Prussian cannon. The bombardment
+of Dresden (to which city he had meanwhile returned) on the 18th of July
+1760, destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished
+edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden Library. In
+the summer of 1761, although still without any fixed income, he married,
+and for some time he found it necessary to devote himself to the duties
+of land-steward to the Baron von Löben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762,
+however, he was enabled to return to Dresden, where he was commissioned
+by P. D. Lippert to prepare the Latin text of the third volume of his
+_Dactyliotheca_ (an account of a collection of gems). On the death of
+Johann Matthias Gesner at Göttingen in 1761, the vacant chair was
+refused first by Ernesti and then by Ruhnken, who persuaded Münchhausen,
+the Hanoverian minister and principal curator of the university, to
+bestow it on Heyne (1763). His emoluments were gradually augmented, and
+his growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from other
+German governments, which he persistently refused. After a long and
+useful career, he died on the 14th of July 1812. Unlike Gottfried
+Hermann, Heyne regarded the study of grammar and language only as the
+means to an end, not as the chief object of philology. But, although not
+a critical scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment
+of Greek mythology, and he gave an undoubted impulse to philological
+studies.
+
+  Of Heyne's numerous writings, the following may be mentioned.
+  Editions, with copious commentaries, of Tibullus (ed. E. C.
+  Wunderlich, 1817), Virgil (ed. G. P. Wagner, 1830-1841), Pindar (3rd
+  ed. by G. H. Schäfer, 1817), Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (1803),
+  Homer, _Iliad_ (1802); _Opuscula academica_ (1785-1812), containing
+  more than a hundred academical dissertations, of which the most
+  valuable are those relating to the colonies of Greece and the
+  antiquities of Etruscan art and history. His _Antiquarische Aufsätze_
+  (1778-1779) is a valuable collection of essays connected with the
+  history of ancient art. His contributions to the _Göttingische
+  gelehrte Anzeigen_ are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in
+  number. See biography by A. H. Heeren (1813) which forms the basis of
+  the interesting essay by Carlyle (_Misc. Essays_, ii.); H. Sauppe,
+  _Göttinger Professoren_ (1872); C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_, xii.; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. 36-44.
+
+
+
+
+
+HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG (1830-   ), German novelist, dramatist and
+poet, was born at Berlin on the 15th of March 1830, the son of the
+distinguished philologist Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797-1855). After
+attending the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849,
+to Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in 1852
+took his doctor's degree. He had already given proof of great literary
+ability in the production in 1850 of _Der Jungbrunnen, Märchen eines
+fahrenden Schülers_ and of the tragedy _Francesca von Rimini_, when
+after a year's stay in Italy, he was summoned, early in 1854, by King
+Maximilian II. to Munich, where he subsequently lived. Here he turned
+his attention to novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four
+short stories in one volume, one of which, at least, _L'Arrabbiata_, was
+a masterpiece of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of
+similar volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole
+constituting such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as seldom
+before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer. Heyse works in the
+spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some picturesque incident or
+situation, and chisels and polishes until all the effect which it is
+capable of producing has been extracted from it. The success of the
+story usually depends upon the theme, for the artist's skill is
+generally much the same, and the situation usually leaves a deeper
+impression than the characters. Heyse is also the author of several
+novels on a larger scale, all of which have gained success and provoked
+abundant discussion. The more important are _Kinder der Welt_ (1873),
+_Im Paradiese_ (1875)--the one dealing with the religious and social
+problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich--_Der Roman
+der Stiftsdame_ (1888), and _Merlin_ (1892), a novel directed against
+the modern realistic movement of which Heyse had been the leading
+opponent in Germany. He has also been a prolific dramatist, but his
+plays are deficient in theatrical qualities and are rarely seen on the
+stage. Among the best of them are _Die Sabinerinnen_ (1859); _Hans
+Lange_ (1866), _Kolberg_ (1868), _Die Weisheit Salomos_ (1886), and
+_Maria von Magdala_ (1903). There are masterly translations by him of
+Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (_Italienische Dichter seit
+der Mitte des 18ten Jahrhundert_) (4 vols., 1889-1890).
+
+  Heyse's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 29 vols. (1897-1899); there is
+  also a popular edition of his _Romane_ (8 vols., 1902-1904) and
+  _Novellen_ (10 vols., 1904-1906). See his autobiography,
+  _Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse_ (1901); also O. Kraus, _Paul
+  Heyses Novellen und Romane_ (1888); E. Petzet, _Paul Heyse als
+  Dramatiker_ (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in _Studien und
+  Studienköpfe_, 1877), and G. Brandes (in _Moderne Geister_, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+HEYSHAM, a seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, on the south shore of Morecambe Bay, served by the
+Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3381. Under powers obtained from parliament
+in 1896, the Midland Railway Company constructed, and opened in 1904, a
+harbour, enclosed by breakwaters, for the development of traffic with
+Belfast and other Irish ports, a daily passenger-service of the first
+class being established to Belfast. The harbour has a depth at low tide
+of 17 ft., and extensive accommodation for live-stock and goods of all
+kinds is provided. Heysham is in some favour as a watering-place. The
+church of St Peter is mainly Norman, and has fragments of even earlier
+date. Ruins of a very ancient oratory stand near it. This was dedicated
+to St Patrick, and is traditionally said to have been erected as a place
+of prayer for those at sea.
+
+
+
+
+HEYWOOD, JOHN (b. 1497), English dramatist and epigrammatist, is
+generally said to have been a native of North Mimms, near St Albans,
+Hertfordshire, though Bale says he was born in London. A letter from a
+John Heywood, who may fairly be identified with him, is dated from
+Malines in 1575, when he called himself an old man of seventy-eight,
+which would fix his birth in 1497. He was a chorister of the Chapel
+Royal, and is said to have been educated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke
+College), Oxford. From 1521 onwards his name appears in the king's
+accounts as the recipient of an annuity of ten marks as player of the
+virginals, and in 1538 he received forty shillings for "playing an
+interlude with his children" before the Princess Mary. He is said to
+have owed his introduction to her to Sir Thomas More, at whose seat at
+Gobions near St Albans he wrote his Epigrams, according to Henry
+Peacham. More took a keen interest in the drama, and is represented by
+tradition as stepping on to the stage and taking an impromptu part in
+the dialogue. William Rastell, the printer of four of Heywood's plays,
+was the son of More's brother-in-law, John Rastell, who organized
+dramatic representations, and possibly wrote plays himself. Mr A. W.
+Pollard sees in Heywood's firm adherence to Catholicism and his free
+satire of legal and social abuses a reflection of the ideas of More and
+his friends, which counts for much in his dramatic development. His
+skill in music and his inexhaustible wit made him a favourite both with
+Henry VIII. and Mary. Under Edward VI. he was accused of denying the
+king's supremacy over the church, and had to make a public recantation
+in 1554; but with the accession of Mary his prospects brightened. He
+made a Latin speech to her in St Paul's Churchyard at her coronation,
+and wrote a poem to celebrate her marriage. Shortly before her death she
+granted him the lease of a manor and lands in Yorkshire. When Elizabeth
+succeeded to the throne he fled to Malines, and is said to have returned
+in 1577. In 1587 he is spoken of as "dead and gone" in Thomas Newton's
+epilogue to his works.
+
+John Heywood is important in the history of English drama as the first
+writer to turn the abstract characters of the morality plays into real
+persons. His interludes link the morality plays to the modern drama, and
+were very popular in their day. They represent ludicrous incidents of a
+homely kind in a style of the broadest farce, and approximate to the
+French dramatic renderings of the subjects of the _fabliaux_. The fun in
+them still survives in spite of the long arguments between the
+characters and what one of their editors calls his "humour of filth."
+Heywood's name was actually attached to four interludes. _The Playe
+called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a palmer, a
+pardoner, a potycary, a pedler_ (not dated) is a contest in lying,
+easily won by Palmer, who said he had never known a woman out of
+patience. _The Play of the Wether, a new and a very mery interlude of
+all maner of Wethers_ (printed 1533) describes the chaotic results of
+Jupiter's attempts to suit the weather to the desires of a number of
+different people. _The Play of Love_ (printed 1533) is an extreme
+instance of the author's love of wire-drawn argument. It is a double
+dispute between "Loving not Loved" and "Loved not Loving" as to which is
+the more wretched, and between "Both Loved and Loving" and "Neither
+Loving nor Loved" to decide which is the happier. The only action in
+this piece is indicated by the stage direction marking the entrance of
+"Neither loved nor loving," who is to run about the audience with a huge
+copper tank on his head full of lighted squibs, and is to cry "Water,
+water! Fire, fire!" _The Dialogue of Wit and Folly_ is more of an
+academic dispute than a play. But two pieces universally assigned to
+Heywood, although they were printed by Rastell without any author's
+name, combine action with dialogue, and are much more dramatic. In _The
+Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and Neybour
+Pratte_ (printed 1533, but probably written much earlier) the Pardoner
+and the Friar both try to preach at the same time, and, coming at last
+to blows, are separated by the other two personages of the piece. The
+_Mery Play betwene Johan Johan the Husbande, Tyb the Wyfe, and Syr Jhan
+the Preest_ (printed 1533) is the best constructed of all his pieces.
+Tyb and Syr Jhan eat the "Pye" which is the central "property" of the
+piece, while Johan Johan is made to chafe wax at the fire to stop a hole
+in a pail. This incident occurs in a French _Farce nouvelle très bonne
+et fort joyeuse de Pernet qui va au vin_. Heywood has sometimes been
+credited with the authorship of the dialogue of _Gentylnes and Nobylyte_
+printed by Rastell without date, and Mr Pollard adduces some ground for
+attributing to him the anonymous _New Enterlude called Thersytes_
+(played 1538). Heywood's other works are a collection of proverbs and
+epigrams, the earliest extant edition of which is dated 1562; some
+ballads, one of them being the "Willow Garland," known to Desdemona;
+and a long verse allegory of over 7000 lines entitled _The Spider and
+the Flie_ (1556). A contemporary writer in Holinshed's _Chronicle_ said
+that neither its author nor any one else could "reach unto the meaning
+thereof." But the flies are generally taken to represent the Roman
+Catholics and the spiders the Protestants, while Queen Mary is
+represented by the housemaid who with her broom (the sword) executes the
+commands of her master (Christ) and her mistress (the church). Dr A. W.
+Ward speaks of its "general lucidity and relative variety of treatment."
+Heywood says that he laid it aside for twenty years before he finished
+it, and, whatever may be the final interpretation put upon it, it
+contains a very energetic statement of the social evils of the time, and
+especially of the deficiencies of English law.
+
+  The proverbs and epigrams were reprinted by the Spenser Society in
+  1867, the _Dialogue on Wit and Folly_ by the Percy Society from an MS.
+  in the British Museum in 1846, with an account of Heywood by F. W.
+  Fairholt, and there are modern reprints of _Johan Johan_ (Chiswick
+  Press, 1819), _The Foure PP_. (Dodsley's _Old Plays_, 1825, 1874), and
+  _The Pardoner and the Frere_ (Dodsley's _Old Plays_, 1874). _The
+  Spider and the Flie_ was edited by A. W. Ward for the Spenser Society
+  in 1894. For notes and strictures on that edition see J. Haber in
+  _Litterärhistorische Forschungen_, vol. xv. (1900). See also A. W.
+  Pollard's introduction to the reprint of the _Play of the Wether_ and
+  _Johan Johan in Representative English Comedies_ (1903), and _The
+  Dramatic Writings of John Heywood_, edited by John S. Farmer for the
+  Early English Drama Society (1905).
+
+His son, JASPER HEYWOOD (1535-1598), who translated into English three
+plays of Seneca, the _Troas_ (1559), the _Thyestes_ (1560) and _Hercules
+Furens_ (1561), was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, but was
+compelled to resign from that society in 1558. In the same year he was
+elected a fellow of All Souls College, but, refusing to conform to the
+changes in religion at the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, he gave
+up his fellowship and went to Rome, where he was received into the
+Society of Jesus. For seventeen years he was professor of moral theology
+and controversy in the Jesuit College at Dillingen, Bavaria. In 1581 he
+was sent to England as superior of the Jesuit mission, but his leniency
+in that position led to his recall. He was on his way back to the
+Continent when a violent storm drove him back to the English coast. He
+was arrested on the charge of being a priest, but, although
+extraordinary efforts were made to induce him to abjure his opinions, he
+remained firm. He was condemned to perpetual exile on pain of death, and
+died at Naples on the 9th of January 1598. His translations of Seneca
+were supplemented by other plays contributed by Alexander Neville,
+Thomas Nuce, John Studley and Thomas Newton. Newton collected these
+translations in one volume, _Seneca, his tenne tragedies translated into
+Englysh_ (1581). The importance of this work in the development of
+English drama can hardly be over-estimated.
+
+  See Dr J. W. Cunliffe, _On the Influence of Seneca upon Elizabethan
+  Tragedy_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+HEYWOOD, THOMAS (d. c. 1650), English dramatist and miscellaneous
+author, was a native of Lincolnshire, born about 1575, and said to have
+been educated at Cambridge and to have become a fellow of Peterhouse.
+Heywood is mentioned by Philip Henslowe as having written a book or play
+for the Lord Admiral's company of actors in October 1596; and in 1598 he
+was regularly engaged as a player in the company, in which he presumably
+had a share, as no wages are mentioned. He was also a member of other
+companies, of Lord Southampton's, of the earl of Derby's and of the earl
+of Worcester's players, afterwards known as the Queen's Servants. In his
+preface to the _English Traveller_ (1633) he describes himself as having
+had "an entire hand or at least a main finger in two hundred and twenty
+plays." Of this number, probably considerably increased before the close
+of his dramatic career, only twenty-three survive. He wrote for the
+stage, not for the press, and protested against the printing of his
+works, which he said he had no time to revise. He was, said Tieck, the
+"model of a light and rapid talent," and his plays, as might be expected
+from his rate of production, bear little trace of artistic elaboration.
+Charles Lamb called him a "prose Shakespeare"; Professor Ward, one of
+Heywood's most sympathetic editors, points out that this epigrammatic
+statement can only be accepted with reservations. Heywood had a keen eye
+for dramatic situations and great constructive skill, but his powers of
+characterization were not on a par with his stagecraft. He delighted in
+what he called "merry accidents," that is, in coarse, broad farce; his
+fancy and invention were inexhaustible. It was in the domestic drama of
+sentiment that he won his most distinctive success. For this he was
+especially fitted by his genuine tenderness and his freedom from
+affectation, by the sweetness and gentleness for which Lamb praised him.
+His masterpiece, _A Woman kilde with kindnesse_ (acted 1603; printed
+1607), is a type of the _comédie larmoyante_, and _The English
+Traveller_ (1633) is a domestic tragedy scarcely inferior to it in
+pathos and in the elevation of its moral tone. His first play was
+probably _The Foure Prentises of London: With the Conquest of Jerusalem_
+(printed 1615, but acted some fifteen years earlier). This may have been
+intended as a burlesque of the old romances, but it is more likely that
+it was meant seriously to attract the apprentice public to whom it was
+dedicated, and its popularity was no doubt aimed at in Beaumont and
+Fletcher's travesty of the City taste in drama in their _Knight of the
+Burning Pestle_. The two parts of _King Edward the Fourth_ (printed
+1600), and of _If you know not me, you know no bodie; Or, The Troubles
+of Queene Elizabeth_ (1605 and 1606) are chronicle histories. His other
+comedies include: _The Royall King, and the Loyall subject_ (acted c.
+1600; printed 1637); the two parts of _The Fair Maid of the West; Or, A
+Girle worth Gold_ (two parts, printed 1631); _The Fayre Maid of the
+Exchange_ (printed anonymously 1607); _The Late Lancashire Witches_
+(1634), written with Richard Brome, and prompted by an actual trial in
+the preceding year; _A Pleasant Comedy, called A Mayden-Head well lost_
+(1634); _A Challenge for Beautie_ (1636); _The Wise-Woman of Hogsdon_
+(printed 1638), the witchcraft in this case being matter for comedy, not
+seriously treated as in the Lancashire play; and _Fortune by Land and
+Sea_ (printed 1655), with William Rowley. The five plays called
+respectively _The Golden_, _The Silver_, _The Brazen_ and _The Iron Age_
+(the last in two parts), dated 1611, 1613, 1613, 1632, are series of
+classical stories strung together with no particular connexion except
+that "old Homer" introduces the performers of each act in turn. _Loves
+Maistresse; Or, The Queens Masque_ (printed 1636) is on the story of
+Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius; and the tragedy of the _Rape of
+Lucrece_ (1608) is varied by a "merry lord," Valerius, who lightens the
+gloom of the situation by singing comic songs. A series of pageants,
+most of them devised for the City of London, or its guilds, by Heywood,
+were printed in 1637. In vol. iv. of his _Collection of Old English
+Plays_ (1885), Mr A. H. Bullen printed for the first time a comedy by
+Heywood, _The Captives, or The Lost Recovered_ (licensed 1624), and in
+vol. ii. of the same series, _Dicke of Devonshire_, which he tentatively
+assigns to the same hand.
+
+Besides his dramatic works, twelve of which were reprinted by the
+"Shakespeare Society," and were published by Mr John Pearson in a
+complete edition of six vols. with notes and illustrations in 1874, he
+was the author of _Troia Britannica, or Great Britain's Troy_ (1609), a
+poem in seventeen cantos "intermixed with many pleasant poetical tales"
+and "concluding with an universal chronicle from the creation until the
+present time"; _An Apology for Actors, containing three brief treatises_
+(1612) edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1841; [Greek: Gynaikeion]
+_or nine books of various history concerning women_ (1624); _England's
+Elizabeth, her Life and Troubles during her minority from the Cradle to
+the Crown_ (1631); _The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels_ (1635), a
+didactic poem in nine books; _Pleasant Dialogue, and Dramas selected out
+of Lucian_, &c. (1637; ed. W. Bang, Louvain, 1903); and _The Life of
+Merlin surnamed Ambrosius_ (1641).
+
+  See A. W. Ward, _History of English Dram. Lit._ ii. 550 seq. (1899);
+  the same author's Introduction to _A woman killed with kindness_
+  ("Temple Dramatists," 1897); J. A. Symonds in the Introduction to
+  _Thomas Heywood_ in the "Mermaid" series (new issue, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HEYWOOD, a municipal borough in the Heywood parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 9 m. N. of Manchester on the Lancashire and
+Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,458. It is of modern growth and
+possesses several handsome churches, chapels and public buildings. The
+Queen's Park, purchased and laid out at a cost of £11,000 with money
+which devolved to Queen Victoria in right of her duchy and county
+palatine of Lancaster, was opened in 1879. Heywood Hall in the
+neighbourhood of the town was the residence of Peter Heywood, who
+contributed to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. Heywood owes its
+rise to the enterprise of the Peels, its first manufactures having been
+introduced by the father of the first Sir Robert Peel. It is an
+important seat of the cotton manufacture, and there are power-loom
+factories, iron foundries, chemical works, boiler-works and railway
+wagon works. Coal is worked extensively in the neighbourhood. Heywood
+was incorporated in 1881, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3660 acres.
+
+
+
+
+HEZEKIAH (Heb. for "[my] strength is [of] Yah"), in the Bible son of
+Ahaz, one of the greatest of the kings of Judah. He flourished at the
+end of the 8th and beginning of the 7th century B.C., when Palestine
+passed through one of the most eventful periods of its history. There is
+much that is uncertain in his reign, and with the exception of the great
+crisis of 701 B.C. its chronology has not been unanimously fixed.
+Whether he came to the throne before or after the fall of Samaria
+(722-721 B.C.) is disputed,[1] nor is it clear what share Judah took in
+the Assyrian conflicts down to 701.[2] Shortly before this date the
+whole of western Asia was in a ferment; Sargon had died and Sennacherib
+had come to the throne (in 705); vassal kings plotted to recover their
+independence and Assyrian puppets were removed by their opponents. Judah
+was in touch with a general rising in S.W. Palestine, in which Ekron,
+Lachish, Ascalon (Ashkelon) and other towns of the Philistines were
+supported by the kings of Musri and Meluhha.[3] Sennacherib completely
+routed them at Eltekeh (a Danite city), and thence turned against
+Hezekiah, who had been in league with Ekron and had imprisoned its king
+Padi, an Assyrian vassal. In this invasion of Judah the Assyrian claims
+entire success; 46 towns of Judah were captured, 200,150 men and many
+herds of cattle were carried off among the spoil, and Jerusalem itself
+was closely invested. Hezekiah was imprisoned "like a bird in a
+cage"[4]--to quote Sennacherib, and the Urbi (Arabian?) troops in
+Jerusalem laid down their arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred of
+silver, precious stones, couches and seats of ivory--"all kinds of
+valuable treasure",--the ladies of the court, male and female attendants
+(perhaps "singers") were carried away to Nineveh. Here the Assyrian
+record ends somewhat abruptly, for, in the meanwhile, Babylonia had
+again revolted (700 B.C.) and Sennacherib's presence was urgently needed
+nearer home.
+
+At what precise period the Babylonian Merodach (i.e. Marduk)-Baladan
+sent his embassy to Hezekiah is disputed. Although ostensibly to
+congratulate the king upon his recovery from a sickness, it was really
+sent in the hope of enlisting his support, and the excessive courtesy
+and complaisance with which it was received suggest that it found a
+ready ally in Judah (2 Kings xx. 12 sqq.; Isa. xxxix.). Merodach-Baladan
+was overthrown by Sargon in 710 B.C., but succeeded in making a fresh
+revolt some years later (704-703 B.C.), and opinion is much divided
+whether his embassy was to secure the friendship of the youthful
+Hezekiah at his succession or is to be associated with the later
+widespread attempt to remove the Assyrian yoke.[5]
+
+The brief account of the Assyrian invasion, Hezekiah's submission, and
+the payment of tribute in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16, supplements the Assyrian
+record by the statement that Sennacherib besieged Lachish, a fact which
+is confirmed by a bas-relief (now in the British Museum) depicting the
+king in the act of besieging that town.[6] This thoroughly historical
+fragment is followed by two narratives which tell how the king sent an
+official from Lachish to demand the submission of Hezekiah and conclude
+with the unexpected deliverance of Jerusalem. Both these stories appear
+to belong to a biography of Isaiah, and, like the similar biographies of
+Elijah and Elisha, are open to the suspicion that historical facts have
+been subordinated to idealize the work of the prophet. See KINGS, BOOKS
+OF.
+
+  The narratives are (a) 2 Kings xviii. 13, 17-xix. 8; cf. Isa. xxxvi.
+  1-xxxvii. 8, and (b) xix. 9b-35; cp. Isa. xxxvii. 9-36 (2 Chron.
+  xxxii. 9 sqq. is based on both), and Jerusalem's deliverance is
+  attributed to a certain rumour (xix. 7), to the advance of Tirhakah,
+  king of Ethiopia (v. 9), and to a remarkable pestilence (v. 35) which
+  finds an echo in a famous story related, not without some confusion of
+  essential facts, by Herodotus (ii. 141; cf. Josephus _Antiq._ x. i.
+  5).[7] It is difficult to decide whether xix. 9a belongs to the first
+  or second of these narratives; and whether the "rumour" refers to the
+  approach of Tirhakah, or rather to the serious troubles which had
+  arisen in Babylonia. It is equally difficult to determine whether
+  Tirhakah actually appeared on the scene in 701, and the precise
+  application of the term Musri (Mizraim) is much debated. Unless the
+  two narratives are duplicates of the same event, it may be urged that
+  Sennacherib's attack upon Arabia (apparently about 689) involved an
+  invasion of Judah, by which time Egypt was in a position to be of
+  material assistance (cf. Isa. xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-3?). This theory of a
+  second campaign (first suggested by Sir Henry Rawlinson) has been
+  contested, although it is pointed out that Sennacherib at all events
+  did not invade Egypt, and that 2 Kings xix. 24 (Isa. xxxvii. 25) can
+  only refer to his successor. The allusion to the murder of Sennacherib
+  (xix. 36 sq.)[8] points to the year 681, but it is uncertain to which
+  of the above narratives it belongs. On the whole, the question must be
+  left open, and with it both the problem of the extension of the name
+  Musri and Mizraim outside Egypt in the Assyrian and Hebrew records of
+  this period and the true historical background of a number of the
+  Isaianic prophecies. It is quite possible that later events which
+  belong to the time of the Egyptian supremacy and the wars of
+  Esarhaddon have been confused with the history of Sennacherib's
+  invasion.
+
+It is not certain whether Hezekiah's conflict with the Philistines as
+far as Gaza or his preparations to secure for Jerusalem a good water
+supply (xviii. 8, xx. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 30; Ecclus. xlviii. 17 sq.)[9]
+should precede or follow the events which have been discussed. On the
+other hand, the reforms which the compiler of the book has attributed to
+the early part of the reign were doubtless much later (2 Kings xviii.
+1-8). Not the fall of Samaria, but the crisis of 701, is the earliest
+date that could safely be chosen, and the extent of these reforms must
+not be overestimated. They are related in terms that imply an
+acquaintance with the great "Deuteronomic" movement (see DEUTERONOMY),
+and are magnified further with characteristic detail by the chronicler
+(2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi.). The most remarkable was the destruction of a
+brazen serpent, the cult of which was traditionally traced back to the
+time of Moses (Num. xxi. 9).[10] This persistence of serpent-cult, and
+the idolatry (necromancy, tree-worship) which the contemporary prophets
+denounce, do not support the view that the apparently radical reforms of
+Hezekiah were extensive or permanent, and Jer. xxvi. 17-19 (which
+suggests that Micah had a greater influence than Isaiah) throws another
+light upon the conditions during his reign. Hezekiah was succeeded by
+his son MANASSEH (q.v.).
+
+  See further W. R. Smith, _Prophets_, 359-364, and HEBREW RELIGION.
+  According to PROV. xxv. 1, Hezekiah was a patron of literature (see
+  PROVERBS). The hymn which is ascribed to the king (Isa. xxxviii. 9-20,
+  wanting in 2 Kings) is of post-exilic origin (see Cheyne, _Introd. to
+  Isaiah_, 222 sq.), but is further proof of the manner in which the
+  Judaean king was idealized in subsequent ages, partly, perhaps, in the
+  belief that the deliverance of Jerusalem was the reward for his piety.
+  For special discussions, see Stade, _Zeits. d. alttest. Wissenschaft_,
+  1886, pp. 173 sqq.; Winckler, _Alttest. Untersuch_., 26 sqq.;
+  Schrader, _Cuneiform Inscr. and Old Test_. (on 2 Kings, _l.c_.);
+  Driver, _Isaiah, his Life and Times_, pp. 43-83; A. Jeremias, _Alte
+  Test_. 304-310; Nagel, _Zug d. Sanherib gegen Jerus_. (Leipzig, 1903,
+  conservative); and especially Prásek, Sanherib's "Feldzüge gegen Juda"
+  (_Mitteil. d. Vorderasiat. Gesell_., 1903, pp. 113-158), K. Fullerton,
+  _Bibliotheca sacra_, 1906, pp. 577-634, A. Alt, _Israel u. Ägypten_
+  (Leipzig, 1909); also the bibliography to ISAIAH.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel,[2] 415 sqq.; O. C.
+    Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, _Kings_, p. 43
+    seq.; T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2058, n. 1, and references.
+
+  [2] The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza and
+    Musri) at Karkar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine); 715, a
+    rising of Musri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture of
+    Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter occasion
+    is not improbable.
+
+  [3] Meluhha is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia; the
+    identification of Musri is uncertain, see below.
+
+  [4] The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal
+    (Byblus), in the 15th century B.C.; _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_ (ed.
+    Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &c. Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a
+    different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib's record, see Wilke,
+    _Jesaja u. Assur_ (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq.
+
+  [5] For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, _Alttest.
+    Unt._ 139 sqq., Burney, _Kings_, 350 sq.; Driver; Küchler, &c.; for
+    the later, Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader,
+    Wellhausen, W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M'Curdy, Paton, &c.
+
+  [6] Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to
+    the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii.
+    12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18,
+    xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii.
+    9-11. But see further ISAIAH (BOOK).
+
+  [7] See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth's _Authority and
+    Archaeology_, p. 167, n. 1.
+
+  [8] The house of _Nisroch_ should probably be that of the god
+    _Nusku_; see also Driver in Hogarth, _op. cit._ p. 109; Winckler,
+    _op. cit._ p. 84.
+
+  [9] It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit of
+    Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see INSCRIPTIONS,
+    JERUSALEM). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool was
+    already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see _Pal.
+    Explor. Fund, Quart. Stat._ (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq.
+
+  [10] The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. _nahash_, "serpent")
+    is obscure: see the commentaries.
+
+
+
+
+HIATUS (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity, whether in
+speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy the term is used for an
+opening or foramen, as the _hiatus Fallopii_, a foramen of the temporal
+bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when a step or link in reasoning is
+wanting; and in grammar it is the pause made for the sake of euphony in
+pronouncing two successive vowels, which are not separated by a
+consonant.
+
+
+
+
+HIAWATHA ("he makes rivers"), a legendary chief (_c_. 1450) of the
+Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The formation of the League of
+Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is attributed to him by Indian
+tradition. In his miraculous character Hiawatha is the incarnation of
+human progress and civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation,
+medicine and the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature
+which war against man.
+
+  See J. N. B. Hewitt, in _Amer. Anthrop_. for April 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HIBBING, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., 75 m. N.W. of
+Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census) 6566, of whom 3537 were
+foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes, 498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and
+314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832. Hibbing is served by the Great Northern
+and the Duluth, Missabe & Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the
+great Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines
+were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and farming are
+also important industries. The village owns and operates the water-works
+and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing was settled in 1892 and was
+incorporated in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+HIBERNACULUM (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a term for a winter
+bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters for plants; in zoology, the
+winter bud of a polyzoan.
+
+
+
+
+HIBERNATION (winter sleep), the dormant condition in which certain
+animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestivation (summer sleep) is
+the similar condition in which other species pass periods of heat or
+drought in warm latitudes. The origins of these kindred phenomena are
+probably to be sought in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply
+or of other factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of
+cold in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other.
+They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are enabled to live
+through unfavourable climatic conditions which would end fatally in
+starvation or desiccation were the animals to maintain their normal
+state of activity.
+
+I. _The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestivation_.--The
+physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mammalia, has been worked
+out in detail by several observers in the case of some European species,
+notably bats, hedgehogs, dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of
+aestivation nothing definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems
+probable, however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the
+physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are to all
+intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation, for example,
+in the European hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_) is not distinguished by
+external signs from the state of aestivation of the allied Mascarene
+genus, the tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_). The lethargy in both cases
+appears to be directly due to fall in the temperature of the organisms;
+and the fall in temperature proceeds _pari passu_ with the slowing down
+and weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the circulation
+of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hibernation and aestivation
+is shown not only in their physiological accompaniments but also in the
+species of animals which become seasonally dormant. Birds neither
+hibernate nor aestivate. The tenrec (_Centetes_) of Madagascar, which
+aestivates, closely resembles the hedgehog (_Erinaceus_) in habits and
+belongs to the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and
+batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep the
+winter through in cold countries; and some species of these groups
+habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud in tropical latitudes
+where drought is of periodical occurrence. Terrestrial molluscs lie
+dormant in the winter in cold and temperate latitudes and their tropical
+allies aestivate in districts where conditions enforce the habit. Some
+fresh-water molluscs bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds
+when the surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way
+when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season in the
+tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries insects and
+arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters during the cold
+weather, and in the tropics they similarly disappear during times of
+drought.
+
+_Predisposing Causes of Hibernation._--The likeness between hibernation
+and aestivation and the coincidence of the one with cold and of the
+other with heat arrest the conclusion that the temperature of the
+surrounding medium, whether atmospheric or aquatic, is the prime, much
+less the sole, cause of either. The effect of extreme cold is to rouse
+the hibernating animal from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter
+brings about a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears
+to be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues is
+followed by death because the gases are expelled from the fluids as
+bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals. Some
+cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to 0° C. Fish have been
+resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice, and frogs have been
+known to recover when ice has been formed in the blood and in the lymph
+of the peritoneal cavity (Landois).
+
+For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take precautions against
+exposure to extreme cold. They either bury themselves in the soil or
+under the snow or seek the shelter of hollow trees or of caves, not
+infrequently congregating in the same spot so that the temperature is
+kept up by corporeal contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be
+suspended unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon
+winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not hibernate
+unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during the summer and autumn
+to fatten them for their winter fast; and hedgehogs and dormice in
+captivity have been known to remain active in the cold until warm
+sleeping-quarters were insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their
+cages. Finally the wood-chucks (_Arctomys monax_) in the Adirondacks
+retire to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox,
+when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the vernal equinox
+before the snows of winter have vanished from the ground. These and
+other facts justify Marshall Hall's conclusion that cold is merely a
+predisposing cause of hibernation in the sense that it is a predisposing
+cause of ordinary sleep. It has also been shown that the state of
+hibernation cannot be forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to
+artificial cold even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper
+season they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37°
+to 77° Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters in the
+autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than that of
+preceding days during which they retain their activity.
+
+Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer sleep depend to
+a considerable extent upon conditions of existence other than those of
+temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign of a living thing on his arrival
+at Bahia Blanca, Argentina, on the 7th of Sept., although by digging
+several insects, large spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid
+state. During the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean
+temperature was 51°, the thermometer seldom rising above 55° at mid-day.
+But during the succeeding days when the mean temperature was 58° and
+that of the middle of the day between 60° and 70° both insect and
+reptilian life was in a state of activity. Nevertheless at Montevideo,
+lying only four degrees further north, between the 26th of July and the
+19th of August when the mean temperature was 58.4° and the mean highest
+temperature of mid-day 65.5° almost every beetle, several genera of
+spiders, land molluscs, toads and lizards were all lying dormant beneath
+stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo remained dormant at a
+temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from its torpidity. Darwin
+unfortunately does not record whether the species observed were
+identical in the two localities.
+
+The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation is
+approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium or at most a
+degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature of the chosen
+hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as freezing point, life is
+endangered at least in the case of mammals.
+
+In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature is normally
+only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two rising and falling
+together. But, setting aside the young, especially of those species in
+which the offspring are born or hatched at a comparatively early stage
+of development, the majority of warm-blooded animals are able to
+maintain a high and approximately level temperature irrespective of
+decline in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty of
+temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or weakened in
+most if not in all hibernating mammals both in their normal nocturnal or
+diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep. In the case of European bats it
+has been shown that the ordinary day sleep in summer differs only in the
+matter of duration from the prolonged slumber of the same animals in
+winter. The temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration
+practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven minutes
+has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate temperatures ranging from
+45° to 50° F., dormice (_Muscardinus avellanarius_) and hedgehogs
+(_Erinaceus europaeus_) alternately wake to feed and sink into slumber.
+Dormice awake once in every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the
+hedgehogs may last for two or three days. The temperature of the
+hedgehog, when awake and active, rises to about 87° F., that of the
+dormouse to 92° or 94° F.; but during sleep the temperature of both
+species falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all the
+phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these animals
+during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods of wakeful
+activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term "diurnation" has been
+proposed, because it has only been observed in nocturnal animals, lies
+phenomenally midway between the normal sleep of non-hibernating mammals
+and the dormant condition in winter of hibernating species. The stimulus
+of hunger appears to be the prime cause of its periodic cessation. Since
+then the faculty of temperature adjustment is in abeyance during the
+ordinary diurnal summer sleep in hibernating mammals, which in this
+physiological particular resemble reptiles, it seems probable that
+hibernation can only be practised by those species in which the power to
+maintain, when sleeping, a permanent average high temperature has been
+lost or perhaps never acquired. That there is no broad line of
+demarcation between the ordinary sleep of these hibernating mammals in
+which the temperature is known to drop considerably and that of
+non-hibernating species is indicated by the fact that the temperature of
+human beings and possibly of all non-hibernating species falls to a
+certain, though to a limited, extent in ordinary sleep.
+
+The relation between the internal body-temperature and the respiratory
+movements has been worked out in hibernating dormice, hedgehogs, marmots
+and bats. When the temperature is below 12° C., the torpid animal
+exhibits long periods of apnoea of several minutes' duration and
+interrupted by a few respirations. With the temperature rising above 13°
+C., the periods of apnoea in the still inactive animal become shorter,
+the respiration suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot's type), or
+gradually waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes' type). When the temperature
+is at about 16° C., the periods of apnoea in the gradually awaking
+animal are very short and infrequent. When the temperature is about 20°
+and rising apace, respiration becomes continuous and rapid and the
+animal is awake. These stages have been especially recorded in the case
+of dormice. In the last stage the respiration of hedgehogs and marmots
+is somewhat different, there being a series of rapid respirations, often
+followed by a single deep sighing respiration.
+
+_Respiration_ appears to be totally suspended in animals in a complete
+state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may however, be readily
+re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and to this fact may perhaps be
+attributed the belief that breathing does not actually cease. If a
+hibernating hedgehog be lightly touched it draws a deep breath, and
+breathing is maintained for a longer or shorter time before again
+ceasing; but if at the same time the temperature of the atmosphere be
+raised, respiration becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by
+activity (Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally
+suspended is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and
+bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon dioxide,
+a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals in a state of
+normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which may be drowned in about
+three minutes when awake and active, has been removed from water
+uninjured when in deep winter sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes'
+submergence. A hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived
+sixteen minutes' immersion. Further proof of the suspension of
+respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat which while in
+a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was kept in a pneumatometer for
+ten hours without appreciably affecting the percentage of oxygen in the
+air. The same animal, when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in
+the space of one hour from the instrument.
+
+As in the case of respiration, _alimentation_ and _excretion_ are
+suspended during hibernation.
+
+The _circulation of the blood_, on the other hand, continues without
+interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact may be
+observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats in a state of
+winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog lethargic from
+hibernation, it was experimentally shown that when the spinal cord was
+severed behind the occipital foramen, the brain removed and the entire
+spinal cord gently destroyed, the heart continued to beat strongly and
+regularly for several hours, the contraction of the auricles and
+ventricles being quite perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse
+of ten hours. After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed
+its activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve hours
+both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the ventricles
+remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles gave no response.
+On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a hedgehog in a normal state
+of activity was severed at the occiput, the left ventricle ceased to
+beat almost at once, and the left auricle in less than fifteen minutes;
+the right auricle was the next to cease, whereas the right ventricle
+continued its contraction for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots
+have yielded very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in
+a state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The
+pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16 to 18 per
+minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent, until at the end of
+the third hour only 3 were recorded in the same length of time. Excised
+pieces of voluntary muscular tissue contracted vigorously three hours
+after death under electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did
+they cease to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same
+way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the number of
+pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen minutes, to 8 at
+the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing altogether at the end of fifty
+minutes. Similarly the response of the muscles to galvanic shock failed
+at a correspondingly rapid rate. It is evident, therefore, that during
+hibernation the irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked
+degree, and that the irritability of the left side of the organ is
+scarcely less pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction
+in the rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain
+hibernating mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that
+the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens with
+a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52° F. the number was 22 in
+the common garden snail (_Helix hortensis_), and 21 in the cellar slug
+(_Hyalinia cellaria_). At a temperature of 30° F. the pulsation fell to
+4 in the former and to 3 in the latter animal.
+
+The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation, and the
+principal physiological phenomena connected with them, may be briefly
+summarized as follows:--
+
+  1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the tissues
+  is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the case of
+  mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes in definite
+  parts of the body, during the weeks of activity immediately preceding
+  the period of winter sleep.
+
+  2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and
+  hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or nocturnal
+  sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their prolonged and
+  lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of degree,
+  differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration.
+
+  3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (a)
+  Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and
+  excretion; (b) lowering of the body temperature to that of the
+  surrounding medium or to within a few degrees of it; (c) total or
+  almost total cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive
+  immersion for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases,
+  which prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active;
+  (d) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially
+  of those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that
+  organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (e) a
+  slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the
+  cardio-pneumatic movement.
+
+  4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate,
+  devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the phenomenon of
+  hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence wherever the
+  conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought are
+  inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the contrary,
+  the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned;
+  aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation
+  is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in these
+  the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily at all
+  events in abeyance.
+
+II. _The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation._--Owing to the extreme
+difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in their natural
+haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost impossible to get accurate
+knowledge of the details of this state of existence. In a general way it
+is known, or assumed from their disappearance, that certain species
+retire to winter quarters in particular districts, but on such important
+points as whether the winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light
+or profound, assured information is for the most part not forthcoming.
+This is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North
+America, which have been objects of study for many years. It is still
+more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited and rarely
+visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested in such
+questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration of this truth.
+It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep of these animals in north
+and temperate Europe was complete and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for
+example, remarked that "perhaps the bat may be the only animal which
+sleeps profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food." It
+was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other winged
+insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats which feed upon
+them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees, caves, sheds or other
+places likely to afford them sufficient shelter. Here they hang
+suspended, solitary or in companies according to the species. But a mild
+spell of weather in mid-winter will sometimes entice a few to take wing
+while it lasts, although they never appear in any numbers until
+crepuscular and nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward
+has recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats
+(_Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), that during the
+early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hibernation, in
+the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that even later
+in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted, especially when the
+temperature of the air rises above 46° F., and that during their wakeful
+intervals they crawl about and feed apparently upon the insects which
+live throughout the year in the caves. This is also true of the
+long-eared bat (_Plecotus auritus_), and probably of other species of
+this group. At Mussoorie in the Himalayas, and in other parts of
+northern India, insectivorous bats, such as _Rhinolophus luctus_ and
+_Rh. affinis_, pass the winter in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely
+seen abroad during the cold season. The fruit-eating bats, on the
+contrary (_Pteropidae_), which are more southern in their distribution
+and are restricted in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower
+slopes of the mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times
+of the year (Blanford).
+
+Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles and shrews
+do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction between two
+groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends upon the difference in
+their habitats and in those of the creatures they live upon. By
+tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer, moles are still able to find
+worms and various insects buried in the earth beyond the reach of frost;
+and shrews hunt out spiders, centipedes and insects which in their
+larval, pupal or sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in
+holes and crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or
+under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially active life of
+the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular fact that the
+common hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_)--the only member of this order
+besides genera referable to the moles (_Talpidae_) and shrews
+(_Soricidae_) that inhabits temperate and north-temperate latitudes in
+Europe and Asia--passes the winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in
+profundity by that of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly
+the explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the bionomial
+differences between the three animals. The subterranean feeding habits
+of the mole render hibernation unnecessary on his part. Therefore the
+shrew and the hedgehog, both surface feeders for the most part, need
+only be considered in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst
+the smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable
+size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult to
+find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike. Hence in winter
+when insects are scarce and demand active and diligent search, it is
+quite intelligible that the shrews, in virtue of their smallness and
+rapidity of movement, are able to procure sufficient food for their
+needs; whereas the hedgehogs, requiring a far larger quantity and
+handicapped by lack of activity, would probably starve under the same
+conditions. Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedgehog
+(_Erinaceus megalotis_) hibernates in Afghanistan from November till
+February. The tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_), a large insectivore from
+Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest weeks of the year; and
+specimens exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London preserved the
+habit although kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with
+food.
+
+Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha (hares, rabbits and
+picas) are known to hibernate, although some of the species, like the
+mountain hare (_Lepus timidus_), extend far to the north in the
+palaearctic region, and the picas (_Ochotona_) live at high altitudes in
+the Himalayas and Central Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive,
+and where the snow lies deep for many months. It is probable that the
+picas live in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores
+of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The Hystrico-morpha
+also are non-hibernators. It is true that the common porcupine (_Hystrix
+cristata_) of south Europe and north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the
+statement cannot, however, be accepted without confirmation, because the
+cold is seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens
+exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active throughout
+the year, although kept in enclosures without artificial heat of any
+kind. Even the most northerly representative of this group, the Canadian
+porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), which inhabits forest-covered tracts
+in the United States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter.
+Some members of this group, like capybaras (_Hydrochaerus capybara_) and
+coypus (_Myocastors coypus_) which live in tropical America, are
+unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries, and live in the
+open all the year round in parks and zoological gardens in England.
+Several of the genera of Myomorpha contain species inhabiting the
+northern hemisphere, which habitually hibernate. The three European
+genera of dormice (_Myoxidae_), namely _Muscardinus_, _Eliomys_ and
+_Glis_, sleep soundly practically throughout the winter; and examples of
+the South African genus _Graphiurus_ practise the same habit when
+imported to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from
+their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated during the
+autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed for shelter
+during the winter. According to the weather, the sleep lasts from about
+five to seven months. In the family _Muridae_, the true mice and rats
+(_Murinae_) and the voles and lemmings (_Arvicolinae_) seem to remain
+active through the winter, although some species, like the lemmings,
+range far to the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice
+(_Hesperomys_) of North America, belonging to the _Cricetinae_, spend
+the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food is laid up for
+consumption in the early spring. The Canadian jumping mouse (_Zapus
+hudsonianus_), one of the Jaculidae, also hibernates, although the sleep
+is frequently interrupted by milder days. Some of the most northerly
+species of jerboas (Jaculidae), namely _Alactaga decumana_ of the
+Kirghiz Steppes and _A. indica_ of Afghanistan, sleep from September or
+October till April; and the Egyptian species (_Jaculus jaculus_) and the
+Cape jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_), one of the Hystrico-morpha, remain
+in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous to winter
+sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains many hibernating
+species. None of the true squirrels, however, appear to sleep throughout
+the winter. Even the red squirrel (_Sciurus hudsonianus_) of North
+America retains its activity in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that
+prevail. The same is true of its European ally _Sc. vulgaris_. The North
+American grey squirrel (_Sc. cinereus_), although more southerly in its
+distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hibernates
+partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological Gardens in London
+disappear for a day or two when the cold is exceptionally keen, but for
+the most part they may be seen abroad throughout the season. On the
+other hand, ground squirrels like the chipmunks (_Tamias_) and the
+susliks or gophers (_Spermophilus_) of North America and Central Asia,
+at all events in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from
+the late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where
+they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of warmer
+weather in the winter which may rouse them from their slumbers. The
+North American flying squirrel (_Sciuropterus volucella_) and its ally
+_Pteromys inornatus_ are believed to hibernate in hollow trees. All the
+true marmots (_Arctomys_), a genus of which the species live at
+tolerably high altitudes in Central Europe, Asia and North America,
+appear to spend the winter in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their
+burrows. They apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a
+quantity of fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in
+the case of the woodchuck (_A. monax_) of the Adirondacks, retire to
+winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset of the winter cold.
+The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (_Cynomys ludovicianus_) of North
+America, which live in the plains, do not hibernate to the same extent
+as the true marmots, although they appear to remain in their burrows
+during the coldest portions of the winter. Beavers (_Castor_), although
+formerly at all events extending in North America from the tropic of
+Cancer up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground is
+deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able to feed on
+aquatic plants beneath the ice.
+
+Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be practised,
+with one possible exception, only by species belonging to the group
+Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in Europe and Asia, as well
+as in the Himalayas, brown bears (_Ursus arctos_) hibernate, so also
+does the North American grizzly bear (_U. horribilis_), at least in the
+more northern districts of its range. The smaller black bear of the
+Himalayas (_U. tibetanus_) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor
+during the winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when
+occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the American
+black bear (_U. americanus_) the female seeks winter quarters
+comparatively early in the season in preparation for the birth of her
+progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the males remain active so
+long as plenty of food is to be found. In the case of all bears, except
+the Polar bear (_U. maritimus_), the site chosen as the hibernaculum is
+either a cave or hole or some sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or
+the roots of large trees, more or less overgrown with brushwood which
+holds the snow until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where
+the sleeping animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the
+intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called "tappen" and composed
+principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated until the
+spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the subject of the
+hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during the winter from
+particular spots in the Arctic regions where icebound ships have spent
+the winter, and the occasional discovery of specimens buried beneath the
+snow, have led to the belief that these animals habitually retire to
+winter quarters through the cold sunless months of the year. This may
+possibly be the true explanation at least for certain districts. But it
+has been alleged that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen
+throughout the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury
+themselves in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without
+feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the following
+year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from the neighbourhood of
+icebound ships may be explained on the supposition that the adult
+females alone hibernate for breeding purposes, while the full-grown
+males and half-grown specimens of both sexes migrate in the winter to
+the edges of the ice-floes and to coast lines, where the water is open.
+Before retiring to winter quarters the pregnant females store up
+sufficient quantity of fat in their tissues not only to sustain
+themselves but also to supply milk for their cubs. In the Adirondack
+region and probably in other districts of the same or more northern
+latitudes in North America, raccoons (_Procyon lotor_) retire in the
+winter to some sheltered place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass
+the severest part of the season in sleep, emerging in February or March
+when the snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks
+(_Mephitis mephitica_), a member of the weasel family, also seek shelter
+during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam believes that the
+hibernation of this animal is determined by cold, and not by failure of
+food-supply, for he observes that skunks may frequently be seen in
+numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a time of the year when they feed
+almost entirely upon mice and shrews which do not hibernate even when
+the thermometer registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North
+America the badger (_Taxidea americana_) is said to hibernate from
+October till April; but the duration of the period probably depends, as
+in the case of its European ally (_Meles meles_), upon the length and
+severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the winter
+repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a break in the
+weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth in search of food.
+This interrupted hibernation takes place at least in England and even in
+Scandinavia; but in countries where frost is continuous throughout the
+winter it is probable that the badger's sleep is unbroken.
+
+The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the Carnivora
+is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the raccoon dog
+(_Nyctereutes procyonoides_) of Japan and north-eastern Asia, which is
+said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amurland if food has been
+sufficiently plentiful in late summer and autumn to enable the animal to
+lay on enough fat to resist the cold and sustain a long period of fast.
+If, however, food has been scarce, this dog is compelled to remain
+active all through the winter. The Arctic fox (_Vulpes lagopus_),
+although considerably more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does
+not hibernate. It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in
+winter, but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate
+southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in other
+districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings or hares, for
+food during the winter months. In Australia the porcupine ant-eater
+(_Echidna aculeata_) hibernates; and the habit is retained by specimens
+imported to Europe if exposed to the cold in outdoor cages.
+
+Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case of man.
+For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia, where food is scarce
+throughout the year and in danger of exhaustion during the winter, the
+peasants are said to resort to a practice closely akin to hibernation,
+spending at least one-half of the cold weather in sleep. From time
+immemorial it has been the custom when the first snows fall for families
+to shut themselves up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse
+into slumber, each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once
+a day only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little
+dry bread.
+
+Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the
+surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in a state of
+lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into northern
+latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue of their
+inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level than that of
+the atmosphere. The common land tortoise (_Testudo graeca_) of South
+Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter in its natural
+habitat, and even when imported to England is able, in some cases at
+least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by practising the same
+habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded. In Pennsylvania the
+box-tortoise (_Cistudo carolina_) passes the winter in a burrow; and
+_Testudo elegans_, which inhabits dry hilly districts in north India,
+takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or bushes as the cold weather
+approaches and remains in a semi-lethargic state until the return of the
+warmth. The European pond tortoise (_Emys orbicularis_) also hibernates
+buried in the soil; and the North American salt-water terrapin
+(_Malacoclemmys concentrica_), abundant in the salt-marshes round
+Charleston, S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold
+months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises protect
+themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into the soil which
+afterwards becomes indurated. When drought sets in with the dry season
+and the tanks become exhausted and food unobtainable, crocodiles and
+alligators sometimes wander across country in search of water, but more
+commonly bury themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence
+until the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large snakes,
+anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the Indians in South
+America buried in the same lethargic state. Snakes and lizards in all
+countries where there is any considerable seasonal variation in
+temperature become dormant or semi-dormant during the colder months.
+
+Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other countries
+situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury themselves in the mud at the
+bottom of tanks and ponds, often congregating in numbers in the same
+spot. Toads retire to burrows or other secluded places on the land, and
+newts either bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up
+beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to Mr G. A.
+Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not pass the winter in
+profound torpor, but merely in a state of sluggish quiescence. In
+tropical countries, where wet and dry seasons alternate, frogs which,
+like the rest of the batrachians, are for the most part intolerant of
+great heat, especially when accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury
+themselves deep in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from
+their retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains.
+
+This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud forming the
+bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised by several species of
+tropical freshwater fishes, belonging principally to the family
+_Siluridae_. The members of this group are able to exist and thrive in
+moist mud, and can even support life for a comparatively long time out
+of water altogether. The instinct is exhibited by species occurring both
+in the eastern and western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the
+case of species of _Callicthys_ and _Loricaria_ in Guiana and by
+_Clarias lazera_ in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to
+Tennent, in a species of climbing perch (_Anabas oligolepis_) found in
+Ceylon and belonging to the family _Anabantidae_, all the species of
+which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water, and
+may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of fresh pools.
+The habit is also common to some species of mud fishes of the order
+Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays the part of lungs.
+_Protopterus_, from tropical Africa, for instance, burrows into the mud
+and remains for nearly half the year coiled up at the bottom in a
+slightly enlarged chamber. The walls of this are lined with a layer of
+slime secreted from the fish's skin, and the orifice is closed with a
+lid the centre of which is perforated and forms an inturned tube by
+means of which air is conducted to the fish's mouth. The aestivating
+burrow of the Brazilian mudfish (_Lepidosiren_) is similar, except that
+the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian mudfish
+(_Ceratodus_) is not known to hibernate or aestivate.
+
+In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegetation
+terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or fallen tree
+trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of dead leaves, in
+moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent until the coming of spring.
+Amongst pulmonate gastropods, most species of snails (_Helix_,
+_Clausilia_) close the mouth of the shell at this period with a
+membranous or calcified plate, the epiphragm. Slugs (_Limax_, _Arion_),
+on the contrary, lie buried in the earth encysted in a coating of slime.
+Similarly in the tropics members of this group, such as _Achatina_ in
+tropical Africa and _Orthalicus_ in Brazil, aestivate during the dry
+season, the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and examples
+of two species of _Achatina_ from east and west Africa exhibited in the
+Zoological Gardens in London remained concealed in their shells during
+the winter, although kept in an artificially warmed house, and resumed
+their activity in the summer.
+
+Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such forms as _Limnaea_
+and _Planorbis_ having been frequently seen crawling about beneath the
+ice of frozen ponds. During periods of drought in England, however, they
+commonly bury themselves in the mud, a habit which is also practised
+during the dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate
+Gastropods belonging to the genera _Ampullaria_, _Melania_ and others,
+which lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy.
+Freshwater Pelecypoda (_Anodonta_, _Unio_) spend the European winter
+buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams.
+
+In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects pass the
+winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal or imaginal
+(reproductive) stages. In some the state of hibernation is complete in
+the sense that although the insects may be roused from their lethargy to
+the extent of movement by spells of warm weather, they do not leave
+their hibernacula to feed; in others it is incomplete in the sense that
+the insects emerge to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of
+_Euprepia fuliginosa_, or to take the wing as in the case of the midge
+_Trichocera hiemalis_. Others again, like _Podura nivalis_ and _Boreus
+hiemalis_, never appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects
+which hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more than
+one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (_Cossus ligniperda_),
+cockchafers (_Melolontha_), stagbeetles (_Lucanus_) and dragon-flies
+(_Libellula_), &c.; and to some species which, although they only live a
+few months in this immature state, are hatched in the autumn or summer
+and only reach the final stage of growth in the following spring, like
+the butterflies of the genus _Argynnis_ (_paphia_, _aglaia_, &c.) in
+England. As an instance of species which survive the winter in the
+pupal or chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of
+Europe (_Papilio machaon_); while to the category of species which
+hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera (Rhyncophora,
+_Coccinellidae_), &c., as well as some Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera
+and Lepidoptera (_Vanessa io_, _urticae_, &c.). In the case of the
+social Hymenoptera it is only the fertilized queen wasp out of the nest
+that survives the frost of winter, all the workers dying with the onset
+of cold in the autumn; the common hive bees (_Apis mellifica_), although
+they retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity of
+the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the
+temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively at work
+underground unless the temperature falls several degrees below zero.
+
+Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate latitudes.
+Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the family _Ctenizidae_ and
+some species of _Lycosidae_ seal the doors of their burrows with silk or
+close up the orifice with a sheet of that material. Other non-burrowing
+species, like some species of _Clubionidae_ and _Drassidae_, lie up in
+silken cases attached to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose
+bark, or buried under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls.
+Other species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state
+protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother for her
+eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the "garden spider"
+(_Aranea diadema_). Commonly, however, when the cocoons are later in the
+making, or the cold weather sets in early, the eggs of this and of
+allied species do not hatch until the spring; but in either case the
+young emerge in the warm weather, become adult during the summer and die
+in the autumn after pairing and oviposition. Some members of this
+family, nevertheless, like _Zilla x-notata_, which live in the corners
+of windows, or in outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree
+of protection from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage
+and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and tempted by the
+warmth to spin new webs. Typical members of the Opiliones or harvest
+spiders, belonging to the family _Phalangiidae_, do not hibernate in
+temperate and more northern latitudes in Europe and America, but perish
+in the autumn, leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the
+succeeding spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature
+individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging to the
+family _Trogulidae_, spend the winter in a dormant state under stones or
+buried in the soil. False scorpions (_Pseudo-scorpiones_) also hibernate
+in temperate latitudes, passing the cold months, like many spiders,
+enclosed in silken cases attached to the underside of stones or loosened
+pieces of bark. Centipedes and millipedes bury themselves in the earth,
+or lie up in some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks
+afford during the winter; and in the tropics millipedes lie dormant
+during seasons of drought.
+
+What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in the winter of
+the northern hemisphere is also true in a general way of that of the
+southern hemisphere at the same season of the year. This is proved--to
+mention no other cases--by the observations of Darwin on the hibernation
+of insects and spiders at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America,
+and by Distant's account of the paucity of insect life in the winter in
+South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating semi-torpid
+Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in the Transvaal, and of
+the gradual increase in the numbers of individuals and species of
+insects in that country as the spring advanced and the dry season came
+to an end.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Bell, _A History of British Reptiles (and
+  Amphibians)_ (1849); W. T. Blanford, _Fauna of British India:
+  Mammalia_ (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, _Monograph of the Tailless
+  Batrachians of Europe_, edited by the Ray Society; "Teleostei" in
+  _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 541-727 (1904); T. W. Bridge,
+  "Dipneustei" in _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 505-520 (1904); A.
+  H. Cooke, "Molluscs" in _Cambridge Natural History_, iii. 25-27
+  (1895); T. A. Coward, _P.Z.S._ pp. 849-855 (1906), and pp. 312-324
+  (1907); C. Darwin, _A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World_, pp.
+  97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant, _A Naturalist in the Transvaal_, ch.
+  iii. (1892); Marshall Hall, "Hibernation," in _Todd's Cyclopaedia of
+  Anatomy and Physiology_, pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); _Phil.
+  Trans. Roy. Soc._ (1832); John Hunter, _Observations on parts of the
+  Animal Economy_ (1837); _Index Catalogue of the Library of the
+  Surgeon-General's Office of the U.S. Army_, vii. (1902), Bibliography
+  relating to physiology of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, _An
+  Introduction to Entomology_, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois,
+  _A Text-book of Human Physiology_, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410
+  (1904); V. Laporte, "Suspension of Vitality in Animals," _Pop. Sci.
+  Monthly_, xxxvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, "Essai sur la
+  léthargie périodique," _Annales du Muséum_, x. 453-456 (1807); C. Hart
+  Merriam, _North American Pocket Mice_ (Washington, 1889); W. Miller,
+  "Hibernation and Allied States in Animals," _Trans. Pan-Amer. Med.
+  Congr._ (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285 (Washington, 1895); M. S.
+  Pembrey and A. G. Pitts, "The Relation between the Internal
+  Temperature and the Respiratory Movements of Hibernating Animals,"
+  _Journ. Physiol._ (London, 1899), pp. 305-316; Prunelle, "Recherches
+  sur les phénomènes et sur les causes du sommeil hivernal," _Annales du
+  Muséum_, xviii.; J. A. Saissy, _Recherches sur les animaux hivernans_
+  (1808); L. Spallanzani, _Mémoires sur la respiration_ (1803); J.
+  Emerson Tennent, _Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon_, pp.
+  351-358 (1861); Volkov, "Le Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes,"
+  _Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol._ (Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in _Brit.
+  Med. Journ._ (1900), i. 1554.     (R. I. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HIBERNIA, in ancient geography, one of the names by which Ireland was
+known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names were Ierne, Iuverna,
+Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem from which also Erin is
+descended. The island was well known to the Romans through the reports
+of traders, so far at least as its coasts. But it never became part of
+the Roman empire. Agricola (about A.D. 80) planned its conquest, which
+he judged an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise.
+During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to have been
+an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may have settled
+occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration is that of the Scots
+into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman days that Roman civilization,
+brought perhaps by Christian missionaries like Patrick, entered the
+island.
+
+
+
+
+HICKERINGILL (or HICKHORNGILL), EDMUND (1631-1708), English divine,
+lived an eventful life in the days of the Commonwealth and the
+Restoration. After graduating at Caius College, Cambridge, where he was
+junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined Lilburne's regiment as chaplain,
+and afterwards served in the ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish
+service, ultimately becoming a captain in Fleetwood's regiment. He then
+lived for a time in Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661.
+In the same year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln,
+having already passed through such shades of belief as are connoted by
+the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662 until his death in 1708
+he was vicar of All Saints', Colchester. He was a vigorous pamphleteer,
+and came into collision with Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he
+had to pay heavy damages for slander in 1682. He made a public
+recantation in 1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and
+ended his career by being convicted for forgery in 1707.
+
+
+
+
+HICKES, GEORGE (1642-1715), English divine and scholar, was born at
+Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 20th of June 1642. In 1659 he
+entered St John's College, Oxford, whence after the Restoration he
+removed to Magdalen College and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was
+elected fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded
+M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was appointed
+rector of St Ebbe's, Oxford. In 1676, as private chaplain, he
+accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal commissioner, to Scotland,
+and shortly afterwards received the degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In
+1680 he became vicar of All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having
+been made chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the
+deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II.'s declaration of
+indulgence and Monmouth's rising, and he tried in vain to save from
+death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685), one of the
+Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the revolution of 1688,
+having declined to take the oath of allegiance, Hickes was first
+suspended and afterwards deprived of his deanery. When he heard of the
+appointment of a successor he affixed to the cathedral doors a
+"protestation and claim of right." After remaining some time in
+concealment in London, he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors
+to James II. in France on matters connected with the continuance of
+their episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself
+consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were largely
+occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he persuaded two
+Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald Campbell, to assist him
+in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as
+bishops among the nonjurors. He died on the 15th of December 1715.
+
+  The chief writings of Hickes are the _Institutiones Grammaticae
+  Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae_ (1689), and _Linguarum veterum
+  Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus_
+  (1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry.
+
+  Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious
+  author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested by
+  contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great satisfaction--the
+  execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having attempted to murder
+  Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and John King, Presbyterian
+  ministers, "for high treason and rebellion" (_Ravillac Redivivus_,
+  1678; _The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the Mouths of Phanatical
+  Protestant_s, 1680). In his _Jovian_ (an answer to S. Johnson's
+  _Julian the Apostate_, 1683), he endeavoured to show that the Roman
+  empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians under Julian had
+  recognized the duty of passive obedience. His two treatises, one _Of
+  the Christian Priesthood_ and the other _Of the Dignity of the
+  Episcopal Order_, originally published in 1707, have been more than
+  once reprinted, and form three volumes of the _Library of
+  Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were published
+  _Collections of Controversial Letters_, in 1711 a collection of
+  _Sermons_, and in 1726 a volume of _Posthumous Discourses_. Other
+  treatises, such as the _Apologetical Vindication of the Church of
+  England_, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson's _Preservative against
+  Popery_. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which sketches
+  his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant in
+  various collections. A posthumous publication of his _The Constitution
+  of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of Schism_
+  (1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.
+
+  See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the _Dictionary of
+  National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, _The
+  Nonjurors_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1798-1888), American philosopher and divine,
+was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1798. He took
+his degree at Union College in 1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in
+active pastoral work, and was then appointed professor of theology at
+the Western Reserve College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn
+(N.Y.) Theological Seminary. From this post he was elected
+vice-president of Union College and professor of mental and moral
+science. In 1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868
+retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to writing
+and study. A collected edition of his principal works was published at
+Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th of May 1888. He wrote
+_Rational Psychology_ (1848), _System of Moral Science_ (1853),
+_Empirical Psychology_ (1854), _Rational Cosmology_ (1858), _Creator and
+Creation, or the Knowledge in the Reason of God and His Work_ (1872),
+_Humanity Immortal_ (1872), _Logic of Reason_ (1874).
+
+
+
+
+HICKORY, a shortened form of the American Indian name _pohickery_.
+Hickory trees are natives of North America, and belong to the genus
+_Carya_. They are closely allied to the walnuts (_Juglans_), the chief
+or at least one very obvious difference being that, whilst in _Carya_
+the husk which covers the shell of the nut separates into four valves,
+in _Juglans_ it consists of but one piece, which bursts irregularly. The
+timber is both strong and heavy, and remarkable for its extreme
+elasticity, but it decays rapidly when exposed to heat and moisture, and
+is peculiarly subject to the attacks of worms. It is very extensively
+employed in manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth,
+the bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels,
+chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes requiring
+great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in America is for
+hoop-making; and it is the only American wood found perfectly fit for
+that purpose.
+
+The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of the
+brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it gives out,
+the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived. The species which
+furnish the best wood are _Carya alba_ (shell-bark hickory), _C.
+tomentosa_ (mockernut), _C. olivaeformis_ (pecan or pacane nut), and _C.
+porcina_ (pig-nut), that of the last named, on account of its extreme
+tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees and axle-handles. The wood of
+_C. alba_ splits very easily and is very elastic, so that it is much
+used for making whip-handles and baskets. The wood of this species is
+also used in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia for making
+the back bows of Windsor chairs. The timber of _C. amara_ and _C.
+aquatica_ is considered of inferior quality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Shell-bark Hickory (_Carya alba_) in flower.]
+
+Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to 90 ft.
+in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced ample heads,
+and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When confined in the forest they
+shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches, but when standing alone they
+expand into a fine head, and produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of
+foliage. They have all the qualities necessary to constitute fine
+graceful park trees. The most ornamental of the species are _C.
+olivaeformis_, _C. alba_ and _C. porcina_, the last two also producing
+delicious nuts, and being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Fruit of _Carya alba_; 2, Hickory Nut; 3,
+Cross Section of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed.]
+
+The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into four
+equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the upper part,
+while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface, but has four or
+more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The hickory nuts of the
+American markets are the produce of _C. alba_, called the shell-bark
+hickory because of the roughness of its bark, which becomes loosened
+from the trunk in long scales bending outwards at the extremities and
+adhering only by the middle. The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of
+the States, and are exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The
+pecan-nuts, which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to 1½
+in. long, smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and thin-shelled,
+with the kernels full, not like those of most of the hickories divided
+by partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour. The thick-shelled
+fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground for swine,
+squirrels, &c., to devour. In _C. amara_ the kernel is so bitter that
+even squirrels refuse to eat it.
+
+
+
+
+HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in Hempstead
+township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748. His parents were
+Friends, but he took little interest in religion until he was about
+twenty; soon after that time he gave up the carpenter's trade, to which
+he had been apprenticed when seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he
+had "openings leading to the ministry" and was "deeply engaged for the
+right administration of discipline and order in the church," and in 1779
+he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours between Vermont and
+Maryland. He attacked slavery, even when preaching in Maryland; wrote
+_Observations on the Slavery of the Africans and their Descendants_
+(1811); and was influential in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the
+act declaring free after 1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed
+by the Act of 1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of
+February 1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he
+was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition
+at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed which
+would make the Society in America approach the position of the English
+Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His _Doctrinal Epistle_ (1824)
+stated his position, and a break ensued in 1827-1828, Hicks's followers,
+who call themselves the "Liberal Branch," being called "Hicksites" by
+the "Orthodox" party, which they for a time outnumbered. The village of
+Hicksville, in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the
+centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named in honour of
+Elias Hicks.
+
+  See _A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks_
+  (Philadelphia, 1825); _The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias
+  Hicks_ (Philadelphia, 1828), and his _Letters_ (Philadelphia, 1834).
+
+
+
+
+HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899), British physician and geologist, was born on
+the 26th of May 1837 at St David's, in Pembrokeshire, where his father,
+Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He studied medicine at Guy's Hospital,
+London, qualifying as M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he
+commenced a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to
+Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases, took the
+degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued his medical work
+until the close of his life. In Wales he had been attracted to geology
+by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist to the Geological Survey), and his
+leisure time was given to the study of the older rocks and fossils of
+South Wales. In conjunction with Salter, he established in 1865 the
+Menevian group (Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite
+_Paradoxides_. Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important
+papers on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and
+described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the
+Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David's, describing the Dimetian (granitoid
+rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his views, though
+contested, have been generally accepted. At Hendon Dr Hicks gave much
+attention to the local geology and also to the Pleistocene deposits of
+the Denbighshire caves. For a few years before his death he had laboured
+at the Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected organic
+remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as unfossiliferous, and
+these he regarded as including representatives of Lower Devonian and
+Silurian. His papers were mostly published in the _Geol. Mag._ and
+_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ He was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president
+of the Geological Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the
+18th of November 1899.
+
+
+
+
+HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the Bombay army in
+1849, and served through the Indian mutiny, being mentioned in
+despatches for good conduct at the action of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In
+1861 he became captain, and in the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was
+a brigade major, being again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet
+majority. He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After
+the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive's service
+and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum as chief of the
+staff of the army there, then commanded by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was
+formed at Omdurman and a new force of some 8000 fighting men
+collected--mostly recruited from the fellahin of Arabi's disbanded
+troops, sent in chains from Egypt. After a month's vigorous drilling
+Hicks led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar,
+whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns of Sennar
+and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an immediate attack by
+the mahdists the Egyptian officials at Khartum intrigued against Hicks,
+who in July tendered his resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of
+Suliman Niazi and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an
+expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi, who in
+January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that province. Hicks,
+aware of the worthlessness of his force for the purpose contemplated,
+stated his opinion that it would be best to "wait for Kordofan to settle
+itself" (telegram of the 5th of August). The Egyptian ministry, however,
+did not then believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition
+started from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of 7000
+infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and included thirteen
+Europeans. On the 20th the force left the Nile at Duem and struck inland
+across the almost waterless wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of
+November the army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was
+ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid. With the
+exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed. According to the
+story of Hicks's cook, one of the survivors, the general was the last
+officer to fall, pierced by the spear of the khalifa Mahommed Sherif.
+After emptying his revolver, the pasha kept his assailants at bay for
+some time with his sword, a body of Baggara who fled before him being
+known afterwards as "Baggar Hicks" (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on
+the words _baggara_ and _baggar_, the former being the herdsmen and the
+latter the cows. Hicks's head was cut off and taken to the mahdi.
+
+  See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_, book iv., by Sir F. R. Wingate
+  (London, 1891), and _With Hicks Pasha in the Soudan_, by J. Colborne
+  (London, 1884), Also EGYPT: _Military Operations_.
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San Luis Potosi and
+Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala and Mexico
+(state), and W. by Querétaro. Pop. (1895) 551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area,
+8917 sq. m. The northern and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous,
+culminating in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of
+this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren,
+being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where the _maguey_
+(American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The southern and western
+parts of the state consist of rolling plains, in the midst of which is
+the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo produces cereals in the more
+elevated districts, sugar, maguey, coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco.
+Maguey is cultivated for the production of _pulque_, the national drink.
+The chief industry, however, is mining, the mineral districts of
+Pachuca, El Chico, Real del Monte, San José del Oro, and Zimapán being
+among the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver, gold,
+mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese and plumbago.
+Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway facilities are afforded
+by a branch of the Vera Cruz and Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco
+to Pachuca, the capital of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among
+the principal towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24
+m. E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpán (about 9000) with silver mines 80 m. N. by
+W. of the Federal Capital, and Actópan (2666), the chief town of the
+district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited principally by Indians of the
+Othomies nation.
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from _hijo d'algo_ or _hijo de
+algo_, son of something, or somewhat), originally a Spanish title of the
+lower nobility; the hidalgo being the lowest grade of nobility which was
+entitled to use the prefix "don." The term is now used generally to
+denote one of gentle birth. The Portuguese _fidalgo_ has a similar
+history and meaning.
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL (1753-1811), Mexican patriot, was born on the
+8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos, near Guanajuato. His mother's
+maiden name was Gallaga, but contrary to the usual custom of the
+Spaniards he used only the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y
+Costilla. He was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained
+priest in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life who
+exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry, including the
+cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at Dolores. But Napoleon's
+invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a widespread commotion. The colonists
+were indisposed to accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in
+proclaiming Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for their
+professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however, by the Spanish
+authorities with suspicion as being designed to prepare the independence
+of Mexico. Hidalgo and several of his friends, among whom was Miguel
+Dominguez, mayor of Querétaro, engaged in consultation and preparations
+which the authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested,
+but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred of his
+parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized the prison
+at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a revolt against the
+Spanish and Creole elements of the population. With what is known as the
+"_grito_" or cry of Dolores as their rallying shout, a multitude
+gathered round Hidalgo, who took for his banner a wonder-working picture
+of the Virgin belonging to a popular shrine. At first he met with some
+success. A regiment of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some
+small posts were stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of
+Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated. Hidalgo
+lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted, and on the
+march to Querétaro he was attacked at Aculco by General Felix Calleja on
+the 7th of November 1810, and routed. He endeavoured to continue the
+struggle, and did succeed in collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about
+Guadalajara. With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a
+position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On the 17th of
+January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja and a small force of
+soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other leaders, and soon afterwards
+all of them were betrayed to the Spaniards. They were tried at
+Chihuahua, and condemned. Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood
+and then shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August 1811.
+
+  See H. H. Bancroft, _The Pacific States_, vol. vii., which contains a
+  copious bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+HIDDENITE, a green transparent variety of spodumene, (q.v.) used as a
+gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b. 1853) about 1879
+at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina, and was at first taken
+for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence Smith proved it to be spodumene, and
+named it. Hiddenite occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of
+prismatic habit, often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic
+cleavage renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes
+from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly
+distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a marked
+degree, and shows much "fire" when properly cut. The composition of the
+mineral is represented by the formula LiAl(SiO3)2, the green colour
+being probably due to the presence of a small proportion of chromium.
+The presence of lithia in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate
+name of lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite was
+originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards
+worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association with beryl,
+quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c.
+
+
+
+
+HIDE[1] (Lat. _hida_, A.-S. _higíd_, _híd_ or _hiwisc_, members of a
+household), a measure of land. The word was in general use in England in
+Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although its meaning seems to have
+varied somewhat from time to time. Among its Latin equivalents are
+_terra unius familiae_, _terra unius cassati_ and _mansio_; the first of
+these forms is used by Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no
+definite area. In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of
+the typical family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded
+as containing 120 "acres" (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each, but 120
+times the amount of land which a ploughteam of eight oxen could plough
+in a single day). This definition appears to have been very general in
+England before the Norman Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and
+80 acres are repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some
+historians, however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres
+or thereabouts.
+
+  "The question about the hide," says Professor Maitland in _Domesday
+  Book and Beyond_, "is 'pre-judicial' to all the great questions of
+  early English history." The main argument employed by J. M. Kemble
+  (_The Saxons in England_) in favour of the "small" hide is that the
+  number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts of England
+  gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these parts,
+  making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an allowance
+  necessary because the hide was only that part of the land which came
+  under the plough, and each hide must have carried with it a certain
+  amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support of Kemble's theory
+  must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight contained 1200 hides. Now
+  1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a total acreage of 144,000 acres,
+  while the total acreage of the island to-day is only 93,000 acres.
+  Again a document called _The Tribal Hidage_ puts the number of hides
+  in the whole of England at nearly a quarter of a million. This gives
+  in acres a figure about equal to the total acreage of England at the
+  present time, but it leaves no room for pasture and for the great
+  proportion of land which was still woodland. On these grounds Kemble
+  regarded the hide as containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40
+  acres, and thought that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., i.e.
+  that it was roughly equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought
+  forward is that 30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the
+  average family, in other words that it was the _terra unius familiae_
+  of Bede. Another Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at
+  48 acres.
+
+  But formidable arguments have been advanced against the "small" hide.
+  There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday the hide was equated
+  with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking the word _familia_ in its
+  proper sense, a household with many dependent members, and making an
+  allowance for primitive methods of agriculture, it is questionable
+  whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient for its support; and again if
+  the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected there is no serious
+  evidence in favour of any other. A possible explanation is that,
+  although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide consisted of 30 acres or
+  thereabouts, it had come before the time of Domesday to contain 120
+  acres. But no trace of such change can be found; there is no break in
+  the continuity of the land-charters which refer to hides and manses.
+  Reviewing the whole question Professor Maitland accepts the view that
+  the hide contained 120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they
+  are not insuperable. Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for
+  the most part of lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a
+  vague and general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean
+  120 times 4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of
+  Domesday the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for
+  purposes of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick (_Studies
+  on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_) says there is no evidence that the hide
+  contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests that possibly
+  the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at 40 acres, while
+  in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres. Dr Stubbs (_Const.
+  Hist._ i.) suggests that the confusion may have arisen because the
+  word was used "to express the whole share of one man in all the fields
+  of the village." Thus it might refer to 30 acres, his share in one
+  field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four fields. He adds,
+  however, that this explanation is not adequate for all cases. But
+  these differences about the size of the hide are not peculiar to
+  modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, _Hida Anglice vocatur terra
+  unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum_, while the _Dialogus de
+  scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be the long
+  hundred, or_ 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when he says,
+  "hides were of an incertain quantity." Certainly he gives a very good
+  description of the early hide when he says (_Titles of Honour_): "Now
+  a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as much land as might
+  be well manured with one plough, together with pasture, meadow and
+  wood competent for the maintenance of that plough, and the servants of
+  the family." The view that the size of the hide varied from district
+  to district is borne out by Professor Vinogradoff's more recent
+  researches. In his _English Society in the Eleventh Century_ he
+  mentions that there was a hide of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40
+  acres in Dorset. In addition some authorities distinguish between
+  English hides and Welsh hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained
+  8 virgates. Sometimes again in the 11th century hides were not merely
+  fiscal units; they were shares in the land itself.
+
+The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been established by
+Mr J. H. Round in his _Feudal England_, and is regarded as throwing a
+most valuable light upon the many problems which present themselves to
+the student of Domesday. The process which converted the hide from a
+unit of measurement to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as
+follows. Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such
+pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide was a
+useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates doubtless from
+the time of the Danegeld. For some time the two meanings were used side
+by side, but before the Norman Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation,
+had quite supplanted the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state
+of affairs when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made.
+The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county, but a single
+illustration may be given. _Huntedun Burg defendebat se ad geldum regis
+pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred pro L. hidis_. This does not
+mean that the town of Huntingdon contained a certain fixed number of
+square yards multiplied by 50, but that for purposes of taxation
+Huntingdon was regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.
+
+  This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton in _A
+  Key to Domesday_ and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof rests
+  primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By collating
+  various documents which formed part of the Domesday inquest Mr Round
+  has brought together for certain parts of England, especially for
+  Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the various lords in
+  the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total of 5 hides or
+  10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A similar result is
+  shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are almost universal, and
+  the total hidage for the county of Worcester is very near the round
+  figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously artificial; it must have
+  been imposed upon the counties or the hundreds by the central
+  authority and then divided among the vills. Another proof is found in
+  what is called "beneficial hidation." It is shown that in certain
+  cases the number of hides in a hundred has been reduced since the time
+  of Edward the Confessor, and that this reduction had been transferred
+  _pro rata_ to the vills in the hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that
+  the hide was fixed "independently of area or value." Some slight
+  criticism has been directed against the idea of "artificial hidation,"
+  but the most that can be said against it is that its proof rests upon
+  isolated cases, a reproach which further research will doubtless
+  remove. However, Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a
+  fiscal unit "which corresponds only in a very rough way to the
+  agrarian reality," and Maitland says the fiscal hide is "at its best a
+  lame compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value."
+
+What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures have been
+hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than the Danegeld. Rejecting
+the idea that it is of Roman or of British origin, and pointing to the
+serious difference in the rates at which the various counties were
+assessed, Mr Round thinks that it dates from the time when the various
+Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of
+assessment for military service, possibly it was the recognized
+endowment of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man's standing in
+society was dependent to a great extent upon the number of hides which
+he possessed; this statement is fully proved from the laws. Moreover, in
+the laws of the Wessex king, Ine, the value of a man's oath is expressed
+in hides, the oath for a king's thegn being probably worth 60 hides and
+that of a ceorl 5 hides.
+
+The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate being, after
+the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the villein with two oxen.
+Mr Round holds that in Domesday at all events the hide always consisted
+of four virgates; Mr F. Seebohm in _The English Village Community_,
+although thinking that the normal hide "consisted as a rule of four
+virgates of 30 acres each," says that the Hundred Rolls for
+Huntingdonshire show that "the hide did not always contain the same
+number of virgates." The virgate, it may be noted, consisted of a strip
+of land in _each_ acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly a strong
+case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates.
+
+Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions are rooted
+in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between the methods of
+taxation of land in Rome and in England; he sees some connexion between
+the Roman _centuria_ and the hide, and between the Roman system of
+taxation called _jugatio_ and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff
+(_Villainage in England_) summarizes the views of those who hold a
+contrary opinion thus: "The curious fact that the normal holding, the
+hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by its origin; it
+came full-formed from Germany and remained unchanged in spite of all
+diversities of geographical and economical conditions."
+
+  In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the "Five
+  Boroughs," the carucate takes the place of the hide as the unit of
+  value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of
+  assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide is
+  quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According to Mr
+  Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates; Mr W. H.
+  Stevenson (_English Historical Review_, vol. v.) argues that it
+  contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. Mr Seebohm
+  thinks there was a _solanda_ or double hide of 240 acres in Essex and
+  other southern counties, but Mr Round does not think that this word
+  refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all. For Kent, however,
+  the word _sullung_ or solin, is used in _Domesday Book_ and in the
+  charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere, and Vinogradoff
+  thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.
+
+Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two or more
+shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized method of
+raising money, royal and some other estates, however, as is seen from
+Domesday, not being hidated and not paying the tax. This geld, or tax,
+received several names, one of the most general being _hidage_ (Lat.
+_hidagium_). "Hidage," says Vinogradoff, "is historically connected with
+the old English Danegeld system," and as Danegeld and then hidage it was
+levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was during the
+11th century "the most sweeping and the heaviest of all the taxes."
+Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was 2s. on each hide of land,
+and this was evidently the rate at the time of the famous dispute
+between Henry II. and Becket at Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always
+kept at this figure, as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on
+each hide, an unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the
+hide. Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide for
+the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor Henry V., and in
+1194, when money was collected for the ransom of Richard I., some of the
+taxation for this purpose seems to have been assessed according to the
+hidage given in Domesday Book.
+
+By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax was
+disappearing, its place being taken by the word _carucage_. The carucate
+(Lat. _caruca_, a plough) was a measure of land which prevailed in the
+north of England, the district inhabited by people of Danish descent.
+Some authorities regard it as equivalent to the hide, others deny this
+identity. In 1198, however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each
+_carucata terrae sive hyda_, the two words were obviously
+interchangeable, and about the same time the size of the carucate was
+fixed at 100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time
+longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes on land.
+
+  One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain
+  unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and a
+  hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres to
+  make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage, a simple
+  process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound, makes
+  calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from the German
+  _hufe_ or _huba_?     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The homonym "hide," meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng. _hýdan_;
+    the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages. The root
+    is probably seen in Gr. [Greek: keuthein] to hide, or may be the same
+    as in "hide," skin, O. Eng. _hýd_, which is also seen in Ger. _Haut_,
+    Dutch _huid_; the root appears in Lat. _cutis_, Gr. [Greek: kytos].
+    The Indo-European root _ku_-, weakened form of _sku_-, seen in "sky,"
+    and meaning "to cover," may be the ultimate source of both words. The
+    slang use of "to hide," to flog or whip, means "to take the skin off,
+    to flay."
+
+
+
+
+HIEL, EMMANUEL (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and prose writer, was
+born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May 1834. He acted in various
+functions, from teacher and government official to journalist and
+bookseller, busily writing all the time both for the theatre and the
+magazines of North and South Netherlands. His last posts were those of
+librarian at the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the
+Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic works may be
+cited _Looverkens_ ("Leaflets," 1857); _Nieuwe Liedekens_ ("New
+Poesies," 1861); _Gedichten_ ("Poems," 1863); _Psalmen, Zangen, en
+Oratorios_ ("Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios," 1869); _De Wind_ (1869), an
+inspiriting cantata, which had a large measure of success and was
+crowned; _De Liefde in 't Leven_ ("Love in Life," 1870); _Elle_ and
+_Isa_ (two musical dramas, 1874); _Liederen voor Groote en Kleine
+Kinderen_ ("Songs for Big and Small Folk," 1879); _Jakoba van Beieren_
+("Jacqueline of Bavaria," a poetic drama, 1880); _Mathilda van
+Denemarken_ (a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were
+published in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an active
+and prominent part in the so-called "Flemish movement" in Belgium, and
+his name is constantly associated with those of Jan van Beers, the
+Willems and Peter Benoit. The last wrote some of his compositions to
+Hiel's verses, notably to his oratorios _Lucifer_ (performed in London
+at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere) and _De Schelde_ ("The
+Scheldt"); whilst the Dutch composer, Richard Hol (of Utrecht), composed
+the music to Hiel's "Ode to Liberty," and van Gheluwe to the poet's
+"Songs for Big and Small Folk" (second edition, much enlarged, 1879),
+which has greatly contributed to their popularity in schools and among
+Belgian choral societies. Hiel also translated several foreign lyrics.
+His rendering of Tennyson's _Dora_ appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the
+national festival of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth
+anniversary of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas,
+_Belgenland_ ("The Land of the Belgians") and _Eer Belgenland_ ("Honour
+to Belgium"), which, set to music, were much appreciated. He died at
+Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August 1899. Hiel's efforts to
+counteract Walloon influences and bring about a _rapprochement_ between
+the Netherlanders in the north and the Teutonic racial sympathizers
+across the Rhine made him very popular with both, and a volume of his
+best poems was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors
+published at Leipzig.
+
+
+
+
+HIEMPSAL, the name of the two kings of Numidia. For Hiempsal I. see
+under JUGURTHA. Hiempsal II. was the son of Gauda, the half-brother of
+Jugurtha. In 88 B.C., after the triumph of Sulla, when the younger
+Marius fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent
+friendliness, his real intention being to detain him as a prisoner.
+Marius discovered this intention in time and made good his escape with
+the assistance of the king's daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was driven from
+his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by Hiarbas, ruler of part of
+the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the leader of the
+Marian party in Africa. Soon afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by
+Sulla to reinstate Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased
+by the addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty
+concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius Rullus
+introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had been originally
+assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Africanus, were expressly
+exempted from sale, which roused the indignation of Cicero (_De lege
+agraria_, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (_Caesar_, 71) it is evident
+that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 17), he
+was the author of an historical work in the Punic language.
+
+  Plutarch, _Marius_, 40, _Pompey_, 12; Appian, _Bell. civ._, i. 62. 80;
+  Dio Cassius xli. 41.
+
+
+
+
+HIERAPOLIS. 1. (Arabic _Manbij_ or _Mumbij_) an ancient Syrian town
+occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria, in a fertile
+district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the Sajur and Euphrates.
+There is abundant water supply from large springs. In 1879, after the
+Russo-Turkish war, a colony of Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was
+planted in the ruins, and the result has been the constant discovery of
+antiquities, which find their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab.
+The place first appears in Greek as _Bambyce_, but Pliny (v. 23) tells
+us its Syrian name was _Mabog_. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian
+sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who made it
+the chief station on their main road between Antioch and
+Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian Nature
+Goddess, Atargatis (q.v.), it became known to the Greeks as the city of
+the sanctuary [Greek: Hieropolis], and finally as the Holy City [Greek:
+Hierapolis]. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous writer)
+has immortalized this worship in the tract _De Dea Syria_, wherein are
+described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the tank of sacred
+fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. According to the _De Dea
+Syria_, the worship was of a phallic character, votaries offering little
+male figures of wood and bronze. There were also huge _phalli_ set up
+like obelisks before the temple, which were climbed once a year with
+certain ceremonies, and decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic
+character with golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration.
+Inside was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter.
+Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first seems to
+have been the more richly decorated with gems and other ornaments.
+Between them stood a gilt _xoanon_, which seems to have been carried
+outside in sacred processions. Other rich furniture is described, and a
+mode of divination by movements of a _xoanon_ of Apollo. A great bronze
+altar stood in front, set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived
+numerous sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice.
+Some three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous
+minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities and it
+was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an altar standing in
+the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and other orgies went on in the
+temple precinct, and there was an elaborate ritual on entering the city
+and first visiting the shrine under the conduct of local guides, which
+reminds one of the Meccan Pilgrimage.
+
+The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the Parthians (53
+B.C.); but in the 3rd century of the empire the city was the capital of
+the Euphratensian province and one of the great cities of Syria.
+Procopius called it the greatest in that part of the world. It was,
+however, ruinous when Julian collected his troops there ere marching to
+his defeat and death in Mesopotamia, and Chosroes I. held it to ransom
+after Justinian had failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun
+restored it at the end of the 8th century and it became a bone of
+contention between Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured
+it from the Seljuks in the 12th century, but Saladin retook it (1175),
+and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols, who
+completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost wholly of late
+date, as is to be expected in the case of a city which survived into
+Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no ruins of the great temple
+survive. The most noteworthy relic of antiquity is the sacred lake, on
+two sides of which can still be seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The
+first modern account of the site is in a short narrative appended by H.
+Maundrell to his _Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem_. He was at Mumbij in
+1699.
+
+The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century B.C. with an Aramaic
+series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural crown or as
+riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief type even during
+imperial times, being generally shown seated with the _tympanum_ in her
+hand. Other coins substitute the legend [Greek: Theas Surias
+Hieropolitôn], within a wreath. It is interesting to note that from
+_Bambyce_ (near which much silk was produced) were derived the
+_bombycina vestis_ of the Romans and, through the crusaders, the
+bombazine of modern commerce.
+
+  See F. R. Chesney, _Euphrates Expedition_ (1850); W. F. Ainsworth,
+  _Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888); E. Sachau,
+  _Reise in Syrien_, &c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in _Journal of Hellenic
+  Studies_ (1909).
+
+2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the Churuk Su
+(Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the Menderes (Maeander),
+situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above the valley and 6 m. N. of
+Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous springs, that have deposited
+vast incrustations of snowy whiteness. To these springs, which are warm
+and slightly sulphureous, and to the "Plutonium"--a hole reaching deep
+into the earth, from which issued a mephitic vapour--the place owed its
+celebrity and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious
+establishment (_hieron_) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian
+Kydrara, a settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew
+round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native life but
+of non-political importance. The chief religious festival was the
+Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of the Mother
+Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic rites in which
+elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate and Nature-cult
+survived: there was also a worship of Apollo Lairbenos. Hierapolis was
+the seat of an early church (Col. iv. 13), with which tradition closely
+connects the apostle Philip. Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a
+disciple of St John and author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus,
+were born there. Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a
+station on the Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks
+has gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is
+apparently _Pambuk Kale_ (though doubt has been thrown on the
+statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-like
+appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted, however, that
+this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by the Syrians to
+the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), _Bambyce_, the origin of which it
+has been suggested was a native name of the goddess Pambe or Mambe
+(whence Mabog). Considering that cotton is a comparatively modern
+phenomenon in Anatolia, it is worth suggesting that _Pambuk_ in this
+case may be a survival of a primitive name, derived from the same
+goddess, Pambe. The goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case
+closely akin. If an old native name has reappeared here after the
+decline of Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish,
+it affords another instance of a very common feature of west Asian
+nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the ruins of
+Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily accessible
+spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the long avenue of
+tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by which the city is
+approached from the W., and for a very perfect theatre partly excavated
+in the hill at the N. side of the site. Stage buildings as well as
+auditorium are well preserved. On the S., just above the white terraces
+and largely blocked with petrified deposit, stand large baths, into
+which the natural warm spring was once conducted. Behind these is a fine
+triumphal arch, whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches
+survive, and also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which
+may represent the "Plutonium," but it has no such deadly power as was
+ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the "Plutonium" was
+obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over 300 inscriptions have
+been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence Ramsay has deduced interesting
+facts about the very early Christian community which existed here. The
+site has been often visited and described, and was systematically
+examined in 1887 by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann
+respectively.
+
+  See K. Humann, _Altertümer v. Hierapolis_ (1888); Sir W. M. Ramsay,
+  _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i. (1895).
+       (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HIERARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hieros], holy, and [Greek: archein], to rule),
+the office of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a "ruler of
+priests" or "priestly ruler" (see Boeckh, _Corp. inscr. Gr._ No. 1570),
+a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote the aggregate
+of those persons who exercise authority within the Christian Church, the
+patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-fold order of the clergy. The
+word [Greek: hierarchia], which does not occur in any classical Greek
+writer, owes its present extensive currency to the celebrated writings
+of Dionysius Areopagiticus. Of these the most important are the two
+which treat of the celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy
+respectively. Defining hierarchy as the "function which comprises all
+sacred things," or, more fully, as "a sacred order and science and
+activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and elevated to
+the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine illuminations
+conceded to it," the author proceeds to enumerate the nine orders of the
+heavenly host, which are subdivided again into hierarchies or triads, in
+descending order, thus: Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations,
+Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for
+the common object of raising men through ascending stages of
+purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical or
+earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the first or
+highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and chrism. The second
+triad consists of the three orders of the ministry, bishop or hierarch,
+priest and minister or deacon ([Greek: hierarchês, hiereus,
+leitourgos]); this is the earliest known instance in which the title
+hierarch is applied to a bishop. The third or lowest triad is made up of
+monks, "initiated" and catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through
+Thomas Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period, the
+definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic writers--"coëtus
+seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum ad regendam ecclesiam
+gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem divinitus institutus"[1]--although
+it immediately rests upon the authority of the sixth canon of the
+twenty-third session of the council of Trent, in which anathema is
+pronounced upon all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of
+a hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of bishops,
+priests and ministers.[2] (See ORDER, HOLY).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Perrone, _De locis theologicis_, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2.
+
+  [2] Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina
+    ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et
+    ministris: anathema sit.
+
+
+
+
+HIERATIC, priestly or sacred (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos, hieros], sacred),
+a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing,
+which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name was first
+given by Champollion (see EGYPT, § _Language_).
+
+
+
+
+HIERAX, or HIERACAS, a learned ascetic who flourished about the end of
+the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt, where he lived to the age of
+ninety, supporting himself by calligraphy and devoting his leisure to
+scientific and literary pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible.
+He was the author of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and
+is said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of the so-called
+sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from which married persons
+were excluded, and of which one of the leading tenets was that only the
+celibate could enter the kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the
+suppression of the sexual impulse was emphatically the new revelation
+brought by the Logos, and appealed to 1 Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and
+Matt. xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link between
+Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning and prodigious
+memory, he seems to have developed Origen's Christology in the direction
+of Athanasius. He held that the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of
+the Father, that Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the
+ideas of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the
+ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized
+infants, "for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict no
+reward." In his insistence on virginity as the specifically Christian
+virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the 4th and 5th
+centuries.
+
+
+
+
+HIERO (strictly HIERON), the name of two rulers of Syracuse.
+
+HIERO I. was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse from 478 to
+467/6 B.C. During his reign he greatly increased the power of Syracuse.
+He removed the inhabitants of Naxos and Catana to Leontini, peopled
+Catana (which he renamed Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with
+Acragas (Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against
+Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achievement was the
+defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which he saved the Greeks of
+Campania. A bronze helmet (now in the British Museum), with an
+inscription commemorating the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though
+despotic in his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died
+at Catana in 467.
+
+  See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, _Hiero_, 6. 2; E. Lübbert,
+  _Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron_ (1875); for his coins see
+  NUMISMATICS (section _Sicily_).
+
+
+
+
+HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 B.C., was the illegitimate
+son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelo. On
+the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275) the Syracusan army and
+citizens appointed him commander of the troops. He materially
+strengthened his position by marrying the daughter of Leptines, the
+leading citizen. In the meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian
+mercenaries who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the
+stronghold of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They were
+finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero, who was only
+prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian interference. His
+grateful countrymen then chose him king (270). In 264 he again returned
+to the attack, and the Mamertines called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at
+once joined the Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily;
+but being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew to
+Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was compelled to
+conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was to rule over the south-east
+of Sicily and the eastern coast as far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16;
+Zonaras viii. 9). From this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal
+to the Romans, and frequently assisted them with men and provisions
+during the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept up
+a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his famous kinsman
+Archimedes in the construction of those engines that, at a later date,
+played so important a part during the siege of Syracuse by the Romans.
+
+  A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in
+  the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic.
+  xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4.
+
+
+
+
+HIEROCLES, proconsul of Bithynia and Alexandria, lived during the reign
+of Diocletian (A.D. 284-305). He is said to have been the instigator of
+the fierce persecution of the Christians under Galerius in 303. He was
+the author of a work (not extant) entitled [Greek: logoi philalêtheis
+pros tous Christianous] in two books, in which he endeavoured to
+persuade the Christians that their sacred books were full of
+contradictions, and that in moral influence and miraculous power Christ
+was inferior to Apollonius of Tyana. Our knowledge of this treatise is
+derived from Lactantius (_Instit. div._ v. 2) and Eusebius, who wrote a
+refutation entitled [Greek: Antirrhêtikos pros ta Hierokleous].
+
+
+
+
+HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA, Neoplatonist writer, flourished c. A.D. 430. He
+studied under the celebrated Neoplatonist Plutarch at Athens, and taught
+for some years in his native city. He seems to have been banished from
+Alexandria and to have taken up his abode in Constantinople, where he
+gave such offence by his religious opinions that he was thrown into
+prison and cruelly flogged. The only complete work of his which has been
+preserved is the commentary on the _Carmina Aurea_ of Pythagoras. It
+enjoyed a great reputation in middle age and Renaissance times, and
+there are numerous translations in various European languages. Several
+other writings, especially one on providence and fate, a consolatory
+treatise dedicated to his patron Olympiodorus of Thebes, author of
+[Greek: historikoi logoi], are quoted or referred to by Photius and
+Stobaeus. The collection of some 260 witticisms ([Greek: asteia]) called
+[Greek: Philogelôs] (ed. A. Eberhard, Berlin, 1869), attributed to
+Hierocles and Philagrius, has no connexion with Hierocles of Alexandria,
+but is probably a compilation of later date, founded on two older
+collections. It is now agreed that the fragments of the _Elements of
+Ethics_ ([Greek: Êthikê stoicheiôsis]) preserved in Stobaeus are from a
+work by a Stoic named Hierocles, contemporary of Epictetus, who has been
+identified with the "Hierocles Stoicus vir sanctus et gravis" in Aulus
+Gellius (ix. 5. 8). This theory is confirmed by the discovery of a
+papyrus (ed. H. von Arnim in _Berliner Klassikertexte_, iv. 1906; see
+also C. Prächter, _Hierokles der Stoiker_, 1901).
+
+
+  There is an edition of the commentary by F. W. Mullach in _Fragmenta
+  philosophorum Graecorum_ (1860), i. 408, including full information
+  concerning Hierocles, the poem and the commentary; see also E. Zeller,
+  _Philosophie der Griechen_ (2nd ed.), iii. 2, pp. 681-687; W. Christ,
+  _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898), pp. 834, 849.
+
+  Another Hierocles, who flourished during the reign of Justinian, was
+  the author of a list of provinces and towns in the Eastern Empire,
+  called [Greek: Synekdêmos] ("fellow-traveller"; ed. A. Burckhardt,
+  1893); it was one of the chief authorities used by Constantine
+  Porphyrogenitus in his work on the "themes" of the Roman Empire (see
+  C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_, 1897, p.
+  417). In Fabricius's _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), i. 791,
+  sixteen persons named Hierocles, chiefly literary, are mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. [Greek: hieros], sacred, and [Greek: glyphê],
+carving), the term used by Greek and Latin writers to describe the
+sacred characters of the ancient Egyptian language in its classical
+phase. It is now also used for various systems of writing in which
+figures of objects take the place of conventional signs. Such characters
+which symbolize the idea of a thing without expressing the name of it
+are generally styled "ideographs" (Gr. [Greek: idea], idea, and [Greek:
+graphein], to write), e.g. the Chinese characters.
+
+  See EGYPT, _Language_; CUNEIFORM; INSCRIPTIONS and WRITING.
+
+
+
+
+HIERONYMITES, a common name for three or four congregations of hermits
+living according to the rule of St Augustine with supplementary
+regulations taken from St Jerome's writings. Their habit was white, with
+a black cloak. (1) The Spanish Hieronymites, established near Toledo in
+1374. The order soon became popular in Spain and Portugal, and in 1415
+it numbered 25 houses. It possessed some of the most famous monasteries
+in the Peninsula, including the royal monastery of Belem near Lisbon,
+and the magnificent monastery built by Philip II. at the Escurial.
+Though the manner of life was very austere the Hieronymites devoted
+themselves to studies and to the active work of the ministry, and they
+possessed great influence both at the Spanish and the Portuguese courts.
+They went to Spanish and Portuguese America and played a considerable
+part in Christianizing and civilizing the Indians. There were
+Hieronymite nuns founded in 1375, who became very numerous. The order
+decayed during the 18th century and was completely suppressed in 1835.
+(2) Hieronymites of the Observance, or of Lombardy: a reform of (1)
+effected by the third general in 1424; it embraced seven houses in Spain
+and seventeen in Italy, mostly in Lombardy. It is now extinct. (3) Poor
+Hermits of St Jerome, established near Pisa in 1377: it came to embrace
+nearly fifty houses whereof only one in Rome and one in Viterbo survive.
+(4) Hermits of St Jerome of the congregation of Fiesole, established in
+1406: they had forty houses but in 1668 they were united to (3).
+
+  See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1714), iii. cc. 57-60,
+  iv. cc. 1-3; Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. §
+  70; and art. "Hieronymiten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed.
+  3), and in Welte and Wetzer, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA, Greek general and historian, contemporary of
+Alexander the Great. After the death of the king he followed the
+fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman Eumenes. He was wounded and
+taken prisoner by Antigonus, who pardoned him and appointed him
+superintendent of the asphalt beds in the Dead Sea. He was treated with
+equal friendliness by Antigonus's son Demetrius, who made him polemarch
+of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he died at the age
+of 104. He wrote a history of the Diadochi and their descendants,
+embracing the period from the death of Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus
+(323-272 B.C.), which is one of the chief authorities used by Diodorus
+Siculus (xviii.-xx.) and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus. He
+made use of official papers and was careful in his investigation of
+facts. The simplicity of his style rendered his work unpopular, but it
+is probable that it was on a high level as compared with that of his
+contemporaries. In the last part of his work he made a praiseworthy
+attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character and early history of
+the Romans. He is reproached by Pausanias (i. 9. 8) with unfairness
+towards all rulers with the exception of Antigonus Gonatas.
+
+  See Lucian, _Macrobii_, 22; Plutarch, _Demetrius_, 39; Diod. Sic.
+  xviii. 42. 44. 50, xix. 100; Dion. Halic. _Antiq. Rom._ i. 6; F.
+  Brückner, "De vita et scriptis Hieronymi Cardii" in _Zeitschrift für
+  die Alterthumswissenschaft_ (1842); F. Reuss, _Hieronymus von Kardia_
+  (Berlin, 1876); C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten
+  Geschichte_ (1895); fragments in C. W. Müller, _Frag. hist. Graec._
+  ii. 450-461.
+
+
+
+
+HIERRO, or FERRO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the
+Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 6508; area
+107 sq. m. Hierro, the most westerly and the smallest island of the
+group, is somewhat crescent-shaped. Its length is about 18 m., its
+greatest breadth about 15 m., and its circumference 50 m. It lies 92 m.
+W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its coast is bound by high, steep rocks, which only
+admit of one harbour, but the interior is tolerably level. Its hill-tops
+in winter are sometimes wrapped in snow. Better and more abundant grass
+grows here than on any of the other islands. Hierro is exposed to
+westerly gales which frequently inflict great damage. Fresh water is
+scarce, but there is a sulphurous spring, with a temperature of 102°
+Fahr. The once celebrated and almost sacred Til tree, which was reputed
+to be always distilling water in great abundance from its leaves, no
+longer exists. Only a small part of the cultivable land is under
+tillage, the inhabitants being principally employed in pasturage.
+Valverde (pop. about 3000) is the principal town. Geographers were
+formerly in the habit of measuring all longitudes from Ferro, the most
+westerly land known to them. The longitude assigned at first has,
+however, turned out to be erroneous; and the so-called "Longitude of
+Ferro" does not coincide with the actual longitude of the island.
+
+
+
+
+HIGDON (or HIGDEN), RANULF (c. 1299-c. 1363), English chronicler, was a
+Benedictine monk of the monastery of St Werburg in Chester, in which he
+lived, it is said, for sixty-four years, and died "in a good old age,"
+probably in 1363. Higdon was the author of a long chronicle, one of
+several such works based on a plan taken from Scripture, and written for
+the amusement and instruction of his society. It closes the long series
+of general chronicles, which were soon superseded by the invention of
+printing. It is commonly styled the _Polychronicon_, from the longer
+title _Ranulphi Castrensis, cognomine Higdon, Polychronicon (sive
+Historia Polycratica) ab initio mundi usque ad mortem regis Edwardi III.
+in septem libros dispositum_. The work is divided into seven books, in
+humble imitation of the seven days of Genesis, and, with exception of
+the last book, is a summary of general history, a compilation made with
+considerable style and taste. It seems to have enjoyed no little
+popularity in the 15th century. It was the standard work on general
+history, and more than a hundred MSS. of it are known to exist. The
+Christ Church MS. says that Higdon wrote it down to the year 1342; the
+fine MS. at Christ's College, Cambridge, states that he wrote to the
+year 1344, after which date, with the omission of two years, John of
+Malvern, a monk of Worcester, carried the history on to 1357, at which
+date it ends. According, however, to its latest editor, Higdon's part of
+the work goes no further than 1326 or 1327 at latest, after which time
+it was carried on by two continuators to the end. Thomas Gale, in his
+_Hist. Brit. &c., scriptores_, xv. (Oxon., 1691), published that portion
+of it, in the original Latin, which comes down to 1066. Three early
+translations of the _Polychronicon_ exist. The first was made by John of
+Trevisa, chaplain to Lord Berkeley, in 1387, and was printed by Caxton
+in 1482; the second by an anonymous writer, was written between 1432 and
+1450; the third, based on Trevisa's version, with the addition of an
+eighth book, was prepared by Caxton. These versions are specially
+valuable as illustrating the change of the English language during the
+period they cover.
+
+  The _Polychronicon_, with the continuations and the English versions,
+  was edited for the Rolls Series (No. 41) by Churchill Babington (vols.
+  i. and ii.) and Joseph Rawson Lumby (1865-1886). This edition was
+  adversely criticized by Mandell Creighton in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._ for
+  October 1888.
+
+
+
+
+HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES (1810-1868), British writer over the nom-de-plume
+"Jacob Omnium," which was the title of his first magazine article, was
+born in County Meath, Ireland, on the 4th of December 1810. His letters
+in _The Times_ were instrumental in exposing many abuses. He was a
+frequent contributor to the _Cornhill_, and was a friend of Thackeray,
+who dedicated to him _The Adventures of Philip_, and one of his ballads,
+"Jacob Omnium's Hoss," deals with an incident in Higgins's career. He
+died on the 14th of August 1868. Some of his articles were published in
+1875 as _Essays on Social Subjects_.
+
+
+
+
+HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH (1823-1911), American author and soldier,
+was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of December 1823. He
+was a descendant of Francis Higginson (1588-1630), who emigrated from
+Leicestershire to the colony of Massachusetts Bay and was a minister of
+the church of Salem, Mass., in 1629-1630; and a grandson of Stephen
+Higginson (1743-1828), a Boston merchant, who was a member of the
+Continental Congress in 1783, took an active part in suppressing Shay's
+Rebellion, was the author of the "Laco" letters (1789), and rendered
+valuable services to the United States government as navy agent from the
+11th of May to the 22nd of June 1798. Graduating from Harvard in 1841,
+he was a schoolmaster for two years, studied theology at the Harvard
+Divinity School, and was pastor in 1847-1850 of the First Religious
+Society (Unitarian) of Newburyport, Massachusetts, and of the Free
+Church at Worcester in 1852-1858. He was a Free Soil candidate for
+Congress (1850), but was defeated; was indicted with Wendell Phillips
+and Theodore Parker for participation in the attempt to release the
+fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston (1853); was engaged in the
+effort to make Kansas a free state after the passage of the
+Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854; and during the Civil War was captain in
+the 51st Massachusetts Volunteers, and from November 1862 to October
+1864, when he was retired because of a wound received in the preceding
+August, was colonel of the First South Carolina Volunteers, the first
+regiment recruited from former slaves for the Federal service. He
+described his experiences in _Army Life in a Black Regiment_ (1870). In
+politics Higginson was successively a Republican, an Independent and a
+Democrat. His writings show a deep love of nature, art and humanity, and
+are marked by vigour of thought, sincerity of feeling, and grace and
+finish of style. In his _Common Sense About Women_ (1881) and his _Women
+and Men_ (1888) he advocated equality of opportunity and equality of
+rights for the two sexes.
+
+  Among his numerous books are _Outdoor Papers_ (1863); _Malbone: an
+  Oldport Romance_ (1869); Life of _Margaret Fuller Ossoli_ (in
+  "American Men of Letters" series, 1884); _A Larger History of the
+  United States of America to the Close of President Jackson's
+  Administration_ (1885); _The Monarch of Dreams_ (1886); _Travellers
+  and Outlaws_ (1889); _The Afternoon Landscape_ (1889), poems and
+  translations; _Life of Francis Higginson_ (in "Makers of America,"
+  1891); _Concerning All of Us_ (1892); _The Procession of the Flowers
+  and Kindred Papers_ (1897); _Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_ (in "American
+  Men of Letters" series, 1902); _John Greenleaf Whittier_ (in "English
+  Men of Letters" series, 1902); _A Reader's History of American
+  Literature_ (1903), the Lowell Institute lectures for 1903, edited by
+  Henry W. Boynton; and _Life and Times of Stephen Higginson_ (1907).
+  His volumes of reminiscence, _Cheerful Yesterdays_ (1898), _Old
+  Cambridge_ (1899), _Contemporaries_ (1899), and _Part of a Man's Life_
+  (1905), are characteristic and charming works. His collected works
+  were published in seven vols. (1900).
+
+
+
+
+HIGHAM FERRERS, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern
+parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 63 m. N.N.W. from
+London, on branches of the London & North-Western and Midland railways.
+Pop. (1901), 2540. It is pleasantly situated on high ground above the
+south bank of the river Nene. The church of St Mary is among the most
+beautiful of the many fine churches in Northamptonshire. To the Early
+English chancel a very wide north aisle, resembling a second nave, was
+added in the Decorated period, and the general appearance of the
+chancel, with its north aisle and Lady-chapel, is Decorated. The tower
+with its fine spire and west front was partially but carefully rebuilt
+in the 17th century. Close to the church, but detached from it, stands a
+beautiful Perpendicular building, the school-house, founded by
+Archbishop Chichele in 1422. The Bede House, a somewhat similar
+structure by the same founder, completes a striking group of buildings.
+In the town are remains of Chichele's college. Higham Ferrers shares in
+the widespread local industry of shoemaking. The town is governed by a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1945 acres.
+
+Higham (Hecham, Heccam, Hegham Ferers) was evidently a large village
+before the Domesday Survey. It was then held by William Peverel of the
+king, but on the forfeiture of the lordship by his son it was granted in
+1199 to William Ferrers, earl of Derby. On the outlawry of Robert his
+grandson it passed to Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and, reverting to the
+crown in 1322, was granted to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, but
+escheated to the crown in 1327, and was granted to Henry, earl of
+Lancaster. The castle, which may have been built before Henry III.
+visited Higham in 1229, is mentioned in 1322, but had been destroyed by
+1540. It appears by the confirmation of Henry III. in 1251 that the
+borough originated in the previous year when William de Ferrers, earl of
+Derby, manumitted by charter ninety-two persons, granting they should
+have a free borough. A mayor was elected from the beginning of the reign
+of Richard II., while a town hall is mentioned in 1395. The revenues of
+Chichele's college were given to the corporation by the charter of 1566,
+whereby the borough returned one representative to parliament, a
+privilege enjoyed until 1832. James I. in 1604 gave the mayor the
+commission of the peace with other privileges which were confirmed by
+Charles II. in 1664. The old charters were surrendered in 1684 and a new
+grant obtained; a further charter was granted in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+HIGHGATE, a northern district of London, England, partly in the
+metropolitan borough of St Pancras, but extending into Middlesex. It is
+a high-lying district, the greatest elevation being 426 ft. The Great
+North Road passes through Highgate, which is supposed to have received
+its name from the toll-gate erected by the bishop of London when the
+road was formed through his demesne in the 14th century. It is possible,
+however, that "gate" is used here in its old signification, and that the
+name means simply high road. The road rose so steeply here that in 1812
+an effort was made to lessen the slope for coaches by means of an
+archway, and a new way was completed in 1900. In the time of
+stage-coaches a custom was introduced of making ignorant persons believe
+that they required to be sworn and admitted to the freedom of the
+Highgate before being allowed to pass the gate, the fine of admission
+being a bottle of wine. Not a few famous names occur among the former
+residents of Highgate. Bacon died here in 1626; Coleridge and Andrew
+Marvell, the poets, were residents. Cromwell House, now a convalescent
+home, was presented by Oliver Cromwell to his eldest daughter Bridget on
+her marriage with Henry Ireton (January 15, 1646/7). Lauderdale House,
+now attached to the public grounds of Waterlow Park, belonged to the
+Duke of Lauderdale, one of the "Cabal" of Charles II. Among various
+institutions may be mentioned Whittington's almshouses, near Whittington
+Stone, at the foot of Highgate Hill, on which the future mayor of London
+is reputed to have been resting when he heard the peal of Bow bells and
+"turned again." Highgate grammar school was founded (1562-1565) by Sir
+Roger Cholmley, chief-justice. St Joseph's Retreat is the mother-house
+of the Passionist Fathers in England. There is an extensive and
+beautiful cemetery on the slope below the church of St Michael.
+
+
+
+
+HIGHLANDS, THE, that part of Scotland north-west of a line drawn from
+Dumbarton to Stonehaven, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the
+county of Bute, but excluding the Orkneys and Shetlands, Caithness, the
+flat coastal land of the shires of Nairn, Elgin and Banff, and all East
+Aberdeenshire (see SCOTLAND). This area is to be distinguished from the
+Lowlands by language and race, the preservation of the Gaelic speech
+being characteristic. Even in a historical sense the Highlanders were a
+separate people from the Lowlanders, with whom, during many centuries,
+they shared nothing in common. The town of Inverness is usually regarded
+as the capital of the Highlands. The Highlands consist of an old
+dissected plateau, or block, of ancient crystalline rocks with incised
+valleys and lochs carved by the action of mountain streams and by ice,
+the resulting topography being a wide area of irregularly distributed
+mountains whose summits have nearly the same height above sea-level, but
+whose bases depend upon the amount of denudation to which the plateau
+has been subjected in various places. The term "highland" is used in
+physical geography for any elevated mountainous plateau.
+
+
+
+
+HIGHNESS, literally the quality of being lofty or high, a term used, as
+are so many abstractions, as a title of dignity and honour, to signify
+exalted rank or station. These abstractions arose in great profusion in
+the Roman empire, both of the East and West, and "highness" is to be
+directly traced to the _altitudo_ and _celsitudo_ of the Latin and the
+[Greek: hypsêlotês] of the Greek emperors. Like other "exorbitant and
+swelling attributes" of the time, they were conferred on ruling princes
+generally. In the early middle ages such titles, couched in the second
+or third person, were "uncertain and much more arbitrary (according to
+the fancies of secretaries) than in the later times" (Selden, _Titles of
+Honour_, pt. i. ch. vii. 100). In English usage, "Highness" alternates
+with "Grace" and "Majesty," as the honorific title of the king and queen
+until the time of James I. Thus in documents relating to the reign of
+Henry VIII. all three titles are used indiscriminately; an example is
+the king's judgment against Dr Edward Crome (d. 1562), quoted, from the
+lord chamberlain's books, ser. 1, p. 791, in _Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc._
+N.S. xix. 299, where article 15 begins with "Also the Kinges Highness"
+hath ordered, 16 with "Kinges Majestie," and 17 with "Kinges Grace." In
+the Dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible of 1611 James I.
+is still styled "Majesty" and "Highness"; thus, in the first paragraph,
+"the appearance of Your Majesty, as of the Sun in his strength,
+instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised mists ... especially
+when we beheld the government established in Your Highness and Your
+hopeful Seed, by an undoubted title." It was, however, in James I.'s
+reign that "Majesty" became the official title. It may be noted that
+Cromwell, as lord protector, and his wife were styled "Highness." In
+present usage the following members of the British Royal Family are
+addressed as "Royal Highness" (H.R.H.): all sons and daughters, brothers
+and sisters, uncles and aunts of the reigning sovereign, grandsons and
+granddaughters if children of sons, and also great grandchildren (decree
+of 31st of May 1898) if children of an eldest son of any prince of
+Wales. Nephews, nieces and cousins and grandchildren, offspring of
+daughters, are styled "Highness" only. A change of sovereign does not
+entail the forfeiture of the title "Royal Highness," once acquired,
+though the father of the bearer has become a nephew and not a grandson
+of the sovereign. The principal feudatory princes of the Indian empire
+are also styled "Highness."
+
+As a general rule the members of the blood royal of an Imperial or Royal
+house are addressed as "Imperial" or "Royal Highness" (_Altesse
+Impériale_, _Royale_, _Kaiserliche_, _Königliche Hoheit_) respectively.
+In Germany the reigning heads of the Grand Duchies bear the title of
+Royal or Grand Ducal Highness (_Königliche_ or _Gross-Herzogliche
+Hoheit_), while the members of the family are addressed as _Hoheit_,
+Highness, simply. _Hoheit_ is borne by the reigning dukes and the
+princes and princesses of their families. The title "Serene Highness"
+has also an antiquity equal to that of "highness," for [Greek:
+galênotês] and [Greek: hêmerotês] were titles borne by the Byzantine
+rulers, and serenitas and _serenissimus_ by the emperors Honorius and
+Arcadius. The doge of Venice was also styled _Serenissimus_. Selden
+(_op. cit._ pt. ii. ch. x. 739) calls this title "one of the greatest
+that can be given to any Prince that hath not the superior title of
+King." In modern times "Serene Highness" (_Altesse Sérénissime_) is used
+as the equivalent of the German _Durchlaucht_, a stronger form of
+_Erlaucht_, illustrious, represented in the Latin honorific
+_superillustris_. Thackeray's burlesque title "Transparency" in the
+court at Pumpernickel very accurately gives the meaning. The title of
+_Durchlaucht_ was granted in 1375 by the emperor Charles IV. to the
+electoral princes (_Kurfürsten_). In the 17th century it became the
+general title borne by the heads of the reigning princely states of the
+empire (_reichsländische Fürsten_), as _Erlaucht_ by those of the
+countly houses (_reichständische Grafen_). In 1825 the German Diet
+agreed to grant the title _Durchlaucht_ to the heads of the mediatized
+princely houses whether domiciled in Germany or Austria, and it is now
+customary to use it of the members of those houses. Further, all those
+who are elevated to the rank of prince (_Fürst_) in the secondary
+meaning of that title (see PRINCE) are also styled _Durchlaucht_. In
+1829 the title of _Erlaucht_, which had formerly been borne by the
+reigning counts of the empire, was similarly granted to the mediatized
+countly families (see _Almanack de Gotha_, 1909, 107).
+
+
+
+
+HIGH PLACE, in the English version of the Old Testament, the literal
+translation of the Heb. _bamah_. This rendering is etymologically
+correct, as appears from the poetical use of the plural in such
+expressions as to ride, or stalk, or stand on the high places of the
+earth, the sea, the clouds, and from the corresponding usage in
+Assyrian; but in prose _bamah_ is always a place of worship. It has been
+surmised that it was so called because the places of worship were
+originally upon hill-tops, or that the _bamah_ was an artificial
+platform or mound, perhaps imitating the natural eminence which was the
+oldest holy place, but neither view is historically demonstrable. The
+development of the religious significance of the word took place
+probably not in Israel but among the Canaanites, from whom the
+Israelites, in taking possession of the holy places of the land, adopted
+the name also.
+
+In old Israel every town and village had its own place of sacrifice, and
+the common name for these places was _bamah_, which is synonymous with
+_mikdash_, holy place (Amos vii. 9; Isa. xvi. 12, &c.). From the Old
+Testament and from existing remains a good idea may be formed of the
+appearance of such a place of worship. It was often on the hill above
+the town, as at Ramah (I Sam. ix. 12-14); there was a stelè
+(_massebah_), the seat of the deity, and a wooden post or pole
+(_asherah_), which marked the place as sacred and was itself an object
+of worship; there was a stone altar, often of considerable size and hewn
+out of the solid rock[1] or built of unhewn stones (Ex. xx. 25; see
+ALTAR), on which offerings were burnt (_mizbeh_, lit. "slaughter
+place"); a cistern for water, and perhaps low stone tables for dressing
+the victims; sometimes also a hall (_lishkah_) for the sacrificial
+feasts.
+
+Around these places the religion of the ancient Israelite centred; at
+festival seasons, or to make or fulfil a vow, he might journey to more
+famous sanctuaries at a distance from his home, but ordinarily the
+offerings which linked every side of his life to religion were paid at
+the _bamah_ of his own town. The building of royal temples in Jerusalem
+or in Samaria made no change in this respect; they simply took their
+place beside the older sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Dan, Gilgal,
+Beersheba, to which they were, indeed, inferior in repute.
+
+The religious reformers of the 8th century assail the popular religion
+as corrupt and licentious, and as fostering the monstrous delusion that
+immoral men can buy the favour of God by worship; but they make no
+difference in this respect between the high places of Israel and the
+temple in Jerusalem (cf. Amos v. 21 sqq.; Hos. iv.; Isa. i. 10 sqq.);
+Hosea stigmatizes the whole cultus as pure heathenism--Canaanite
+baal-worship adopted by apostate Israel. The fundamental law in Deut.
+xii. prohibits sacrifice at every place except the temple in Jerusalem;
+in accordance with this law Josiah, in 621 B.C., destroyed and
+desecrated the altars (_bamoth_) throughout his kingdom, where Yahweh
+had been worshipped from time immemorial, and forcibly removed their
+priests to Jerusalem, where they occupied an inferior rank in the temple
+ministry. In the prophets of the 7th and 6th centuries the word _bamoth_
+connotes "seat of heathenish or idolatrous worship"; and the historians
+of the period apply the term in this opprobrious sense not only to
+places sacred to other gods but to the old holy places of Yahweh in the
+cities and villages of Judah, which, in their view, had been
+illegitimate from the building of Solomon's temple, and therefore not
+really seats of the worship of Yahweh; even the most pious kings of
+Judah are censured for tolerating their existence. The reaction which
+followed the death of Josiah (608 B.C.) restored the old altars of
+Yahweh; they survived the destruction of the temple in 586, and it is
+probable that after its restoration (520-516 B.C.) they only slowly
+disappeared, in consequence partly of the natural predominance of
+Jerusalem in the little territory of Judaea, partly of the gradual
+establishment of the supremacy of the written law over custom and
+tradition in the Persian period.
+
+It may not be superfluous to note that the deuteronomic dogma that
+sacrifice can be offered to Yahweh only at the temple in Jerusalem was
+never fully established either in fact or in legal theory. The Jewish
+military colonists in Elephantine in the 5th century B.C. had their
+altar of Yahweh beside the high way; the Jews in Egypt in the Ptolemaic
+period had, besides many local sanctuaries, one greater temple at
+Leontopolis, with a priesthood whose claim to "valid orders" was much
+better than that of the High Priests in Jerusalem, and the legitimacy of
+whose worship is admitted even by the Palestinian rabbis.
+
+  See Baudissin, "Höhendienst," _Protestantische Realencyklopädie_³
+  (viii. 177-195); Hoonacker, _Le Lieu du culte dans la législation
+  rituelle des Hébreux_ (1894); v. Gall, _Altisraelitische Kultstädte_
+  (1898).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Several altars of this type have been preserved.
+
+
+
+
+HIGH SEAS, an expression in international law meaning all those parts of
+the sea not under the sovereignty of adjacent states. Claims have at
+times been made to exclusive dominion over large areas of the sea as
+well as over wide margins, such as a 100 m., 60 m., range of vision,
+&c., from land. The action and reaction of the interests of navigation,
+however, have brought states to adopt a limitation first enunciated by
+Bynkershoek in the formula "terrae dominium finitur ubi finitur armorum
+vis." Thenceforward cannon-shot range became the determining factor in
+the fixation of the margin of sea afterwards known as "territorial
+waters" (q.v.). With the exception of these territorial waters, bays of
+certain dimensions and inland waters surrounded by territory of the same
+state, and serving only as a means of access to ports of the state by
+whose territory they are surrounded, and some waters allowed by
+immemorial usage to rank as territorial, all seas and oceans form part
+of the high sea. The usage of the high sea is free to all the nations of
+the world, subject only to such restrictions as result from respect for
+the equal rights of others, and to those which nations may contract with
+each other to observe. An interesting case affecting land-locked seas
+was that of the _Emperor of Japan_ v. _The Peninsular and Oriental Steam
+Navigation Company_, in which a collision had taken place in the inland
+sea of Japan. The British Supreme Court at Shanghai declared this sea to
+form part of the high sea. On appeal to the privy council, the
+appellants were successful. Though the decision of the Shanghai court on
+the point in question was not dealt with by the privy council, Japan
+continues to treat her inland sea as under her exclusive jurisdiction.
+     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HIGHWAY, a public road over which all persons have full right of
+way--walking, riding or driving. Such roads in England for the most part
+either are of immemorial antiquity or have been created under the
+authority of an act of parliament. But a private owner may create a
+highway at common law by dedicating the soil to the use of the public
+for that purpose; and the using of a road for a number of years, without
+interruption, will support the presumption that the soil has been so
+dedicated. At common law the parish is required to maintain all highways
+within its bounds; but by special custom the obligation may attach to a
+particular township or district, and in certain cases the owner of land
+is bound by the conditions of his holding to keep a highway in repair.
+Breach of the obligation is treated as a criminal offence, and is
+prosecuted by indictment. Bridges, on the other hand, and so much of the
+highway as is immediately connected with them, are as a general rule a
+charge on the county; and by 22 Henry VIII. c. 5 the obligation of the
+county is extended to 300 yds. of the highway on either side of the
+bridge. A bridge, like a highway, may be a burden on neighbouring land
+_ratione tenurae_. Private owners so burdened may sometimes claim a
+special toll from passengers, called a "toll traverse."
+
+Extensive changes in the English law of highways have been made by
+various highway acts, viz. the Highway Act 1835, and amending acts of
+1862, 1864, 1878 and 1891. The leading principle of the Highway Act 1835
+is to place the highways under the direction of parish surveyors, and to
+provide for the necessary expenses by a rate levied on the occupiers of
+land. It is the duty of the surveyor to keep the highways in repair; and
+if a highway is out of repair, the surveyor may be summoned before
+justices and convicted in a penalty not exceeding £5, and ordered to
+complete the repairs within a limited time. The surveyor is likewise
+specially charged with the removal of nuisances on the highway. A
+highway nuisance may be abated by any person, and may be made the
+subject of indictment at common law. The amending acts, while not
+interfering with the operation of the principal act, authorize the
+creation of highway districts on a larger scale. The justices of a
+county may convert it or any portion of it into a highway district to be
+governed by a highway board, the powers and responsibilities of which
+will be the same as those of the parish surveyor under the former act.
+The board consists of representatives of the various parishes, called
+"way wardens" together with the justices for the county residing within
+the district. Salaries and similar expenses incurred by the board are
+charged on a district fund to which the several parishes contribute; but
+each parish remains separately responsible for the expenses of
+maintaining its own highways. By the Local Government Act 1888 the
+entire maintenance of main roads was thrown upon county councils. The
+Public Health Act 1875 vested the powers and duties of surveyors of
+highways and vestries in urban authorities, while the Local Government
+Act 1894 transferred to the district councils of every rural district
+all the powers of rural sanitary authorities and highway authorities
+(see ENGLAND: _Local Government_).
+
+The Highway Act of 1835 specified as offences for which the driver of a
+carriage on the public highway might be punished by a fine, in addition
+to any civil action that might be brought against him--riding upon the
+cart, or upon any horse drawing it, and not having some other person to
+guide it, unless there be some person driving it; negligence causing
+damage to person or goods being conveyed on the highway; quitting his
+cart, or leaving control of the horses, or leaving the cart so as to be
+an obstruction on the highway; not having the owner's name painted up;
+refusing to give the same; and not keeping on the left or near side of
+the road, when meeting any other carriage or horse. This rule does not
+apply in the case of a carriage meeting a foot-passenger, but a driver
+is bound to use due care to avoid driving against any person crossing
+the highway on foot. At the same time a passenger crossing the highway
+is also bound to use due care in avoiding vehicles, and the mere fact of
+a driver being on the wrong side of the road would not be evidence of
+negligence in such a case.
+
+The "rule of the road" given above is peculiar to the United Kingdom.
+Cooley's treatise on the _American Law of Torts_ states that "the custom
+of the country, in some states enacted into statute law, requires that
+when teams approach and are about to pass on the highway, each shall
+keep to the right of the centre of the travelled portion of the road."
+This also appears to be the general rule on the continent of Europe.
+
+By the Lights on Vehicles Act 1907, all vehicles on highways in England
+and Wales must display to the front a white light during the period
+between one hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. Locomotives
+and motor cars, being dealt with by special acts, are excluded from the
+operation of the act, as are bicycles and tricycles (dealt with by the
+Local Government Act 1888), and vehicles drawn or propelled by hand, but
+every machine or implement drawn by animals comes within the act. There
+are two exceptions: (1) vehicles carrying inflammable goods in the
+neighbourhood of places where inflammable goods are stored, and (2)
+vehicles engaged in harvesting. The public have a right to pass along a
+highway freely, safely and conveniently, and any wrongful act or
+omission which prevents them doing so is a nuisance, for the prevention
+and abatement of which the highways and other acts contain provisions.
+Generally, nuisance to highway may be caused by encroachment, by
+interfering with the soil of the highway, by attracting crowds, by
+creating danger or inconvenience on or near the highway, by placing
+obstacles on the highway, by unreasonable user, by offences against
+decency and good order, &c.
+
+The use of locomotives, motor cars and other vehicles on highways is
+regulated by acts of 1861-1903.
+
+Formerly under the Turnpike Acts many of the more important highways
+were placed under the management of boards of commissioners or trustees.
+The trustees were required and empowered to maintain, repair and improve
+the roads committed to their charge, and the expenses of the trust were
+met by tolls levied on persons using the road. The various grounds of
+exemption from toll on turnpike roads were all of a public character,
+e.g. horses and carriages attending the sovereign or royal family, or
+used by soldiers or volunteers in uniform, were free from toll. In
+general horses and carriages used in agricultural work were free from
+toll. By the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878 disturnpiked roads
+became "main roads." Ordinary highways might be declared to be "main
+roads," and "main roads" be reduced to the status of ordinary highways.
+
+In Scotland the highway system is regulated by the Roads and Bridges Act
+1878 and amending acts. The management and maintenance of the highways
+and bridges is vested in county road trustees, viz. the commissioners of
+supply, certain elected trustees representing ratepayers in parishes and
+others. One of the consequences of the act was the abolition of tolls,
+statute-labour, causeway mail and other exactions for the maintenance of
+bridges and highways, and all turnpike roads became highways, and all
+highways became open to the public free of tolls and other exactions.
+The county is divided into districts under district committees, and
+county and district officers are appointed. The expenses of highway
+management in each district (or parish), together with a proportion of
+the general expenses of the act, are levied by the trustees by an
+assessment on the lands and heritages within the district (or parish).
+
+Highway, in the law of the states of the American Union, generally means
+a lawful public road, over which all citizens are allowed to pass and
+repass on foot, on horseback, in carriages and waggons. Sometimes it is
+held to be restricted to county roads as opposed to town-ways. In
+statutes dealing with offences connected with the highway, such as
+gaming, negligence of carriers, &c., "highway" includes navigable
+rivers. But in a statute punishing with death robbery on the highway,
+railways were held not to be included in the term. In one case it has
+been held that any way is a highway which has been used as such for
+fifty years.
+
+  See Glen, _Law Relating to Highways_; Pratt, _Law of Highways, Main
+  Roads and Bridges_.
+
+
+
+
+HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE (1827-1893), chief-justice of Victoria, Australia,
+sixth son of T. Higinbotham of Dublin, was born on the 19th of April
+1827, and educated at the Royal School, Dungannon, and at Trinity
+College, Dublin. After entering as a law student at Lincoln's Inn, and
+being engaged as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ in 1849, he
+emigrated to Victoria, where he contributed to the _Melbourne Herald_
+and practised at the bar (having been "called" in 1853) with much
+success. In 1850 he became editor of the _Melbourne Argus_, but resigned
+in 1859 and returned to the bar. He was elected to the legislative
+assembly in 1861 for Brighton as an independent Liberal, was rejected at
+the general election of the same year, but was returned nine months
+later. In 1863 he became attorney-general. Under his influence measures
+were passed through the legislative assembly of a somewhat extreme
+character, completely ignoring the rights of the legislative council,
+and the government was carried on without any Appropriation Act for more
+than a year. Mr Higinbotham, by his eloquence and earnestness, obtained
+great influence amongst the members of the legislative assembly, but his
+colleagues were not prepared to follow him as far as he desired to go.
+He contended that in a constitutional colony like Victoria the secretary
+of state for the colonies had no right to fetter the discretion of the
+queen's representative. Mr Higinbotham did not return to power with his
+chief, Sir James M'Culloch, after the defeat of the short-lived Sladen
+administration; and being defeated for Brighton at the next general
+election by a comparatively unknown man, he devoted himself to his
+practice at the bar. Amongst his other labours as attorney-general he
+had codified all the statutes which were in force throughout the colony.
+In 1874 he was returned to the legislative assembly for Brunswick, but
+after a few months he resigned his seat. In 1880 he was appointed a
+puisne judge of the supreme court, and in 1886, on the retirement of Sir
+William Stawell, he was promoted to the office of chief justice. Mr
+Higinbotham was appointed president of the International Exhibition held
+at Melbourne in 1888-1889, but did not take any active part in its
+management. One of his latest public acts was to subscribe a sum of £10,
+10s. a week towards the funds of the strikers in the great Australian
+labour dispute of 1890, an act which did not meet with general approval.
+He died in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+HILARION, ST (c. 290-371), abbot, the first to introduce the monastic
+system into Palestine. The chief source of information is a life written
+by St Jerome; it was based upon a letter, no longer extant, written by
+St Epiphanius, who had known Hilarion. The accounts in Sozomen are
+mainly based on Jerome's _Vita_; but Otto Zöcker has shown that Sozomen
+also had at his disposal authentic local traditions (see "Hilarion von
+Gaza" in the _Neue Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie_, 1894), the most
+important study on Hilarion, which is written against the hypercritical
+school of Weingarten and shows that Hilarion must be accepted as an
+historical personage and the _Vita_ as a substantially correct account
+of his career. He was born of heathen parents at Tabatha near Gaza about
+290; he was sent to Alexandria for his education and there became a
+convert to Christianity; about 306 he visited St Anthony and became his
+disciple, embracing the eremitical life. He returned to his native place
+and for many years lived as a hermit in the desert by the marshes on the
+Egyptian border. Many disciples put themselves under his guidance; but
+his influence must have been limited to south Palestine, for there is no
+mention of him in Palladius or Cassian. In 356 he left Palestine and
+went again to Egypt; but the accounts given in the _Vita_ of his travels
+during the last fifteen years of his life must be taken with extreme
+caution. It is there said that he went from Egypt to Sicily, and thence
+to Epidaurus, and finally to Cyprus where he met Epiphanius and died in
+371.
+
+  An abridged story of his life will be found in Alban Butler's _Lives
+  of the Saints_, on the 21st of October, and a critical sketch with
+  full references in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3).
+       (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS (HILARY[1]), ST (c. 300-367), bishop of Pictavium (Poitiers),
+an eminent "doctor" of the Western Church, sometimes referred to as the
+"malleus Arianorum" and the "Athanasius of the West," was born at
+Poitiers about the end of the 3rd century A.D. His parents were pagans
+of distinction. He received a good education, including what had even
+then become somewhat rare in the West, some knowledge of Greek. He
+studied, later on, the Old and New Testament writings, with the result
+that he abandoned his neo-platonism for Christianity, and with his wife
+and his daughter received the sacrament of baptism. So great was the
+respect in which he was held by the citizens of Poitiers that about 353,
+although still a married man, he was unanimously elected bishop. At that
+time Arianism was threatening to overrun the Western Church; to repel
+the irruption was the great task which Hilary undertook. One of his
+first steps was to secure the excommunication, by those of the Gallican
+hierarchy who still remained orthodox, of Saturninus, the Arian bishop
+of Arles and of Ursacius and Valens, two of his prominent supporters.
+About the same time he wrote to the emperor Constantius a remonstrance
+against the persecutions by which the Arians had sought to crush their
+opponents (_Ad Constantium Augustum liber primus_, of which the most
+probable date is 355). His efforts were not at first successful, for at
+the synod of Biterrae (Beziers), summoned in 356 by Constantius with
+the professed purpose of settling the longstanding disputes, Hilary was
+by an imperial rescript banished with Rhodanus of Toulouse to Phrygia,
+in which exile he spent nearly four years. Thence, however, he continued
+to govern his diocese; while he found leisure for the preparation of two
+of the most important of his contributions to dogmatic and polemical
+theology, the _De synodis_ or _De fide Orientalium_, an epistle
+addressed in 358 to the Semi-Arian bishops in Gaul, Germany and Britain,
+expounding the true views (sometimes veiled in ambiguous words) of the
+Oriental bishops on the Nicene controversy, and the _De trinitate libri
+xii._,[2] composed in 359 and 360, in which, for the first time, a
+successful attempt was made to express in Latin the theological
+subtleties elaborated in the original Greek. The former of these works
+was not entirely approved by some members of his own party, who thought
+he had shown too great forbearance towards the Arians; to their
+criticisms he replied in the _Apologetica ad reprehensores libri de
+synodis responsa_. In 359 Hilary attended the convocation of bishops at
+Seleucia In Isauria, where, with the Egyptian Athanasians, he joined the
+Homoiousian majority against the Arianizing party headed by Acacius of
+Caesarea; thence he went to Constantinople, and, in a petition (_Ad
+Constantium Augustum liber secundus_) personally presented to the
+emperor in 360, repudiated the calumnies of his enemies and sought to
+vindicate his trinitarian principles. His urgent and repeated request
+for a public discussion with his opponents, especially with Ursacius and
+Valens, proved at last so inconvenient that he was sent back to his
+diocese, which he appears to have reached about 361, within a very short
+time of the accession of Julian. He was occupied for two or three years
+in combating Arianism within his diocese; but in 364, extending his
+efforts once more beyond Gaul, he impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan,
+and a man high in the imperial favour, as heterodox. Summoned to appear
+before the emperor (Valentinian) at Milan and there maintain his
+charges, Hilary had the mortification of hearing the supposed heretic
+give satisfactory answers to all the questions proposed; nor did his
+(doubtless sincere) denunciation of the metropolitan as a hypocrite save
+himself from an ignominious expulsion from Milan. In 365 he published
+the _Contra Arianos vel Auxentium Mediolanensem liber_, in connexion
+with the controversy; and also (but perhaps at a somewhat earlier date)
+the _Contra Constantium Augustum liber_, in which he pronounced that
+lately deceased emperor to have been Antichrist, a rebel against God, "a
+tyrant whose sole object had been to make a gift to the devil of that
+world for which Christ had suffered." Hilary is sometimes regarded as
+the first Latin Christian hymn-writer, but none of the compositions
+assigned to him is indisputable. The later years of his life were spent
+in comparative quiet, devoted in part to the preparation of his
+expositions of the Psalms (_Tractatus super Psalmos_), for which he was
+largely indebted to Origen; of his _Commentarius in Evangelium
+Matthaei_, a work on allegorical lines of no exegetical value; and of
+his no longer extant translation of Origen's commentary on Job. While he
+thus closely followed the two great Alexandrians, Origen and Athanasius,
+in exegesis and Christology respectively, his work shows many traces of
+vigorous independent thought. He died in 367; no more exact date is
+trustworthy. He holds the highest rank among the Latin writers of his
+century. Designated already by Augustine as "the illustrious doctor of
+the churches," he by his works exerted an increasing influence in later
+centuries; and by Pius IX. he was formally recognized as "universae
+ecclesiae doctor" at the synod of Bordeaux in 1851. Hilary's day in the
+Roman calendar is the 13th of January.[3]
+
+  EDITIONS.--Erasmus (Basel, 1523, 1526, 1528); P. Coustant
+  (Benedictine, Paris, 1693); Migne (_Patrol. Lat._ ix., x.). The
+  _Tractatus de mysteriis_, ed. J. F. Gamurrini (Rome, 1887), and the
+  _Tractatus super Psalmos_, ed. A. Zingerle in the Vienna _Corpus
+  scrip. eccl. Lat._ xxii. Translation by E. W. Watson in _Nicene and
+  Post-Nicene Fathers_, ix.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The life by (Venantius) Fortunatus c. 550 is almost
+  worthless. More trustworthy are the notices in Jerome (_De vir.
+  illus._ 100), Sulpicius Severus (_Chron._ ii. 39-45) and in Hilary's
+  own writings. H. Reinkens, _Hilarius von Poictiers_ (1864); O.
+  Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_; A. Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, esp. vol.
+  iv.; F. Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._ viii.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name is derived from Gr. [Greek: hilaros], gay, cheerful,
+    whence hilarious, hilarity.
+
+  [2] Hilary's own title was _De fide contra Arianos_. It really deals
+    less with the doctrine of the Trinity than with that of the
+    Incarnation. That it is not an easy work to read is due partly to the
+    nature of the subject, partly to the fact that it was issued in
+    detached portions.
+
+  [3] "Hilary" was the name of one of the four terms of the English
+    legal year. These terms were abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873,
+    s. 26, and "sittings" substituted. It is now the name of the sitting
+    of the Supreme Court of Judicature which commences on the 11th of
+    January and terminates on the Wednesday before Easter. In the Inns of
+    Court, Hilary is one of the four dining terms; it begins on the 11th
+    of January and ends on the 1st of February. It is also the name of
+    one of the terms at the universities of Oxford (more usually "Lent
+    term") and Dublin.
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS, or HILARUS (HILARY), bishop of Rome from 461 to 468, is known
+to have been a deacon and to have acted as legate of Leo the Great at
+the "robber" synod of Ephesus in 449. There he so vigorously defended
+the conduct of Flavian in deposing Eutyches that he was thrown into
+prison, whence he had great difficulty in making his escape to Rome. He
+was chosen to succeed Leo on the 19th of November 461. In 465 he held at
+Rome a council which put a stop to some abuses, particularly to that of
+bishops appointing their own successors. His pontificate was also marked
+by a successful encroachment of the papal authority on the metropolitan
+rights of the French and Spanish hierarchy, and by a resistance to the
+toleration edict of Anthemius, which ultimately caused it to be
+recalled. Hilarius died on the 17th of November 467, and was succeeded
+by Simplicius.
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS (fl. 1125), a Latin poet who is supposed to have been an
+Englishman. He was one of the pupils of Abelard at his oratory of
+Paraclete, and addressed to him a copy of verses with its refrain in the
+vulgar tongue, "_Tort avers vos li mestre_," Abelard having threatened
+to discontinue his teaching because of certain reports made by his
+servant about the conduct of the scholars. Later Hilarius made his way
+to Angers. His poems are contained in MS. supp. lat. 1008 of the
+Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, purchased in 1837 at the sale of M. de
+Rosny. Quotations from this MS. had appeared before, but in 1838 it was
+edited by Champollion Figeac as _Hilarii versus et ludi_. His works
+consist chiefly of light verses of the goliardic type. There are verses
+addressed to an English nun named Eva, lines to Rosa, "_Ave splendor
+puellarum, generosa domina_," and another poem describes the beauties of
+the priory of Chaloutre la Petite, in the diocese of Sens, of which the
+writer was then an inmate. One copy of satirical verses seems to aim at
+the pope himself. He also wrote three miracle plays in rhymed Latin with
+an admixture of French. Two of them, _Suscitatio Lazari_ and _Historia
+de Daniel repraesentanda_, are of purely liturgical type. At the end of
+_Lazarus_ is a stage direction to the effect that if the performance has
+been given at matins, Lazarus should proceed with the _Te Deum_, if at
+vespers, with the _Magnificat_. The third, _Ludus super iconia Sancti
+Nicholai_, is founded on a sufficiently foolish legend. Petit de
+Julleville sees in the play a satiric intention and a veiled incredulity
+that put the piece outside the category of liturgical drama.
+
+  A rhymed Latin account of a dispute in which the nuns of Ronceray at
+  Angers were concerned, contained in a cartulary of Ronceray, is also
+  ascribed to the poet, who there calls himself Hilarius Canonicus. The
+  poem is printed in the _Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes_ (vol.
+  xxxvii. 1876), and is dated by P. Marchegay from 1121. See also a
+  notice in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xii. 251-254), supplemented (in
+  xx. 627-630), s.v. Jean Bodel, by Paulin Paris; also Wright,
+  _Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period_ (1846); and
+  Petit de Julleville, _Les Mystères_ (vol. i. 1880).
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS (HILARY), ST (c. 403-449), bishop of Arles, was born about 403.
+In early youth he entered the abbey of Lérins, then presided over by his
+kinsman Honoratus (St Honoré), and succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric
+of Arles in 429. Following the example of St Augustine, he is said to
+have organized his cathedral clergy into a "congregation," devoting a
+great part of their time to social exercises of ascetic religion. He
+held the rank of metropolitan of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted to
+realize the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul which seemed
+implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor Patroclus (417).
+Hilarius deposed the bishop of Besançon (Chelidonus), for ignoring this
+primacy, and for claiming a metropolitan dignity for Besançon. An appeal
+was made to Rome, and Leo I. used it to extinguish the Gallican
+vicariate (A.D. 444). Hilarius was deprived of his rights as
+metropolitan to consecrate bishops, call synods, or exercise
+ecclesiastical oversight in the province, and the pope secured the edict
+of Valentinian III., so important in the history of the Gallican church,
+"ut episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid apostolicae
+sedis auctoritas sanxisset." The papal claims were made imperial law,
+and violation of them subject to legal penalties (_Novellae Valent._
+iii. tit. 16). Hilarius died in 449, and his name was afterwards
+introduced into the Roman martyrology for commemoration on the 5th of
+May. He enjoyed during his lifetime a high reputation for learning and
+eloquence as well as for piety; his extant works (_Vita S. Honorati
+Arelatensis episcopi_ and _Metrum in Genesin_) compare favourably with
+any similar literary productions of that period.
+
+  A poem, _De Providentia_, usually included among the writings of
+  Prosper, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Arles.
+
+
+
+
+HILDA, ST, strictly Hild (614-680), was the daughter of Hereric, a
+nephew of Edwin, king of Northumbria. She was converted to Christianity
+before 633 by the preaching of Paulinus. According to Bede she took the
+veil in 614, when Oswio was king of Northumbria and Aidan bishop of
+Lindisfarne, and spent a year in East Anglia, where her sister Hereswith
+had married Æthelhere, who was to succeed his brother Anna, the reigning
+king. In 648 or 649 Hilda was recalled to Northumbria by Aidan, and
+lived for a year in a small monastic community north of the Wear. She
+then succeeded Heiu, the foundress, as abbess of Hartlepool, where she
+remained several years. From Hartlepool Hilda moved to Whitby, where in
+657 she founded the famous double monastery which in the time of the
+first abbess included among its members five future bishops, Bosa, Ætta,
+Oftfor, John and Wilfrid II. as well as the poet Cædmon. Hilda exercised
+great influence in Northumbria, and ecclesiastics from all over
+Christian England and from Strathclyde and Dalriada visited her
+monastery. In 655 after the battle of Winwæd Oswio entrusted his
+daughter Ælfled to Hilda, with whom she went to Whitby. At the synod of
+Whitby in 664 Hilda sided with Colman and Cedd against Wilfrid. In spite
+of the defeat of the Celtic party she remained hostile to Wilfrid until
+679 at any rate. Hilda died in 680 after a painful illness lasting for
+seven years.
+
+  See Bede, _Hist. eccl._ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1869), iii. 24, 25,
+  iv. 23; Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_ (Raine, _Historians of Church of
+  York_, Rolls Series, vol. i., 1879), c. liv.
+
+
+
+
+HILDBURGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen,
+situated in a wide and fruitful valley on the river Werra, 19 m. S.E. of
+Meiningen, on the railway Eisenach-Lichtenfels. Pop. (1905) 7456. The
+principal buildings are a ducal palace, erected 1685-1695, now used as
+barracks, with a park in which there is a monument to Queen Louisa of
+Prussia, the old town hall, two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church
+and a theatre. A technical college occupies the premises in which
+Meyer's Bibliographisches Institut carried on business from 1828, when
+it removed hither from Gotha, until 1874, when it was transferred to
+Leipzig. A monument has been erected to those citizens who died in the
+Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. The manufactures include linen fabrics,
+cloth, toys, buttons, optical instruments, agricultural machines,
+knives, mineral waters, condensed soups and condensed milk.
+Hildburghausen (in records _Hilpershusia_ and _Villa Hilperti_) belonged
+in the 13th century to the counts of Henneberg, from whom it passed to
+the landgraves of Thuringia and then to the dukes of Saxony. In 1683 it
+became the capital of a principality which in 1826 was united to
+Saxe-Meiningen.
+
+  See R. A. Human, _Chronik der Stadt Hildburghausen_ (Hildburghausen,
+  1888).
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBERT, HYDALBERT, GILDEBERT or ALDEBERT (c. 1055-1133), French
+writer and ecclesiastic, was born of poor parents at Lavardin, near
+Vendôme, and was intended for the church. He was probably a pupil of
+Berengarius of Tours, and became master (_scholasticus_) of the school
+at Le Mans; in 1091 he was made archdeacon and in 1096 bishop of Le
+Mans. He had to face the hostility of a section of his clergy and also
+of the English king, William II., who captured Le Mans and carried the
+bishop with him to England for about a year. Hildebert then travelled to
+Rome and sought permission to resign his bishopric, which Pope Paschal
+II. refused. In 1116 his diocese was thrown into great confusion owing
+to the preaching of Henry of Lausanne, who was denouncing the higher
+clergy, especially the bishop. Hildebert compelled him to leave the
+neighbourhood of Le Mans, but the effects of his preaching remained. In
+1125 Hildebert was translated very unwillingly to the archbishopric of
+Tours, and there he came into conflict with the French king Louis VI.
+about the rights of ecclesiastical patronage and with the bishop of Dol
+about the authority of his see in Brittany. He presided over the synod
+of Nantes, and died at Tours probably on the 18th of December 1133.
+Hildebert, who built part of the cathedral at Le Mans, has received from
+some writers the title of saint, but there appears to be no authority
+for this. He was not a man of very strict life; his contemporaries,
+however, had a very high opinion of him and he was called _egregius
+versificator_.
+
+The extant writings of Hildebert consist of letters, poems, a few
+sermons, two lives and one or two treatises. An edition of his works
+prepared by the Maurist, Antoine Beaugendre, and entitled _Venerabilis
+Hildeberti, primo Cenomannensis episcopi, deinde Turonensis
+archiepiscopi, opera tam edita quam inedita_, was published in Paris in
+1708 and was reprinted with additions by J. J. Bourassé in 1854. These
+editions, however, are very faulty. They credit Hildebert with numerous
+writings which are the work of others, while some genuine writings are
+omitted. The revelation of this fact has affected Hildebert's position
+in the history of medieval thought. His standing as a philosopher rested
+upon his supposed authorship of the important _Tractatus theologicus_;
+but this is now regarded as the work of Hugh of St Victor, and
+consequently Hildebert can hardly be counted among the philosophers. His
+genuine writings include many letters. These _Epistolae_ enjoyed great
+popularity in the 12th and 13th centuries, and were frequently used as
+classics in the schools of France and Italy. Those which concern the
+struggle between the emperor Henry V. and Pope Paschal II. have been
+edited by E. Sackur and printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica.
+Libelli de lite ii._ (1893). His poems, which deal with various
+subjects, are disfigured by many defects of style and metre, but they
+too were very popular. Hildebert attained celebrity also as a preacher
+both in French and Latin, but only a few of his sermons are in
+existence, most of the 144 attributed to him by his editors being the
+work of Peter Lombard and others. The _Vitae_ written by Hildebert are
+the lives of Hugo, abbot of Cluny, and of St Radegunda. Undoubtedly
+genuine is also his _Liber de querimonia et conflictu carnis et spiritus
+seu animae_. Hildebert was an excellent Latin scholar, being acquainted
+with Cicero, Ovid and other authors, and his spirit is rather that of a
+pagan than of a Christian writer.
+
+  See B. Hauréau, _Les Mélanges poétiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin_
+  (Paris, 1882), and _Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins
+  de la Bibliothèque nationale_ (Paris, 1890-1893); Comte P. de
+  Déservillers, _Un Évêque au XII^e siècle, Hildebert et son temps_
+  (Paris, 1876); E. A. Freeman, _The Reign of Rufus_, vol. ii. (Oxford,
+  1882); tome xi. of the _Histoire littéraire de la France_, and H.
+  Böhmer in Band viii. of Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1900). The
+  most important work, however, to be consulted is L. Dieudonné's
+  _Hildebert de Lavardin, évêque du Mans, archévêque de Tours. Sa vie,
+  ses lettres_ (Paris, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (_Das Hildebrandslied_), a unique example of Old
+German alliterative poetry, written about the year 800 on the first and
+last pages of a theological manuscript, by two monks of the monastery of
+Fulda. The fragment, or rather fragments, only extend to sixty-eight
+lines, and the conclusion of the poem is wanting. The theory propounded
+by Karl Lachmann, that the poem had been written in its present form
+from memory, has been discredited by later philological investigation;
+it is clearly a transcript of an older original, which the copyists--or
+more probably the writer to whom we owe the older version--imperfectly
+understood. The language of the poem shows a curious mixture of Low and
+High German forms; as the High German elements point to the dialect of
+Fulda, the inference is that the copyists were reproducing an originally
+Low German lay in the form in which it was sung in Franconia.
+
+The fragment is mainly taken up with a dialogue between Hildebrand and
+his son Hadubrand. When Hildebrand followed his master, Theodoric the
+Great, who was fleeing eastwards before Odoacer, he left his young wife
+and an infant child behind him. At his return to his old home, after
+thirty years' absence among the Huns, he is met by a young warrior and
+challenged to single combat. Before the fight begins, Hildebrand asks
+for the name of his opponent, and discovering his own son in him, tries
+to avert the fight, but in vain; Hadubrand only regards the old man's
+words as the excuse of cowardice. "In sharp showers the ashen spears
+fall on the shields, and then the warriors seize their swords and hew
+vigorously at the white shields until these are beaten to pieces...."
+With these words the fragment breaks off abruptly, giving no clue as to
+the issue of the combat. There is little doubt, however, that, as in the
+Old Norse _Asmundar saga_, where the tale is alluded to, the fight must
+have been fatal to Hadubrand. But in the later traditions, both of the
+Old Norse _Thidreks saga_ (13th century), and the so-called _Jüngere
+Hildebrandslied_--a German popular lay, preserved in several versions
+from the 15th to the 17th century--Hadubrand is simply represented as
+defeated, and obliged to recognize his father. The Old High German
+_Hildebrandslied_ is dramatically conceived, and written in a terse,
+vigorous style; it is the only remnant that has come down from early
+Germanic times of an undoubtedly extensive ballad literature, dealing
+with the national sagas.
+
+  The MS. of the _Hildebrandslied_, originally in Fulda, is now
+  preserved in the Landesbibliothek at Cassel. The literature on the
+  poem will be found most conveniently in K. Müllenhoff and W. Scherer,
+  _Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem VIII. bis XI. Jahrh._,
+  3rd ed. (1892), and in W. Braune, _Althochdeutsches Lesebuch_, 5th ed.
+  (1902), to which authorities the reader is referred for a critical
+  text. The poem was discovered and first printed (as prose) by J. G.
+  von Eckhart, _Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis_ (1729), i. 864
+  ff.; the first scholarly edition was that of the brothers Grimm
+  (1812). Facsimile reproductions of the MS. have been published by W.
+  Grimm (1830), E. Sievers (1872), G. Könnecke in his _Bilderatlas_
+  (1887; 2nd ed., 1895) and M. Enneccerus (1897). See also K. Lachmann,
+  _Über das Hildebrandslied_ (1833) in _Kleine Schriften_, i. 407 ff.;
+  C. W. M. Grein, _Das Hildebrandslied_ (1858; 2nd ed., 1880); O.
+  Schröder, _Bemerkungen zum Hildebrandslied_ (1880); H. Möller, _Zur
+  althochdeutschen Alliterationspoesie_ (1888); R. Heinzel, _Über die
+  ostgotische Heldensage_ (1889); B. Busse, "Sagengeschichtliches zum
+  Hildebrandslied," in Paul und Braune's _Beiträge_, xxvi. (1901), pp. 1
+  ff.; R. Koegel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis zum Ausgang
+  des Mittelalters_, i. (1894), pp. 210 ff.; and R. Koegel and W.
+  Brückner, in Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, 2nd ed.,
+  ii. (1901), pp. 71 ff.     (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD (1818-1868), German painter, was born in 1818, and
+served as apprentice to his father, a house-painter at Danzig. He was
+not twenty when he came to Berlin, where he was taken in hand by Wilhelm
+Krause, a painter of sea pieces. Several early pieces exhibited after
+his death--a breakwater, dated 1838, ships in a breeze off Swinemünde
+(1840), and other canvases of this and the following year--show
+Hildebrandt to have been a careful student of nature, with inborn
+talents kept down by the conventionalisms of the formal school to which
+Krause belonged. Accident made him acquainted with masterpieces of
+French art displayed at the Berlin Academy, and these awakened his
+curiosity and envy. He went to Paris, where, about 1842, he entered the
+atelier of Isabey and became the companion of Lepoittevin. In a short
+time he sent home pictures which might have been taken for copies from
+these artists. Gradually he mastered the mysteries of touch and the
+secrets of effect in which the French at this period excelled. He also
+acquired the necessary skill in painting figures, and returned to
+Germany, skilled in the rendering of many kinds of landscape forms. His
+pictures of French street life, done about 1843, while impressed with
+the stamp of the Paris school, reveal a spirit eager for novelty, quick
+at grasping, equally quick at rendering, momentary changes of tone and
+atmosphere. After 1843 Hildebrandt, under the influence of Humboldt,
+extended his travels, and in 1864-1865 he went round the world. Whilst
+his experience became enlarged his powers of concentration broke down.
+He lost the taste for detail in seeking for scenic breadth, and a fatal
+facility of hand diminished the value of his works for all those who
+look for composition and harmony of hue as necessary concomitants of
+tone and touch. In oil he gradually produced less, in water colours
+more, than at first, and his fame must rest on the sketches which he
+made in the latter form, many of them represented by chromo-lithography.
+Fantasies in red, yellow and opal, sunset, sunrise and moonshine,
+distances of hundreds of miles like those of the Andes and the Himalaya,
+narrow streets in the bazaars of Cairo or Suez, panoramas as seen from
+mastheads, wide cities like Bombay or Pekin, narrow strips of desert
+with measureless expanses of sky--all alike display his quality of
+bravura. Hildebrandt died at Berlin on the 25th of October 1868.
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR (1804-1874), German painter, was born at Stettin.
+He was a disciple of the painter Schadow, and, on Schadow's appointment
+to the presidency of a new academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828,
+followed that master to Düsseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting
+pictures illustrative of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he
+followed the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He
+produced rapidly "Faust and Mephistopheles" (1824), "Faust and Margaret"
+(1825), and "Lear and Cordelia" (1828). He visited the Netherlands with
+Schadow in 1829, and wandered alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not
+alter his style, though it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism
+and realism. At Düsseldorf, about 1830, he produced "Romeo and Juliet,"
+"Tancred and Clorinda," and other works which deserved to be classed
+with earlier paintings; but during the same period he exhibited (1829)
+the "Robber" and (1832) the "Captain and his Infant Son," examples of an
+affected but kindly realism which captivated the public, and marked to a
+certain extent an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made
+Hildebrandt's fame is the "Murder of the Children of King Edward"
+(1836), of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still
+belongs to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late in
+life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in pictures
+representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed again into the
+romantic in "Othello and Desdemona." After 1847 Hildebrandt gave himself
+up to portrait-painting, and in that branch succeeded in obtaining a
+large practice. He died at Düsseldorf in 1874.
+
+
+
+
+HILDEGARD, ST (1098-1179), German abbess and mystic, was born of noble
+parents at Böckelheim, in the countship of Sponheim, in 1098, and from
+her eighth year was educated at the Benedictine cloister of
+Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of the count of Sponheim, whom she
+succeeded as abbess in 1136. From earliest childhood she was accustomed
+to see visions, which increased in frequency and vividness as she
+approached the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years kept
+almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-third year
+(1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them. Committed to writing
+by her intimate friend the monk Godefridus, they now form the first and
+most important of her printed works, entitled _Scivias_ (probably an
+abbreviation for "sciens vias" or "nosce vias Domini") _s. visionum et
+revelatianum libri iii._, and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of
+Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard of
+Hildegard's revelations, and became so convinced of their reality that
+he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknowledging her as a
+prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated her recognition as
+such by his friend and former pupil Pope Eugenius III. in the synod of
+Trèves (1148). In the same year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen
+of her nuns to a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which
+she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of voluminous
+correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys, in the course of
+which she was unwearied in the exercise of her gift of prophecy, she
+wielded for many years an increasing influence upon her
+contemporaries--an influence doubtless due to the fact that she was
+imbued with the most widely diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and
+hopes, of her time. Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV.
+and Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and also the
+theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted numerous questions in
+dogmatic theology for her determination. She died in 1179, but has never
+been canonized; her name, however, was received into the Roman
+martyrology in the 15th century, September 17th being the day fixed for
+her commemoration.
+
+  Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Godefridus and
+  Theodoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566. Hildegard's
+  writings, besides the _Scivias_ already mentioned and first printed in
+  Paris in 1513, include the _Liber divinorum operum_, _Explanatio
+  regulae S. Benedicti_, _Physica_ and _the Letters_, &c., are contained
+  in Migne, _Patr. Lat._ t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra's _Analecta
+  sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis opera_ (Paris,
+  1882).
+
+  For a modern study of the saint's writings, see _Sainte Hildegarde_ by
+  Pal Franche, "_Les Saints_" series (Paris, 1903); and U. Chevalier,
+  _Répertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl._ 2153.
+
+
+
+
+HILDEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province on the Itter, 9 m. S.E. of
+Düsseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,946. It possesses an Evangelical and
+a Roman Catholic church and a monument to the emperor William I. Its
+manufactures include silks, velvets, carpets, calico-printing, machinery
+and brick-making.
+
+
+
+
+HILDESHEIM, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Hanover, beautifully situated at the north foot of the Harz
+Mountains, on the right bank of the Innerste, 18 m. S.E. of Hanover by
+railway, and on the main line from Berlin, via Magdeburg to Cologne.
+Pop. (1885) 20,386, (1905) 47,060. The town consists of an old and a new
+part, and is surrounded by ramparts which have been converted into
+promenades. Its streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, and
+contain many old houses with overhanging upper storeys and richly and
+curiously adorned wooden façades. Its religious edifices are five Roman
+Catholic and four Evangelical churches and a synagogue. The most
+interesting is the Roman Catholic cathedral, which dates from the middle
+of the 11th century and occupies the site of a building founded by the
+emperor Louis the Pious early in the 9th century. It is famous for its
+antiquities and works of art. These include the bronze doors executed by
+Bishop Bernward, with reliefs from the history of Adam and of Jesus
+Christ; a brazen font of the 13th century; two large candelabra of the
+11th century; the sarcophagus of St Godehard; and the tomb of St
+Epiphanius. In the cathedral also there is a bronze column 15 ft. high,
+adorned with reliefs from the life of Christ and dating from 1022, and
+another column, at one time thought to be an Irminsäule erected in
+honour of the Saxon idol Irmin, but now regarded as belonging to a Roman
+aqueduct. On the wall of the Romanesque crypt, which was restored in
+1896, is a rose-bush, alleged to be a thousand years old; this sends its
+branches to a height of 24 ft. and a breadth of 30 ft., and they are
+trained to interlace one of the windows. Before the cathedral is the
+pretty cloister garth, with the chapel of St Anne, erected in 1321 and
+restored in 1888. The Romanesque church of St Godehard was built in the
+12th century and restored in the 19th. The church of St Michael, founded
+by Bishop Bernward early in the 11th century and restored after injury
+by fire in 1186, contains a unique painted ceiling of the 12th century,
+the sarcophagus and monument of Bishop Bernward, and a bronze font; it
+is now a Protestant parish church, but the crypt is used by the Roman
+Catholics. The church of the Magdalene possesses two candelabra, a gold
+cross, and various other works in metal by Bishop Bernward; and the
+Lutheran church of St Andrew has a choir dating from 1389 and a tower
+385 ft. high. In the suburb of Moritzberg there is an abbey church
+founded in 1040, the only pure columnar basilica in north Germany.
+
+The chief secular buildings are the town-hall (Rathaus), which dates
+from the 15th century and was restored in 1883-1892, adorned with
+frescoes illustrating the history of the city; the Tempelherrenhaus, in
+Late Gothic erroneously said to have been built by the Knights Templars;
+the Knochenhaueramthaus, formerly the gild-house of the butchers, which
+was restored after being damaged by fire in 1884, and is probably the
+finest specimen of a wooden building in Germany; the Michaelis
+monastery, used as a lunatic asylum; and the old Carthusian monastery.
+The Römer museum of antiquities and natural history is housed in the
+former church of St Martin; the buildings of Trinity hospital, partly
+dating from the 14th century, are now a factory; and the Wedekindhaus
+(1598) is now a savings-bank. The educational establishments include a
+Roman Catholic and a Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school and
+college and two technical institutions, the Georgstift for daughters of
+state servants and a conservatoire of music. Hildesheim is the seat of
+considerable industry. Its chief productions are sugar, tobacco and
+cigars, stoves, machines, vehicles, agricultural implements and bricks.
+Other trades are brewing and tanning. It is connected with Hanover by an
+electric tram line, 19 m. in length.
+
+Hildesheim owes its rise and prosperity to the fact that in 822 it was
+made the seat of the bishopric which Charlemagne had founded at Elze a
+few years before. Its importance was greatly increased by St Bernward,
+who was bishop from 993 to 1022 and walled the town. By his example and
+patronage the art of working in metals was greatly stimulated. In the
+13th century Hildesheim became a free city of the Empire; in 1249 it
+received municipal rights and about the same time it joined the
+Hanseatic league. Several of its bishops belonged to one or other of the
+great families of Germany; and gradually they became practically
+independent. The citizens were frequently quarrelling with the bishops,
+who also carried on wars with neighbouring princes, especially with the
+house of Brunswick-Lüneburg, under whose protection Hildesheim placed
+itself several times. The most celebrated of these struggles is the one
+known as the _Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde_, which broke out early in the
+16th century when John, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was bishop. At first the
+bishop and his allies were successful, but in 1521 the king of Denmark
+and the duke of Brunswick overran his lands and in 1523 he made peace,
+surrendering nearly all his possessions. Much, however, was restored
+when Ferdinand, prince of Bavaria, was bishop (1612-1650), as this
+warlike prelate took advantage of the disturbances caused by the Thirty
+Years' War to seize the lost lands, and at the beginning of the 19th
+century the extent of the prince bishopric was 682 sq. m. In 1801 the
+bishopric was secularized and in 1803 was granted to Prussia; in 1807 it
+was incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia and in 1813 was
+transferred to Hanover. In 1866, along with Hanover, it was annexed by
+Prussia. In 1803 a new bishopric of Hildesheim, a spiritual organization
+only, was established, and this has jurisdiction over all the Roman
+Catholic churches in the centre of north Germany.
+
+In October 1868 a unique collection of ancient Augustan silver plate was
+discovered on the Galgenberg near Hildesheim by some soldiers who were
+throwing up earthworks. This _Hildesheimer Silberfund_ excited great
+interest among classical archaeologists. Some authorities think that it
+is the actual plate which belonged to Drusus himself. The most
+noteworthy pieces are a crater richly ornamented with arabesques and
+figures of children, a platter with a representation of Minerva, another
+with one of the boy Hercules and another with one of Cybele. The
+collection is in the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin.
+
+  See the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim_, edited by R. Döbner
+  (Hildesheim, 1881-1901); the _Urkundenbuch des Hochstifts Hildesheim_,
+  edited by K. Janicke and H. Hoogeweg (Leipzig and Hanover, 1896-1903);
+  C. Bauer, _Geschichte von Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1892); A. Bertram,
+  _Geschichte des Bistums Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1899 fol.); C.
+  Euling, _Hildesheimer Land und Leute des 16ten Jahrhunderts_
+  (Hildesheim, 1892); O. Fischer, _Die Stadt Hildesheim während des
+  dreissigjährigen Krieges_ (Hildesheim, 1897); A. Grebe, _Auf
+  Hildesheimschem Boden_ (Hildesheim, 1884); H. Cuno, _Hildesheims
+  Künstler im Mittelalter_ (Hildesheim, 1886); W. Wachsmuth,
+  _Geschichte von Hochstift und Stadt Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1863); R.
+  Döbner, _Studien zur Hildesheimischen Geschichte_ (Hildesheim, 1901);
+  Lachner, _Die Holzarchitektur Hildesheims_ (Hildesheim, 1882);
+  Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift
+  Hildesheims_ (Hildesheim, 1889). For the _Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde_,
+  see H. Delius, _Die Hildesheimische Stiftsfehde_ 1519 (Leipzig, 1803).
+  For the _Hildesheimer Silberfund_, see Wieseler, _Der Hildesheimer
+  Silberfund_ (Göttingen, 1869); Holzer, _Der Hildesheimer antike
+  Silberfund_ (Hildesheim, 1871); and E. Pernice and F. Winter, _Der
+  Hildesheimer Silberfund der königlichen Museen zu Berlin_ (Berlin,
+  1901).
+
+
+
+
+HILDRETH, RICHARD (1807-1865), American journalist and author, was born
+at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of June 1807, the son of Hosea
+Hildreth (1782-1835), a teacher of mathematics and later a
+Congregational minister. Richard graduated at Harvard in 1826, and,
+after studying law at Newburyport, was admitted to the bar at Boston in
+1830. He had already taken to journalism, and in 1832 he became joint
+founder and editor of a daily newspaper, the Boston Atlas. Having in
+1834 gone to the South for the benefit of his health, he was led by what
+he witnessed of the evils of slavery (chiefly in Florida) to write the
+anti-slavery novel _The Slave: or Memoir of Archy Moore_ (1836; enlarged
+edition, 1852, _The White Slave_). In 1837 he wrote for the _Atlas_ a
+series of articles vigorously opposing the annexation of Texas. In the
+same year he published _Banks, Banking, and Paper Currencies_, a work
+which helped to promote the growth of the free banking system in
+America. In 1838 he resumed his editorial duties on the _Atlas_, but in
+1840 removed, on account of his health, to British Guiana, where he
+lived for three years and was editor of two weekly newspapers in
+succession at Georgetown. He published in this year (1840) a volume in
+opposition to slavery, _Despotism in America_ (2nd ed., 1854). In 1849
+he published the first three volumes of his _History of the United
+States_, two more volumes of which were published in 1851 and the sixth
+and last in 1852. The first three volumes of this history, his most
+important work, deal with the period 1492-1789, and the second three
+with the period 1789-1821. The history is notable for its painstaking
+accuracy and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist
+bias. Hildreth's _Japan as It Was and Is_ (1855) was at the time a
+valuable digest of the information contained in other works on that
+country (new ed., 1906). He also wrote a campaign biography of William
+Henry Harrison (1839); _Theory of Morals_ (1844); and _Theory of
+Politics_ (1853), as well as _Lives of Atrocious Judges_ (1856),
+compiled from Lord Campbell's two works. In 1861 he was appointed United
+States consul at Trieste, but ill-health compelled him to resign and
+remove to Florence, where he died on the 11th of July 1865.
+
+
+
+
+HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH (1823-1907), German Protestant
+divine, was born at Stappenbeck near Salzwedel in Prussian Saxony on the
+2nd of June 1823. He studied at Berlin and Halle, and in 1890 became
+professor ordinarius of theology at Jena. He belonged to the Tübingen
+school. "Fond of emphasizing his independence of Baur, he still, in all
+important points, followed in the footsteps of his master; his method,
+which he is wont to contrast as _Literarkritik_ with Baur's
+_Tendenzkritik_, is nevertheless essentially the same as Baur's" (Otto
+Pfleiderer). On the whole, however, he modified the positions of the
+founder of the Tübingen school, going beyond him only in his
+investigations into the Fourth Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the
+_Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie_. He died on the 12th of
+January 1907.
+
+  His works include: _Die elementarischen Recognitionen und Homilien_
+  (1848); _Die Evangelien und die Briefe des Johannes nach ihrem
+  Lehrbegriff_ (1849); _Das Markusevangelium_ (1850); _Die Evangelien
+  nach ihrer Entstehung und geschichtlichen Bedeutung_ (1854); _Das
+  Unchristentum_ (1855); _Jüd. Apokalyptik_ (1857); _Novum Testamentum
+  extra canonem receptum_ (4 parts, 1866; 2nd ed., 1876-1884);
+  _Histor.-kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1875); _Acta
+  Apostolorum graece et latine secundum antiquissimos testes_ (1899);
+  the first complete edition of the _Shepherd of Hermas_ (1887);
+  _Ignatii et Polycarpi epistolae_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, AARON (1685-1750), English author, was born in London on the 10th
+of February 1685. He was the son of George Hill of Malmesbury Abbey,
+Wiltshire, who contrived to sell an estate entailed on his son. In his
+fourteenth year he left Westminster School to go to Constantinople,
+where William, Lord Paget de Beaudesert (1637-1713), a relative of his
+mother, was ambassador. Paget sent him, under care of a tutor, to travel
+in Palestine and Egypt, and he returned to England in 1703. He was
+estranged from his patron by the "envious fears and malice of a certain
+female," and again went abroad as companion to Sir William Wentworth. On
+his return home in 1709 he published _A Full and Just Account of the
+Present State of the Ottoman Empire_, a production of which he was
+afterwards much ashamed, and he addressed his poem of _Camillus_ to
+Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough. In the same year he is said to
+have been manager of Drury Lane theatre and in 1710 of the Haymarket.
+His first play, _Elfrid: or The Fair Inconstant_ (afterwards revised as
+_Athelwold_), was produced at Drury Lane in 1709. His connexion with the
+theatre was of short duration, and the rest of his life was spent in
+ingenious commercial enterprises, none of which were successful, and in
+literary pursuits. He formed a company to extract oil from beechmast,
+another for the colonization of the district to be known later as
+Georgia, a third to supply wood for naval construction from Scotland,
+and a fourth for the manufacture of potash. In 1730 he wrote _The
+Progress of Wit, being a caveat for the use of an Eminent Writer_. The
+"eminent writer" was Pope, who had introduced him into _The Dunciad_ as
+one of the competitors for the prize offered by the goddess of Dullness,
+though the satire was qualified by an oblique compliment. A note in the
+edition of 1729 on the obnoxious passage, in which, however, the
+original initial was replaced by asterisks, gave Hill great offence. He
+wrote to Pope complaining of his treatment, and received a reply in
+which Pope denied responsibility for the notes. Hill appears to have
+been a persistent correspondent, and inflicted on Pope a series of
+letters, which are printed in Elwin & Courthope's edition (x. 1-78).
+Hill died on the 8th of February 1750, and was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. The best of his plays were _Zara_ (acted 1735) and _Merope_
+(1749), both adaptations from Voltaire. He also published two series of
+periodical essays, _The Prompter_ (1735) and, with William Bond, _The
+Plaindealer_ (1724). He was generous to fellow-men of letters, and his
+letters to Richard Savage, whom he helped considerably, show his
+character in a very amiable light.
+
+  _The Works of the late Aaron Hill, consisting of letters ..., original
+  poems.... With an essay on the Art of Acting_ appeared in 1753, and
+  his _Dramatic Works_ in 1760. His _Poetical Works_ are included in
+  Anderson's and other editions of the British poets. A full account of
+  his life is provided by an anonymous writer in Theophilus Cibber's
+  _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, AMBROSE POWELL (1825-1865), American Confederate soldier, was born
+in Culpeper county, Virginia, on the 9th of November 1825, and graduated
+from West Point in 1847, being appointed to the 1st U.S. artillery. He
+served in the Mexican and Seminole Wars, was promoted first lieutenant
+in September 1851, and in 1855-1860 was employed on the United States'
+coast survey. In March 1861, just before the outbreak of the Civil War,
+he resigned his commission, and when his state seceded he was made
+colonel of a Virginian infantry regiment, winning promotion to the rank
+of brigadier-general on the field of Bull Run. In the Peninsular
+campaign of 1862 he gained further promotion, and as a major-general
+Hill was one of the most prominent and successful divisional commanders
+of Lee's army in the Seven Days', Second Bull Run, Antietam and
+Fredericksburg campaigns. His division formed part of "Stonewall"
+Jackson's corps, and he was severely wounded in the flank attack of
+Chancellorsville in May 1863. After Jackson's death Hill was made a
+lieutenant-general and placed in command of the 3rd corps of Lee's army,
+which he led in the Gettysburg campaign of 1863, the autumn campaign of
+the same year, and the Wilderness and Petersburg operations of 1864-65.
+He was killed in front of the Petersburg lines on the 2nd of April 1865.
+His reputation as a troop leader in battle was one of the highest
+amongst the generals of both sides, and both Lee and Jackson, when on
+their death-beds their thoughts wandered in delirium to the battlefield,
+called for "A. P. Hill" to deliver the decisive blow.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889), American Confederate soldier, was born
+in York district, South Carolina, on the 12th of July 1821, and
+graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842, being appointed
+to the 1st United States artillery. He distinguished himself in the
+Mexican War, being breveted captain and major for bravery at Contreras
+and Churubusco and at Chapultepec respectively. In February 1849 he
+resigned his commission and became a professor of mathematics at
+Washington College (now Washington and Lee University), Lexington,
+Virginia. In 1854 he joined the faculty of Davidson College, North
+Carolina, and was in 1859 made superintendent of the North Carolina
+Military Institute of Charlotte. At the outbreak of the Civil War, D. H.
+Hill was made colonel of a Confederate infantry regiment, at the head of
+which he won the action of Big Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, Va., on the
+10th of June 1861. Shortly after this he was made a brigadier-general.
+He took part in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations in the spring
+of 1862, and as a major-general led a division with great distinction in
+the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days. He took part in the Second
+Bull Run campaign in August-September 1862, and in the Antietam campaign
+the stubborn resistance of D. H. Hill's division in the passes of South
+Mountain enabled Lee to concentrate for battle. The division bore a
+conspicuous part in the battles of the Antietam and Fredericksburg. On
+the reorganization of the army of Northern Virginia after Jackson's
+death, D. H. Hill was not appointed to a corps command, but somewhat
+later in 1863 he was sent to the west as a lieutenant-general and
+commanded one of Bragg's corps in the brilliant victory of Chickamauga.
+D. H. Hill surrendered with Gen. J. E. Johnston on the 26th of April
+1865. In 1866-1869 he edited a magazine, _The Land we Love_, at
+Charlotte, N.C., which dealt with social and historical subjects and had
+a great influence in the South. In 1877 he became president of the
+university of Arkansas, a post which he held until 1884, and in 1885
+president of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville,
+Georgia. General Hill died at Charlotte, N.C., on the 24th of September
+1889.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843-1910), American politician, was born at
+Havana, New York, on the 29th of August 1843. In 1862 he removed to
+Elmira, New York, where in 1864 he was admitted to the bar. He at once
+became active in the affairs of the Democratic party, attracting the
+attention of Samuel J. Tilden, one of whose shrewdest and ablest
+lieutenants he became. In 1871 and 1872 he was a member of the New York
+State Assembly, and in 1877 and again in 1881, presided over the
+Democratic State Convention. In 1882 he was elected mayor of Elmira, and
+in the same year was chosen lieutenant-governor of the state, having
+been defeated for nomination as governor by Grover Cleveland. In January
+1885, however, Cleveland having resigned to become president, Hill
+became governor, and in November was elected for a three-year term, and
+subsequently re-elected. In 1891-1897 he was a member of the United
+States Senate. During these years, and in 1892, when he tried to get the
+presidential nomination, he was prominent in working against Cleveland.
+In 1896 he opposed the free silver plank in the platform adopted by the
+Democratic National Convention which nominated W. J. Bryan; in the
+National Convention of 1900, however, the free-silver issue having been
+subordinated to anti-imperialism, he seconded Bryan's nomination. After
+1897 he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1905 retired from
+politics. He died in Albany on the 30th of October 1910.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903), English author, son of Arthur
+Hill, head master of Bruce Castle school, was born at Tottenham,
+Middlesex, on the 7th of June 1835. Arthur Hill, with his brothers
+Rowland Hill, the postal reformer, and Matthew Davenport Hill,
+afterwards recorder of Birmingham, had worked out a system of education
+which was to exclude compulsion of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle,
+of which Arthur Hill was head master, was founded to carry into
+execution their theories, known as the Hazelwood system. George Birkbeck
+Hill was educated in his father's school and at Pembroke College,
+Oxford. In 1858 he began to teach at Bruce Castle school, and from 1868
+to 1877 was head master. In 1869 he became a regular contributor to the
+_Saturday Review_, with which he remained in connexion until 1884. On
+his retirement from teaching he devoted himself to the study of English
+18th-century literature, and established his reputation as the most
+learned commentator on the works of Samuel Johnson. He settled at Oxford
+in 1887, but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad. He
+died at Hampstead, London, on the 27th of February 1903. His works
+include: _Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics_ (1878); an edition of
+Boswell's _Correspondence_ (1879); a laborious edition of _Boswell's
+Life of Johnson, including Boswell's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides,
+and Johnson's Diary of a Journey into North Wales_ (Clarendon Press, 6
+vols., 1887); _Wit and Wisdom of Samuel Johnson_ (1888); _Select Essays
+of Dr Johnson_ (1889); _Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland_ (1890);
+_Letters of Johnson_ (1892); _Johnsonian Miscellanies_ (2 vols., 1897);
+an edition (1900) of Edward Gibbon's _Autobiography_; Johnson's _Lives
+of the Poets_ (3 vols., 1905), and other works on the 18th-century
+topics. Dr Birkbeck Hill's elaborate edition of Boswell's _Life_ is a
+monumental work, invaluable to the student.
+
+  See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition of
+  the _Lives of the English Poets_ (1905), and the _Letters_ edited by
+  his daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, JAMES J. (1838-   ), American railway capitalist, was born near
+Guelph, Ontario, Canada, on the 16th of September 1838, and was educated
+at Rockwood (Ont.) Academy, a Quaker institution. In 1856 he settled in
+St Paul, Minnesota. Abandoning, because of his father's death, his plans
+to study medicine, he became a clerk in the office of a firm of river
+steamboat agents and shippers, and later the agent for a line of river
+packets; he established about 1870 transportation lines on the
+Mississippi and on the Red River (of the North). He effected a traffic
+arrangement between the St Paul Pacific Railroad and his steamboat
+lines; and when the railway failed in 1873 for $27,000,000, Hill
+interested Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), George Stephen (Lord
+Mount Stephen), and other Canadian capitalists, in the road and in the
+wheat country of the Red River Valley; he got control of the bonds
+(1878), foreclosed the mortgage, reorganized the road as the St Paul,
+Minneapolis & Manitoba, and began to extend the line, then only 380 m.
+long, toward the Pacific; and in 1883 he became its president. He was
+president of the Great Northern Railway (comprehending all his secondary
+lines) from 1893 to April 1907, when he became chairman of its board of
+directors. In the extension (1883-1893) of this railway westward to
+Puget Sound (whence it has direct steamship connexions with China and
+Japan), the line was built by the company itself, none of the work being
+handled by contractors. Subsequently his financial interests in American
+railways caused constant sensations in the stock-markets. The Hill
+interests obtained control not only of the Great-Northern system, but of
+the Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and proposed
+the construction of another northern line to the Pacific coast. Hill was
+the president of the Northern Securities Company, which in 1904 was
+declared by the United States Supreme Court to be in conflict with the
+Sherman Anti-Trust Law. (See Vol. 27, p. 733.) Among Hill's gifts to
+public institutions was one of $500,000 to the St. Paul Theological
+Seminary (Roman Catholic).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775), called from his Swedish honours, "Sir" John
+Hill, English author, son of the Rev. Theophilus Hill, is said to have
+been born in Peterborough in 1716. He was apprenticed to an apothecary
+and on the completion of his apprenticeship he set up in a small shop in
+St Martin's Lane, Westminster. He also travelled over the country in
+search of rare herbs, with a view to publishing a _hortus siccus_, but
+the plan failed. His first publication was a translation of
+Theophrastus's _History of Stones_ (1746). From this time forward he was
+an indefatigable writer. He edited the _British Magazine_ (1746-1750),
+and for two years (1751-1753) he wrote a daily letter, "The Inspector,"
+for the _London Advertiser and Literary Gazette_. He also produced
+novels, plays and scientific works, and was a large contributor to the
+supplement of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_. His personal and
+scurrilous writings involved him in many quarrels. Henry Fielding
+attacked him in the _Covent Garden Journal_, Christopher Smart wrote a
+mock-epic, _The Hilliad_, against him, and David Garrick replied to his
+strictures against him by two epigrams, one of which runs:--
+
+  "For physics and farces, his equal there scarce is;
+   His farces are physic, his physic a farce is."
+
+He had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who accused him
+of plagiarizing his _Orpheus_, also with Samuel Foote and Henry
+Woodward. From 1759 to 1775 he was engaged on a huge botanical
+work--_The Vegetable System_ (26 vols. fol.)--adorned by 1600
+copperplate engravings. Hill's botanical labours were undertaken at the
+request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the order of
+Vasa from the king of Sweden in 1774. He had a medical degree from
+Edinburgh, and he now practised as a quack doctor, making considerable
+sums by the preparation of vegetable medicines. He died in London on the
+21st of November 1775.
+
+  Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_, the most valuable are those that
+  deal with botany. He is said to have been the author of the second
+  part of _The Oeconomy of Human Life_ (1751), the first part of which
+  is by Lord Chesterfield, and Hannah Glasse's famous manual of cookery
+  was generally ascribed to him (see Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 285). Dr
+  Johnson said of him that he was "an ingenious man, but had no
+  veracity."
+
+  See a _Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late
+  Sir John Hill_ (1779), which is chiefly occupied with a descriptive
+  catalogue of his works; also _Temple Bar_ (1872, xxxv. 261-266).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872), English lawyer and penologist, was
+born on the 6th of August 1792, at Birmingham, where his father, T. W.
+Hill, for long conducted a private school. He was a brother of Sir
+Rowland Hill. He early acted as assistant in his father's school, but in
+1819 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. He went the midland
+circuit. In 1832 he was elected one of the Liberal members for
+Kingston-upon-Hull, but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834.
+On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was chosen recorder; and
+in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in bankruptcy for the Bristol
+district. Having had his interest excited in questions relating to the
+treatment of criminal offenders, he ventilated in his charges to the
+grand juries, as well as in special pamphlets, opinions which were the
+means of introducing many important reforms in the methods of dealing
+with crime. One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his
+brother Frederick Hill (1803-1896), whose _Amount, Causes and Remedies
+of Crime_, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons for
+Scotland, marked an era in the methods of prison discipline. Hill was
+one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
+Knowledge, and the originator of the _Penny Magazine_. He died at
+Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 7th of June 1872.
+
+  His principal works are _Practical Suggestions to the Founders of
+  Reformatory Schools_ (1855); _Suggestions for the Repression of Crime_
+  (1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of
+  Birmingham; _Mettray_ (1855); _Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts_
+  (1864); _Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and
+  Reformatories of Dublin_ (1865); _Addresses delivered at the
+  Birmingham and Midland Institute_ (1867). See _Memoir of Matthew
+  Davenport Hill_, by his daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport Hill
+  (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, OCTAVIA (1838-   ) and MIRANDA (1836-1910), English philanthropic
+workers, were born in London, being daughters of Mr James Hill and
+granddaughters of Dr Southwood Smith, the pioneer of sanitary reform.
+Miss Octavia Hill's attention was early drawn to the evils of London
+housing, and the habits of indolence and lethargy induced in many of the
+lower classes by their degrading surroundings. She conceived the idea of
+trying to free a few poor people from such influences, and Mr Ruskin,
+who sympathized with her plans, supplied the money for starting the
+work. For £750 Miss Hill purchased the 56 years' lease of three houses
+in one of the poorest courts of Marylebone. Another £78 was spent in
+building a large room at the back of her own house where she could meet
+the tenants. The houses were put in repair, and let out in sets of two
+rooms. At the end of eighteen months it was possible to pay 5%
+interest, to repay £48 of the capital, as well as meet all expenses for
+taxes, ground rent and insurance. What specially distinguished this
+scheme was that Miss Hill herself collected the rents, thus coming into
+contact with the tenants and helping to enforce regular and
+self-respecting habits. The success of her first attempt encouraged her
+to continue. Six more houses were bought and treated in a similar
+manner. A yearly sum was set aside for the repairs of each house, and
+whatever remained over was spent on such additional appliances as the
+tenants themselves desired. This encouraged them to keep their tenements
+in good repair. By the help of friends Miss Hill was now enabled to
+enlarge the scope of her work. In 1869 eleven more houses were bought.
+The plan was to set a visitor over a small court or block of buildings
+to do whatever work in the way of rent-collecting, visiting for the
+School Board, &c., was required. As years went on Miss Octavia Hill's
+work was largely increased. Numbers of her friends bought and placed
+under her care small groups of houses, over which she fulfilled the
+duties of a conscientious landlord. Several large owners of tenement
+houses, notably the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, entrusted to her the
+management of such property, and consulted her about plans of
+rebuilding; and a number of fellow-workers were trained by her in the
+management of houses for the poor. The results in Southwark (where Red
+Cross Hall was established) and elsewhere were very beneficial. Both
+Miss Miranda and Miss Octavia Hill took an interest in the movement for
+bringing beauty into the homes of the poor, and the former was
+practically the founder of the Kyrle Society, the first suggestion of
+which was contained in a paper read to a small circle of friends. Both
+sisters worked for the preservation of open spaces, and helped to
+promote the work of the Charity Organization Society, and for several
+years Miss Miranda Hill (who died on the 31st of May 1910) did admirable
+work in Marylebone as a member of the Board of Guardians.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, ROWLAND (1744-1833), English preacher, sixth son of Sir Rowland
+Hill, Bart. (d. 1783), was born at Hawkstone, Shropshire, on the 23rd of
+August 1744. He was educated at Shrewsbury, Eton and St John's College,
+Cambridge. Stimulated by George Whitefield's example, he scandalized the
+university authorities and his own friends by preaching and visiting the
+sick before he had taken orders. In 1773 he was appointed to the parish
+of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he soon attracted great crowds to his
+open-air services. Having inherited considerable property, he built for
+his own use Surrey Chapel, in the Blackfriars Road, London (1783). Hill
+conducted his services in accordance with the forms of the Church of
+England, in whose communion he always remained. Both at Surrey Chapel
+and in his provincial "gospel tours" he had great success. His oratory
+was specially adapted for rude and uncultivated audiences. He possessed
+a voice of great power, and according to Southey "his manner" was "that
+of a performer as great in his own line as Kean or Kemble." His earnest
+and pure purposes more than made up for his occasional lapses from good
+taste and the eccentricity of his wit. He helped to found the Religious
+Tract Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the London
+Missionary Society, and was a stout advocate of vaccination. His
+best-known work is the _Village Dialogues_, which first appeared in
+1810, and reached a 34th edition in 1839. He died on the 11th of April
+1833.
+
+  See _Life_ by E. Sidney (1833); _Memoirs_, by William Jones (1834);
+  and _Memorials_, by Jas. Sherman (1857).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879), English administrator, author of the
+penny postal system, a younger brother of Matthew Davenport Hill, and
+third son of T. W. Hill, who named him after Rowland Hill the preacher,
+was born on the 3rd of December 1795 at Kidderminster. As a young child
+he had, on account of an affection of the spine, to maintain a recumbent
+position, and his principal method of relieving the irksomeness of his
+situation was to repeat figures aloud consecutively until he had reached
+very high totals. A similar bent of mind was manifested when he entered
+school in 1802, his aptitude for mathematics being quite exceptional.
+But he was indebted for the direction of his abilities in no small
+degree to the guidance of his father, a man of advanced political and
+social views, which were qualified and balanced by the strong practical
+tendency of his mind. At the age of twelve Rowland began to assist in
+teaching mathematics in his father's school at Hilltop, Birmingham, and
+latterly he had the chief management of the school. On his suggestion
+the establishment was removed in 1819 to Hazelwood, a more commodious
+building in the Hagley Road, in order to have the advantages of a large
+body of boys, for the purpose of properly carrying out an improved
+system of education. That system, which was devised principally by
+Rowland, was expounded in a pamphlet entitled _Plans for the Government
+and Education of Boys in Large Numbers_, the first edition of which
+appeared in 1822, and a second with additions in 1827. The principal
+feature of the system was "to leave as much as possible all power in the
+hands of the boys themselves"; and it was so successful that, in a
+circular issued six years after the experiment had been in operation, it
+was announced that "the head master had never once exercised his right
+of veto on their proceedings." It may be said that Rowland Hill, as an
+educationist, is entitled to a place side by side with Arnold of Rugby,
+and was equally successful with him in making moral influence of the
+highest kind the predominant power in school discipline. After his
+marriage in 1827 Hill removed to a new school at Bruce Castle,
+Tottenham, which he conducted until failing health compelled him to
+retire in 1833. About this time he became secretary of Gibbon
+Wakefield's scheme for colonizing South Australia, the objects of which
+he explained in 1832 in a pamphlet on _Home Colonies_, afterwards partly
+reprinted during the Irish famine under the title _Home Colonies for
+Ireland_. It was in 1835 that his zeal as an administrative reformer was
+first directed to the postal system. The discovery which resulted from
+these investigations is when stated so easy of comprehension that there
+is great danger of losing sight of its originality and thoroughness. A
+fact which enhances its merit was that he was not a post-office
+official, and possessed no practical experience of the details of the
+old system. After a laborious collection of statistics he succeeded in
+demonstrating that the principal expense of letter carriage was in
+receiving and distributing, and that the cost of conveyance differed so
+little with the distance that a uniform rate of postage was in reality
+the fairest to all parties that could be adopted. Trusting also that the
+deficiency in the postal rate would be made up by the immense increase
+of correspondence, and by the saving which would be obtained from
+prepayment, from improved methods of keeping accounts, and from
+lessening the expense of distribution, he in his famous pamphlet
+published in 1837 recommended that within the United Kingdom the rate
+for letters not exceeding half an ounce in weight should be only one
+penny. The employment of postage stamps is mentioned only as a
+suggestion, and in the following words: "Perhaps the difficulties might
+be obviated by using a bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp,
+and covered at the back with a glutinous wash which by applying a little
+moisture might be attached to the back of the letter." Proposals so
+striking and novel in regard to a subject in which every one had a
+personal interest commanded immediate and general attention. So great
+became the pressure of public opinion against the opposition offered to
+the measure by official prepossessions and prejudices that in 1838 the
+House of Commons appointed a committee to examine the subject. The
+committee having reported favourably, a bill to carry out Hill's
+recommendations was brought in by the government. The act received the
+royal assent in 1839, and after an intermediate rate of four-pence had
+been in operation from the 5th of December of that year, the penny rate
+commenced on the 10th of January 1840. Hill received an appointment in
+the Treasury in order to superintend the introduction of his reforms,
+but he was compelled to retire when the Liberal government resigned
+office in 1841. In consideration of the loss he thus sustained, and to
+mark the public appreciation of his services, he was in 1846 presented
+with the sum of £13,360. On the Liberals returning to office in the
+same year he was appointed secretary to the postmaster-general and in
+1854 he was made chief secretary. His ability as a practical
+administrator enabled him to supplement his original discovery by
+measures realizing its benefits in a degree commensurate with
+continually improving facilities of communication, and in a manner best
+combining cheapness with efficiency. In 1860 his services were rewarded
+with the honour of knighthood; and when failing health compelled him to
+resign his office in 1864, he received from parliament a grant of
+£20,000 and was also allowed to retain his full salary of £2000 a year
+as retiring pension. In 1864 the university of Oxford conferred on him
+the degree of D.C.L., and on the 6th of June 1879 he was presented with
+the freedom of the city of London. The presentation, on account of his
+infirm health, took place at his residence at Hampstead, and he died on
+the 27th of August following. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+  He wrote, in conjunction with his brother, Arthur Hill, a _History of
+  Penny Postage_, published in 1880, with an introductory memoir by his
+  nephew, G. Birkbeck Hill. See also _Sir Rowland Hill, the Story of a
+  Great Reform_, told by his daughter (1907). To commemorate his memory
+  the Rowland Hill Memorial and Benevolent Fund was founded shortly
+  after his death for the purpose of relieving distressed persons
+  connected with the post office who were outside the scope of the
+  Superannuation Act. See also POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, ROWLAND HILL, 1ST VISCOUNT (1772-1842), British general, was the
+second son of (Sir) John Hill, of Hawkstone, Shropshire, and nephew of
+the Rev. Rowland Hill (1744-1833), was born at Prees Hall near Hawkstone
+on the 11th of August 1772. He was gazetted to the 38th regiment in
+1790, obtaining permission at the same time to study in a military
+academy at Strassburg, where he continued after removing into the 53rd
+regiment with the rank of lieutenant in 1791. In the beginning of 1793
+he raised a company, and was promoted to the rank of captain. The same
+year he acted as assistant secretary to the British minister at Genoa,
+and served with distinction as a staff officer in the siege of Toulon.
+Hill took part in many minor expeditions in the following years. In
+1800, when only twenty-eight, he was made a brevet colonel, and in 1801
+he served with distinction in Sir Ralph Abercromby's expedition to
+Egypt, and was wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He continued to
+command his regiment, the 90th, until 1803, when he became a
+brigadier-general. During his regimental command he introduced a
+regimental school and a sergeants' mess. He held various commands as
+brigadier, and after 1805 as major-general, in Ireland. In 1805 he
+commanded a brigade in the abortive Hanover expedition. In 1808 he was
+appointed to a brigade in the force sent to Portugal, and from Vimeira
+to Vittoria, in advance or retreat, he proved himself Wellington's
+ablest and most indefatigable coadjutor. He led a brigade at Vimeira, at
+Corunna and at Oporto, and a division at Talavera (see PENINSULAR WAR).
+His capacity for independent command was fully demonstrated in the
+campaigns of 1810, 1811 and 1812. In 1811 he annihilated a French
+detachment under Girard at Arroyo-dos-Molinos, and early in 1812, having
+now attained a rank of lieutenant-general (January 1812) and become a
+K.B. (March), he carried by assault the important works of Almaraz on
+the Tagus. Hill led the right wing of Wellington's army in the Salamanca
+campaign in 1812 and at the battle of Vittoria in 1813. Later in this
+year he conducted the investment of Pampeluna and fought with the
+greatest distinction at the Nivelle and the Nive. In the invasion of
+France in 1814 his corps was victoriously engaged both at Orthez and at
+Toulouse. Hill was one of the general officers rewarded for their
+services by peerages, his title being at first Baron Hill of Almaraz and
+Hawkstone, and he received a pension, the thanks of parliament and the
+freedom of the city of London. For about two years previous to his
+elevation to the peerage, he had been M.P. for Shrewsbury. In 1815 the
+news of Napoleon's return from Elba was followed by the assembly of an
+Anglo-Allied army (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN) in the Netherlands, and Hill
+was appointed to one of the two corps commands in this army. At Waterloo
+he led the famous charge of Sir Frederick Adams's brigade against the
+Imperial Guard, and for some time it was thought that he had fallen in
+the mêlée. He escaped, however, without a wound, and continued with the
+army in France until its withdrawal in 1818. Hill lived in retirement
+for some years at his estate of Hardwicke Grange. He carried the royal
+standard at the coronation of George IV. and became general in 1825.
+When Wellington became premier in 1828, he received the appointment of
+general commanding-in-chief, and on resigning this office in 1842 he was
+created a viscount. He died on the 10th of December of the same year.
+Lord Hill was, next to Wellington, the most popular and able soldier of
+his time in the British service, and was so much beloved by the troops,
+especially those under his immediate command, that he gained from them
+the title of "the soldier's friend." He was a G.C.B, and G.C.H., and
+held the grand crosses of various foreign orders, amongst them the
+Russian St George and the Austrian Maria Theresa.
+
+  The _Life of Lord Hill, G.C.B._, by Rev. Edwin Sidney, appeared in
+  1845.
+
+
+
+
+HILL (O. Eng. _hyll_; cf. Low Ger. _hull_, Mid. Dutch _hul_, allied to
+Lat. _celsus_, high, _collis_, hill, &c.), a natural elevation of the
+earth's surface. The term is now usually confined to elevations lower
+than a mountain, but formerly was used for all such elevations, high or
+low.
+
+
+
+
+HILLAH, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalik of Bagdad, 60 m. S. of
+the city of Bagdad, in 32° 2´ 35´´ N., 44° 48´ 40½´´ E., formerly the
+capital of a sanjak and the residence of a mutasserif, who in 1893 was
+transferred to Diwanieh. It is situated on both banks of the Euphrates,
+the two parts of the town being connected by a floating bridge, 450 ft.
+in length, in the midst of a very fertile district. The estimated
+population, which includes a large number of Jews, varies from 6000 to
+12,000. The town has suffered much from the periodical breaking of the
+Hindieh dam and the consequent deflection of the waters of the Euphrates
+to the westward, as a result of which at times the Euphrates at this
+point has been entirely dry. This deflection of water has also seriously
+interfered with the palm groves, the cultivation of which constitutes a
+large part of the industry of the surrounding country along the river.
+The bazaars of Hillah are relatively large and well supplied. Many of
+the houses in the town are built of brick, not a few bearing an
+inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, obtained from the ruins of Babylon, which
+lie less than an hour away to the north.
+
+  Bibliography.--C. J. Rich, _Babylon and Persepolis_ (1839); J. R.
+  Peters, _Nippur_ (1857); H. Rassam, _Asshur and the Land of Nimrod_
+  (1897); H. V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_ (1904).     (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN (1808-1879), American lawyer and author, was
+born at Machias, Maine, on the 22nd of September 1808. After graduating
+at Harvard College in 1828, he taught in the Round Hill School at
+Northampton, Massachusetts. He graduated at the Harvard Law School in
+1832, and in 1833 he was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he entered
+into partnership with Charles Sumner. He was a member of the state House
+of Representatives in 1836, of the state Senate in 1850, and of the
+state constitutional convention of 1853, and in 1866-70 was United
+States district attorney for Massachusetts. He devoted a large portion
+of his time to literature. He became a member of the editorial staff of
+the _Christian Register_, a Unitarian weekly, in 1833; in 1834 he became
+editor of The _American Jurist_ (1829-1843), a legal journal to which
+Sumner, Simon Greenleaf and Theron Metcalf contributed; and from 1856 to
+1861 he was an associate editor of the Boston _Courier_. His
+publications include an edition of Edmund Spenser's works (in 5 vols.,
+1839); _Selections from the Writings of Walter Savage Landor_ (1856);
+_Six Months in Italy_ (2 vols., 1853); _Life and Campaigns of George B.
+McClellan_ (1864); a part of the _Life, Letters, and Journals of George
+Ticknor_ (1876); besides a series of school readers and many articles in
+periodicals and encyclopaedias. He died in Boston on the 21st of January
+1879.
+
+
+
+
+HILLEBRAND, KARL (1829-1884), German author, was born at Giessen on the
+17th of September 1829, his father Joseph Hillebrand (1788-1871) being a
+literary historian and writer on philosophic subjects. Karl Hillebrand
+became involved, as a student in Heidelberg, in the Baden revolutionary
+movement, and was imprisoned in Rastatt. He succeeded in escaping and
+lived for a time in Strassburg, Paris--where for several months he was
+Heine's secretary--and Bordeaux. He continued his studies, and after
+obtaining the doctor's degree at the Sorbonne, he was appointed teacher
+of German in the _École militaire_ at St Cyr, and shortly afterwards,
+professor of foreign literatures at Douai. On the outbreak of the
+Franco-German War he resigned his professorship and acted for a time as
+correspondent to _The Times_ in Italy. He then settled in Florence, where
+he died on the 19th of October 1884. Hillebrand wrote with facility and
+elegance in French, English and Italian, besides his own language. His
+essays, collected under the title _Zeiten, Völker und Menschen_ (Berlin,
+1874-1885), show clear discernment, a finely balanced cosmopolitan
+judgment and grace of style. He undertook to write the _Geschichte
+Frankreichs von der Thronbesteigung Ludwig Philipps bis zum Fall
+Napoleons III._, but only two volumes were completed (to 1848) (2nd ed.,
+1881-1882). In French he published _Des conditions de la bonne comédie_
+(1863), _La Prusse contemporaine_ (1867), _Études italiennes_ (1868), and
+a translation of O. Müller's _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (3rd ed.,
+1883). In English he published his Royal Institution Lectures on _German
+Thought during the Last Two Hundred Years_ (1880). He also edited a
+collection of essays dealing with Italy, under the title _Italia_ (4
+vols., Leipzig, 1824-1877).
+
+  See H. Homberger, _Karl Hillebrand_ (Berlin, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HILLEL, Jewish rabbi, of Babylonian origin, lived at Jerusalem in the
+time of King Herod. Though hard pressed by poverty, he applied himself
+to study in the schools of Shemaiah and Abtalion (Sameas and Pollion in
+Josephus). On account of his comprehensive learning and his rare
+qualities he was numbered among the recognized leaders of the Pharisaic
+scribes. Tradition assigns him the highest dignity of the Sanhedrin,
+under the title of nasi ("prince"), about a hundred years before the
+destruction of Jerusalem, i.e. about 30 B.C. The date at least can be
+recognized as historic; the fact that Hillel took a leading position in
+the council can also be established. The epithet _ha-zaken_ ("the
+elder"), which usually accompanies his name, proves him to have been a
+member of the Sanhedrin, and according to a trustworthy authority Hillel
+filled his leading position for forty years, dying, therefore, about
+A.D. 10. His descendants remained, with few exceptions, at the head of
+Judaism in Palestine until the beginning of the 5th century, two of
+them, his grandson Gamaliel I. and the latter's son Simon, during the
+time when the Temple was still standing. The fact that Josephus (_Vita_
+38) ascribes to Simon descent from a very distinguished stock ([Greek:
+genous sphodra lamprou]), shows in what degree of estimation Hillel's
+descendants stood. When the dignity of _nasi_ became afterwards
+hereditary among them, Hillel's ancestry, perhaps on the ground of old
+family traditions, was traced back to David. Hillel is especially noted
+for the fact that he gave a definite form to the Jewish traditional
+learning, as it had been developed and made into the ruling and
+conserving factor of Judaism in the latter days of the second Temple,
+and particularly in the centuries following the destruction of the
+Temple. He laid down seven rules for the interpretation of the
+Scriptures, and these became the foundation of rabbinical hermeneutics;
+and the ordering of the traditional doctrines into a whole, effected in
+the Mishna by his successor Judah I., two hundred years after Hillel's
+death, was probably likewise due to his instigation. The tendency of his
+theory and practice in matters pertaining to the Law is evidenced by the
+fact that in general he advanced milder and more lenient views in
+opposition to his colleague Shammai, a contrast which after the death of
+the two masters, but not until after the destruction of the Temple, was
+maintained in the strife kept up between the two schools named the House
+of Hillel and the House of Shammai. The well-known institution of the
+Prosbol ([Greek: prosbolê]), introduced by Hillel, was intended to avert
+the evil consequences of the scriptural law of release in the seventh
+year (Deut. xv. 1). He was led to this, as is expressly set forth (_M.
+Gittin_, iv. 3), by a regard for the welfare of the community. Hillel
+lived in the memory of posterity chiefly as the great teacher who
+enjoined and practised the virtues of charity, humility and true piety.
+His proverbial sayings, in particular, a great number of which were
+written down partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew, strongly affected the
+spirit both of his contemporaries and of the succeeding generations. In
+his Maxims (_Aboth,_ i. 12) he recommends the love of peace and the love
+of mankind beyond all else, and his own love of peace sprang from the
+tenderness and deep humility which were essential features in his
+character, as has been illustrated by many anecdotes. Hillel's patience
+has become proverbial. One of his sayings commends humility in the
+following paradox: "My abasement is my exaltation." His charity towards
+men is given its finest expression in the answer which he made to a
+proselyte who asked to be taught the commandments of the Torah in the
+shortest possible form: "What is unpleasant to thyself that do not to
+thy neighbour; this is the whole Law, all else is but its exposition."
+This allusion to the scriptural injunction to love one's neighbour (Lev.
+xix. 18) as the fundamental law of religious morals, became in a certain
+sense a commonplace of Pharisaic scholasticism. For the Pharisee who
+accepts the answer of Jesus regarding that fundamental doctrine which
+ranks the love of one's neighbour as the highest duty after the love of
+God (Mark xii. 33), does so because as a disciple of Hillel the idea is
+familiar to him. St Paul also (Gal. v. 14) doubtless learned this in the
+school of Gamaliel. Hillel emphasized the connexion between duty towards
+one's neighbour and duty towards oneself in the epigrammatic saying: "If
+I am not for myself, who is for me? And if I am for myself alone, what
+then am I? And if not now, then when?" (_Aboth_, i. 14). The duty of
+working both with and for men he teaches in the sentence: "Separate not
+thyself from the congregation" (_ib._ ii. 4). The duty of considering
+oneself part of common humanity, of not differing from others by any
+peculiarity of behaviour, he sums up in the words: "Appear neither naked
+nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing, neither laughing nor weeping"
+(_Tosef. Ber._ c. ii.). The command to love one's neighbour inspired
+also Hillel's injunction (_Aboth_, ii. 4): "Judge not thy neighbour
+until thou art in his place" (cf. Matt. vii. 1). The disinterested
+pursuit of learning, study for study's sake, is commended in many of
+Hillel's sayings as being what is best in life: "He who wishes to make a
+name for himself loses his name; he who does not increase [his
+knowledge] decreases it; he who does not learn is worthy of death; he
+who works for the sake of a crown is lost" (_Aboth_, i. 13). "He who
+occupies himself much with learning makes his life" (_ib._ ii. 7). "He
+who has acquired the words of doctrine has acquired the life of the
+world to come" (_ib._). "Say not: When I am free from other occupations
+I shall study; for may be thou shalt never at all be free" (_ib._ 4).
+One of his strings of proverbs runs as follows: "The uncultivated man is
+not innocent; the ignorant man is not devout; the bashful man learns
+not; the wrathful man teaches not; he who is much absorbed in trade
+cannot become wise; where no men are, there strive thyself to be a man"
+(_ib._ 5). The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's consciousness of
+God is shown in the words spoken by him on the occasion of a feast in
+the Temple--words alluding to the throng of people gathered there which
+he puts into the mouth of God Himself: "If I am here every one is here;
+if I am not here no one is here" (_Sukkah_ 53a). In like manner Hillel
+makes God say to Israel, referring to Exodus xx. 24: "Whither I please,
+thither will I go; if thou come into my house I come into thy house; if
+thou come not into my house, I come not into thine" (_ib._).
+
+It is noteworthy that no miraculous legends are connected with Hillel's
+life. A scholastic tradition, however, tells of a voice from heaven
+which made itself heard when the wise men had assembled in Jericho,
+saying: "Among those here present is one who would have deserved the
+Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it." And
+all eyes turned towards Hillel (_Tos. Sotah_, xiii. 3). When he died
+lamentation was made for him as follows: "Woe for the humble, woe for
+the pious, woe for the disciple of Ezra!" (_ib._)
+
+  HILLEL II., one of the patriarchs belonging to the family of Hillel
+  I., lived in Tiberias about the middle of the 4th century, and
+  introduced the arrangement of the calendar through which the Jews of
+  the Diaspora became independent of Palestine in the uniform fixation
+  of the new moons and feasts.
+
+  The Rabbi HILLEL, who in the 4th century made the remarkable
+  declaration that Israel need not expect a Messiah, because the promise
+  of a Messiah had already been fulfilled in the days of King Hezekiah
+  (Babli, _Sanhedrin_, 99a), is probably Hillel, the son of Samuel ben
+  Nahman, a well-known expounder of the scriptures.     (W. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLER, FERDINAND (1811-1885), German composer, was born at
+Frankfort-on-Main, on the 24th of October 1811. His first master was
+Aloys Schmitt, and when he was ten years of age his compositions and
+talent led his father, a well-to-do man, to send him to Hummel in
+Weimar. There he devoted himself to composition, among his work being
+the entr'actes to _Maria Stuart_, through which he made Goethe's
+acquaintance. Under Hummel, Hiller made great strides as a pianist, so
+much so that early in 1827 he went on a tour to Vienna, where he met
+Beethoven and produced his first quartet. After a brief visit home
+Hiller went to Paris in 1829, where he lived till 1836. His father's
+death necessitated his return to Frankfort for a time, but on the 8th of
+January 1839 he produced at Milan his opera _La Romilda_, and began to
+write his oratorio _Die Zerstörung Jerusalems_, one of his best works.
+Then he went to Leipzig, to his friend Mendelssohn, where in 1843-1844
+he conducted a number of the Gewandhaus concerts and produced his
+oratorio. After a further visit to Italy to study sacred music, Hiller
+produced two operas, _Ein Traum_ and _Conradin_, at Dresden in 1845 and
+1847 respectively; he went as conductor to Düsseldorf in 1847 and
+Cologne in 1850, and conducted at the Opéra Italien in Paris in 1851 and
+1852. At Cologne he became a power as conductor of the Gürzenich
+concerts and head of the Conservatorium. In 1884 he retired, and died on
+the 12th of May in the following year. Hiller frequently visited
+England. He composed a work for the opening of the Royal Albert Hall,
+his _Nala and Damayanti_ was performed at Birmingham, and he gave a
+series of pianoforte recitals of his own compositions at the Hanover
+Square Rooms in 1871. He had a perfect mastery over technique and form
+in musical composition, but his works are generally dry. He was a sound
+pianist and teacher, and occasionally a brilliant writer on musical
+matters. His compositions, numbering about two hundred, include six
+operas, two oratorios, six or seven cantatas, much chamber music and a
+once-popular pianoforte concerto.
+
+
+
+
+HILLER, JOHANN ADAM (1728-1804), German musical composer, was born at
+Wendisch-Ossig near Görlitz in Silesia on the 25th of December 1728. By
+the death of his father in 1734 he was left dependent to a large extent
+on the charity of friends. Entering in 1747 the Kreuzschule in Dresden,
+the school attended many years afterwards by Richard Wagner, he
+subsequently went to the university of Leipzig, where he studied
+jurisprudence, supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by
+performing at concerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Gradually he
+adopted music as his sole profession, and devoted himself more
+especially to the permanent establishment of a concert institute at
+Leipzig. It was he who in 1781 originated the celebrated Gewandhaus
+concerts which still flourish at Leipzig. In 1789 he became "cantor" of
+the Thomas school there, a position previously held by John Sebastian
+Bach. He died in Leipzig on the 16th of June 1804. Two of his pupils
+placed a monument to his memory in front of the Thomas school. Hiller's
+compositions comprise almost every kind of church music, from the
+cantata to the simple chorale. But much more important are his
+operettas, 14 in number, which for a long time retained their place on
+the boards, and had considerable influence on the development of light
+dramatic music in Germany. The _Jolly Cobbler_, _Love in the Country_
+and the _Village Barber_ were amongst the most popular of his works.
+Hiller also excelled in sentimental songs and ballads. With great
+simplicity of structure his music combines a considerable amount of
+genuine melodic invention. Although an admirer and imitator of the
+Italian school, Hiller fully appreciated the greatness of Handel, and
+did much for the appreciation of his music in Germany. It was under his
+direction that the _Messiah_ was for the first time given at Berlin,
+more than forty years after the composition of that great work. Hiller
+was also a writer on music, and for some years (1766-1770) edited a
+musical weekly periodical named _Wöchentliche Nachrichten und
+Anmerkungen die Musik betreffend_.
+
+
+
+
+HILLIARD, LAWRENCE (d. 1640), English miniature painter. The date of his
+birth is not known, but he died in 1640. He was the son of Nicholas
+Hilliard, and evidently derived his Christian name from that of his
+grandmother. He adopted his father's profession and worked out the
+unexpired time of his licence after Nicholas Hilliard died. It was from
+Lawrence Hilliard that Charles I. received the portrait of Queen
+Elizabeth now at Montagu House, since van der Dort's catalogue describes
+it as "done by old Hilliard, and bought by the king of young Hilliard."
+In 1624 he was paid £42 from the treasury for five pictures, but the
+warrant does not specify whom they represented. His portraits are of
+great rarity, two of the most beautiful being those in the collections
+of Earl Beauchamp and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. They are as a rule signed
+L.H., but are also to be distinguished by the beauty of the calligraphy
+in which the inscriptions round the portraits are written. The writing
+is as a rule very florid, full of exquisite curves and flourishes, and
+more elaborate than the more formal handwriting of Nicholas Hilliard.
+The colour scheme adopted by the son is richer and more varied than that
+used by the father, and Lawrence Hilliard's miniatures are not so hard
+as are those of Nicholas, and are marked by more shade and a greater
+effect of atmosphere.     (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLIARD, NICHOLAS (c. 1537-1619), the first true English miniature
+painter, is said to have been the son of Richard Hilliard of Exeter,
+high sheriff of the city and county in 1560, by Lawrence, daughter of
+John Wall, goldsmith, of London, and was born probably about 1537. He
+was appointed goldsmith, carver and portrait painter to Queen Elizabeth,
+and engraved the Great Seal of England in 1586. He was in high favour
+with James I. as well as with Elizabeth, and from the king received a
+special patent of appointment, dated the 5th of May 1617, and granting
+him a sole licence for the royal work for twelve years. He is believed
+to have been the author of an important treatise on miniature painting,
+now preserved in the Bodleian Library, but it seems more probable that
+the author of that treatise was John de Critz, Serjeant Painter to James
+I. It is probable, however, that the treatise was taken down from the
+instructions of Hilliard, for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps
+Isaac Oliver.
+
+The esteem of his countrymen for Hilliard is testified to by Dr Donne,
+who in a poem called "The Storm" (1597) praises the work of this artist.
+He painted a portrait of himself at the age of thirteen, and is said to
+have executed one of Mary queen of Scots when he was eighteen years old.
+He died on the 7th of January 1619, and was buried in St
+Martin's-in-the-Fields, Westminster, leaving by his will twenty
+shillings to the poor of the parish, £30 between his two sisters, some
+goods to his maidservant, and all the rest of his effects to his son,
+Lawrence Hilliard, his sole executor.
+
+It seems to be pretty certain that he visited France, and that he is the
+artist alluded to in the papers of the duc d'Alençon under the name of
+"Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois" who was painter to this prince in
+1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres. The miniature of Mademoiselle
+de Sourdis, in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, is certainly the
+work of Hilliard, and is dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of
+honour at the French Court; and other portraits which are his work are
+believed to represent Gabrielle d'Estrées, niece of Madame de Sourdis,
+la Princesse de Condé and Madame de Montgomery.
+
+  For further information respecting Hilliard's sojourn in France, see
+  the privately printed catalogue of the collection of miniatures
+  belonging to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, compiled by Dr G. C. Williamson.
+       (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLSDALE, a city and the county-seat of Hillsdale county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., about 87 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 4151, of whom 300
+were foreign-born; (1904) 4809; (1910) 5001. Hillsdale is served by the
+Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It has a public library, and is
+the seat of Hillsdale College (co-educational, Free Baptist), which was
+opened as Michigan Central College, at Spring Arbor, Michigan, in 1844,
+was removed to Hillsdale and received its present name in 1853 and was
+re-opened here in 1855. The college in 1907-1908 had 22 instructors and
+345 students. The city is a centre for a rich farming region; among its
+manufactures are gasoline and gas engines, screen doors, wagons,
+barrels, shoes, fur-coats and flour. Hillsdale was first settled in
+1837, was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was chartered as a city
+in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+HILL TIPPERA, or TRIPURA, a native state of India, adjoining the British
+district of Tippera, in Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4086 sq. m.;
+pop, (1901) 173,325; estimated revenue, £55,000. Six parallel ranges of
+hill cross it from north to south, at an average distance of 12 m.
+apart. The hills are covered for the most part with bamboo jungle, while
+the low ground abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and
+swamps. The principal crop and food staple is rice. The other articles
+of produce are cotton, chillies and vegetables. The chief exports are
+cotton, timber, oilseeds, bamboo canes, thatching-grass and firewood, on
+all of which tolls are levied. The chief rivers are the Gumti, Haora,
+Khoyai, Dulai, Manu and Fenny (Pheni). During the heavy rains the people
+in the plains use boats as almost the sole means of conveyance.
+
+The history of the state includes two distinct periods--the traditional
+period described in the _Rajmala_, or "Chronicles of the Kings of
+Tippera," and the period since A.D. 1407. The _Rajmala_ is a history in
+Bengali verse, compiled by the Brahmans of the court of Tripura. In the
+early history of the state, the rajas were in a state of chronic feud
+with all the neighbouring countries. The worship of Siva was here, as
+elsewhere in India, associated with the practice of human sacrifice, and
+in no part of India were more victims offered. It was not until the
+beginning of the 17th century that the Moguls obtained any footing in
+this country. When the East India Company obtained the _diwani_ or
+financial administration of Bengal in 1765, so much of Tippera as had
+been placed on the Mahommedan rent-roll came under British rule. Since
+1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the British
+government. In October 1905 the state was attached to the new province
+of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It has a chronological era of its own,
+adopted by Raja Birraj, from whom the present raja is 93rd in descent.
+The year 1875 corresponded with 1285 of the Tippera era.
+
+Besides being the ruler of Hill Tippera, the raja holds an estate in the
+British district of Tippera, called _chakla_ Roshnabad, which is far the
+most valuable of his possessions. The capital is Agartala (pop. 9513),
+where there is an Arts College. The raja's palace and other public
+buildings were seriously damaged by the earthquake of the 12th of June
+1897. The late raja, who died from the result of a motor-car accident in
+1909, succeeded his father in 1896, but he had taken a large share in
+the administration of the state for some years previously. The principle
+of succession, which had often caused serious disputes, was defined in
+1904, to the effect that the chief may nominate any male descendant
+through males from himself or from any male ancestor, but failing such
+nomination, then the rule of primogeniture applies.
+
+
+
+
+HILTON, JOHN (1804-1878), British surgeon, was born at Castle Hedingham,
+in Essex, in 1804. He entered Guy's Hospital in 1824. He was appointed
+demonstrator of anatomy in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845, surgeon
+1849. In 1867 he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of
+which he became member in 1827 and fellow in 1843, and he also delivered
+the Hunterian oration in 1867. As Arris and Gale professor (1859-1862)
+he delivered a course of lectures on "Rest and Pain," which have become
+classics. He was also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. Hilton
+was the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nick named "Anatomical
+John." It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist, enriched Guy's
+Hospital with its unique collection of models. In his grasp of the
+structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord he was far in
+advance of his contemporaries. As an operator he was more cautious than
+brilliant. This was doubtless due partly to his living in the
+pre-anaesthetics period, and partly to his own consummate anatomical
+knowledge, as is indicated by the method for opening deep abscesses
+which is known by his name. But he could be bold when necessary; he was
+the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal section, and
+one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He died at Clapham on the
+14th of September 1878.
+
+
+
+
+HILTON, WILLIAM (1786-1839), English painter, was born in Lincoln on the
+3rd of June 1786, son of a portrait-painter. In 1800 he was placed with
+the engraver J. R. Smith, and about the same time began studying in the
+Royal Academy school. He first exhibited in this institution in 1803,
+sending a "Group of Banditti"; and he soon established a reputation for
+choice of subject, and qualities of design and colour superior to the
+great mass of his contemporaries. He made a tour in Italy with Thomas
+Phillips, the portrait-painter. In 1813, having exhibited "Miranda and
+Ferdinand with the Logs of Wood," he was elected an associate of the
+Academy, and in 1820 a full academician, his diploma-picture
+representing "Ganymede." In 1823 he produced "Christ crowned with
+Thorns," a large and important work, subsequently bought out of the
+Chantrey Fund; this may be regarded as his masterpiece. In 1827 he
+succeeded Henry Thomson as keeper of the Academy. He died in London on
+the 30th of December 1839, Some of his best pictures remained on his
+hands at his decease--such as the "Angel releasing Peter from Prison"
+(life-size), painted in 1831, "Una with the Lion entering Corceca's
+Cave" (1832), the "Murder of the Innocents," his last exhibited work
+(1838), "Comus," and "Amphitrite." The National Gallery now owns "Edith
+finding the Body of Harold" (1834), "Cupid Disarmed," "Rebecca and
+Abraham's Servant" (1829), "Nature blowing Bubbles for her Children"
+(1821), and "Sir Calepine rescuing Serena" (from the _Faerie Queen_)
+(1831). In the National Portrait Gallery is his likeness of John Keats,
+with whom he was acquainted. In a great school or period Hilton could
+not count as more than a respectable subordinate; but in the British
+school of the earlier part of the 19th century he had sufficient
+elevation of aim and width of attainment to stand conspicuous.
+
+
+
+
+HILVERSUM, a town in the province of North Holland, 18 m. by rail S.E.
+of Amsterdam. It is connected with Amsterdam by a steam tramway, passing
+by way of the small fortified towns of Naarden and Muiden on the Zuider
+Zee. Pop. (1900) 20,238. It is situated in the middle of the Gooi, a
+stretch of hilly country extending from the Zuider Zee to about 5 m.
+south of Hilversum, and composed of pine woods and sandy heaths. A
+convalescent home, the Trompenberg, was established here in 1874, and
+there are a town hall, middle-class and technical schools, and various
+places of worship, including a synagogue. Hilversum manufactures large
+quantities of floor-cloths and horse-blankets.
+
+
+
+
+HIMALAYA, the name given to the mountains which form the northern
+boundary of India. The word is Sanskrit and literally signifies
+"snow-abode," from _him_, snow, and _álaya_, abode, and might be
+translated "snowy-range," although that expression is perhaps more
+nearly the equivalent of _Himachal_, another Sanskrit word derived from
+_him_, snow, and _áchal_, mountain, which is practically synonymous with
+Himalaya and is often used by natives of northern India. The name was
+converted by the Greeks into _Emodos_ and _Imaos_.
+
+Modern geographers restrict the term Himalaya to that portion of the
+mountain region between India and Tibet enclosed within the arms of the
+Indus and the Brahmaputra. From the bend of the Indus southwards towards
+the plains of the Punjab to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards
+towards the plains of Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or
+Himalaya. Beyond the Indus, to the north-west, the region of mountain
+ranges which stretches to a junction with the Hindu Kush south of the
+Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya. Thus the Himalaya represents
+the southern face of the great central upheaval--the plateau of
+Tibet--the northern face of which is buttressed by the Kuen Lun.
+
+
+  Structure of the Himalaya.
+
+Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain face
+geologists now trace a system of main chains, or axes, extending from
+the Hindu Kush to Assam, arranged in approximately parallel lines, and
+traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage obliquely.
+Godwin-Austen indicates six of these geological axes as follows:
+
+  1. The main Central Asian axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern edge
+  or ridge of the Tibetan plateau.
+
+  2. The Trans-Himalayan chain of Muztagh (or Karakoram), which is lost
+  in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the sources of the
+  Indus.
+
+  3. The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus--for
+  that river breaks across it about 100 m. above Leh. This chain
+  continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes part
+  of the Himalayan system.
+
+  4. The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, i.e. the "snowy range"
+  _par excellence_ which is indicated by Nanga Parbat (overlooking the
+  Indus), and passes in a south-east direction to the southern side of
+  the Deosai plains. Thence, bending slightly south, it extends in the
+  line of snowy peaks which are seen from Simla to the famous peaks of
+  Gangotri and Nanda Devi. This is the best known range of the Himalaya.
+
+  5. The outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge.
+
+  6. The Sub-Himalaya, which is "easily defined by the fringing line of
+  hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked off
+  from the main chain by open valleys (dhúns) or narrow valleys,
+  parallel to the main axis of the chain." These include the Siwaliks.
+
+Interspersed between these main geological axes are many other minor
+ridges, on some of which are peaks of great elevation. In fact, the
+geological axis seldom coincides with the line of highest elevation, nor
+must it be confused with the main lines of water-divide of the Himalaya.
+
+
+  The great northern watershed of India.
+
+On the north and north-west of Kashmir the great water-divide which
+separates the Indus drainage area from that of the Yarkand and other
+rivers of Chinese Turkestan has been explored by Sir F. Younghusband,
+and subsequently by H. H. P. Deasy. The general result of their
+investigations has been to prove that the Muztagh range, as it trends
+south-eastwards and finally forms a continuous mountain barrier together
+with the Karakoram, is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan
+plateau. Shutting off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of
+the Central Asian system of hydrography, this great water-parting is
+distinguished by a group of peaks of which the altitude is hardly less
+than that of the Eastern Himalaya. Mount Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft.
+high), only 750 ft. lower than Everest, affords an excellent example in
+Asiatic geography of a dominating, peak-crowned water-parting or divide.
+From Kailas on the far west to the extreme north-eastern sources of the
+Brahmaputra, the great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan
+highlands has only been occasionally touched. Littledale, du Rhins and
+Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards Lhasa,
+but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be lost in the
+mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan plateau. Nor can it
+be said to be as yet well defined to the east of Lhasa.
+
+
+  Eastern Tibet.
+
+The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the meridian of 92° E.,
+and to the east of this meridian the affluents of the Tsanpo (the same
+river as the Dihong and subsequently as the Brahmaputra) drain no longer
+from the elevated plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a wild region
+of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where its
+successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves around the great
+bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the sources of all the great
+rivers of Burma and China. Neither immediately beyond this great bend,
+nor within it in the Himalayan regions lying north of Assam and east of
+Bhutan, have scientific investigations yet been systematically carried
+out; but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of the
+Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the Tibetan
+plateau, and break down through the containing bands of hills, carrying
+deposits of gold from their sources to the plains, as do all the rivers
+of Tibet.
+
+
+  Himalaya north of the central chain of snowy peaks.
+
+Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not sufficiently
+well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed even approximately,
+there exists some scattered evidence of the nature of that strip of
+Northern Himalaya on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between the
+line of greatest elevation and the trough of the Tsanpo. Recent
+investigations show that all the chief rivers of Nepal flowing
+southwards to the Tarai take their rise north of the line of highest
+crests, the "main range" of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain
+long lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose
+strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally, almost
+at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels breaking
+down to the plains. This formation brings the southern edge of the
+Tsanpo basin to the immediate neighbourhood of the banks of that river,
+which runs at its foot like a drain flanking a wall. It also affords
+material evidence of that wrinkling or folding action which accompanied
+the process of upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised,
+which is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west
+Indian borderland. North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan crest and
+Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained; farther east,
+although the same natural forces first resulted in the same effect of
+successive folds of the earth's crust, forming extensive curves of ridge
+and furrow, the abundant rainfall and the totally distinct climatic
+conditions which govern the processes of denudation subsequently led to
+the erosion of deeper valleys enclosed between forest-covered ranges
+which rise steeply from the river banks.
+
+
+  Height of Himalayan peaks.
+
+Although suggestions have been made of the existence of higher peaks
+north of the Himalaya than that which dominates the Everest group, no
+evidence has been adduced to support such a contention. On the other
+hand the observations of Major Ryder and other surveyors who explored
+from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra and Indus, at the
+conclusion of the Tibetan mission in 1904, conclusively prove that Mount
+Everest, which appears from the Tibetan plateau as a single dominating
+peak, has no rival amongst Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very
+remarkable investigations made by permission of the Nepal durbar from
+peaks near Kathmandu in 1903, by Captain Wood, R.E., not only place the
+Everest group apart from other peaks with which they have been confused
+by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system of Nepal, but
+clearly show that there is no one dominating and continuous range
+indicating a main Himalayan chain which includes both Everest and
+Kinchinjunga. The main features of Nepalese topography are now fairly
+well defined. So much controversy has been aroused on the subject of
+Himalayan altitudes that the present position of scientific analysis in
+relation to them may be shortly stated. The heights of peaks determined
+by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are bound to be more
+or less in error for three reasons: (1) the extraordinary geoidal
+deformation of the level surface at the observing stations in submontane
+regions; (2) ignorance of the laws of refraction when rays traverse
+rarefied air in snow-covered regions; (3) ignorance of the variations in
+the actual height of peaks due to the increase, or decrease, of snow.
+The value of the heights attached to the three highest mountains in the
+world are, for these reasons, adjudged by Colonel S. G. Burrard, the
+Supt. Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the
+following extent:
+
+  +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  |                   | Present Survey  | Most probable |
+  |                   | Value of Height.|     Value.    |
+  +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  | Mount Everest     |      29,002     |     29,141    |
+  | K2 (Godwin Austen)|      28,250     |     28,191    |
+  | Kinchinjunga      |      28,146     |     28,225    |
+  +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+
+
+These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga second and
+K2 third on the list.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+  _Geology._--The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumpling of the
+  earth's crust along the southern margin of the great tableland of
+  Central Asia. Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign of this
+  crumpling is to be detected except in the Salt Range, and the
+  Peninsula of India has been entirely free from folding of any
+  importance since early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean
+  period itself. But the contrast between the Himalaya and the Peninsula
+  is not confined to their structure: the difference in the rocks
+  themselves is equally striking. In the Himalaya the geological
+  sequence, from the Ordovician to the Eocene, is almost entirely
+  marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the series, but during
+  nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at least
+  its northern part, must have been beneath the sea--the Central
+  Mediterranean Sea of Neumayr or Tethys of Suess. In the peninsula,
+  however, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than
+  Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood
+  of the coasts; the principal fossiliferous deposits are the
+  plant-bearing beds of the Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt
+  that, at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the
+  Peninsula has been land. Between the folded marine beds of the
+  Himalaya and the nearly horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the
+  Indo-Gangetic plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial and
+  wind-blown deposits of recent date. The deep boring at Lucknow passed
+  through 1336 ft. of sands--reaching nearly to 1000 ft. below
+  sea-level--without any sign of approaching the base of the alluvial
+  series. It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there is a
+  great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this
+  depression was ever beneath the sea.
+
+  In the light thrown by recent researches on the structure and origin
+  of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer
+  difficult. From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has been
+  dry land, a part, indeed, of a great continent which in Mesozoic times
+  extended across the Indian Ocean towards South Africa. Its northern
+  shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in Jurassic
+  and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from west to
+  east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of the
+  Himalaya. The tangential pressures which are known to be set up in the
+  earth's crust--either by the contraction of the interior or in some
+  other way--caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up against
+  the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and finally
+  led to the whole mass being pushed forward over the edge of the part
+  which did not crumple. The Indo-Gangetic depression was formed by the
+  weight of the over-riding mass bending down the edge over which it
+  rode, or else it is the lower limb of the S-shaped fold which would
+  necessarily result if there were no fracture--the Himalaya
+  representing the upper limb of the S.
+
+  Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which
+  correspond more or less with orographical divisions. The northern zone
+  is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
+  age are largely developed--excepting in the north-west no such rocks
+  are known on the southern flanks. The second is the zone of the snowy
+  peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed chiefly of
+  crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with unfossiliferous
+  sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age. The southern zone
+  comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely of Tertiary beds, and
+  especially of the upper Tertiaries. The oldest beds which have
+  hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician system, but it is
+  highly probable that the underlying "Haimantas" of the central
+  Himalaya are of Cambrian age. From these beds up to the top of the
+  Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but the Carboniferous beds
+  were in some places eroded before the deposition of the _Productus_
+  shales, which belong to the Permian period. It is, however, possible
+  that this erosion was merely local, for in other places there seems to
+  be a complete passage from the Carboniferous to the Permian. From the
+  Permian to the Lias the sequence in the central Himalaya shows no sign
+  of a break, nor has any unconformity been proved between the Liassic
+  beds and the overlying Spiti shales, which contain fossils of Middle
+  and Upper Jurassic age. The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by
+  Cretaceous beds (Gieumal sandstone below and Chikkim limestone above),
+  and these are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene
+  age, much disturbed and altered by intrusions of gabbro and syenite.
+  Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been
+  continuous deposition of marine beds from the Permian _Productus_
+  shales to the Eocene Nummulitic formation. The next succeeding deposit
+  is a sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon
+  the Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the
+  Sub-Himalaya (Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any
+  kind. The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Tertiaries of
+  Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite unaffected
+  by any of the folds.
+
+  From the absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident that in
+  the northern part of the Himalayan belt, at least in the Spiti area,
+  there can have been no post-Archaean folding of any magnitude until
+  after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the folding was
+  completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes were laid down. It
+  was, therefore, during the Miocene period that the elevation of this
+  part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the Siwalik-like
+  sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the Pliocene
+  period. Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the history of the
+  chain is still more clearly shown. The sub-Himalaya are formed of
+  Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while the lower
+  Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks without fossils.
+  Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever the junction of the
+  Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen, it is a great
+  reversed fault. West of the Blas river a similar reversed fault forms
+  the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the pre-Tertiary rocks
+  of the Himalaya, while between the Sutlej and the Jumna rivers, where
+  the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower Himalaya, the fault lies
+  between them and the Siwaliks. The hade of the fault is constantly
+  inwards, towards the centre of the chain, and the older rocks which
+  form the Himalaya proper, have been pushed forward over the later beds
+  of the sub-Himalaya. But the fault is more than an ordinary reversed
+  fault: it was, nearly everywhere, the northern boundary of deposition
+  of the Siwalik beds, and only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik
+  deposits extend even to a short distance beyond it. The fault in fact
+  was being formed during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the
+  beds were laid down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the
+  Siwaliks themselves being folded and upturned during the process.
+  Accordingly, in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and
+  conformable series from base to summit, in other places the middle
+  beds are absent and the upper beds of the series rest upon the
+  upturned and denuded edges of the lower beds. The Siwaliks are
+  fluviatile and torrential deposits similar to those which are now
+  being formed at the foot of the mountains, in the Indo-Gangetic plain;
+  and their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were
+  very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of the
+  plain and the Siwaliks themselves. But the great fault just described
+  is not the only one of this character. There is a series of such
+  faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although they have
+  not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever they occur
+  they seem to have formed the northern boundary of deposition of the
+  deposits immediately to the south of them. It appears, therefore, that
+  the Himalaya grew southwards in a series of stages. A reversed fault
+  was formed at the foot of the chain, and upon this fault the
+  mountains were pushed forward over the beds deposited at their base,
+  crumpling and folding them in the process, and forming a sub-Himalayan
+  ridge in front of the main chain. After a time a new fault originated
+  at the foot of the sub-Himalayan zone thus raised, which now became
+  part of the Himalaya themselves, and a new sub-Himalayan chain was
+  formed in front of the previous one. The earthquakes of the present
+  day show that the process is still in operation, and in time the
+  deposits of the present Indo-Gangetic plain will be involved in the
+  folds.
+
+  The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true
+  circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed
+  forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the dip
+  of the plane must be low, for a line drawn along the southern foot of
+  the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane inclined to
+  the surface at an angle of about 14°. The thrust-plane, then, does not
+  coincide with any of the boundary faults already mentioned, which are
+  usually inclined at angles of 50° or 60°. The latter are due to the
+  fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass above the thrust-plane
+  may move, yet the pressure which pushes it forwards necessarily
+  proceeds from behind. The back, accordingly, moves faster than the
+  front, and the whole is packed together; as when an ice-floe drives
+  against the shore, the ice breaks and the outer fragments ride over
+  those within. The great thrust-plane which is thus imagined to exist
+  at the base of the Himalaya, corresponds with the "major thrusts" of
+  the N.W. Highlands of Scotland, and the reversed faults which appear
+  at the surface with the "minor thrusts."     (P. La.)
+
+
+    Topographical results of evolution.
+
+  Such is the general outline of Himalayan evolution as now understood,
+  and the process of it has led to certain marked features of scenery
+  and topography. Within the area of the trans-Indus mountains we have
+  beds of hard limestone or sandstone alternating with soft shales,
+  which leads to the scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys
+  where the shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep
+  rifts or gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which stand in
+  irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys between.
+  The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure, due to the
+  same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much larger scale;
+  but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the mountains
+  by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially by the
+  greater rainfall. Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys, here
+  are found fertile alluvial plains--such as Manipur--but for the most
+  part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep pace with
+  the rise of the river bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys
+  arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the
+  western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers
+  cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that
+  originally held. An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly
+  breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west
+  Himalaya to resume its north-westerly course after passing from the
+  northern to the southern side of the range. The reason assigned for
+  these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the
+  general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent--i.e. that the
+  lines of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were
+  raised; and that the drainage has merely maintained the course
+  originally held, by the power of erosion during the gradual process of
+  upheaval.
+
+  In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep, so
+  steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still
+  cutting down the river beds and have not yet reached the stage of
+  equilibrium. Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial
+  detritus owing to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this
+  occurs there is usually to be found a fertile and productive field for
+  agriculture. The straits of the Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably
+  account for the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in
+  principles of construction) a repetition on grand scale of the Maidan
+  of the Afridi Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great
+  amphitheatre of hills is collected and then arrested by the gorge
+  which marks the outlet to the Bara.
+
+
+    General Himalayan formation is typical.
+
+  Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by draining a
+  considerable area north of the snowy range--the Sutlej, the Kosi, the
+  Gandak and the Subansiri, for example. All these rivers break through
+  the main snowy range ere they twist their way through the southern
+  hills to the plains of India. Here the "antecedent" theory will not
+  suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of the snows
+  to support it. Their formation is explained by a process of "cutting
+  back," by which the heads of these streams are gradually eating their
+  way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the southern than on
+  the northern slopes. The result of this process is well exhibited in
+  the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and Tibetan sides of the
+  passes to the Indus plateau. On the southern or Indian side the routes
+  to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of Himalayan valleys with no
+  remarkably steep gradients till they near the approach to the
+  water-divide. The slope then steepens with the ascending curve to the
+  summit of the pass, from which point it falls with a comparatively
+  gentle gradient to the general level of the plateau. The Zoji La, the
+  Kashmir water-divide between the Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent
+  case in point, and all the passes from the Kumaon and Garhwal hills
+  into Tibet exhibit this formation in a marked degree. Taking the
+  average elevation of the central axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000
+  ft., the average height of the passes is not more than 10,000 owing to
+  this process of cutting down by erosion and gradual encroachment into
+  the northern basin.
+
+  [Illustration: Section across the sub-Himalayan zone.]
+
+  _Meteorology._--Independently of the enormous variety of topographical
+  conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast altitude of
+  the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of climate in
+  ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by those
+  observed in moving from the equator to the poles. One half of the
+  total mass of the atmosphere and three-fourths of the water suspended
+  in it in the form of vapour lie below the average altitude of the
+  Himalaya; and of the residue, one-half of the air and virtually almost
+  all the vapour come within the influence of the highest peaks. The
+  regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the barometer
+  and the annual and diurnal oscillations are as well marked in the
+  Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in suspension
+  diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than one-sixth
+  (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot of the
+  mountains is found at the greatest heights. This is dependent on the
+  temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude. On the
+  mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature, an
+  elevation of 1000 ft. producing a fall of 3½°, or about 1° to each 300
+  ft. The mean winter temperature at 7000 ft. (which is about the
+  average height of Himalayan "hill stations") is 44° F. and the summer
+  mean about 65° F. At 9000 ft. the mean temperature of the coldest
+  month is 32° F. At 12,000 ft. the thermometer never falls below
+  freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of October, and at
+  15,000 ft. it is seldom above that point even in the height of summer.
+  It should be noted that the thermometrical conditions of Tibet vary
+  considerably from those of the Himalaya. At 12,000 ft. in Tibet the
+  mean of the hottest month is about 60° F. and of the coldest about 10°
+  F. whilst, at 15,000 ft. the frost is only permanent from the end of
+  October to the end of April. The distribution of vegetation and
+  topographical conformation largely influence the question of local
+  temperature. For instance it may be found that the difference of
+  temperature between forest-clad ranges and the Indian plains is twice
+  as much in April and May as in December or January; and the difference
+  between the temperature of a well-wooded hill top and the open valley
+  below may vary from 9° to 24° within twenty-four hours. The general
+  relations of temperature to altitude as determined by Himalayan
+  observations are as follows: (1) The decrease of temperature with
+  altitude is most rapid in summer. (2) The annual range diminishes with
+  the elevation. (3) The diurnal range diminishes with the elevation.
+  Comparisons are, however, apt to become anomalous when applied to
+  elevated zones with a dense covering of forest and a great quantity of
+  cloud and open and uncloudy regions both above and below the
+  forest-clad tracts.
+
+
+    Rainfall.
+
+  The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and October
+  (i.e. the period of the monsoon rains of India), the remainder of the
+  year being comparatively dry. The fall of rain over the great plain of
+  northern India gradually diminishes in quantity, and begins later, as
+  we pass from east to west. At the same time the rain is heavier as we
+  approach the Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer
+  ranges; but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the
+  chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great line
+  of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to be
+  hardly susceptible of measurement. Diurnal currents of wind, which are
+  established from the plains to the mountains during the day, and from
+  the hills to the plains during the night, are important agents in
+  distributing the rainfall. The condensation of vapour from the
+  ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion as they are
+  precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in the cloud effects
+  produced during the monsoon, the southern or windward face of each
+  range being clothed day after day with a white crest of cloud whilst
+  the northern slopes are often left entirely free. This shows how large
+  a proportion of the vapour is arrested and how it is that only by
+  drifting through the deeper gorges can any moisture find its way to
+  the Tibetan table-land.
+
+  The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 60 and 70 in. in the
+  delta of the Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river issues
+  from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouchment of the
+  Indus into the plains. At Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude) on the outer
+  ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about 120 in. At Naini
+  Tal north of the United Provinces it is about 90 in.; at Simla about
+  80 in., diminishing still further as one approaches the north-western
+  hills. All these stations are about the same altitude.
+
+
+    Snowfall.
+
+  In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is 6000 ft.
+  and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft. In Kumaon, on the
+  west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level and occasionally
+  to 2500 ft. Snow has been known to fall at Peshawar. At Leh, in
+  western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow are usually registered and the
+  fall on the passes between 17,000 and 19,000 ft. is not generally more
+  than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan passes farther east the falls are
+  much heavier. Even in September these passes may be quite blocked and
+  they are not usually open till the middle of June. The snow-line, or
+  the level to which snow recedes in the course of the year, ranges from
+  15,000 to 16,000 ft. on the southern exposures of the Himalaya that
+  carry perpetual snow, along all that part of the system that lies
+  between Sikkim and the Indus. It is not till December that the snow
+  begins to descend for the winter, although after September light falls
+  occur which cover the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these
+  soon disappear. On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than
+  18,500 ft. and on the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000
+  ft. On all the passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500
+  ft., and in August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400
+  ft. without finding any snow upon them; and it is as impossible to
+  find snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the
+  plains of India.
+
+  _Glaciers._--The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is
+  greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and
+  elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and
+  position of the mountain on which they are formed. Glaciers on the
+  outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly the
+  case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy range.
+  The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are believed not to
+  reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft. In Kumaon many of them
+  descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft. In the higher valleys and
+  Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary level at which they end,
+  but there are exceptions which descend far lower. In Europe the
+  glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft. below the snow-line, and in
+  the Himalaya and Tibet about the same holds good. The summer
+  temperatures of the points where the glaciers end on the Himalaya also
+  correspond fairly with those of the corresponding positions in
+  European glaciers, viz. for July a little below 60° F., August 58° and
+  September 55°.
+
+  Measurements of the movement of Himalayan glaciers give results
+  according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in
+  the Alps, viz. rates from 9½ to 14¼ in. in twenty-four hours. The
+  motion of one glacier from the middle of May to the middle of October
+  averaged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours. The dimensions of the
+  glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the valleys
+  descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with those of
+  Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in length--8 or
+  10 m. not being unusual. In the elevated valleys of northern Tibet,
+  where the destructive action of the summer heat is far less, the
+  development of the glaciers is enormous. At one locality in
+  north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice
+  extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the
+  extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends. Another single
+  glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long.
+
+  The northern tributaries of the Gilgit river, which joins the Indus
+  near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from
+  a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its
+  extent and magnificent proportions. Chief amongst them are the
+  glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Muztagh
+  mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount
+  Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high). The Biafo glacier system, which lies
+  in a long narrow trough extending south-west from Nagar on the Hunza
+  to near the base of the Muztagh peaks, may be traced for 90 m. between
+  mountain walls which tower to a height of from 20,000 to 25,000 ft.
+  above sea-level on either side.
+
+  In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which precise
+  accounts are forthcoming are ancient moraines indicating some previous
+  condition in which their extent was much larger than now. In the east
+  these moraines are very remarkable, extending 8 or 10 m. In the west
+  they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 m. reach. They have been observed on
+  the summit of the table-land as well as on the Himalayan slope. The
+  explanation suggested to account for the former great extension of
+  glaciers in Norway would seem applicable here. Any modification of the
+  coast-line which should submerge the area now occupied by the North
+  Indian plain, or any considerable part of it, would be accompanied by
+  a much wetter and more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow
+  would fall on the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be
+  brought to bear on the destruction of the glaciers, which would
+  receive larger supplies and descend lower.
+
+  _Botany._--Speaking broadly, the general type of the flora of the
+  lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain
+  at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger
+  rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from
+  that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and
+  insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to
+  west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and
+  higher latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter
+  cold increases. The vegetation of the western part of the plain and of
+  the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely allied
+  to, or almost identical with, that of the drier parts of the Indian
+  peninsula, more especially of its hilly portions; and, while a general
+  tropical character is preserved, forms are observed which indicate the
+  addition of an Afghan as well as of an African element, of which last
+  the gay lily _Gloriosa superba_ is an example, pointing to some
+  previous connexion with Africa.
+
+  The European flora, which is diffused from the Mediterranean along the
+  high lands of Asia, extends to the Himalaya; many European species
+  reach the central parts of the chain, though few reach its eastern
+  end, while genera common to Europe and the Himalaya are abundant
+  throughout and at all elevations. From the opposite quarter an influx
+  of Japanese and Chinese forms, such as the rhododendrons, the tea
+  plant, _Aucuba_, _Helwingia_, _Skimmia_, _Adamia_, _Goughia_ and
+  others, has taken place, these being more numerous in the east and
+  gradually disappearing in the west. On the higher and therefore cooler
+  and less rainy ranges of the Himalaya the conditions of temperature
+  requisite for the preservation of the various species are readily
+  found by ascending or descending the mountain slopes, and therefore a
+  greater uniformity of character in the vegetation is maintained along
+  the whole chain. At the greater elevations the species identical with
+  those of Europe become more frequent, and in the alpine regions many
+  plants are found identical with species of the Arctic zone. On the
+  Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness, a Siberian type is
+  established, with many true Siberian species and more genera; and some
+  of the Siberian forms are further disseminated, even to the plains of
+  Upper India. The total absence of a few of the more common forms of
+  northern Europe and Asia should also be noticed, among which may be
+  named _Tilia_, _Fagus_, _Arbutus_, _Erica_, _Azalea_ and _Cistacae_.
+
+  In the more humid regions of the east the mountains are almost
+  everywhere covered with a dense forest which reaches up to 12,000 or
+  13,000 ft. Many tropical types here ascend to 7000 ft. or more. To the
+  west the upper limit of forest is somewhat lower, from 11,500 to
+  12,000 ft. and the tropical forms usually cease at 5000 ft.
+
+  In Sikkim the mountains are covered with dense forest of tall
+  umbrageous trees, commonly accompanied by a luxuriant growth of under
+  shrubs, and adorned with climbing and epiphytal plants in wonderful
+  profusion. In the tropical zone large figs abound, _Terminalia_,
+  _Shorea_ (sál), laurels, many _Leguminosae_, _Bombax_, _Artocarpus_,
+  bamboos and several palms, among which species of Calamus are
+  remarkable, climbing over the largest trees; and this is the western
+  limit of _Cycas_ and _Myristica_ (nutmeg). Plantains ascend to 7000
+  ft. _Pandanus_ and tree-ferns abound. Other ferns, _Scitamineae_,
+  orchids and climbing _Aroideae_ are very numerous, the last named
+  profusely adorning the forests with their splendid dark-green foliage.
+  Various oaks descend within a few hundred feet of the sea-level,
+  increasing in numbers at greater altitudes, and becoming very frequent
+  at 4000 ft., at which elevation also appear _Aucuba_, _Magnolia_,
+  cherries, _Pyrus_, maple, alder and birch, with many _Araliaceae_,
+  _Hollböllea_, _Skimmia_, _Daphne_, _Myrsine_, _Symplocos_ and _Rubus_.
+  Rhododendrons begin at about 6000 ft. and become abundant at 8000 ft.,
+  from 10,000 to 14,000 ft. forming in many places the mass of the
+  shrubby vegetation which extends some 2000 ft. above the forest.
+  Epiphytal orchids are extremely numerous between 6000 and 8000 ft. Of
+  the Coniferae, _Podocarpus_ and _Pinus longifolia_ alone descend to
+  the tropical zone; _Abies Brunoniana_ and _Smithiana_ and the larch (a
+  genus not seen in the western mountains) are found at 8000, and the
+  yew and _Picea Webbiana_ at 10,000 ft. _Pinus excelsa_, which occurs
+  in Bhutan, is absent in the wetter climate of Sikkim.
+
+  On the drier and higher mountains of the interior of the chain, the
+  forests become more open, and are spread less uniformly over the
+  hill-sides, a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation appears, and the number
+  of shrubby _Leguminosae_, such as _Desmodium_ and _Indigofera_,
+  increases, as well as _Ranunculaceae_, _Rosaceae_, _Umbelliferae_,
+  _Labiatae_, _Gramineae_, _Cyperaceae_ and other European genera.
+
+  Passing to the westward, and viewing the flora of Kumaon, which
+  province holds a central position on the chain, on the 80th meridian,
+  we find that the gradual decrease of moisture and increase of high
+  summer heat are accompanied by a marked change of the vegetation. The
+  tropical forest is characterized by the trees of the hotter and drier
+  parts of southern India, combined with a few of European type. Ferns
+  are more rare, and the tree-ferns have disappeared. The species of
+  palm are also reduced to two or three, and bamboos, though abundant,
+  are confined to a few species.
+
+  The outer ranges of mountains are mainly covered with forests of
+  _Pinus longifolia_, rhododendron, oak and _Pieris_. At Naini Tal
+  cypress is abundant. The shrubby vegetation comprises _Rosa_, _Rubus_,
+  _Indigofera_, _Desmodium_, _Berberis_, _Boehmeria_, _Viburnum_,
+  _Clematis_, with an _Arundinaria_. Of herbaceous plants species of
+  _Ranunculus_, _Potentilla_, _Geranium_, _Thalictrum_, _Primula_,
+  _Gentiana_ and many other European forms are common. In the less
+  exposed localities, on northern slopes and sheltered valleys, the
+  European forms become more numerous, and we find species of alder,
+  birch, ash, elm, maple, holly, hornbeam, _Pyrus_, &c. At greater
+  elevations in the interior, besides the above are met _Corylus_, the
+  common walnut, found wild throughout the range, horse chestnut, yew,
+  also _Picea Webbiana_, _Pinus excelsa_, _Abies Smithiana_, _Cedrus
+  Deodara_ (which tree does not grow spontaneously east of Kumaon), and
+  several junipers. The denser forests are commonly found on the
+  northern faces of the higher ranges, or in the deeper valleys, between
+  8000 and 10,500 ft. The woods on the outer ranges from 3000 up to 7000
+  ft. are more open, and consist mainly of evergreen trees.
+
+  The herbaceous vegetation does not differ greatly, generically, from
+  that of the east, and many species of _Primulaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_,
+  _Cruciferae_, _Labiatae_ and _Scrophulariaceae_ occur; balsams abound,
+  also beautiful forms of _Campanulaceae_, _Gentiana_, _Meconopsis_,
+  _Saxifraga_ and many others.
+
+  Cultivation hardly extends above 7000 ft., except in the valleys
+  behind the great snowy peaks, where a few fields of buckwheat and
+  Tibetan barley are sown up to 11,000 or 12,000 ft. At the lower
+  elevations rice, maize and millets are common, wheat and barley at a
+  somewhat higher level, and buckwheat and amaranth usually on the
+  poorer lands, or those recently reclaimed from forest. Besides these,
+  most of the ordinary vegetables of the plains are reared, and potatoes
+  have been introduced in the neighbourhood of all the British stations.
+
+  As we pass to the west the species of rhododendron, oak and _Magnolia_
+  are much reduced in number as compared to the eastern region, and both
+  the Malayan and Japanese forms are much less common. The herbaceous
+  tropical and semi-tropical vegetation likewise by degrees disappears,
+  the _Scitamineae_, epiphytal and terrestrial _Orchideae_, _Araceae_,
+  _Cyrtandraceae_ and _Begoniae_ only occur in small numbers in Kumaon,
+  and scarcely extend west of the Sutlej. In like manner several of the
+  western forms suited to drier climates find their eastern limit in
+  Kumaon. In Kashmir the plane and Lombardy poplar flourish, though
+  hardly seen farther east, the cherry is cultivated in orchards, and
+  the vegetation presents an eminently European cast. The alpine flora
+  is slower in changing its character as we pass from east to west, but
+  in Kashmir the vegetation of the higher mountains hardly differs from
+  that of the mountains of Afghanistan, Persia and Siberia, even in
+  species.
+
+  The total number of flowering plants inhabiting the range amounts
+  probably to 5000 or 6000 species, among which may be reckoned several
+  hundred common English plants chiefly from the temperate and alpine
+  regions; and the characteristic of the flora as a whole is that it
+  contains a general and tolerably complete illustration of almost all
+  the chief natural families of all parts of the world, and has
+  comparatively few distinctive features of its own.
+
+  The timber trees of the Himalaya are very numerous, but few of them
+  are known to be of much value. The "Sál" is one of the most valuable
+  of the trees; with the "Toon" and "Sissoo," it grows in the outer
+  ranges most accessible from the plains. The "Deodar" is also much
+  used, but the other pines produce timber that is not durable. Bamboos
+  grow everywhere along the outer ranges, and rattans to the eastward,
+  and are largely exported for use in the plains of India.
+
+  Though one species of coffee is indigenous in the hotter Himalayan
+  forests, the climate does not appear suitable for the growth of the
+  plant which supplies the coffee of commerce. The cultivation of tea,
+  however, is carried on successfully on a large scale, both in the east
+  and west of the mountains. In the western Himalaya the cultivated
+  variety of the tea plant of China succeeds well; on the east the
+  indigenous tea of Assam, which is not specifically different, and is
+  perhaps the original parent of the Chinese variety, is now almost
+  everywhere preferred. The produce of the Chinese variety in the hot
+  and wet climate of the eastern Himalaya, Assam and eastern Bengal is
+  neither so abundant nor so highly flavoured as that of the indigenous
+  plant.
+
+  The cultivation of the cinchona, several species of which have been
+  introduced from South America and naturalized in the Sikkim Himalaya,
+  promises to yield at a comparatively small cost an ample supply of the
+  febrifuge extracted from its bark. At present the manufacture is
+  almost wholly in the hands of the Government, and the drug prepared is
+  all disposed of in India.
+
+  _Zoology._--The general distribution of animal life is determined by
+  much the same conditions that have controlled the vegetation. The
+  connexion with Europe on the north-west, with China on the north-east,
+  with Africa on the south-west, and with the Malayan region on the
+  south-east is manifest; and the greater or less prevalence of the
+  European and Eastern forms varies according to more western or eastern
+  position on the chain. So far as is known these remarks will apply to
+  the extinct as well as to the existing fauna. The Palaeozoic forms
+  found in the Himalaya are very close to those of Europe, and in some
+  cases identical. The Triassic fossils are still more closely allied,
+  more than a third of the species being identical. Among the Jurassic
+  Mollusca, also, are many species that are common in Europe. The
+  Siwalik fossils contain 84 species of mammals of 45 genera, the whole
+  bearing a marked resemblance to the Miocene fauna of Europe, but
+  containing a larger number of genera still existing, especially of
+  ruminants, and now held to be of Pliocene age.
+
+  The fauna of the Tibetan Himalaya is essentially European or rather
+  that of the northern half of the old continent, which region has by
+  zoologists been termed Palaearctic. Among the characteristic animals
+  may be named the yak, from which is reared a cross breed with the
+  ordinary horned cattle of India, many wild sheep, and two antelopes,
+  as well as the musk-deer; several hares and some burrowing animals,
+  including pikas (_Lagomys_) and two or three species of marmot;
+  certain arctic forms of carnivora--fox, wolf, lynx, ounce, marten and
+  ermine; also wild asses. Among birds are found bustard and species of
+  sand-grouse and partridge; water-fowl in great variety, which breed on
+  the lakes in summer and migrate to the plains of India in winter; the
+  raven, hawks, eagles and owls, a magpie, and two kinds of chough; and
+  many smaller birds of the passerine order, amongst which are several
+  finches. Reptiles, as might be anticipated, are far from numerous, but
+  a few lizards are found, belonging for the most part to types, such as
+  _Phrynocephalus_, characteristic of the Central-Asiatic area. The
+  fishes from the headwaters of the Indus also belong, for the most
+  part, to Central-Asiatic types, with a small admixture of purely
+  Himalayan forms. Amongst the former are several peculiar small-scaled
+  carps, belonging to the genus _Schizothorax_ and its allies.
+
+  The ranges of the Himalaya, from the border of Tibet to the plains,
+  form a zoological region which is one of the richest of the world,
+  particularly in respect to birds, to which the forest-clad mountains
+  offer almost every range of temperature.
+
+  Only two or three forms of monkey enter the mountains, the langur, a
+  species of _Semnopithecus_, ranging up to 12,000 ft. No lemurs occur,
+  although a species is found in Assam, and another in southern India.
+  Bats are numerous, but the species are for the most part not peculiar
+  to the area; several European forms are found at the higher
+  elevations. Moles, which are unknown in the Indian peninsula, abound
+  in the forest regions of the eastern Himalayas at a moderate altitude,
+  and shrews of several species are found almost everywhere; amongst
+  them are two very remarkable forms of water-shrew, one of which,
+  however, _Nectogale_, is probably Tibetan rather than Himalayan. Bears
+  are common, and so are a marten, several weasels and otters, and cats
+  of various kinds and sizes, from the little spotted _Felis
+  bengalensis_, smaller than a domestic cat, to animals like the clouded
+  leopard rivalling a leopard in size. Leopards are common, and the
+  tiger wanders to a considerable elevation, but can hardly be
+  considered a permanent inhabitant, except in the lower valleys.
+  Civets, the mungoose (_Herpestes_), and toddy cats (_Paradoxurus_) are
+  only found at the lower elevations. Wild dogs (_Cyon_) are common, but
+  neither foxes nor wolves occur in the forest area. Besides these
+  carnivora some very peculiar forms are found, the most remarkable of
+  which is Aelurus, sometimes called the cat-bear, a type akin to the
+  American racoon. Two other genera, _Helictis_, an aberrant badger, and
+  linsang, an aberrant civet, are representatives of Malayan types.
+  Amongst the rodents squirrels abound, and the so-called flying
+  squirrels are represented by several species. Rats and mice swarm,
+  both kinds and individuals being numerous, but few present much
+  peculiarity, a bamboo rat (_Rhizomys_) from the base of the eastern
+  Himalaya being perhaps most worthy of notice. Two or three species of
+  vole (_Arvicola_) have been detected, and porcupines are common. The
+  elephant is found in the outer forests as far as the Jumna, and the
+  rhinoceros as far as the Sarda; the spread of both of these animals as
+  far as the Indus and into the plains of India, far beyond their
+  present limits, is authenticated by historical records; they have
+  probably retreated before the advance of cultivation and fire-arms.
+  Wild pigs are common in the lower ranges, and one peculiar species of
+  pigmy-hog (_Sus salvanius_) of very small size inhabits the forests at
+  the base of the mountains in Nepál and Sikim. Deer of several kinds
+  are met with, but do not ascend very high on the hillsides, and belong
+  exclusively to Indian forms. The musk deer keeps to the greater
+  elevations. The chevrotains of India and the Malay countries are
+  unrepresented. The gaur or wild ox is found at the base of the hills.
+  Three very characteristic ruminants, having some affinities with
+  goats, inhabit the Himalaya; these are the "serow" (_Nemorhaedus_),
+  "goral" (_Cemas_) and "tahr" (_Hemitragus_), the last-named ranging to
+  rather high elevations. Lastly, the pangolin (_Manis_) is represented
+  by two species in the eastern Himalaya. A dolphin (_Platanista_)
+  living in the Ganges ascends that river and its affluents to their
+  issue from the mountains.
+
+  Almost all the orders of birds are well represented, and the
+  marvellous variety of forms found in the eastern Himalaya is only
+  rivalled in Central and South America. Eagles, vultures and other
+  birds of prey are seen soaring high over the highest of the
+  forest-clad ranges. Owls are numerous, and a small species,
+  _Glaucidium_, is conspicuous, breaking the stillness of the night by
+  its monotonous though musical cry of two notes. Several kinds of
+  swifts and nightjars are found, and gorgeously-coloured trogons,
+  bee-eaters, rollers, and beautiful kingfishers and barbets are common.
+  Several large hornbills inhabit the highest trees in the forest. The
+  parrots are restricted to parrakeets, of which there are several
+  species, and a single small lory. The number of woodpeckers is very
+  great and the variety of plumage remarkable, and the voice of the
+  cuckoo, of which there are numerous species, resounds in the spring as
+  in Europe. The number of passerine birds is immense. Amongst them the
+  sun-birds resemble in appearance and almost rival in beauty the
+  humming-birds of the New Continent. Creepers, nuthatches, shrikes, and
+  their allied forms, flycatchers and swallows, thrushes, dippers and
+  babblers (about fifty species), bulbuls and orioles, peculiar types of
+  redstart, various sylviads, wrens, tits, crows, jays and magpies,
+  weaver-birds, avadavats, sparrows, crossbills and many finches,
+  including the exquisitely coloured rose-finches, may also be
+  mentioned. The pigeons are represented by several wood-pigeons, doves
+  and green pigeons. The gallinaceous birds include the peacock, which
+  everywhere adorns the forest bordering on the plains, jungle fowl and
+  several pheasants; partridges, of which the chikor may be named as
+  most abundant, and snow-pheasants and partridges, found only at the
+  greatest elevations. Waders and waterfowl are far less abundant, and
+  those occurring are nearly all migratory forms which visit the
+  peninsula of India--the only important exception being two kinds of
+  solitary snipe and the red-billed curlew.
+
+  Of the reptiles found in these mountains many are peculiar. Some of
+  the snakes of India are to be seen in the hotter regions, including
+  the python and some of the venomous species, the cobra being found as
+  high up as 8000 or 9000 ft., though not common. Lizards are numerous,
+  and as well as frogs are found at all elevations from the plains to
+  the upper Himalayan valleys, and even extend to Tibet.
+
+  The fishes found in the rivers of the Himalaya show the same general
+  connexion with the three neighbouring regions, the Palaearctic, the
+  African and the Malayan. Of the principal families, the
+  _Acanthopterygii_, which are abundant in the hotter parts of India,
+  hardly enter the mountains, two genera only being found, of which one
+  is the peculiar amphibious genus _Ophiocephalus_. None of these fishes
+  are found in Tibet. The _Siluridae_, or scaleless fishes, and the
+  _Cyprinidae_, or carp and loach, form the bulk of the mountain fish,
+  and the genera and species appear to be organized for a
+  mountain-torrent life, being almost all furnished with suckers to
+  enable them to maintain their positions in the rapid streams which
+  they inhabit. A few _Siluridae_ have been found in Tibet, but the
+  carps constitute the larger part of the species. Many of the Himalayan
+  forms are Indian fish which appear to go up to the higher streams to
+  deposit their ova, and the Tibetan species as a rule are confined to
+  the rivers on the table-land or to the streams at the greatest
+  elevations, the characteristics of which are Tibetan rather than
+  Himalayan. The _Salmonidae_ are entirely absent from the waters of the
+  Himalaya proper, of Tibet and of Turkestan east of the Terektag.
+
+  The Himalayan butterflies are very numerous and brilliant, for the
+  most part belonging to groups that extend both into the Malayan and
+  European regions, while African forms also appear. There are large and
+  gorgeous species of _Papilio_, _Nymphalidae_, _Morphidae_ and
+  _Danaidae_, and the more favoured localities are described as being
+  only second to South America in the display of this form of beauty and
+  variety in insect life. Moths, also, of strange forms and of great
+  size are common. The cicada's song resounds among the woods in the
+  autumn; flights of locusts frequently appear after the summer, and
+  they are carried by the prevailing winds even among the glaciers and
+  eternal snows. Ants, bees and wasps of many species, and flies and
+  gnats abound, particularly during the summer rainy season, and at all
+  elevations.
+
+  _Mountain Scenery._--Much has been written about the impressiveness
+  of Himalayan scenery. It is but lately, however, that any adequate
+  conception of the magnitude and majesty of the most stupendous of the
+  mountain groups which mass themselves about the upper tributaries and
+  reaches of the Indus has been presented to us in the works of Sir F.
+  Younghusband, Sir W. M. Conway, H. C. B. Tanner and D. Freshfield. It
+  is not in comparison with the picturesque beauty of European Alpine
+  scenery that the Himalaya appeals to the imagination, for amongst the
+  hills of the outer Himalaya--the hills which are known to the majority
+  of European residents and visitors--there is often a striking absence
+  of those varied incidents and sharp contrasts which are essential to
+  picturesqueness in mountain landscape. Too often the brown, barren,
+  sun-scorched ridges are obscured in the yellow dust haze which drifts
+  upwards from the plains; too often the whole perspective of hill and
+  vale is blotted out in the grey mists that sweep in soft, resistless
+  columns against these southern slopes, to be condensed and
+  precipitated in ceaseless, monotonous rainfall. Few Europeans really
+  see the Himalaya; fewer still are capable of translating their
+  impressions into language which is neither exaggerated nor inadequate.
+
+  Some idea of the magnitude of Himalayan mountain construction--a
+  magnitude which the eye totally fails to appreciate--may, however, be
+  gathered from the following table of comparison of the absolute height
+  of some peaks above sea-level with the actual amount of their slopes
+  exposed to view:--
+
+    _Relative Extent of Snow Slopes Visible._
+
+    +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+
+    |                     |                      | Height |  Amount  |
+    |  Name of Mountain.  | Place of Observation.|  above | of Slope |
+    |                     |                      |   sea. | exposed. |
+    +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+
+    | Everest             | Dewanganj            | 29,002 |    8,000 |
+    |    "                | Sandakphu            |    "   |   12,000 |
+    | K2 or Godwin-Austen | Between Gilgit and   |        |          |
+    |                     |   Gor, 16,000 ft.    | 28,250 |          |
+    | Pk. XIII. or Makalu | Purnea, 200 ft       | 27,800 |    8,000 |
+    |                     | Sandakphu, 12,000 ft.|    "   |    9,000 |
+    | Nanga Parbat        | Gor, 16,000 ft.      | 26,656 |   23,000 |
+    | Tirach Mir          | Between Gilgit and   |        |          |
+    |                     |   Chitral, 8000 ft.  | 25,400 |17-18,000 |
+    | Rakapushi           | Chaprot (Gilgit),    |        |          |
+    |                     |   13,000 ft.         | 25,560 |   18,000 |
+    | Kinchinjunga        | Darjeeling, 7000 ft. | 28,146 |   16,000 |
+    | Mont Blanc          | Above Chamonix, 7000 |        |          |
+    |                     |   ft.                | 15,781 |   11,500 |
+    +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+
+
+  It will be observed from this table that it is not often that a
+  greater slope of snow-covered mountain side is observable in the
+  Himalaya than that which is afforded by the familiar view of Mont
+  Blanc from Chamonix.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Drew, _Jammu and Kashmir_ (London, 1875); G. W. Leitner,
+  _Dardistan_ (1887); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta,
+  1880); H. H. Godwin-Austen, "Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vols.
+  v. and vi. _Proc. R. G. S._ (1883-1884); C. Ujfalvy, _Aus dem
+  westlichen Himalaya_ (Leipzig, 1884); H. C. B. Tanner, "Our Present
+  Knowledge of the Himalaya," vol. xiii. _Proc. R. G. S._ (1891); R. D.
+  Oldham, "The Evolution of Indian Geography," vol. iii. _Jour. R. G.
+  S._; W. Lawrence, _Kashmir_ (Oxford, 1895); Sir W. M. Conway,
+  _Climbing and Exploring in the Karakoram_ (London, 1898); F. Bullock
+  Workman, _In the Ice World of Himalaya_ (1900); F. B. and W. H.
+  Workman, _Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh_ (1908); D. W. Freshfield,
+  _Round Kangchenjunga_ (1903).
+
+  For geology see R. Lydekker, "The Geology of Káshmir," &c., _Mem.
+  Geol. Surv. India_, vol. xxii. (1883); C. S. Middlemiss, "Physical
+  Geology of the Sub-Himálaya of Gahrwal and Kumaon," ibid., vol. xxiv.
+  pt. 2 (1890); C. L. Griesbach, _Geology of the Central Himálayas_,
+  vol. xxiii. (1891); R. D. Oldham, _Manual of the Geology of India_,
+  chap. xviii. (2nd ed., 1893). Descriptions of the fossils, with some
+  notes on stratigraphical questions, will be found in several of the
+  volumes of the _Palaeontologia Indica_, published by the Geological
+  Survey of India, Calcutta.
+
+
+
+
+HIMERA, a city on the north coast of Sicily, on a hill above the east
+bank of the Himeras Septentrionalis. It was founded in 648 B.C. by the
+Chalcidian inhabitants of Zancle, in company with many Syracusan exiles.
+Early in the 5th century the tyrant Terillas, son-in-law of Anaxilas of
+Rhegium and Zancle, appealed to the Carthaginians, who came to his
+assistance, but were utterly defeated by Gelon of Syracuse in 480
+B.C.--on the same day, it is said, as the battle of Salamis.
+Thrasydaeus, son of Theron of Agrigentum, seems to have ruled the city
+oppressively, but an appeal made to Hiero of Syracuse, Gelon's brother,
+was betrayed by him to Theron; the latter massacred all his enemies and
+in the following year resettled the town. In 415 it refused to admit the
+Athenian fleet and remained an ally of Syracuse. In 408 the Carthaginian
+invading army under Hannibal, after capturing Selinus, invested and took
+Himera and razed the city to the ground, founding a new town close to
+the hot springs (Thermae Himeraeae), 8 m. to the west. The only relic of
+the ancient town now visible above ground is a small portion (four
+columns, lower diameter 7 ft.) of a Doric temple, the date of which
+(whether before or after 480 B.C.) is uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+HIMERIUS (c. A.D. 315-386), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at
+Prusa in Bithynia. He completed his education at Athens, whence he was
+summoned to Antioch in 362 by the emperor Julian to act as his private
+secretary. After the death of Julian in the following year Himerius
+returned to Athens, where he established a school of rhetoric, which he
+compared with that of Isocrates and the Delphic oracle, owing to the
+number of those who flocked from all parts of the world to hear him.
+Amongst his pupils were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great, bishop
+of Caesarea. In recognition of his merits, civic rights and the
+membership of the Areopagus were conferred upon him. The death of his
+son Rufinus (his lament for whom, called [Greek: monôdia], is extant)
+and that of a favourite daughter greatly affected his health; in his
+later years he became blind and he died of epilepsy. Although a heathen,
+who had been initiated into the mysteries of Mithra by Julian, he shows
+no prejudice against the Christians. Himerius is a typical
+representative of the later rhetorical schools. Photius (cod. 165, 243
+Bekker) had read 71 speeches by him, of 36 of which he has given an
+epitome; 24 have come down to us complete and fragments of 10 or 12
+others. They consist of epideictic or "display" speeches after the style
+of Aristides, the majority of them having been delivered on special
+occasions, such as the arrival of a new governor, visits to different
+cities (Thessalonica, Constantinople), or the death of friends or
+well-known personages. The _Polemarchicus_, like the _Menexenus_ of
+Plato and the _Epitaphios Logos_ of Hypereides, is a panegyric of
+those who had given their lives for their country; it is so called
+because it was originally the duty of the polemarch to arrange the
+funeral games in honour of those who had fallen in battle. Other
+declamations, only known from the excerpts in Photius, were imaginary
+orations put into the mouth of famous persons--Demosthenes advocating
+the recall of Aeschines from banishment, Hypereides supporting the
+policy of Demosthenes, Themistocles inveighing against the king of
+Persia, an orator unnamed attacking Epicurus for atheism before Julian
+at Constantinople. Himerius is more of a poet than a rhetorician, and
+his declamations are valuable as giving prose versions or even the
+actual words of lost poems by Greek lyric writers. The prose poem on the
+marriage of Severus and his greeting to Basil at the beginning of spring
+are quite in the spirit of the old lyric. Himerius possesses vigour of
+language and descriptive powers, though his productions are spoilt by
+too frequent use of imagery, allegorical and metaphorical obscurities,
+mannerism and ostentatious learning. But they are valuable for the
+history and social conditions of the time, although lacking the
+sincerity characteristic of Libanius.
+
+  See Eunapius, _Vitae sophistarum_; Suidas, _s.v._; editions by G.
+  Wernsdorf (1790), with valuable introduction and commentaries, and by
+  F. Dübner (1849) in the Didot series; C. Teuber, _Quaestiones
+  Himerianae_ (Breslau, 1882); on the style, E. Norden, _Die antike
+  Kunstprosa_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE (1823-1906), French historian and geographer, was
+born at Strassburg on the 28th of March 1823. After studying in his
+native town and taking the university course in Berlin (1842-1843) he
+went to Paris, and passed first in the examination for fellowship
+(_agrégation_) of the _lycées_ (1845), first in the examinations on
+leaving the École des Chartes, and first in the examination for
+fellowship of the faculties (1849). In 1849 he took the degree of doctor
+of letters with two theses, one of which, _Wala et Louis le Débonnaire_
+(published in Paris in 1849), placed him in the front rank of French
+scholars in the province of Carolingian history. Soon, however, he
+turned his attention to the study of geography. In 1858 he obtained an
+appointment as teacher of geography at the Sorbonne, and henceforth
+devoted himself to that subject. It was not till 1876 that he published,
+in two volumes, his remarkable _Histoire de la formation territoriale
+des états de l'Europe centrale_, in which he showed with a firm, but
+sometimes slightly heavy touch, the reciprocal influence exerted by
+geography and history. While the work gives evidence throughout of wide
+and well-directed research, he preferred to write it in the form of a
+student's manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained him
+admission to the Institute in 1881. In that year he was appointed dean
+of the faculty of letters, and for ten years he directed the
+intellectual life of that great educational centre during its
+development into a great scientific body. He died at Sèvres on the 6th
+of October 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY (1765-1814), German composer, was born on the
+20th of November 1765 at Treuenbrietzen in Brandenburg, Prussia, and
+originally studied theology at Halle. During a temporary stay at Potsdam
+he had an opportunity of showing his self-acquired skill as a pianist
+before King Frederick William II., who thereupon made him a yearly
+allowance to enable him to complete his musical studies. This he did
+under Naumann, a German composer of the Italian school, and the style of
+that school Himmel himself adopted in his serious operas. The first of
+these, a pastoral opera, _Il Primo Navigatore_, was produced at Venice
+in 1794 with great success. In 1792 he went to Berlin, where his
+oratorio _Isaaco_ was produced, in consequence of which he was made
+court Kapellmeister to the king of Prussia, and in that capacity wrote a
+great deal of official music, including cantatas, and a coronation Te
+Deum. His Italian operas, successively composed for Stockholm, St
+Petersburg and Berlin, were all received with great favour in their day.
+Of much greater importance than these is an operetta to German words by
+Kotzebue, called _Fanchon_, an admirable specimen of the primitive form
+of the musical drama known in Germany as the _Singspiel_. Himmel's gift
+of writing genuine simple melody is also observable in his songs,
+amongst which one called "To Alexis" is the best. He died in Berlin on
+the 8th of June 1814.
+
+
+
+
+HINCKLEY, a market town in the Bosworth parliamentary division of
+Leicestershire, England, 14½ m. S.W. from Leicester on the
+Nuneaton-Leicester branch of the London & North-Western railway, and
+near the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,304.
+The town is well situated on a considerable eminence. Among the
+principal buildings are the church of St Mary, a Decorated and
+Perpendicular structure, with lofty tower and spire; the Roman Catholic
+academy named St Peter's Priory, and a grammar school. The ditch of a
+castle erected by Hugh de Grentismenil in the time of William Rufus is
+still to be traced. Hinckley is the centre of a stocking-weaving
+district, and its speciality is circular hose. It also possesses a
+boot-making industry, brick and tile works, and lime works. There are
+mineral springs in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+HINCKS, EDWARD (1792-1866), British assyriologist, was born at Cork,
+Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders in the
+Protestant Church of Ireland, and was rector of Killyleagh, Down, from
+1825 till his death on the 3rd of December 1866. Hincks devoted his
+spare time to the study of hieroglyphics, and to the deciphering of the
+cuneiform script (see CUNEIFORM), in which he was a pioneer, working out
+contemporaneously with Sir H. Rawlinson, and independently of him, the
+ancient Persian vowel system. He published a number of original and
+scholarly papers on assyriological questions of the highest value,
+chiefly in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Irish Academy.
+
+
+
+
+HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS (1807-1885), Canadian statesman, was born at Cork,
+Ireland, the son of an Irish Presbyterian minister. In 1832 he engaged
+in business in Toronto, became a friend of Robert Baldwin, and in 1835
+was chosen to examine the accounts of the Welland Canal, the management
+of which was being attacked by W. L. Mackenzie. This turned his
+attention to political life and in 1838 he founded the _Examiner_, a
+weekly paper in the Liberal interest. In 1841 he was elected M.P. for
+the county of Oxford, and in the following year was appointed
+inspector-general, the title then borne by the finance minister, but in
+1843 resigned with Baldwin and the other ministers on the question of
+responsible government. In 1848 he again became inspector-general in the
+Baldwin-Lafontaine ministry, and on their retirement in 1851 became
+premier of Canada, his chief colleague being A. N. Morin (1803-1865).
+While premier he was prominent in the negotiations which led to the
+construction of the Grand Trunk railway, and in co-operation with Lord
+Elgin negotiated with the United States the reciprocity treaty of 1854.
+In the same year the bitter hostility of the "Clear Grits" under George
+Brown compelled his resignation, and he was prominent in the formation
+of the Liberal-Conservative Party. In 1855 he was chosen governor of
+Barbados and the Windward Islands, and subsequently governor of British
+Guiana. In 1869 he was created K.C.M.G. and returned to Canada, becoming
+till 1873 finance minister in the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. In
+February of that year he resigned, but continued to take an active part
+in public life. In 1879 the failure of the Consolidated Bank of Canada,
+of which he was president, led to his being tried for issuing false
+statements. Though found guilty on a technicality (see _Journal_ of the
+Canadian Bankers' Association, April 1906) judgment was suspended, his
+personal credit remained unimpaired, and he continued to take part in
+the discussion of public questions till his death on the 18th of August
+1885.
+
+  His writings include: _The Political History of Canada between 1840
+  and 1855_ (1877); _The Political Destiny of Canada_ (1878), and his
+  _Reminiscences_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HINCMAR (c. 805-882), archbishop of Reims, one of the most remarkable
+figures in the ecclesiastical history of France, belonged to a noble
+family of the north or north-east of Gaul. Destined, doubtless, to the
+monastic life, he was brought up at St Denis under the direction of the
+abbot Hilduin (d. 844), who brought him in 822 to the court of the
+emperor Louis the Pious. When Hilduin was disgraced in 830 for having
+joined the party of Lothair, Hincmar accompanied him into exile at
+Corvey in Saxony, but returned with him to St Denis when the abbot was
+reconciled with the emperor, and remained faithful to the emperor during
+his struggle with his sons. After the death of Louis the Pious (840)
+Hincmar supported Charles the Bald, and received from him the abbacies
+of Notre-Dame at Compiègne and St Germer de Fly. In 845 he obtained
+through the king's support the archbishopric of Reims, and this choice
+was confirmed at the synod of Beauvais (April 845). Archbishop Ebbo,
+whom he replaced, had been deposed in 835 at the synod of Thionville
+(Diedenhofen) for having broken his oath of fidelity to the emperor
+Louis, whom he had deserted to join the party of Lothair. After the
+death of Louis, Ebbo succeeded in regaining possession of his see for
+some years (840-844), but in 844 Pope Sergius II. confirmed his
+deposition. It was in these circumstances that Hincmar succeeded, and in
+847 Pope Leo IV. sent him the pallium.
+
+One of the first cares of the new prelate was the restitution to his
+metropolitan see of the domains that had been alienated under Ebbo and
+given as benefices to laymen. From the beginning of his episcopate
+Hincmar was in constant conflict with the clerks who had been ordained
+by Ebbo during his reappearance. These clerks, whose ordination was
+regarded as invalid by Hincmar and his adherents, were condemned in 853
+at the council of Soissons, and the decisions of that council were
+confirmed in 855 by Pope Benedict III. This conflict, however, bred an
+antagonism of which Hincmar was later to feel the effects. During the
+next thirty years the archbishop of Reims played a very prominent part
+in church and state. His authoritative and energetic will inspired, and
+in great measure directed, the policy of the west Frankish kingdom until
+his death. He took an active part in all the great political and
+religious affairs of his time, and was especially energetic in defending
+and extending the rights of the church and of the metropolitans in
+general, and of the metropolitan of the church of Reims in particular.
+In the resulting conflicts, in which his personal interest was in
+question, he displayed great activity and a wide knowledge of canon law,
+but did not scruple to resort to disingenuous interpretation of texts.
+His first encounter was with the heresiarch Gottschalk, whose
+predestinarian doctrines claimed to be modelled on those of St
+Augustine. Hincmar placed himself at the head of the party that
+regarded Gottschalk's doctrines as heretical, and succeeded in procuring
+the arrest and imprisonment of his adversary (849). For a part at least
+of his doctrines Gottschalk found ardent defenders, such as Lupus of
+Ferrières, the deacon Florus and Amolo of Lyons. Through the energy and
+activity of Hincmar the theories of Gottschalk were condemned at Quierzy
+(853) and Valence (855), and the decisions of these two synods were
+confirmed at the synods of Langres and Savonnières, near Toul (859). To
+refute the predestinarian heresy Hincmar composed his _De
+praedestinatione Dei et libero arbitrio_, and against certain
+propositions advanced by Gottschalk on the Trinity he wrote a treatise
+called _De una et non trina deitate_. Gottschalk died in prison in 868.
+The question of the divorce of Lothair II., king of Lorraine, who had
+repudiated his wife Theutberga to marry his concubine Waldrada, engaged
+Hincmar's literary activities in another direction. At the request of a
+number of great personages in Lorraine he composed in 860 his _De
+divortio Lotharii et Teutbergae_, in which he vigorously attacked, both
+from the moral and the legal standpoints, the condemnation pronounced
+against the queen by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (February 860).
+Hincmar energetically supported the policy of Charles the Bald in
+Lorraine, less perhaps from devotion to the king's interests than from a
+desire to see the whole of the ecclesiastical province of Reims united
+under the authority of a single sovereign, and in 869 it was he who
+consecrated Charles at Metz as king of Lorraine.
+
+In the middle of the 9th century there appeared in Gaul the collection
+of false decretals commonly known as the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. The
+exact date and the circumstances of the composition of the collection
+are still an open question, but it is certain that Hincmar was one of
+the first to know of their existence, and apparently he was not aware
+that the documents were forged. The importance assigned by these
+decretals to the bishops and the provincial councils, as well as to the
+direct intervention of the Holy See, tended to curtail the rights of the
+metropolitans, of which Hincmar was so jealous. Rothad, bishop of
+Soissons, one of the most active members of the party in favour of the
+pseudo-Isidorian theories, immediately came into collision with his
+archbishop. Deposed in 863 at the council of Soissons, presided over by
+Hincmar, Rothad appealed to Rome. Pope Nicholas I. supported him
+zealously, and in 865, in spite of the protests of the archbishop of
+Reims, Arsenius, bishop of Orta and legate of the Holy See, was
+instructed to restore Rothad to his episcopal see. Hincmar experienced
+another check when he endeavoured to prevent Wulfad, one of the clerks
+deposed by Ebbo, from obtaining the archbishopric of Bourges with the
+support of Charles the Bald. After a synod held at Soissons, Nicholas I.
+pronounced himself in favour of the deposed clerks, and Hincmar was
+constrained to make submission (866). He was more successful in his
+contest with his nephew Hincmar, bishop of Laon, who was at first
+supported both by the king and by his uncle, the archbishop of Reims,
+but soon quarrelled with both. Hincmar of Laon refused to recognize the
+authority of his metropolitan, and entered into an open struggle with
+his uncle, who exposed his errors in a treatise called _Opusculum LV.
+capitulorum_, and procured his condemnation and deposition at the synod
+of Douzy (871). The bishop of Laon was sent into exile, probably to
+Aquitaine, where his eyes were put out by order of Count Boso. Pope
+Adrian protested against his deposition, but it was confirmed in 876 by
+Pope John VIII., and it was not until 878, at the council of Troyes,
+that the unfortunate prelate was reconciled with the Church. A serious
+conflict arose between Hincmar on the one side and Charles and the pope
+on the other in 876, when Pope John VIII., at the king's request,
+entrusted Ansegisus, archbishop of Sens, with the primacy of the Gauls
+and of Germany, and created him vicar apostolic. In Hincmar's eyes this
+was an encroachment on the jurisdiction of the archbishops, and it was
+against this primacy that he directed his treatise _De jure
+metropolitanorum_. At the same time he wrote a life of St Remigius, in
+which he endeavoured by audacious falsifications to prove the supremacy
+of the church of Reims over the other churches. Charles the Bald,
+however, upheld the rights of Ansegisus at the synod of Ponthion.
+Although Hincmar had been very hostile to Charles's expedition into
+Italy, he figured among his testamentary executors and helped to secure
+the submission of the nobles to Louis the Stammerer, whom he crowned at
+Compiègne (8th of December 877).
+
+During the reign of Louis, Hincmar played an obscure part. He supported
+the accession of Louis III. and Carloman, but had a dispute with Louis,
+who wished to instal a candidate in the episcopal see of Beauvais
+without the archbishop's assent. To Carloman, on his accession in 882,
+Hincmar addressed his _De ordine palatii_, partly based on a treatise
+(now lost) by Adalard, abbot of Corbie (c. 814), in which he set forth
+his system of government and his opinion of the duties of a sovereign, a
+subject he had already touched in his _De regis persona et regio
+ministerio_, dedicated to Charles the Bald at an unknown date, and in
+his _Instructio ad Ludovicum regem_, addressed to Louis the Stammerer on
+his accession in 877. In the autumn of 832 an irruption of the Normans
+forced the old archbishop to take refuge at Epernay, where he died on
+the 21st of December 882. Hincmar was a prolific writer. Besides the
+works already mentioned, he was the author of several theological
+tracts; of the _De villa Noviliaco_, concerning the claiming of a domain
+of his church; and he continued from 861 the _Annales Bertiniani_, of
+which the first part was written by Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, the
+best source for the history of Charles the Bald. He also wrote a great
+number of letters, some of which are extant, and others embodied in the
+chronicles of Flodoard.
+
+  Hincmar's works, which are the principal source for the history of his
+  life, were collected by Jacques Sirmond (Paris, 1645), and reprinted
+  by Migne, _Patrol. Latina_, vol. cxxv. and cxxvi. See also C. von
+  Noorden, _Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims_ (Bonn, 1863), and,
+  especially, H. Schrörs, _Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims_
+  (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1884). For Hincmar's political and
+  ecclesiastical theories see preface to Maurice Prou's edition of the
+  _De ordine palatii_ (Paris, 1885), and the abbé Lesné, _La Hiérarchie
+  épiscopale en Gaule et en Germanie_ (Paris, 1905).     (R. Po.)
+
+
+
+
+HIND, the female of the red-deer, usually taken as being three years old
+and over, the male being known as a "hart." It is sometimes also applied
+to the female of other species of deer. The word appears in several
+Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch and Ger. _Hinde_, and has been connected
+with the Goth. _hinÞan_ (_hinthan_), to seize, which may be connected
+ultimately with "hand" and "hunt." "Hart," from the O.E. _heort_, may be
+in origin connected with the root of Gr. [Greek: keras], horn. "Hind"
+(O.E. _hine_, probably from the O.E. _hinan_, members of a family or
+household), meaning a servant, especially a labourer on a farm, is
+another word. In Scotland the "hind" is a farm servant, with a cottage
+on the farm, and duties and responsibilities that make him superior to
+the rest of the labourers. Similarly "hind" is used in certain parts of
+northern England as equivalent to "bailiff."
+
+
+
+
+HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON (1804-1872), Prussian general, was born at
+Wernigerode near Halberstadt on the 18th of July 1804. He was the son of
+a priest and received a good education. His earlier life was spent in
+great poverty, and the struggle for existence developed in him an iron
+strength of character. Entering the Prussian artillery in 1820 he became
+an officer in 1825. From 1830 to 1837 he attended the Allgemeine
+Kriegsakademie at Berlin, and in 1841, while still a subaltern, he was
+posted to the great General Staff, in which he afterwards directed the
+topographical section. In 1849 he served with the rank of major on the
+staff of General Peucker, who commanded a federal corps in the
+suppression of the Baden insurrection. He fell into the hands of the
+insurgents at the action of Ladenburg, but was released just before the
+fall of Rastadt. In the Danish war of 1864 Hindersin, now
+lieutenant-general, directed the artillery operations against the lines
+of Düppel, and for his services was ennobled by the king of Prussia.
+Soon afterwards he became inspector-general of artillery. His experience
+at Düppel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore gun were
+past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting zeal to the rearmament
+and reorganization of the Prussian artillery. The available funds were
+small, and grudgingly voted by the parliament. There was a strong
+feeling moreover that the smooth-bore was still tactically superior to
+its rival (see ARTILLERY, § 19). There was no practical training for war
+in either the field or the fortress artillery units. The latter had made
+scarcely any progress since the days of Frederick the Great, and before
+von Hindersin's appointment had practised with the same guns in the same
+bastion year after year. All this was altered, the whole
+"foot-artillery" was reorganized, manoeuvres were instituted, and the
+smooth-bores were, except for ditch defence, eliminated from the
+armament of the Prussian fortresses. But far more important was his work
+in connexion with the field and horse batteries. In 1864 only one
+battery in four had rifled guns, but by the unrelenting energy of von
+Hindersin the outbreak of war with Austria one and a half years later
+found the Prussians with ten in every sixteen batteries armed with the
+new weapon. But the battles of 1866 showed, besides the superiority of
+the rifled gun, a very marked absence of tactical efficiency in the
+Prussian artillery, which was almost always outmatched by that of the
+enemy. Von Hindersin had pleaded, in season and out of season, for the
+establishment of a school of gunnery; and in spite of want of funds,
+such a school had already been established. After 1866, however, more
+support was obtained, and the improvement in the Prussian field
+artillery between 1866 and 1870 was extraordinary, even though there had
+not been time for the work of the school to leaven the whole arm.
+Indeed, the German artillery played by far the most important part in
+the victories of the Franco-German war. Von Hindersin accompanied the
+king's headquarters as chief of artillery, as he had done in 1866, and
+was present at Gravelotte, Sedan and the siege of Paris. But his work,
+which was now accomplished, had worn out his physical powers, and he
+died on the 23rd of January 1872 at Berlin.
+
+  See Bartholomäus, _Der General der Infanterie von Hindersin_ (Berlin,
+  1895), and Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, _Letters on
+  Artillery_ (translated by Major Walford, R.A.), No. xi.
+
+
+
+
+HINDI, EASTERN, one of the "intermediate" Indo-Aryan languages (see
+HINDOSTANI). It is spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand and Chhattisgarh by over
+22,000,000 people. It is derived from the Apabhramsa form of
+Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (see PRAKRIT), and possesses a large and important
+literature. Its most famous writer was Tulsi Das, the poet and reformer,
+who died early in the 17th century, and since his time it has been the
+North-Indian language employed for epic poetry.
+
+
+
+
+HINDI, WESTERN, the Indo-Aryan language of the middle and upper Gangetic
+Doab, and of the country to the north and south. It is the vernacular of
+over 40,000,000 people. Its standard dialect is Braj Bhasha, spoken near
+Muttra, which has a considerable literature mainly devoted to the
+religion founded on devotion to Krishna. Another dialect spoken near
+Delhi and in the upper Gangetic Doab is the original from which
+Hindostani, the great _lingua franca_ of India, has developed (see
+HINDOSTANI). Western Hindi, like Punjabi, its neighbour to the west, is
+descended from the Apabhramsa form of Sauraseni Prakrit (see PRAKRIT),
+and represents the language of the Madhyadesa or Midland, as distinct
+from the intermediate and outer Indo-Aryan languages.
+
+
+
+
+HINDKI, the name given to the Hindus who inhabit Afghanistan. They are
+of the Khatri class, and are found all over the country even amongst the
+wildest tribes. Bellew in his _Races of Afghanistan_ estimates their
+number at about 300,000. The name Hindki is also loosely used on the
+upper Indus, in Dir, Bajour, &c., to denote the speakers of Punjabi or
+any of its dialects. It is sometimes applied in a historical sense to
+the Buddhist inhabitants of the Peshawar Valley north of the Kabul
+river, who were driven thence about the 5th or 6th century and settled
+in the neighbourhood of Kandahar.
+
+
+
+
+HINDLEY, an urban district in the Ince parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 2 m. E.S.E. of Wigan, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire
+and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901) 23,504. Cotton spinning and the
+manufacture of cotton goods are the principal industries, and there are
+extensive coal-mines in the neighbourhood. It is recorded that in the
+time of the Puritan revolution Hindley church was entered by the
+Cavaliers, who played at cards in the pews, pulled down the pulpit and
+tore the Bible in pieces.
+
+
+
+
+HINDOSTANI (properly _Hindostani_, of or belonging to Hindostan[1]), the
+name given by Europeans to an Indo-Aryan dialect (whose home is in the
+upper Gangetic Doab and near the city of Delhi), which, owing to
+political causes, has become the great _lingua franca_ of modern India.
+The name is not employed by natives of India, except as an imitation of
+the English nomenclature. Hindostani is by origin a dialect of Western
+Hindi, and it is first of all necessary to explain what we mean by the
+term "Hindi" as applied to language. Modern Indo-Aryan languages fall
+into three groups,--an outer band, the language of the Midland and an
+intermediate band. The Midland consists of the Gangetic Doab and of the
+country to its immediate north and south, extending, roughly speaking,
+from the Eastern Punjab on the west, to Cawnpore on its east. The
+language of this tract is called "Western Hindi"; to its west we have
+Panjabi (of the Central Punjab), and to the east, reaching as far as
+Benares, Eastern Hindi, both Intermediate languages. These three will
+all be dealt with in the present article. Panjabi and Western Hindi are
+derived from Sauraseni, and Eastern Hindi from Ardham gadha Prakrit,
+through the corresponding Apabhramsas (see PRAKRIT). Eastern Hindi
+differs in many respects from the two others, but it is customary to
+consider it together with the language of the Midland, and this will be
+followed on the present occasion. In 1901 the speakers of these three
+languages numbered: Panjabi, 17,070,961; Western Hindi, 40,714,925;
+Eastern Hindi, 22,136,358.
+
+_Linguistic Boundaries._--Taking the tract covered by these three forms
+of speech, it has to its west, in the western Punjab, Lannda (see
+SINDHI), a language of the Outer band. The parent of Lahnda once no
+doubt covered the whole of the Punjab, but, in the process of expansion
+of the tribes of the Midland described in the article INDO-ARYAN
+LANGUAGES, it was gradually driven back, leaving traces of its former
+existence which grow stronger as we proceed westwards, until at about
+the 74th degree of east longitude there is a mixed, transition dialect.
+To the west of that degree Lahnda may be said to be established, the
+deserts of the west-central Punjab forming a barrier and protecting it,
+just as, farther south, a continuation of the same desert has protected
+Sindhi from Rajasthani. It is the old traces of Lahnda which mainly
+differentiate Panjabi from Hindostani. To the south of Panjabi and
+Western Hindi lies Rajasthani. This language arose in much the same way
+as Panjabi. The expanding Midland language was stopped by the desert
+from reaching Sindhi, but to the south-west it found an unobstructed way
+into Gujarat, where, under the form of Gujarati, it broke the
+continuity of the Outer band. Eastern Hindi, as an Intermediate form of
+speech, is of much older lineage. It has been an Intermediate language
+since, at least, the institution of Jainism (say, 500 B.C.), and is much
+less subject to the influence of the Midland than is Panjabi. To its
+east it has Bihari, and, stretching far to the south, it has Marathi as
+its neighbour in that direction, both of these being Outer languages.
+
+_Dialects._--The only important dialect of Eastern Hindi is Awadhi,
+spoken in Oudh, and possessing a large literature of great excellence.
+Chhattisgarhi and Bagheli, the other dialects, have scanty literatures
+of small value. Western Hindi has four main dialects, Bundeli of
+Bundelkhand, Braj Bhasha (properly "Braj Bhasa") of the country round
+Mathura (Muttra), Kanauji of the central Doab and the country to its
+north, and vernacular Hindostani of Delhi and the Upper Doab. West of
+the Upper Doab, across the Jumna, another dialect, Bangaru, is also
+found. It possesses no literature. Kanauji is very closely allied to
+Braj Bhasha, and these two share with Awadhi the honour of being the
+great literary speeches of northern India. Nearly all the classical
+literature of India is religious in character, and we may say that, as a
+broad rule, Awadhi literature is devoted to the Ramaite religion and the
+epic poetry connected with it, while that of Braj Bhasha is concerned
+with the religion of Krishna. Vernacular Hindostani has no literature of
+its own, but as the _lingua franca_ now to be described it has a large
+one. Panjabi has one dialect, Dogri, spoken in the Himalayas.
+
+_Hindostani as a Lingua Franca._--It has often been said that Hindostani
+is a mongrel "pigeon" form of speech made up of contributions from the
+various languages which met in Delhi bazaar, but this theory has now
+been proved to be unfounded, owing to the discovery of the fact that it
+is an actual living dialect of Western Hindi, existing for centuries in
+its present habitat, and the direct descendant of Sauraseni Prakrit. It
+is not a typical dialect of that language, for, situated where it is, it
+represents Western Hindi merging into Panjabi (Braj Bhasha being
+admittedly the standard of the language), but to say that it is a
+mongrel tongue thrown together in the market is to reverse the order of
+events. It was the natural language of the people in the neighbourhood
+of Delhi, who formed the bulk of those who resorted to the bazaar, and
+hence it became the bazaar language. From here it became the _lingua
+franca_ of the Mogul camp and was carried everywhere in India by the
+lieutenants of the empire. It has several recognized varieties, amongst
+which we may mention Dakhini, Urdu, Rekhta and Hindi. Dakhini or
+"southern," is the form current in the south of India, and was the first
+to be employed for literature. It contains many archaic expressions now
+extinct in the standard dialect. Urdu, or _Urdu zaban_, "the language of
+the camp," is the name usually employed for Hindostani by natives, and
+is now the standard form of speech used by Mussulmans. All the early
+Hindostani literature was in poetry, and this literary form of speech
+was named "Rekhta," or "scattered," from the way in which words borrowed
+from Persian were "scattered" through it. The name is now reserved for
+the dialect used in poetry, Urdu being the dialect of prose and of
+conversation. The introduction of these borrowed words, which has been
+carried to even a greater extent in Urdu, was facilitated by the facts
+that the latter was by origin a "camp" language, and that Persian was
+the official language of the Mogul court. In this way Persian (and, with
+Persian, Arabic) words came into current use, and, though the language
+remained Indo-Aryan in its grammar and essential characteristics, it
+soon became unintelligible to any one who had not at least a moderate
+acquaintance with the vocabulary of Iran. This extreme Persianization of
+Urdu was due rather to Hindu than to Persian influence. Although Urdu
+literature was Mussulman in its origin, the Persian element was first
+introduced in excess by the pliant Hindu officials employed in the Mogul
+administration, and acquainted with Persian, rather than by Persians and
+Persianized Moguls, who for many centuries used only their own languages
+for literary purposes.[2] Prose Urdu literature took its origin in the
+English occupation of India and the need for text-books for the college
+of Fort William. It has had a prosperous career since the commencement
+of the 19th century, but some writers, especially those of Lucknow, have
+so overloaded it with Persian and Arabic that little of the original
+Indo-Aryan character remains, except, perhaps, an occasional pronoun or
+auxiliary verb. The Hindi form of Hindostani was invented simultaneously
+with Urdu prose by the teachers at Fort William. It was intended to be a
+Hindostani for the use of Hindus, and was derived from Urdu by ejecting
+all words of Persian or Arabic birth, and substituting for them words
+either borrowed from Sanskrit (_tatsamas_) or derived from the old
+primary Prakrit (_tadbhavas_) (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Owing to the
+popularity of the first book written in it, and to its supplying the
+need for a _lingua franca_ which could be used by the most patriotic
+Hindus without offending their religious prejudices, it became widely
+adopted, and is now the recognized vehicle for writing prose by those
+inhabitants of northern India who do not employ Urdu. This Hindi, which
+is an altogether artificial product of the English, is hardly ever used
+for poetry. For this the indigenous dialects (usually Awadhi or Braj
+Bhasha) are nearly always employed by Hindus. Urdu, on the other hand,
+having had a natural growth, has a vigorous poetical literature. Modern
+Hindi prose is often disfigured by that too free borrowing of Sanskrit
+words instead of using home-born _tadbhavas_, which has been the ruin of
+Bengali, and it is rapidly becoming a Hindu counterpart of the
+Persianized Urdu, neither of which is intelligible except to persons of
+high education.
+
+Not only has Urdu adopted a Persian vocabulary, but even a few
+peculiarities of Persian construction, such as reversing the positions
+of the governing and the governed word (e.g. _báp mera_ for _mera bap_),
+or of the adjective and the substantive it qualifies, or such as the use
+of Persian phrases with the preposition _ba_ instead of the native
+postposition of the ablative case (e.g. _ba-khushí_ for _khushi-se_, or
+_ba-hukm sarkar-ke_ instead of _sarkar-ke hukm-se_) are to be met with
+in many writings; and these, perhaps, combined with the too free
+indulgence on the part of some authors in the use of high-flown and
+pedantic Persian and Arabic words in place of common and yet chaste
+Indian words, and the general use of the Persian instead of the Nagari
+character, have induced some to regard Hindostani or Urdu as a language
+distinct from Hindi. But such a view betrays a radical misunderstanding
+of the whole question. We must define Urdu as the Persianized Hindostani
+of educated Mussulmans, while Hindi is the Sanskritized Hindostani of
+educated Hindus. As for the written character, Urdu, from the number of
+Persian words which it contains, can only be written conveniently in the
+Persian character, while Hindi, for a parallel reason, can only be
+written in the Nagari or one of its related alphabets (see SANSKRIT). On
+the other hand, "Hindostani" implies the great _lingua franca_ of India,
+capable of being written in either character, and, without purism,
+avoiding the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when
+employed for literature. It is easy to write this Hindostani, for it has
+an opulent vocabulary of _tadbhava_ words understood everywhere by both
+Mussulmans and Hindus. While "Hindostani," "Urdu" and "Hindi" are thus
+names of dialects, it should be remembered that the terms "Western
+Hindi" and "Eastern Hindi" connote, not dialects, but languages.
+
+The epoch of Akbar, which first saw a regular revenue system
+established, with toleration and the free use of their religion to the
+Hindus, was, there can be little doubt, the period of the formation of
+the language. But its final consolidation did not take place till the
+reign of Shah Jahan. After the date of this monarch the changes are
+comparatively immaterial until we come to the time when European sources
+began to mingle with those of the East. Of the contributions from these
+sources there is little to say. Like the greater part of those from
+Arabic and Persian, they are chiefly nouns, and may be regarded rather
+as excrescences which have sprung up casually and have attached
+themselves to the original trunk than as ingredients duly incorporated
+in the body. In the case of the Persian and Arabic element, indeed, we
+do find not a few instances in which nouns have been furnished with a
+Hindi termination, e.g. _kharidna_, _badalna_, _guzarna_, _daghna_,
+_bakhshnaa_, _kaminapan_, &c.; but the European element cannot be said
+to have at all woven itself into the grammar of the language. It
+consists, as has been observed, solely of nouns, principally substantive
+nouns, which on their admission into the language are spelt
+phonetically, or according to the corrupt pronunciation they receive in
+the mouths of the natives, and are declined like the indigenous nouns by
+means of the usual postpositions or case-affixes. A few examples will
+suffice. The Portuguese, the first in order of seniority, contributes a
+few words, as _kamara_ or _kamra_ (_camera_), a room; _martol_
+(_martello_), a hammer; _nilam_ (_leilão_), an auction, &c. &c. Of
+French and Dutch influence scarcely a trace exists. English has
+contributed a number of words, some of which have even found a place in
+the literature of the language; e.g. _kamishanar_ (commissioner); _jaj_
+(judge); _daktar_ (doctor); _daktari_, "the science of medicine" or "the
+profession of physicians"; _inspektar_ (inspector); _istant_
+(assistant); _sosayatí_ (society); _apil_ (appeal); _apil karna_, "to
+appeal"; _dikri_ or _digri_ (decree); _digri_ (degree); _inc_ (inch);
+_fut_ (foot); and many more, are now words commonly used. Some borrowed
+words are distorted into the shape of genuine Hindostani words familiar
+to the speakers; e.g. the English railway term "signal" has become
+_sikandar_, the native name for Alexander the Great, and "signal-man" is
+_sikandar-man_, or "the pride of Alexander." How far the free use of
+Anglicisms will be adopted as the language progresses is a question upon
+which it would be hazardous to pronounce an opinion, but of late years
+it has greatly increased in the language of the educated, especially in
+the case of technical terms. A native veterinary surgeon once said to
+the present writer, "_kutte-ka saliva bahut antiseptic hai_" for "a
+dog's saliva is very antiseptic," and this is not an extravagant
+example.[3]
+
+The vocabulary of Panjabi and Eastern Hindi is very similar to that of
+Western Hindi. Panjabi has no literature to speak of and is free from
+the burden of words borrowed from Persian or Sanskrit, only the
+commonest and simplest of such being found in it. Its vocabulary is thus
+almost entirely _tadbhava_, and, while capable of expressing all ideas,
+it has a charming rustic flavour, like the Lowland Scotch of Burns,
+indicative of the national character of the sturdy peasantry that
+employs it. Eastern Hindi is very like Panjabi in this respect, but for
+a different reason. In it were written the works of Tulsi Das, one of
+the greatest writers that India has produced, and his influence on the
+language has been as great as that of Shakespeare on English. The
+peasantry are continually quoting him without knowing it, and his style,
+simple and yet vigorous, thoroughly Indian and yet free from purism, has
+set a model which is everywhere followed except in the large towns where
+Urdu or Sanskritized Hindi prevails. Eastern Hindi is written in the
+Nagari alphabet, or in the current character related to it called
+"Kaithi" (see BIHARI). The indigenous alphabet of the Punjab is called
+_Landa_ or "clipped." It is related to Nagari, but is hardly legible to
+any one except the original writer, and sometimes not even to him. To
+remedy this defect an improved form of the alphabet was devised in the
+16th century by Angad, the fifth Sikh Guru, for the purpose of recording
+the Sikh scriptures. It was named _Gurmukhi_, "proceeding from the mouth
+of the Guru," and is now generally used for writing the language.
+
+  _Grammar._--In the following account we use these contractions: Skr. =
+  Sanskrit; Pr. = Prakrit; Ap. = Apabhramsa; W.H. = Western Hindi; E.H.
+  = Eastern Hindi; H. = Hindostani; Br. = Braj Bhasha; P. = Panjabi.
+
+  (A) _Phonetics._--The phonetic system of all three languages is nearly
+  the same as that of the Apabhramsas from which they are derived. With
+  a few exceptions, to be noted below, the letters of the alphabets of
+  the three languages are the same as in Sanskrit. Panjabi, and the
+  western dialects of Western Hindi, have preserved the old Vedic
+  cerebral l. There is a tendency for concurrent vowels to run into each
+  other, and for the semi-vowels y and v to become vowels. Thus, Skr.
+  _carmakaras_, Ap. _cammaaru_, a leather-worker, becomes H. _camar_;
+  Skr. _rajani_, Ap. _ra(y)ani_, H. _rain_, night; Skr. _dhavalakas_,
+  Ap. _dhavalau_, H. _dhaula_, white. Sometimes the semi-vowel is
+  retained, as in Skr. _kataras_, Ap. _ka(y)aru_, H. _kayar_, a coward.
+  Almost the only compound consonants which survived in the Pr. stage
+  were double letters, and in W.H. and E.H. these are usually
+  simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened and sometimes
+  nasalized, in compensation. P., on the other hand, prefers to retain
+  the double consonant. Thus, Skr. _karma_, Ap. _kammu_, W.H. and E.H.
+  _kam_, but P. _kamm_, a work; Skr. _satyas_, Ap. _saccu_, W.H. and
+  E.H. _sac_, but P. _sacc_, true (H., being the W.H. dialect which lies
+  nearest to P., often follows that language, and in this instance has
+  _sacc_, usually written _sac_); Skr. _hastas_, Ap. _hatthu_, W.H. and
+  E.H. _hath_, but P. _hatth_, a hand. The nasalization of vowels is
+  very frequent in all three languages, and is here represented by the
+  sign ~ over the vowel. Sometimes it is compensatory, as in _sac_, but
+  it often represents an original _m_, as in _kawãl_ from Skr.
+  _kamalas_, a lotus. Final short vowels quiesce in prose pronunciation,
+  and are usually not written in transliteration; thus the final _a_,
+  _i_ or _u_ has been lost in all the examples given above, and other
+  _tatsama_ examples are Skr. _mati_-which becomes _mat_, mind, and Skr.
+  _vastu_-, which becomes _bast_, a thing. In all poetry, however
+  (except in the Urdu poetry formed on Persian models, and under the
+  rules of Persian prosody), they reappear and are necessary for the
+  scansion.
+
+  In _tadbhava_ words an original long vowel in any syllable earlier
+  than the penultimate is shortened. In P. and H. when the long vowel is
+  _e_ or _o_ it is shortened to _i_ or _u_ respectively, but in other
+  W.H. dialects and in E.H. it is shortened to _e_ or _o_; thus, _beti_,
+  daughter, long form H. _bitiya_, E.H. _betiya_; _ghori_, mare, long
+  form H. _ghuriya_, E.H. _ghoriya_. The short vowels _e_ and _o_ are
+  very rare in P. and H., but are not uncommon (though ignored by most
+  grammars) in E.H. and the other W.H. dialects. A medial _d_ is
+  pronounced as a strongly burred cerebral _r_, and is then written as
+  shown, with a supposited dot. All these changes and various
+  contractions of Prakrit syllables have caused considerable variations
+  in the forms of words, but generally not so as to obscure the origin.
+
+  (B) _Declension._--The nominative form of a _tadbhava_ word is derived
+  from the nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but _tatsama_ words
+  are usually borrowed in the form of the Skr. crude base; thus, Skr.
+  _hastin_-, nom. _hasti_, Ap. nom. _hatthi_, H. _hathi_, an elephant;
+  Skr. base _mati_-, nom. _matis_, H. (_tatsama_) _mati_, or, with
+  elision of the final short vowel, _mat_. Some _tatsamas_ are, however,
+  borrowed in the nominative form, as in Skr. _dhanin_-, nom. _dhani_,
+  H. _dhani_, a rich man. As another example of a _tadbhava_ word, we
+  may take the Skr. nom. _ghotas_, Ap. _ghodu_, H. _ghor_, a horse. Here
+  again the final short vowel has been elided, but in old poetry we
+  should find _ghoru_, and corresponding forms in u are occasionally met
+  with at the present day.
+
+  In the article PRAKRIT attention is drawn to the frequent use of
+  pleonastic suffixes, especially -_ka_- (fem.-(i)_ka_). With such a
+  suffix we have the Skr. _ghota-kas_, Ap. _ghoda-u_, Western Hindi
+  _ghorau_, or in P. and H. (which is the W.H. dialect nearest in
+  locality to P.) _ghora_, a horse; Skr. _ghoti-ka_, Ap. _ghodi-a_, W.H.
+  and P. _ghodi_, a mare. Such modern forms made with one pleonastic
+  suffix are called "strong forms," while those made without it are
+  called "weak forms." All strong forms end in _au_ (or _a_) in the
+  masculine, and in _i_ in the feminine, whereas, in Skr., and hence in
+  _tatsamas_, both _a_ and _i_ are generally typical of feminine words,
+  though sometimes employed for the masculine. It is shown in the
+  article PRAKRIT that these pleonastic suffixes can be doubled, or even
+  trebled, and in this way we have a new series of _tadbhava_ forms. Let
+  us take the imaginary Skr. *_ghota-ka-kas_ with a double suffix. From
+  this we have the Ap. _ghoda-a-u_, and modern _ghorawa_ (with euphonic
+  _w_ inserted), a horse. Similarly for the feminine we have Skr.
+  *_ghoti-ka-ka_, Ap. _ghodi-a-a_, modern _ghoriya_ (with euphonic _y_
+  inserted), a mare. Such forms, made with two suffixes, are called
+  "long forms," and are heard in familiar conversation, the feminine
+  also serving as diminutives. There is a further stage, built upon
+  three suffixes, and called the "redundant form," which is mainly used
+  by the vulgar. As a rule masculine long forms end in -_awa_, -_iya_ or
+  -_ua_, and feminines in -_iya_, although the matter is complicated by
+  the occasional use of pleonastic suffixes other than the -_ka_- which
+  we have taken for our example, and is the most common. Strong forms
+  are rarely met with in E.H., but on the other hand long forms are more
+  common in that language.
+
+  There are a few feminine terminations of weak nouns which may be
+  noted. These are -_ini_, -_in_, -_an_, -_ni_ (Skr. -_ini_, Pr.
+  _-ini_); and -_ani_, -_ani_, -_ain_ (Skr. -_ani_, Pr. -_ani_). These
+  are found not only in words derived from Prakrit, but are added to
+  Persian and even Arabic words; thus, _hathini_, _hathni_, _hathin_
+  (Skr. _hastini_, Pr. _hatthini_), a she-elephant; _sunarin_,
+  _sunaran_, a female goldsmith (_sonar_); _sherni_, a tigress (Persian
+  _sher_, a tiger); _Nasiban_, a proper name (Arabic _nasib_);
+  _panditani_, the wife of a _pandit_; _caudhrain_, the wife of a
+  _caudhri_ or head man; _mehtrani_, the wife of a sweeper (Pres.
+  _mehtar_, a sweeper). With these exceptions weak forms rarely have any
+  terminations distinctive of gender.[4]
+
+  The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has disappeared. We
+  see it in the actual stage of disappearance in Apabhramsa (see
+  PRAKRIT), in which the case terminations had become worn down to
+  -_hu_, -_ho_, -_hi_, -_hi_ and -_hã_, of which -_hi_ and -_hi_ were
+  employed for several cases, both singular and plural. There was also a
+  marked tendency for these terminations to be confused, and in the
+  earliest stages of the modern vernaculars we find -_hi_ freely
+  employed for any oblique case of the singular, and -_hi_ for any
+  oblique case of the plural, but more especially for the genitive and
+  the locative. In the case of modern weak nouns these terminations have
+  disappeared altogether in W.H. and P. except in sporadic forms of the
+  locative such as _gawe_ (for _gawahi_), in the village. In E.H. they
+  are still heard as the termination of a form which can stand for any
+  oblique case, and is called the "oblique form" or the "oblique case."
+  Thus, from _ghar_, a house (a weak noun), we have W.H. and P. oblique
+  form _ghar_, E.H. _gharahi_, _ghare_ or _ghar_. In the plural, the
+  oblique form is sometimes founded on the Ap. terminations -_hã_ and
+  -_hu_, and sometimes on the Skr. termination of the genitive plural
+  -_anam_ (Pr. -_ana_, -_anham_), as in P. _ghara_, W.H. _gharau_,
+  _gharo_, _gharani_, E.H. _gharan_. In the case of masculine weak
+  forms, the plural nominative has dropped the old termination, except
+  in E.H., where it has adopted the oblique plural form for this case
+  also, thus _gharan_. The nominative plural of feminine weak forms
+  follows the example of the masculine in E.H. In P. it also takes the
+  oblique plural form, while in W.H. it takes the old singular oblique
+  form in -_ahi_, which it weakens to _ai_ or (H.) _e_; thus _bat_
+  (fem.), a word, nom. plur. E.H. _bat-an_, P. _bat-a_, W.H. _batai_ or
+  (H.) _bate_.
+
+  Strong masculine bases in Ap. ended in -_a-a_ (nom. -_a-u_); thus
+  _ghoda-a_- (nom. _ghoda-u_), and adding -_hi_ we get _ghoda-a-hi_,
+  which becomes contracted _ghodahi_ and finally to _ghore_. The
+  nominative plural is the same as the oblique singular, except in E.H.
+  where it follows the oblique plural. The oblique plural of all closely
+  follows in principle the weak forms. Feminine strong forms in Ap.
+  ended in -_i-a_, contracted to _i_ in the modern languages. Except in
+  E.H. the -_hi_ of the original oblique form singular disappears, so
+  that we have E.H. _ghorihi_ or _ghori_, others only _ghori_. The
+  nominative plural of feminine strong forms exhibits some
+  irregularities. In E.H., as usual, it follows the plural oblique
+  forms. In W.H. (except Hindostani) it simply nasalizes the oblique
+  form singular (i.e. adds -_hi_ instead of -_hi_), as in _ghori_, but
+  first on line looks like -hi]. P. and H. adopt the oblique long form
+  for the plural and nasalize it, thus, P. _ghoria_, H. _ghoriya_. The
+  oblique plurals call for no further remarks. We thus get the following
+  summary, illustrating the way in which these nominative and oblique
+  forms are made.
+
+    +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+
+    |                   | Panjabi. | Hindostani.|    Braj Bhasha.    | Eastern Hindi.|
+    +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+
+    |Weak Noun Masc.--  |          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | ghar     | ghar       | ghar               | ghar          |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | ghar     | ghar       | ghar               | ghar, gharahi |
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | ghar     | ghar       | ghar               | gharan        |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | ghara    | gharo      | gharau, gharani    | gharan        |
+    |Strong Noun Masc.--|          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | ghora    | ghora      | ghorau             | ghora         |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | ghore    | ghore      | ghore, ghorai      | ghora, ghore  |
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | ghore    | ghore      | ghore              | ghoran        |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | ghoria   | ghoro      | ghorau, ghorani    | ghoran        |
+    |Weak Noun Fem.--   |          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | bat      | bat        | bat                | bat           |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | bat      | bat        | bat                | bat           |
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | bata     | bate       | batai              | batan         |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | bata     | bato       | batau, batani      | batan         |
+    |Strong Noun Fem.-- |          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | ghori    | ghori      | ghori              | ghori         |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | ghori    | ghori      | ghori              | ghori, ghorihi|
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | ghoria   | ghoriya    | ghori              | ghorin        |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | ghoria   | ghoriyo    | ghoriyau, ghoriyani| ghorin        |
+    +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+
+
+  We have seen that the oblique form is the resultant of a general
+  melting down of all the oblique cases of Sanskrit and Prakrit, and
+  that in consequence it can be used for any oblique case. It is obvious
+  that if it were so employed it would often give rise to great
+  confusion. Hence, when it is necessary to show clearly what particular
+  case is intended, it is usual to add defining particles corresponding
+  to the English prepositions "of," "to," "from," "by," &c., which, as
+  in all Indo-Aryan languages they follow the main word, are here called
+  "postpositions." The following are the postpositions commonly employed
+  to form cases in our three languages:--
+
+    +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+
+    |              | Agent.| Genitive.| Dative.| Ablative.| Locative. |
+    +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+
+    | Panjabi      | nai   | da       | nu     | te       | vicc      |
+    | Hindostani   | ne    | ka       | ko     | se       | me        |
+    | Braj Bhasha  | ne    | kau      | kau    | te, sau  | mai       |
+    | Eastern Hindi| None  | ker, k   | ka     | se       | me, bikhe |
+    +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+
+
+  The agent case is the case which a noun takes when it is the subject
+  of a transitive verb in a tense formed from the past participle. This
+  participle is passive in origin, and must be construed passively. In
+  the Prakrit stage the subject was in such cases put into the
+  instrumental case (see PRAKRIT), as in the phrase _aham tena mario_, I
+  by-him (was) struck, i.e. he struck me. In Eastern Hindi this is still
+  the case, the old instrumental being represented by the oblique form
+  without any suffix. The other two languages define the fact that the
+  subject is in the instrumental (or agent) case by the addition of the
+  postposition _ne_, &c., an old form employed elsewhere to define the
+  dative. It is really the oblique form (by origin a locative) of _na_
+  or _no_, which is employed in Gujarati (q.v.) for the genitive. As
+  this suffix is never employed to indicate a material instrument but
+  here only to indicate the agent or subject of a verb, it is called the
+  postposition of the "agent" case.
+
+  The genitive postpositions have an interesting origin. In Buddhist
+  Sanskrit the words _krtas_, done, and _krtyas_, to be done, were added
+  to a noun to form a kind of genitive. A synonym of _krtyas_ was
+  _karyas_. These three words were all adjectives, and agreed with the
+  thing possessed in gender, number, and case; thus, _mala-krte_
+  _karande_, in the basket of the garland, literally, in the
+  garland-made basket. In the various dialects of Apabhramsa Prakrit
+  _krtas_ became (strong form) _kida-u_ or _kia-u_, _krtyas_ became
+  _kicca-u_, and _karyas_ became _kera-u_ or _kajja-u_, the initial _k_
+  of which is liable to elision after a vowel. With the exception of
+  Gujarati (and perhaps Marathi, q.v.) every Indo-Aryan language has
+  genitive postpositions derived from one or other of these forms. Thus
+  from _(ki)da-u_ we have Panjabi _da_; from _kia-u_ we have H. _ka_,
+  Br. kau, E.H. and Bihari _k_ and Naipali _ko_; from _(ki)cca-u_ we
+  have perhaps Marathi _ca_; from _kera-u_, E.H. and Bihari _ker_,
+  _kar_, Bengali Oriya and Assamese -_r_, and Rajasthani -_ro_; while
+  from _(ka)jja-u_ we have the Sindhi _jo_. It will be observed that
+  while _k_, _ker_, _kar_, and _r_ are weak forms, the rest are strong.
+  As already stated, the genitive is an adjective. _Bap_ means "father,"
+  and _bap-ka ghora_ is literally "the paternal horse." Hence (while
+  the weak forms as usual do not change) these genitives agree with the
+  thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Thus, _bap-ka ghora_, the
+  horse of the father, but _bap-ki ghori_, the mare of the father, and
+  _bap-ke ghore-ko_, to the horse of the father, the _ka_ being put into
+  the oblique case masculine _ke_, to agree with _ghore_, which is
+  itself in an oblique case. The details of the agreement vary slightly
+  in P. and W.H., and must be learnt from the grammars. The E.H. weak
+  forms do not change in the modern language. Finally, in Prakrit it was
+  customary to add these postpositions (_kera-u_, &c.) to the genitive,
+  as in _mama_ or _mama kera-u_, of me. Similarly these postpositions
+  are, in the modern languages, added to the oblique form.
+
+  The locative of the Sanskrit _krtas_, _krte_, was used in that
+  language as a dative postposition, and it can be shown that all the
+  dative postpositions given above are by origin old oblique forms of
+  some genitive postposition. Thus H. _ko_, Br. _kau_, is a contraction
+  of _kahu_, an old oblique form of _kia-u_. Similarly for the others.
+  The origin of the ablative postpositions is obscure. To the present
+  writer they all seem (like the Bengal _haïte_) to be connected with
+  the verb substantive, but their derivation has not been definitely
+  fixed. The locative postpositions _me_ and _mai_ are derived from the
+  Skr. _madhye_, in, through _majjhi_, _mahi_, and so on. The derivation
+  of _vicc_ and _bikhe_ is obscure.
+
+    +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    |             | Apabhramsa.| Panjabi.| Hindostani.|  Braj  | Eastern |
+    |             |            |         |            | Bhasha.|  Hindi. |
+    +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    | I,     Nom. | hau        | mai     | mai        | hau    | mai     |
+    |        Obl. | mai, mahu, | mai     | mujh       | mohi   | mo      |
+    |             |   majjhu   |         |            |        |         |
+    | WE,    Nom. | amhe       | asi     | ham        | ham    | ham     |
+    |        Obl. | amaha      | asa     | hamo       | hamau, | ham     |
+    |             |            |         |            |  hamani|         |
+    | THOU,  Nom. | tuhu       | tu      | tu         | tu     | tai     |
+    |        Obl. | tai, tuha, | tai     | tujh       | tohi   | to      |
+    |             |   tujjhu   |         |            |        |         |
+    | YOU,   Nom. | tumhe      | tusi    | tum        | tum    | tum     |
+    |        Obl. | tumhahã    | tusa    | tumho      | tumhau | tum     |
+    +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+
+  The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. This will be
+  evident from the preceding table of the first two personal pronouns
+  compared with Apabhramsa.
+
+  It will be observed that in most of the nominatives of the first
+  person, and in the E.H. nominative of the second person, the old
+  nominative has disappeared, and its place has been supplied by an
+  oblique form, exactly as we have observed in the nominative plural of
+  nouns substantive. The P. _asi_, _tusi_, &c., are survivals from the
+  old Lahnda (see _Linguistic Boundaries_, above). The genitives of
+  these two pronouns are rarely used, possessive pronouns (in H. _mera_,
+  my; _hamara_, our; _tera_, thy; _tumhara_, your) being employed
+  instead. They can all (except P. _asada_, our; _tusada_, your, which
+  are Lahnda) be referred to corresponding Ap. forms.
+
+  There is no pronoun of the third person, the demonstrative pronouns
+  being used instead. The following table shows the principal remaining
+  pronominal forms, with their derivation from Ap.:--
+
+    +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+
+    |                    |  Apabhramsa. | Panjabi. | Hindostani.|  Braj  | Eastern |
+    |                    |              |          |            | Bhasha.|  Hindi. |
+    +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+
+    | THAT, HE,     Nom. |       ?      | uh       | woh        | wo     | u       |
+    |               Obl. |       ?      |  uh      |  us        |  wa    |  o      |
+    | THOSE, THEY,  Nom. | oi           |  oh      |  we        |  wai   |  unh    |
+    |               Obl. |       ?      |  unha    |  unh       |  uni   |  unh    |
+    | THIS, HE,     Nom. | ehu          | ih       | yeh        | yah    | i       |
+    |               Obl. |  ehasu, ehaho| ih       |  is        |  ya    |  e      |
+    | THESE, THEY,  Nom. | ei           |  eh      |  ye        |  yai   |  inh    |
+    |               Obl. |  ehana       |  inha    |  inh       |  ini   |  inh    |
+    | THAT,         Nom. | so           | so       | so         | so     | se      |
+    |               Obl. |  tasu, taho  |  tih     |  tis       |  ta    |  te     |
+    | THOSE,        Nom. |  se          |  so      |  so        |  so    |  se     |
+    |               Obl. |  tana        |  tinha   |  tinh      |  tini  |  tenh   |
+    | WHO,          Nom. | jo           | jo       | jo         | jo     | je      |
+    |               Obl. |  jasu, jaho  |  jih     |  jis       |  ja    |  je     |
+    | WHO (pl.),    Nom. |  je          |   jo     |  jo        |  jo    |  je     |
+    |               Obl. |  jana        |   jinha  |  jinh      |  jini  |  jenh   |
+    | WHO?          Nom. | ko, kawanu   | kaun     | kaun       | ko     | ke      |
+    |               Obl. |  kasu, kaho  |  kih     |  kis       |  ka    |  ke     |
+    | WHO? (pl.),   Nom. |  ke          |  kaun    |  kaun      |  ko    |  ke     |
+    |               Obl. |  kana        |  kinha   |  kinh      |  kini  |  kenh   |
+    | WHAT?(Neut.), Nom. | kim          | kia      | kya        | kaha   | ka      |
+    |               Obl. |  kaha, kasu  |  kah, kas|  kahe      |  kahe  |  kahe   |
+    +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+
+
+  The origin of the first pronoun given above (that, he; those, they)
+  cannot be referred to Sanskrit. It is derived from an Indo-Aryan base
+  which was not admitted to the classical literary language, but of
+  which we find sporadic traces in Apabhramsa. The existence of this
+  base is further vouched for by its occurrence in the Iranian language
+  of the Avesta under the form _ava-_. The base of the second pronoun is
+  the same as the base of the first syllable in the Skr. _e-sas_, this,
+  and other connected pronouns, and also occurs in the Avesta. Ap. _ehu_
+  is directly derived from _e-sas_.
+
+  There are other pronominal forms upon which, except perhaps _koi_ (Pr.
+  _ko-vi_, Skr. _ko-'pi_), any one, it is unnecessary to dwell. The
+  phrase _koi hai_? "Is any one (there)?" is the usual formula for
+  calling a servant in upper India, and is the origin of the
+  Anglo-Indian word "Qui-hi." The reflexive pronoun is _ap_ (Ap. _appu_,
+  Skr. _atma_), self, which, something like the Latin _suus_ (Skr.
+  _svas_), always refers to the subject of the sentence, but to all
+  persons, not only to the third. Thus _mai apne_ (not _mere_) _bap-ko
+  dekhta-hu_, "I see my father."
+
+  C. _Conjugation_.--The synthetic conjugation was already commencing to
+  disappear in Prakrit, and in the modern languages the only original
+  tenses which remain are the present, the imperative, and here and
+  there the future. The first is now generally employed as a present
+  subjunctive. In the accompanying table we have the conjugation of this
+  tense, and also the three participles, present active, and past and
+  future passive, compared with Apabhramsa, the verb selected being the
+  intransitive root _call_ or _cal_, go. In Ap. the word may be spelt
+  with one or with two _ls_, which accounts for the variations of
+  spelling in the modern languages.
+
+  The imperative closely resembles the old present, except that it drops
+  all terminations in the 2nd person singular; thus, _cal_, go thou.
+
+  In P. and H. a future is formed by adding the syllable _ga_ (fem.
+  _gi_) to the simple present. Thus, H. _calu-ga_, I shall go. The _ga_
+  is commonly said to be derived from the Skr. _gatas_ (Pr. _gao_),
+  gone, but this suggestion is not altogether acceptable to the present
+  writer, although he is not now able to propose a better. Under the
+  form of _-gau_ the same termination is used in Br., but in that
+  dialect the old future has also survived, as in _calihau_ (Ap.
+  _calihau_, Skr. _calisyami_), I shall go, which is conjugated like the
+  simple present. The E.H. formation of the future is closely analogous
+  to what we find in Bihari (q.v.). The third person is formed as in
+  Braj Bhasha, but the first and second persons are formed by adding
+  pronominal suffixes, meaning "by me," "by thee," &c., to the future
+  passive participle.
+
+    +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    |                     | Apabhramsa.| Panjabi.| Hindostani.|  Braj  | Eastern |
+    |                     |            |         |            | Bjasja.|  Hindi. |
+    +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    | Old Present--       |            |         |            |        |         |
+    |  Singular 1.        | callau     | calla   | calu       | calau  | calau   |
+    |     "     2.        | callasi,   | calle   | cale       | calai  | calas   |
+    |                     |   callahi  |         |            |        |         |
+    |     "     3.        | callai     | calle   | cale       | calai  | calai   |
+    |  Plural   1.        | callahu    | calliye | cale       | calai  | calai   |
+    |     "     2.        | callahu    | callo   | calo       | calau  | calau   |
+    |     "     3.        | callanti,  | callan  | cale       | calai  | calai   |
+    |                     |   callahi  |         |            |        |         |
+    | Present Participle  | callanta-u | callda  | calta      | calatu | calat   |
+    | Past Part. Passive  | callia-u   | callia  | cala       | calyau | cala    |
+    | Future Part. Passive| callania-u | callna  | calna      | calnau |         |
+    |                     | calliavva-u|   ..    |     ..     | caliwau| calab   |
+    +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+
+  Thus, _calab-u_, it-is-to-be-gone by-me, I shall go. We thus get the
+  following forms. It will be observed that, as in many other Indo-Aryan
+  languages, the first person plural has no suffix:--
+
+      Sing.        Plur.
+    1. alabu     calab
+    2. calabe    calabo
+    3. calihai   calihai
+
+  In old E.H. the future participle passive, _calab_, takes no suffix
+  for any person, and is used for all persons.
+
+  The last remark leads us to a class of tenses in P. and W.H., in which
+  a participle, by itself, can be employed for any person of a finite
+  tense. A few examples of the use of the present and past participles
+  will show the construction. They are all taken from Hindostani. _Woh
+  calta_, he goes; _woh calti_, she goes; _mai cala_, I went; _woh
+  cali_, she went; _we cale_, they went. The present participle in this
+  construction, though it may be used to signify the present, is more
+  commonly employed to signify a past conditional "(if) he had gone." It
+  will have been observed that in the above examples, in all of which
+  the verb is intransitive, the past as well as the present participle
+  agrees with the subject in gender and number; but, if the verb be
+  transitive, the passive meaning of the past participle comes into
+  force. The subject must be put into the case of the agent, and the
+  participle inflects to agree with the object. If the object be not
+  expressed, or, as sometimes happens, be expressed in the dative case,
+  the participle is construed impersonally, and takes the masculine (for
+  want of a neuter) form. Thus, _mai-ne kaha_, by-me it-was-said, i.e. I
+  said; _us-ne citthi likhi_, by-him a-letter (fem.) was-written, he
+  wrote a letter; _raja-ne sherni-ko mara_, the king killed the tigress,
+  lit., by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, it (impersonal)
+  -was-killed. In the article PRAKRIT it is shown that the same
+  construction is obtained in that language.
+
+  In E.H. the construction is the same, but is obscured by the fact that
+  (as in the future) pronominal suffixes are added to the participle to
+  indicate the person of the subject or of the agent, as in _calat-eu_,
+  (if) I had gone; _cal-eu_, I went; _mar-eu_ (transitive), I struck,
+  lit., struck-by-me; _mar-es_, struck-by-him, he struck. If the
+  participle has to be feminine, it (although a weak form) takes the
+  feminine termination _i_, as in _mari-u_, I struck her; _calati-u_,
+  (if) I (fem.) had gone; _cali-u_, I (fem.) went.
+
+  Further tenses are formed by adding the verb substantive to these
+  participles, as in H. _mai calta-hu_, I am going; _mai calta-tha_, I
+  was going; _mai cala-hu_, I have gone; _mai cala-tha_, I had gone.
+  These and other auxiliary verbs need not detain us long. They differ
+  in the various languages. For "I am" we have P. _ha_, H. _hu_, Br.
+  _hau_, E.H. _batyeu_ or _aheu_. For "I was" we have P. _si_ or _sa_,
+  H. _tha_, Br. _hau_ or _hutau_, E.H. _raheu_. The H. _hu_ is thus
+  conjugated:--
+
+      Sing.    Plur.
+    1. hu     hai
+    2. hai    ho
+    3. hai    hai
+
+  The derivation of _ha_, _hu_, _hau_, and _aheu_ is uncertain. They are
+  usually derived from the Skr. _asmi_, I am; but this presents many
+  difficulties. An old form of the third person singular is _hwai_, and
+  this points to the Pr. _havaï_, he is, equivalent to the Skr.
+  _bhavati_, he becomes. On the other hand this does not account for the
+  initial _a_ of _aheu_. This last word is in the _form_ of a past
+  tense, and it may be a secondary formation from _asmi_. The P. _si_ is
+  not a feminine of _sa_, as usually stated, but is a survival of the
+  Skr. _asit_, Pr. _asi_, was. As in the Prakrit form, _si_ is employed
+  for both genders, both numbers and all persons. _Sa_ is a secondary
+  formation from this, on the analogy of the H. _tha_, which is from the
+  Skr. _sthitas_, Pr. _thio_, stood, and is a participial form like
+  _cal_a; thus, _woh tha_, he was; _woh thi_, she was. The Br. _hau_ is
+  a modern past of _hau_, while _hutau_ is probably by origin a present
+  participle of the Skr. _bhu_, become, Pr. _huntao_. The E.H. _bateu_,
+  is the Skr. _varte_, Ap. _vattau_. _Raheu_ is the past tense of the
+  root _rah_, remain.
+
+  The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an
+  infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. _calna_, E.H. _calab_, the act of
+  going, to go. There is a whole series of derivative verbal forms,
+  making potential passives and transitives from intransitives, and
+  causals (and even double causals) from transitives. Thus _dikhna_, to
+  be seen; potential passive, _dikhana_, to be visible; transitive,
+  _dekhna_, to see; causal, _dikhlana_, to show.
+
+  D. _Literature._--The literatures of Western and Eastern Hindi form
+  the subject of a separate article (see HINDOSTANI LITERATURE). Panjabi
+  has no formal literature. Even the _Granth_, the sacred book of the
+  Sikhs, is mainly in archaic Western Hindi, only a small portion being
+  in Panjabi. On the other hand, the language is peculiarly rich in
+  folksongs and ballads, some of considerable length and great poetic
+  beauty. The most famous is the ballad of _Hir_ and _Ranjha_ by Waris
+  Shah, which is considered to be a model of pure Panjabi. Colonel Sir
+  Richard Temple has published an important collection of these songs
+  under the title of _The Legends of the Punjab_ (3 vols., Bombay and
+  London, 1884-1900), in which both texts and translations of nearly all
+  the favourite ones are to be found.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(a) General: The two standard authorities are the
+  comparative grammars of J. Beames (1872-1879) and A. F. R. Hoernle
+  (1880), mentioned in the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. To these may be
+  added G. A. Grierson, "On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the
+  Modern Indo-Aryan Languages" in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
+  Bengal_, vol. lxiv. (1895), part i. pp. 352 et seq.; and "On Certain
+  Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars" in the _Zeitschrift für
+  vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen
+  Sprachen_ for 1903, pp. 473 et seq.
+
+  (b) For the separate languages, see C. J. Lyall, _A Sketch of the
+  Hindustani Language_ (Edinburgh, 1880); S. H. Kellogg, _A Grammar of
+  the Hindi Language_ (for both Western and Eastern Hindi), (2nd ed.,
+  London, 1893); J. T. Platts, _A Grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu
+  Language_ (London, 1874); and _A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi
+  and English_ (London, 1884); E. P. Newton, _Panjabi Grammar: with
+  Exercises and Vocabulary_ (Ludhiana, 1898); and Bhai Maya Singh, _The
+  Panjabi Dictionary_ (Lahore, 1895). _The Linguistic Survey of India_,
+  vol. vi., describes Eastern Hindi, and vol. ix., Hindostani and
+  Panjabi, in each instance in great detail.     (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "Hindostan" is a Persian word, and in modern Persian is
+    pronounced "Hindustan." It means the country of the Hindus. In
+    medieval Persian the word was "Hindostan," with an _o_, but in the
+    modern language the distinctions between _e_ and _i_ and between _o_
+    and _u_ have been lost. Indian languages have borrowed Persian words
+    in their medieval form. Thus in India we have _sher_, a tiger, as
+    compared with modern Persian _shir_; _go_, but modern Pers. _gu_;
+    _bostan_, but modern Pers. _bustan_. The word "Hindu" is in medieval
+    Persian "Hindo" representing the ancient Avesta _hendava_ (Sanskrit,
+    _saindhava_), a dweller on the _Sindhu_ or Indus. Owing to the
+    influence of scholars in modern Persian the word "Hindu" is now
+    established in English and, through English, in the Indian literary
+    languages; but "Hindo" is also often heard in India. "Hindostan" with
+    _o_ is much more common both in English and in Indian languages,
+    although "Hindustan" is also employed. Up to the days of Persian
+    supremacy inaugurated in Calcutta by Gilchrist and his friends, every
+    traveller in India spoke of "Indostan" or some such word, thus
+    bearing testimony to the current pronunciation. Gilchrist introduced
+    "Hindoostan," which became "Hindustan" in modern spelling. The word
+    is not an Indian one, and both pronunciations, with _o_ and with _u_,
+    are current in India at the present day, but that with _o_ is
+    unquestionably the one demanded by the history of the word and of the
+    form which other Persian words take on Indian soil. On the other hand
+    "Hindu" is too firmly established in English for us to suggest the
+    spelling "Hindo.". The word "Hindi" has another derivation, being
+    formed from the Persian _Hind_, India (Avesta _hindu_, Sanskrit
+    _sindhu_, the Indus). "Hindi" means "of or belonging to India," while
+    "Hindu" now means "a person of the Hindu religion." (Cf. Sir C. J.
+    Lyall, _A Sketch of the Hindustani Language_, p. 1).
+
+  [2] Sir C. J. Lyall, _op. cit._ p. 9.
+
+  [3] This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Mr
+    Platts's article in vol. xi. of the 9th edition of this
+    encyclopaedia.
+
+  [4] In some dialects of W.H. weak forms have masculines ending in u
+    and corresponding feminines in _i_, but these are nowadays rarely met
+    in the literary forms of speech. In old poetry they are common. In
+    Braj Bhasha they have survived in the present participle.
+
+
+
+
+HINDOSTANI LITERATURE. The writings dealt with in this article are those
+composed in the vernacular of that part of India which is properly
+called Hindostan,--that is, the valleys of the Jumna and Ganges rivers
+as far east as the river Kos, and the tract to the south including
+Rajputana, Central India (Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand), the Narmada
+(Nerbudda) valley as far west as Khandwa, and the northern half of the
+Central Provinces. It does not include the Punjab proper (though the
+town population there speak Hindostani), nor does it extend to Lower
+Bengal.
+
+In this region several different dialects prevail. The people of the
+towns everywhere use chiefly the form of the language called _Urdu_ or
+_Rekhta_,[1] stocked with Persian words and phrases, and ordinarily
+written in a modification of the Persian character. The country folk
+(who form the immense majority) speak different varieties of _Hindi_, of
+which the word-stock derives from the Prakrits and literary Sanskrit,
+and which are written in the Devanagari or Kaithi character. Of these
+the most important from a literary point of view, proceeding from west
+to east, are _Marwari_ and _Jaipuri_ (the languages of Rajputana),
+_Brajbhasha_ (the language of the country about Mathura and Agra),
+_Kanauji_ (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna Doab and western
+Rohilkhand), _Eastern Hindi_, also called _Awadhi_ and _Baiswari_ (the
+language of Eastern Rohilkhand, Oudh and the Benares division of the
+United Provinces) and _Bihari_ (the language of Bihar or Mithila,
+comprising several distinct dialects). What is called _High Hindi_ is a
+modern development, for literary purposes, of the dialect of Western
+Hindi spoken in the neighbourhood of Delhi and thence northwards to the
+Himalaya, which has formed the vernacular basis of Urdu; the Persian
+words in the latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of
+Sanskritic origin, and the order of words in the sentence which is
+proper to the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in
+Urdu, which under the influence of Persian constructions has admitted
+many inversions.
+
+As in many other countries, nearly all the early vernacular literature
+of Hindostan is in verse, and works in prose are a modern growth.[2]
+Both Hindi and Urdu are, in their application to literary purposes, at
+first intruders upon the ground already occupied by the learned
+languages Sanskrit and Persian, the former representing Hindu and the
+latter Musalman culture. But there is this difference between them,
+that, whereas Hindi has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech
+chiefly by impulses of revolt against the monopoly of the Brahmans, Urdu
+has been cultivated with goodwill by authors who have themselves highly
+valued and dexterously used the polished Persian. Both Sanskrit and
+Persian continue to be employed occasionally for composition by Indian
+writers, though much fallen from their former estate; but for popular
+purposes it may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in
+sole possession of the field.
+
+The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:--
+
+  1. Early Hindi, of the period during which the language was being
+  fashioned as a literary medium out of the ancient Prakrits,
+  represented by the old heroic poems of Rajputana and the literature of
+  the early _Bhagats_ or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about
+  A.D. 1100 to 1550;
+
+  2. Middle Hindi, representing the best age of Hindi poetry, and
+  reaching from about 1550 to the end of the 18th century;
+
+  3. The rise and development of literary Urdu, beginning about the end
+  of the 16th century, and reaching its height during the 18th;
+
+  4. The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature in
+  both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the 19th century.
+
+1. _Early Hindi._--Our knowledge of the ancient metrical chronicles of
+Rajputana is still very imperfect, and is chiefly derived from the
+monumental work of Colonel James Tod, called _The Annals and Antiquities
+of Rajasthan_ (published in 1829-1832), which is founded on them. It is
+in the nature of compositions of this character to be subjected to
+perpetual revision and recasting; they are the production of the family
+bards of the dynasties whose fortunes they record, and from generation
+to generation they are added to, and their language constantly modified
+to make it intelligible to the people of the time. Round an original
+nucleus of historical fact a rich growth of legend accumulates; later
+redactors endeavour to systematize and to assign dates, but the result
+is not often such as to inspire confidence; and the mass has more the
+character of ballad literature than of serious history. The materials
+used by Tod are nearly all still unprinted; his manuscripts are now
+deposited in the library of the Royal Asiatic Society in London; and one
+of the tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first
+be undertaken by the investigator of early Hindi literature is the
+examination and sifting, and the publication in their original form, of
+these important texts.
+
+Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by compilers of
+accounts of Hindi literature, the earliest author of whom any portion
+has as yet been published in the original text is Chand Bardai, the
+court bard of Prithwi-Raj, the last Hindu sovereign of Delhi. His poem,
+entitled _Prithi-Raj Rasau_ (or _Raysa_), is a vast chronicle in 69
+books or cantos, comprising a general history of the period when he
+wrote. Of this a small portion has been printed, partly under the
+editorship of the late Mr John Beames and partly under that of Dr Rudolf
+Hoernle, by the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult
+nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much progress.[3]
+Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native of Lahore, which had
+for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under Muslim rule when he
+flourished, and the language of the poem exhibits a considerable leaven
+of Persian words. In its present form the work is a redaction made by
+Amar Singh of Mewar, about the beginning of the 17th century, and
+therefore more than 400 years after Chand's death, with his patron
+Prithwi-Raj, in 1193. There is, therefore, considerable reason to doubt
+whether we have in it much of Chand's composition in its original shape;
+and the nature of the incidents described enhances this doubt. The
+detailed dates contained in the Chronicle have been shown by Kabiraj
+Syamal Das[4] to be in every case about ninety years astray. It tells of
+repeated conflicts between the hero Prithwi-Raj and Sultan Shihabuddin,
+of Ghor (Muhammad Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last
+great battle, comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on
+payment of a ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our
+contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter (that of
+Tirauri (Tirawari) near Thenesar, fought in 1191) in which the Sultan
+was defeated, and even then he escaped uncaptured to Lahore. The Mongols
+(Book XV.) are brought on the stage more than thirty years before they
+actually set foot in India, and are related to have been vanquished by
+the redoubtable Prithwi-Raj. It is evident that such a record cannot
+possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but nevertheless
+it appears to contain a considerable element which, from its language,
+may belong to Chand's own age, and represents the earliest surviving
+document in Hindi. "Though we may not possess the actual text of Chand,
+we have certainly in his writings some of the oldest known specimens of
+Gaudian literature, abounding in pure Apabhramsa Sauraseni Prakrit
+forms" (Grierson).
+
+  It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as
+  literature. The language, essentially transitional in character,
+  consists largely of words which have long since died out of the
+  vernacular speech. Even the most learned Hindus of the present day are
+  unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses
+  must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit and
+  Prakrit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hindi.
+  Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of
+  ballad chroniclers in general. There is much that is lively and
+  spirited in his descriptions of fight or council; and the characters
+  of the Rajput warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in
+  their utterances with skill and animation. The sound, however,
+  frequently predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on
+  with the wearisome iteration and tedious unfolding of familiar themes
+  and images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value,
+  for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary.
+
+Chand may be taken as the representative of a long line of successors,
+continued even to the present day in the Rajput states. Many of their
+compositions are still widely popular as ballad literature, but are known
+only in oral versions sung in Hindostan by professional singers. One of
+the most famous of these is the _Alha-khand_, reputed to be the work of a
+contemporary of Chand called Jagnik or Jagnayak, of Mahoba in Bundelkhand,
+who sang the praises of Raja-Parmal, a ruler whose wars with Prithwi-Raj
+are recorded in the Mahoba-Khand of Chand's work. Alha and Udal, the
+heroes of the poem, are famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories
+connected with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bihar, as
+well as in the Bundelkhandi or western form which is best known. Two
+versions of the latter have been printed, having been taken down as
+recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists. Another celebrated bard
+was Sarangdhar of Rantambhor, who flourished in 1363, and sang the praises
+of Hammir Deo (Hamir Deo), the Chauhan chief of Rantambhor who fell in a
+heroic struggle against Sultan 'Ala'uddin Khilji in 1300. He wrote the
+_Hammir Kavya_ and _Hammir Rasau_, of which an account is given by Tod;[5]
+he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which language he compiled, in 1363,
+the anthology called _Sarngadhara-Paddhati_. Another work which may be
+mentioned (though much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled
+_Chhattra-Prakas_, or the history of Raja Chhatarsal, the Bundela raja of
+Panna, who was killed, fighting on behalf of Prince Dara-Shukoh, in the
+battle of Dholpur won by Aurangzeb in 1658. The author, Lal Kabi, has
+given in this work a history of the valiant Bundela nation which was
+rendered into English by Captain W. R. Pogson in 1828, and printed at
+Calcutta.
+
+Before passing on to the more important branch of early Hindi
+literature, the works of the _Bhagats_, mention may be made here of a
+remarkable composition, a poem entitled the _Padmawat_, the materials of
+which are derived from the heroic legends of Rajputana, but which is not
+the work of a bard nor even of a Hindu. The author, Malik Muhammad of
+Ja'is, in Oudh, was a venerated Muslim devotee, to whom the Hindu raja
+of Amethi was greatly attached. Malik Muhammad wrote the Padmawat in
+1540, the year in which Sher Shah Sur ousted Humayan from the throne of
+Delhi. The poem is composed in the purest vernacular Awadhi, with no
+admixture of traditional Hindu learning, and is generally to be found
+written in the Persian character, though the metres and language are
+thoroughly Indian. It professes to tell the tale of Padmawati or
+Padmini, a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the
+Chauhan raja of Chitor in Mewar. The historical Padmini's husband was
+named Bhim Singh, but Malik Muhammad calls him Ratan Sen; and the story
+turns upon the attempts of 'Ala'uddin Khilji, the sovereign of Delhi, to
+gain possession of her person. The tale of the siege of Chitor in 1303
+by 'Ala'uddin, the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished to
+the last man in fight with the Sultan's army, and the self-immolation of
+Padmini and the other women, the wives and daughters of the warriors, by
+the fiery death called _johar_, will be found related in Tod's
+_Rajasthan_, i. 262 sqq. Malik Muhammad takes great liberties with the
+history, and explains at the end of the poem that all is an allegory,
+and that the personages represent the human soul, Divine wisdom, Satan,
+delusion and other mystical characters.
+
+  Both on account of its interest as a true vernacular work, and as the
+  composition of a Musalman who has taken the incidents of his morality
+  from the legends of his country and not from an exotic source, the
+  poem is memorable. It has often been lithographed, and is very
+  popular; a translation has even been made into Sanskrit. A critical
+  edition has been prepared by Dr G. A. Grierson and Pandit Sudhakar
+  Dwivedi.
+
+The other class of composition which is characteristic of the period of
+early Hindi, the literature of the _Bhagats_, or Vaishnava saints, who
+propagated the doctrine of _bhakti_, or faith in Vishnu, as the popular
+religion of Hindostan, has exercised a much more powerful influence both
+upon the national speech and upon the themes chosen for poetic
+treatment. It is also, as a body of literature, of high intrinsic
+interest for its form and content. Nearly the whole of subsequent
+poetical composition in Hindi is impressed with one or other type of
+Vaishnava doctrine, which, like Buddhism many centuries before, was
+essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the chains of
+caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in face of the monopoly which
+the "twice-born" asserted of learning, of worship, of righteousness. A
+large proportion of the writers were non-Brahmans, and many of them of
+the lowest castes. As Siva was the popular deity of the Brahmans, so was
+Vishnu of the people; and while the literature of the Saivas and
+Saktas[6] is almost entirely in Sanskrit, and exercised little or no
+influence on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas
+is largely in Hindi, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of what
+has been written in that language.
+
+The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to Ramanuja, a Brahman
+who was born about the end of the 11th century, at Perambur in the
+neighbourhood of the modern Madras, and spent his life in southern
+India. His works, which are in Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on
+the Vedanta Sutras, are devoted to establishing "the personal existence
+of a Supreme Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love
+and pity for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released
+soul a home of eternal bliss near him--a home where each soul never
+loses its identity, and whose state is one of perfect peace."[7] In the
+Deity's infinite love and pity he has on several occasions become
+incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and of these incarnations two,
+Ramachandra, the prince of Ayodhya, and Krishna, the chief of the Yadava
+clan and son of Vasudeva, are pre-eminently those in which it is most
+fitting that he should be worshipped. Both of these incarnations had for
+many centuries[8] attracted popular veneration, and their histories had
+been celebrated by poets in epics and by weavers of religious myths in
+_Puranas_ or "old stories"; but it was apparently Ramanuja's teaching
+which secured for them, and especially for Ramachandra, their exclusive
+place as the objects of _bhakti_--ardent faith and personal devotion
+addressed to the Supreme. The adherents of Ramanuja were, however, all
+Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of food, bathing and
+dress; the new doctrine had not yet penetrated to the people.
+
+Whether Ramanuja himself gave the preference to Rama against Krishna as
+the form of Vishnu most worthy of worship is uncertain. He dealt mainly
+with philosophic conceptions of the Divine Nature, and probably busied
+himself little with mythological legend. His _mantra_, or formula of
+initiation, if Wilson[9] was correctly informed, implies devotion to
+Rama; but Vasudeva (Krishna) is also mentioned as a principal object of
+adoration, and Ramanuja himself dwelt for several years in Mysore, at a
+temple erected by the raja, at Yadavagiri in honour of Krishna in his
+form Ranchhor.[10] It is stated that in his worship of Krishna he joined
+with that god as his _Sakti_, or Energy, his wife Rukmini; while the
+later varieties of Krishna-worship prefer to honour his mistress Radha.
+The great difference, in temper and influence upon life, between these
+two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development subsequent to
+Ramanuja; but by the time of Jaideo (about 1250) it is clear that the
+theme of Krishna and Radha, and the use of passionate language drawn
+from the relations of the sexes to express the longings of the soul for
+God, had become fully established; and from that time onwards the two
+types of Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from one
+another.
+
+The cult of Rama is founded on family life, and the relation of the
+worshipper to the Deity is that of a child to a father. The morality it
+inculcates springs from the sacred sources of human piety which in all
+religions have wrought most in favour of pureness of life, of fraternal
+helpfulness and of humble devotion to a loving and tender Parent, who
+desires the good of mankind, His children, and hates violence and wrong.
+That of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary
+career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked by a
+kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and more spent its
+energy in developing that side of devotion which is perilously near to
+sensual thought, and has allowed the imagination and ingenuity of poets
+to dwell on things unmeet for verse or even for speech. It is claimed
+for those who first opened this way to faith that their hearts were pure
+and their thoughts innocent, and that the language of erotic passion
+which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely
+mystical and allegorical. This is probable; but that these beginnings
+were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that the fervent
+impulses of adoration made way in later times for those of lust and
+lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute.
+
+The worship of Krishna, especially in his infant and youthful form
+(which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the neighbourhood
+of Mathura, the capital of that land of Braj where as a boy he lived.
+Its literature is mainly composed in the dialect of this region, called
+Brajbhasha. That of Rama, though general throughout Hindostan, has
+since the time of Tulsi Das adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh,
+called Awadhi or Baiswari, a form of Eastern Hindi easily understood
+throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley. Thus these two dialects
+came to be, what they are to this day, the standard vehicles of poetic
+expression.
+
+Subsequently to Ramanuja his doctrine appears to have been set forth,
+about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by Jaideo, a Brahman born at
+Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli, in the Birbhum district of Bengal,
+author of the Sanskrit _Gita Govinda_, and by Namdeo or Nama, a
+tailor[11] of Maharashtra, of both of whom verses in the popular speech
+are preserved in the _Adi Granth_ of the Sikhs. But it was not until the
+beginning of the 15th century that the Brahman Ramanand, a prominent
+_Gosain_ of the sect of Ramanuja, having had a dispute with the members
+of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed by them, left the
+community, migrated to northern India (where he is said to have made his
+headquarters Galta in Rajputana), and addressed himself to those outside
+the Brahman caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the
+popular faith of Hindostan. Among his twelve disciples or apostles were
+a Rajput, a Jat, a leather-worker, a barber and a Musalman weaver; the
+last-mentioned was the celebrated KABIR (see separate article). One
+short Hindi poem by Ramanand is contained in the _Adi Granth_, and Dr
+Grierson has collected hymns (_bhajans_) attributed to him and still
+current in Mithila or Tirhut. Both Ramanand and Kabir were adherents of
+the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to Raama,
+who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself identical
+with the Deity. A contemporary of Ramanand, Bidyapati Thakur, is
+celebrated as the author of numerous lyrics in the Maithili dialect of
+Bihar, expressive of the other side of Vaishnavism, the passionate
+adoration of the Deity in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the
+worshipper being mystically conveyed in the character of Radha, the
+cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasudeva. These stanzas
+of Bidyapati (who was a Brahman and author of several works in Sanskrit)
+afterwards inspired the Vaishnava literature of Bengal, whose most
+celebrated exponent was Chaitanya (b. 1484). Another famous adherent of
+the same cult was Mira Bai, "the one great poetess of northern India"
+(Grierson). This lady, daughter of Raja Ratiya Rana, Rathor, of Merta in
+Rajputana, must have been born about the beginning of the 15th century;
+she was married in 1413 to Raja Kumbhkaran of Mewar, who was killed by
+his son Uday Rana in 1469. She was devoted to Krishna in the form of
+Ranchhor, and her songs have a wide currency in northern India.
+
+  An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava
+  saints or _Bhagats_ is contained in the sacred book, or _Adi Granth_,
+  of the Sikh _Gurus_. Nanak, the founder of this sect (1469-1538),
+  though a native of the Punjab (born at Talvandi on the Ravi near
+  Lahore), took his doctrine from the _Bhagats_ (see KABIR); and each of
+  the thirty-one _rags_, forming the body of the _Granth_, is followed
+  by a compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints,
+  chiefly of Kabir, in confirmation of the teaching of the _Gurus_,
+  while the whole book is closed by a _bhog_ or conclusion, containing
+  more verses by the same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian
+  Sufi, Shekh Farid of Pakpattan. The body of the _Granth_ (q.v.), being
+  in old Panjabi, falls outside the scope of this article; but the
+  extracts included in it from the early writers of old Hindi are a
+  precious store of specimens of authors some of whom have left no other
+  record in the surviving literature. The _Adi Granth_, which was put
+  together about 1600 by Arjun, the fifth _Guru_ of the Sikhs, sets
+  forth the creed of the sect in its original pietistic form, before it
+  assumed the militant character which afterwards distinguished it under
+  the five _Gurus_ who succeeded him.
+
+2. _Middle Hindi._--The second period, that of middle Hindi, begins with
+the reign of the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605); and it is not improbable
+that the broad and liberal views of this great monarch, his active
+sympathy with his Hindu subjects, the interest which he took in their
+religion and literature, and the peace which his organization of the
+empire secured for Hindostan, had an important effect on the great
+development of Hindi poetry which now set in.[12] Akbar's court was
+itself a centre of poetical composition. The court musician Tan Sen (who
+was also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by him in
+the Emperor's name live to this day in the memory of the people. Akbar's
+favourite minister and companion, Raja Birbal (who fell in battle on the
+north-western frontier in 1583), was a musician and a poet as well as a
+politician, and held the title, conferred by the Emperor, of _Kabi-Ray_,
+or poet laureate; his verses and witty sayings are still extremely
+popular in northern India, though no complete work by him is known to
+exist. Other nobles of the court were also poets, among them the
+_Khan-khanan_ 'Abdur-Rahim, son of Bairam Khan, whose Hindi _dohas_ and
+_kabittas_ are still held in high estimation, and Faizi, brother of the
+celebrated Abul-Fazl, the Emperor's annalist.
+
+By this time the worship of Krishna as the lover of Radha
+_(Radha-ballabh)_ had been systematized, and a local habitation found
+for it at Gokul, opposite Mathura on the Jumna, some 30 m. upstream from
+Agra, Akbar's capital, by Vallabhacharya, a Tailinga Brahman from
+Madras. Born in 1478, in 1497 he chose the land of Braj as his
+headquarters, thence making missionary tours throughout India. He wrote
+chiefly, if not entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate
+followers, and those of his son Bitthalnath (who succeeded his father on
+the latter's death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets in
+Hindi. Four disciples of Vallabhacharya and four of Bitthalnath, who
+flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the _Asht Chhap_, or
+"Eight Seals," and are the acknowledged masters of the literature of
+Braj-bhasha, in which dialect they all wrote. Their names are
+Krishna-Das Pay-ahari, Sur Das (the Bhat), Parmanand Das, Kumbhan Das,
+Chaturbhuj Das, Chhit Swami, Nand Das and Gobind Das. Of these much the
+most celebrated, and the only one whose verses are still popular, is Sur
+Das. The son of Baba Ram Das, who was a singer at Akbar's court, Sur Das
+was descended, according to his own statement, from the bard of
+Prithwi-Raj, Chand Bardai. A tradition gives the date of his birth as
+1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both seem to be placed too
+early, and in Abul-Fazl's _Ain-i Akbari_ he is mentioned as living when
+that work was completed (1596/7). He was blind, and entirely devoted to
+the worship of Krishna, to whose address he composed a great number of
+hymns (_bhajans_), which have been collected in a compilation entitled
+the _Sur Sagar_, said to contain 60,000 verses; this work is very highly
+esteemed as the high-water mark of Braj devotional poetry, and has been
+repeatedly printed in India. Other compositions by him were a
+translation in verse of the _Bhagavata Purana_, and a poem dealing with
+the famous story of Nala and Damayanti; of the latter no copies are now
+known to exist.
+
+The great glory of this age is Tulsi Das (q.v.). He and Sur Das between
+them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of the poetic art. It
+is somewhat remarkable that the time of their appearance coincided with
+the Elizabethan age of English literature.
+
+To these great masters succeeded a period of artifice and reflection,
+when many works were composed dealing with the rules of poetry and the
+analysis and the appropriate language of sentiment. Of their writers the
+most famous is Kesab Das, a Brahman of Bundelkhand, who flourished
+during the latter part of Akbar's reign and the beginning of that of
+Jahangir. His works are the _Rasik-priya_, on composition (1591), the
+_Kavi-priya_, on the laws of poetry (1601), a highly esteemed poem
+dedicated to Parbin Rai Paturi, a celebrated courtesan of Orchha in
+Bundelkhand, the _Ramachandrika_, dealing with the history of Rama,
+(1610), and the _Vigyan-gita_ (1610). The fruit of this elaboration of
+the poetic art reached its highest perfection in BIHARI LAL, whose
+_Sat-sai_, or "seven centuries" (1662), is the most remarkable example
+in Hindi of the rhetorical style in poetry (see separate article).
+
+Side by side with this cultivation of the literary use of the themes of
+Rama and Krishna, there grew up a class of compositions dealing, in a
+devotional spirit, with the lives and doings of the holy men from whose
+utterances and example the development of the popular religion
+proceeded. The most famous of these is the _Bhakta-mala_, or "Roll of
+the _Bhagats_," by Narayan Das, otherwise called Nabha Das, or Nabhaji.
+This author, who belonged to the despised caste of Doms and was a native
+of the Deccan, had in his youth seen Tulsi Das at Mathura, and himself
+flourished in the first half of the 17th century. His work consists of
+108 stanzas in _chhappai_ metre, each setting forth the characteristics
+of some holy personage, and expressed in a style which is extremely
+brief and obscure. Its exact date is unknown, but it falls between 1585
+and 1623. The book was furnished with a _ika_ (supplement or gloss) in
+the _kabitta_ metre, by Priya Das in 1713, gathering up, in an allusive
+and disjointed fashion, all the legendary stories related of each saint.
+This again was expanded about a century later by a modern author named
+Lachhman into a detailed work of biography, called the _Bhakta-sindhu_.
+From these nearly all our knowledge (such as it is) of the lives of the
+Vaishnava authors, both of the Rama and the Krishna cults, is derived,
+and much of it is of a very legendary and untrustworthy character.
+Another work, somewhat earlier in date than the _Bhakta-mala_, named the
+_Chaurasi Varta_, is devoted exclusively to stories of the followers of
+Vallabhacharya. It is reputed to have been written by Gokulnath, son of
+Bitthalnath, son of Vallabhacharya, and is dated in 1551.
+
+  The matter of these tales is justly characterized by Professor
+  Wilson[13] (who gives some translated specimens) as "marvellous and
+  insipid anecdotes"; but the book is remarkable for being in very
+  artless prose, and, though written more than 300 years ago, shows that
+  the current language of Braj was then almost precisely identical with
+  that now spoken in that region. A specimen of the text will be found
+  at p. 296 of Mr F. S. Growse's _Mathura, a District Memoir_ (3rd ed.,
+  1883).
+
+It would be tedious to enumerate the many authors who succeeded the
+great period of Hind poetical composition which extended through the
+reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan. None of them attained to the
+fame of Sur Das, Tuls Das or Bihari Lal. Their themes exhibit no
+novelty, and they repeat with a wearisome monotony the sentiments of
+their predecessors. The list of Hindi authors drawn up by Dr G. A.
+Grierson, and printed in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_
+in 1889, may be consulted for the names and works of these _epigoni_.
+The courts of Chhatarsal, raja of Panna in Bundelkhand, who was killed
+in battle with Aurangzeb in 1658, and of several rajas of Bandho (now
+called Riwan or Rewah) in Baghelkhand, were famous for their patronage
+of poets; and the Mogul court itself kept up the office of _Kabi-Ray_ or
+poet laureate even during the fanatical reign of Aurangzeb.
+
+Such, in the briefest outline, is the character of Hind literature
+during the period when it grew and flourished through its own original
+forces. Founded by a popular and religious impulse in many respects
+comparable to that which, nearly 1600 years before, had produced the
+doctrine and literature, in the vernacular tongue, of Jainism and
+Buddhism, and cultivated largely (though by no means exclusively) by
+authors not belonging to the Brahmanical order, it was the legitimate
+descendant in spirit, as Hindi is the legitimate descendant in speech,
+of the Prakrit literature which preceded it. Entirely in verse, it
+adopted and elaborated the Prakrit metrical forms, and carried them to a
+pitch of perfection too often overlooked by those who concern themselves
+rather with the substance than the form of the works they read. It
+covers a wide range of style, and expresses, in the works of its
+greatest masters, a rich variety of human feeling. Little studied by
+Europeans in the past, it deserves much more attention than it has
+received. The few who have explored it speak of it as an "enchanted
+garden" (Grierson), abounding in beauties of thought and phrase. Above
+all it is to be remembered that it is genuinely popular, and has reached
+strata of society scarcely touched by literature in Europe. The ballads
+of Rajput prowess, the aphorisms of Kabir, Tulsi Das's _Ramayan_, and
+the _bhajans_ of Sur Das are to this day carried about everywhere by
+wandering minstrels, and have found their way, throughout the great
+plains of northern India and the uplands of the Vindhya plateau, to the
+hearts of the people. There is no surer key to unlock the confidence of
+the villager than an apt quotation from one of these inspired singers.
+
+3. _Literary Urdu._--The _origines_ of Urdu as a literary language are
+somewhat obscure. The popular account refers its rise to the time of
+Timur's invasion (1398). Some authors even claim for it a higher
+antiquity, asserting that a _diwan_, or collection of poems, was
+composed in _Rekhta_ by Mas'ud, son of Sa'd, in the last half of the
+11th or beginning of the 12th century, and that Sa'di of Shiraz and his
+friend Amir Khusrau[14] of Delhi likewise made verses in that dialect
+before the end of the 13th century. This, however, is very improbable.
+It has already been seen that during the early centuries of Muslim rule
+in India adherents of that faith used the language and metrical forms of
+the country for their compositions. Persian words early made their way
+into the popular speech; they are common in Chand, and in Kabir's verses
+(which are nevertheless unquestionable Hindi) they are in many places
+used as freely as in the modern dialect. Much of the confusion which
+besets the subject is due to the want of a clear understanding of what
+Urdu, as opposed to Hindi, really is.
+
+Urdu, as a literary language, differs from Hindi rather in its form than
+in its substance. The grammar, and to a large extent the vocabulary, of
+both are the same. The really vital point of difference, that in which
+Hindi and Urdu are incommensurable, is the _prosody_. Hardly one of the
+metres taken over by Urdu poets from Persian agrees with those used in
+Hindi. In the latter language it is the rule to give the short _a_
+inherent in every consonant or _nexus_ of consonants its full value in
+scansion (though in prose it is no longer heard), except occasionally at
+the metrical pause; in Urdu this is never done, the words being scanned
+generally as pronounced in prose, with a few exceptions which need not
+be mentioned here. The great majority of Hindi metres are scanned by the
+number of _matras_ or syllabic instants--the value in time of a short
+syllable--of which the lines consist; in Urdu, as in Persian, the metre
+follows a special order of long and short syllables.
+
+The question, then, is not When did Persian first become intermixed with
+Hindi in the literary speech?--for this process began with the first
+entry of Muslim conquerors into India, and continued for centuries
+before a line of Urdu verse was composed; nor When was the Persian
+character first employed to write Hindi?--for the written form is but a
+subordinate matter; as already mentioned, the MSS. of Malik Muhammad's
+purely Hindi poem, the _Padmawat_, are ordinarily found to be written in
+the Persian character; and copies lithographed in Devanagari of the
+popular compositions of the Urdu poet Nazir are commonly procurable in
+the bazars. We must ask When was the first verse composed in Hindi,
+whether with or without foreign admixture, according to the forms of
+Persian prosody, and not in those of the indigenous metrical system?
+Then, and not till then, did Urdu poetry come into being. This appears
+to have happened, as already mentioned, about the end of the 16th
+century. Meantime the vernacular speech had been gradually permeated
+with Persian words and phrases. The impulse which Akbar's interest in
+his Hindu subjects had given to the translation of Sanskrit works into
+Persian had brought the indigenous and the foreign literatures into
+contact. The current language of the neighbourhood of the capital, the
+Hindi spoken about Delhi and thence northwards to the Himalaya, was
+naturally the form of the vernacular which was most subject to foreign
+influences; and with the extension of Mogul territory by the conquests
+in the south of Akbar and his successors, this idiom was carried abroad
+by their armies, and was adopted by the Musalman kingdoms of the Deccan
+as their court language some time before their overthrow by the
+campaigns of Aurangzeb.
+
+It is not a little remarkable that, as happened with the Vaishnava
+reformation initiated by Ramanuja and Ramanand, and with the
+Vallabhacharya cult of Krishna established at Mathura, the first impulse
+to literary composition in Urdu should have been given, not at the
+headquarters of the empire in the north, but at the Muhammadan courts of
+Golkonda and Bijapur in the south, the former situated amid an
+indigenous population speaking Telugu, and the latter among one whose
+speech was Kanarese, both Dravidian languages having nothing in common
+with the Aryan tongues of the north. This fact of itself defines the
+nature of the literature thus inaugurated. It had nothing to do with the
+idiom or ideas of the people among whom it was born, but was from the
+beginning an imitation of Persian models. It adopted the standards of
+form and content current among the poets of Eran. The _qasida_ or
+laudatory ode, the _ghazal_ or love-sonnet, usually of mystical import,
+the _marsiya_ or dirge, the _masnavi_ or narrative poem with coupled
+rhymes, the _hija_ or satire, the _ruba'i_ or epigram--these were the
+types which Urdu took over ready-made. And with the forms were
+appropriated also all the conventions of poetic diction. The Persians,
+having for centuries treated the same themes with a fecundity which most
+Europeans find extremely wearisome, had elaborated a system of rhetoric
+and a stock of poetic images which, in the exhaustion of original
+matter, made the success of the poet depend chiefly upon dexterity of
+artifice and cleverness of conceit. Pleasing hyperbole, ingenious
+comparison, antithesis, alliteration, carefully arranged gradation of
+noun and epithet, are the means employed to obtain variety; and few of
+the most eloquent passages of later Persian verse admit of translation
+into any other language without losing that which in the original makes
+their whole charm. What is true of Persian is likewise true of Urdu
+poetry. Until quite modern times, there is scarcely anything in it which
+can be called original.[15] Differences of school, which are made much
+of by native critics, are to us hardly perceptible; they consist in the
+use of one or other range of metaphor or comparison, classed, according
+as they repeat the well-worn poetical stock-in-trade of the Persians, or
+seek a slightly fresher and more Indian field of sentiment, as the old
+or the new style of composition.
+
+  Shuja'uddin Nuri, a native of Gujarat, a friend of Faizi and
+  contemporary of Akbar, is mentioned by the native biographers as the
+  most ancient Urdu poet after Amir Khusrau. He was tutor of the son of
+  the _wazir_ of Sultan Abu-l-Hasan Kutb Shah of Golkonda, and several
+  _ghazals_ by him are said to survive. Kuli Kutb Shah of Golkonda, who
+  reigned from 1581, and his successor 'Abdullah Kutb Shah, who came to
+  the throne in 1611, have both left collections of verse, including
+  _ghazals_, _ruba'is_, _masnavis_ and _qasidas_. And during the reign
+  of the latter Ibn Nishati wrote two works which are still famous as
+  models of composition in Dakhni; they are _masnavis_ entitled the
+  _Tuti-nama_, or "Tales of a Parrot," and the _Phul-ban_. The first,
+  written in 1639, is an adaptation of a Persian work by Nakhshabi, but
+  derives ultimately from a Sanskrit original entitled the
+  _Suka-saptati_; this collection has been frequently rehandled in Urdu,
+  both in verse and prose, and is the original of the _Tota-Kahani_, one
+  of the first works in Urdu prose, composed in 1801 by Muhammad
+  Haidar-bakhsh Haidari of the Fort William College. The _Phul-ban_ is a
+  love tale named from its heroine, said to be translated from a Persian
+  work entitled the _Basatin_. Another famous work which probably
+  belongs to the same place and time is the _Story of Kamrup and Kala_
+  by Tahsinuddin, a _masnavi_ which has been published (1836) by M.
+  Garcin de Tassy; what makes this poem remarkable is that, though the
+  work of a Musalman, its personages are Hindu. Kamrup, the hero, is son
+  of the king of Oudh, and the heroine, Kala, daughter of the king of
+  Ceylon; the incidents somewhat resemble those of the tale of
+  as-Sindibad in the _Thousand and One Nights_; the hero and heroine
+  dream one of the other, and the former sets forth to find his beloved;
+  his wanderings take him to many strange countries and through many
+  wonderful adventures, ending in a happy marriage.
+
+  The court of Bijapur was no less distinguished in literature. Ibrahim
+  'Adil Shah (1579-1626) was the author of a work in verse on music
+  entitled the _Nau-ras_ or "Nine Savours," which, however, appears to
+  have been in Hindi rather than Urdu; the three prefaces (_dibajas_) to
+  this poem were rendered into Persian prose by Maula Zuhuri, and, under
+  the name of the _Sih nasr-i Zuhuri_, are well-known models of style. A
+  successor of this prince, 'Ali 'Adil Shah, had as his court poet a
+  Brahman known poetically as Nusrati, who in 1657 composed a _masnavi_
+  of some repute entitled the _Gulshan-i 'Ishq_, or "Rose-garden of
+  Love," a romance relating the history of Prince Manohar and
+  Madmalati,--like the _Kamrup_, an Indian theme. The same poet is
+  author of an extremely long _masnavi_ entitled the _'Ali-nama_,
+  celebrating the monarch under whom he lived.
+
+  These early authors, however, were but pioneers; the first generally
+  accepted standard of form, a standard which suffered little change in
+  two centuries, was established by Wali of Aurangabad (about 1680-1720)
+  and his contemporary and fellow-townsman Siraj. The former of these is
+  commonly called "the Father of Rekhtah"--_Baba-e Rekhta_; and all
+  accounts agree that the immense development attained by Urdu poetry in
+  northern India during the 18th century was due to his example and
+  initiative. Very little is known of Wali's life; he is believed to
+  have visited Delhi towards the end of the reign of Aurangzeb, and is
+  said to have there received instruction from Shah Gulshan in the art
+  of clothing in a vernacular dress the ideas of the Persian poets. His
+  _Kulliyat_ or complete works have been published by M. Garcin de
+  Tassy, with notes and a translation of selected passages (Paris,
+  1834-1836), and may be commended to readers desirous of consulting in
+  the original a favourable specimen of Urdu poetical composition.
+
+  The first of the Delhi school of poets was Zuhuruddin Hatim, who was
+  born in 1699 and died in 1792. In the second year of Muhammad Shah
+  (1719), the _diwan_ of Wali reached Delhi, and excited the emulation
+  of scholars there. Hatim was the first to imitate it in the Urdu of
+  the north, and was followed by his friends Naji, Mazmun and Abru. Two
+  _diwans_ by him survive. He became the founder of a school, and one of
+  his pupils was Rafi us-Sauda, the most distinguished poet of northern
+  India. Khan Arzu (1689-1756) was another of the fathers of Urdu poetry
+  in the north. This author is chiefly renowned as a Persian scholar, in
+  which language he not only composed much poetry, but one of the best
+  of Persian lexicons, the _Siraju-l-lughat_; but his compositions in
+  Urdu are also highly esteemed. He was the master of Mir Taqi, who
+  ranks next to Sauda as the most eminent Urdu poet. Arzu died at
+  Lucknow, whither he betook himself after the devastation of Delhi by
+  Nadir Shah (1739). Another of the early Delhi poets who is considered
+  to have surpassed his fellows was In'amullah Khan Yaqin, who died
+  during the reign of Ahmad Shah (1748-1754), aged only twenty-five.
+  Another was Mir Dard, pupil of the same Shah Gulshan who is said to
+  have instructed Wali; his _diwan_ is not long, but extremely popular,
+  and especially esteemed for the skill with which it develops the
+  themes of spiritualism. In his old age he became a _darwesh_ of the
+  _Naqshbandi_ following, and died in 1793.
+
+  Sauda and Mir Taqi are beyond question the most distinguished Urdu
+  poets. The former was born at Delhi about the beginning of the 18th
+  century, and studied under Hatim. He left Delhi after its devastation,
+  and settled at Lucknow, where the Nawab Asafuddaulah gave him a
+  _jagir_ of Rs. 6000 a year, and where he died in 1780. His poems are
+  very numerous, and cover all the styles of Urdu poetry; but it is to
+  his satires that his fame is chiefly due, and in these he is
+  considered to have surpassed all other Indian poets. Mir Taqi was born
+  at Agra, but early removed to Delhi, where he studied under Arzu; he
+  was still living there at the time of Sauda's death, but in 1782
+  repaired to Lucknow, where he likewise received a pension; he died at
+  a very advanced age in 1810. His works are very voluminous, including
+  no less than six _diwans_. Mir is counted the superior of Sauda in the
+  _ghazal_ and _masnavi_, while the latter excelled him in the satire
+  and _qasida_. Sayyid Ahmad, an excellent authority, and himself one of
+  the best of modern authors in Urdu, says of him in his
+  _Asaru-s-Sanadid_: "Mir's language is so pure, and the expressions
+  which he employs so suitable and natural, that to this day all are
+  unanimous in his praise. Although the language of Sauda is also
+  excellent, and he is superior to Mir in the point of his allusions, he
+  is nevertheless inferior to him in style."
+
+  The tremendous misfortunes which befell Delhi at the hands of Nadir
+  Shah (1739), Ahmad Shah Durrani (1756), and the Marathas (1759), and
+  the rapid decay of the Mogul empire under these repeated shocks,
+  transferred the centre of the cultivation of literature from that city
+  to Lucknow, the capital of the newly founded and flourishing state of
+  Oudh. It has been mentioned how Arzu, Sauda and Mir betook themselves
+  to this refuge and ended their days there; they were followed in their
+  new residence by a school of poets hardly inferior to those who had
+  made Delhi illustrious in the first half of the century. Here they
+  were joined by Mir Hasan (d. 1786), Mir Soz (d. 1800) and
+  Qalandar-bakhsh Jur'at (d. 1810), also like themselves refugees from
+  Delhi, and illustrious poets. Mir Hasan was a friend and collaborator
+  of Mir Dard, and first established himself at Faizabad and
+  subsequently at Lucknow; he excelled in the _ghazal_, _ruba'i_,
+  _masnavi_ and _marsiya_, and is counted the third, with Sauda and Mir
+  Taqi, among the most eminent of Urdu poets. His fame chiefly rests
+  upon a much admired _masnavi_ entitled the _Sihru-l-bayan_, or "Magic
+  of Eloquence," a romance relating the loves of Prince Bë-nazir and the
+  Princess Badr-i Munir; his _masnavi_ called the _Gulzar-i Iram_
+  ("Rose-garden of Iram," the legendary 'Adite paradise in southern
+  Arabia), in praise of Faizabad, is likewise highly esteemed. Mir
+  Muhammadi Soz was an elegant poet, remarkable for the success with
+  which he composed in the dialect of the harem called _Rekhti_, but
+  somewhat licentious in his verse; he became a _darwesh_ and renounced
+  the world in his later years. Jur'at was also a prolific poet, but,
+  like Soz, his _ghazals_ and _masnavis_ are licentious and full of
+  double meanings. He imitated Sauda in satire with much success; he
+  also cultivated Hindi poetry, and composed _dohas_ and _kabittas_.
+  Miskin was another Lucknow poet of the same period, whose _marsiyas_
+  are especially admired; one of them, that on the death of Muslim and
+  his two sons, is considered a masterpiece of this style of
+  composition. The school of Lucknow, so founded and maintained during
+  the early years of the century, continued to flourish till the
+  dethronement of the last king, Wajid 'Ali, in 1856. Atash and Nasikh
+  (who died respectively in 1847 and 1841) are the best among the modern
+  poets of the school in the _ghazal_; Mir Anis, a grandson of Mir
+  Hasan, and his contemporary Dabir, the former of whom died in December
+  1875 and the latter a few months later, excelled in the _marsiyah_.
+  Rajab Ali Beg Surur, who died in 1869, was the author of a
+  much-admired romance in rhyming prose entitled the _Fisanah-e 'Ajaib_
+  or "Tale of Marvels," besides a _diwan_. The dethroned prince Wajid
+  'Ali himself, poetically styled Akhtar, was also a poet; he published
+  three diwans, among them a quantity of poetry in the rustic dialect of
+  Oudh which is philologically of much interest.
+
+  Though Delhi was thus deserted by its brightest lights of literature,
+  it did not altogether cease to cultivate the poetic art. Among the
+  last Moguls several princes were themselves creditable poets. Shah
+  Alam II. (1761-1806) wrote under the name of Aftab, and was the author
+  of a romance entitled Manzum-i Aqdas, besides a _diwan_. His son
+  Sulaiman-shukoh, brother of Akbar Shah II., who had at first, like his
+  brother authors, repaired to Lucknow, returned to Delhi in 1815, and
+  died in 1838; he also has left a _diwan_. Lastly, his nephew Bahadur
+  Shah II., the last titular emperor of Delhi (d. 1862), wrote under the
+  name of Zafar, and was a pupil in poetry of Shaikh Ibrahim Zauq, a
+  distinguished writer; he has left a voluminous _diwan_, which has been
+  printed at Delhi. Mashafi (Ghulam-i Hamdani), who died about 1814, was
+  one of the most distinguished of the revived poetic school of Delhi,
+  and was himself one of its founders. Originally of Lucknow, he left
+  that city for Delhi in 1777, and held conferences of poets, at which
+  several authors who afterwards acquired repute formed their style; he
+  has left five _diwans_, a _Tazkira_ or biography of Urdu poets, and a
+  _Shah-nama_ or account of the kings of Delhi down to Shah 'Alam. Qaim
+  (Qiyamuddin 'Ali) was one of his society, and died in 1792; he has
+  left several works of merit. Ghalib, otherwise Mirza Asadullah Khan
+  Naushah, laureate of the last Mogul, who died in 1869, was undoubtedly
+  the most eminent of the modern Delhi poets. He wrote chiefly in
+  Persian, of which language, especially in the form cultivated by
+  Firdausi, free from intermixture of Arabic words, he was a master; but
+  his Urdu _diwan_, though short, is excellent in its way, and his
+  reputation spread far and wide. To this school, though he lived and
+  died at Agra, may be attached Mir Wali Muhammad Nazir (who died in the
+  year 1832); his _masnavis_ entitled _Jogi-nama_, _Kauri-nama_,
+  _Banjare-nama_, and _Burhape-nama_, as well as his _diwan_, have been
+  frequently reprinted, and are extremely popular. His language is less
+  artificial than that of the generality of Urdu poets, and some of his
+  poems have been printed in Nagari, and are as well known and as much
+  esteemed by Hindus as by Mahommedans. His verse is defaced by much
+  obscenity.
+
+4. _Modern Period._--While such, in outline, is the history of the
+literary schools of the Deccan, Delhi and Lucknow, a fourth, that of the
+Fort William College at Calcutta, was being formed, and was destined to
+give no less an impulse to the cultivation of Urdu prose than had a
+hundred years before been given to that of poetry by Wali. At the
+commencement of the 19th century Dr John Gilchrist was the head of this
+institution, and his efforts were directed towards getting together a
+body of literature suitable as text-books for the study of the Urdu
+language by the European officers of the administration. To his
+exertions we owe the elaboration of the vernacular as an official
+speech, and the possibility of substituting it for the previously
+current Persian as the language of the courts and the government. He
+gathered together at Calcutta the most eminent vernacular scholars of
+the time, and their works, due to his initiative, are still notable as
+specimens of elegant and serviceable prose composition, not only in
+Urdu, but also in Hindi. The chief authors of this school are Haidari
+(Sayyid Muhammad Haidar-bakhsh), Husaini (Mir Bahadur 'Ali), Mir Amman
+Lutf, Hafizuddin Ahmad, Sher 'Ali Afsos, Nihal Chand of Lahore, Kazim
+'Ali Jawan, Lallu Lal Kavi, Mazhar 'Ali Wila and Ikram 'Ali.
+
+  Haidari died in 1828. He composed the _Tota-Kahani_ (1801), a prose
+  redaction of the _Tuti-namah_ which has been already mentioned; a
+  romance named _Araish-i Mahfil_ ("Ornament of the Assembly"),
+  detailing the adventures of the famous Arab chief Hatim-i Tai; the
+  _Gul-i Maghfirat_ or _Dah Majlis_, an account of the holy persons of
+  the Muhammadan faith; the _Gulzar-i Danish_, a translation of the
+  _Bahar-i Danish_, a Persian work containing stories descriptive of the
+  craft and faithlessness of women; and the _Tarikh-i Nadiri_, a
+  translation of a Persian history of Nadir Shah. Husaini is the author
+  of an imitation in prose of Mir Hasan's _Sihru-l-bayan_, under the
+  name of _Nasr-i Benazir_ ("the Incomparable Prose," or "the Prose of
+  Benazir," the latter being the name of the hero), and of a work named
+  _Akhlaq-i Hindi_, or "Indian Morals," both composed in 1802. The
+  _Akhlaq-i Hindi_ is an adaptation of a Persian work called the
+  _Mufarrihu-l-qulub_ ("the Delighter of Hearts"), itself a version of
+  the _Hitopadesa_. Mir Amman was a native of Delhi, which he left in
+  the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani for Patna, and in 1801 repaired to
+  Calcutta. To him we owe the _Bagh o Bahar_ (1801-1802), an adaptation
+  of Amir Khusrau's famous Persian romance entitled the _Chahar
+  Darwesh_, or "Story of the Four Dervishes." Amman's work is not itself
+  directly modelled on the Persian, but is a rehandling of an almost
+  contemporary rendering by Tahsin of Etawa, called the _Nau-tarz-i
+  Murassa'_. The style of this composition is much admired by natives of
+  India, and editions of it are very numerous. Amman also composed an
+  imitation of Husain Wa'iz Kashifi's _Akhlaq-i Muhsini_ under the name
+  of the _Ganj-i Khubi_ ("Treasure of Virtue"), produced in 1802.
+  Hafizuddin Ahmad was a professor at the Fort William College; in 1803
+  he completed a translation of Abu-l-Fazl's _'Iyar-i Danish_, under the
+  name of the _Khirad-afroz_ ("Enlightener of the Understanding"). The
+  _'Iyar-i Danish_ ("Touchstone of Wisdom") is one of the numerous
+  imitations of the originally Sanskrit collection of apologues known in
+  Persian as the _Fables of Bidpai_, or _Kalilah and Dimna_. Afsos was
+  one of the most illustrious of the Fort William school; originally of
+  Delhi, he left that city at the age of eleven, and entered the service
+  of Qasim 'Ali Khan, Nawab of Bengal; he afterwards repaired to
+  Hyderabad in the Deccan, and thence to Lucknow, where he was the pupil
+  of Mir Hasan, Mir Soz and Mir Haidar 'Ali Hairan. He joined the Fort
+  William College in 1800, and died in 1809. He is the author of a much
+  esteemed diwan; but his chief reputation is founded on two prose works
+  of great excellence, the _Araish-i Mahfil_ (1805), an account of India
+  adapted from the introduction of the Persian _Khulasatu-t-tawarikh_ of
+  Sujan Rae, and the _Bagh-i Urdu_ (1808), a translation of Sa'di's
+  _Gulistan_. Nihal Chand translated into Urdu a _masnavi_, entitled the
+  _Gul-i Bakawali_, under the name of _Mazhab-i 'Ishq_ ("Religion of
+  Love"); this work is in prose intermingled with verse, was composed in
+  1804, and has been frequently reproduced. Jawan, like most of his
+  collaborators, was originally of Delhi and afterwards of Lucknow; he
+  joined the College in 1800. He is the author of a version in Urdu of
+  the well-known story of Sakuntala, under the name of _Sakuntala
+  Natak_; the Urdu was rendered from a previous Braj-bhasha version by
+  Nawaz Kabishwar made in 1716, and was printed in 1802. He also
+  composed a _Barah-masa_, or poetical description of the twelve months
+  (a very popular and often-handled form of composition), with accounts
+  of the various Hindu and Muhammadan festivals, entitled the _Dastur-i
+  Hind_ ("Usages of India"), printed in 1812. Ikram 'Ali translated,
+  under the name of the _Ikhwanu-s-safa_, or "Brothers of Purity"
+  (1810), a chapter of a famous Arabian collection of treatises on
+  science and philosophy entitled _Rasailu Ikhwani-s-safa_, and composed
+  in the 10th century. The complete collection, due to different writers
+  who dwelt at Basra, has recently been made known to European readers
+  by the translation of Dr F. Dieterici (1858-1879); the chapter
+  selected by Ikram 'Ali is the third, which records an allegorical
+  strife for the mastery between men and animals before the king of the
+  _Jinn_. The translation is written in excellent Urdu, and is one of
+  the best of the Fort William productions.
+
+  Sri Lallu Lal was a Brahman, whose family, originally of Gujarat, had
+  long been settled in northern India. What was done by the other Fort
+  William authors for Urdu prose was done by Lallu Lal almost alone for
+  Hindi. He may indeed without exaggeration be said to have created
+  "High Hindi" as a literary language. His _Prem Sagar_ and _Rajniti_,
+  the former a version in pure Hindi of the 10th chapter of the
+  _Bhagavata Purana_, detailing the history of Krishna, and founded on a
+  previous Braj-bhasha version by Chaturbhuj Misr, and the latter an
+  adaptation in Braj-bhasha prose of the _Hitopadesa_ and part of the
+  _Pancha-tantra_, are unquestionably the most important works in Hindi
+  prose. The _Prem Sagar_ was begun in 1804 and ended in 1810; it enjoys
+  immense popularity in northern India, has been frequently reproduced
+  in a lithographed form, and has several times been printed. The
+  _Rajniti_ was composed in 1809; it is much admired for its sententious
+  brevity and the purity of its language. Besides these two works, Lallu
+  Lal was the author of a collection of a hundred anecdotes in Hindi and
+  Urdu entitled _Lataif-i Hindi_, an anthology of Hindi verse called the
+  _Sabha-bilas_, a _Sat-sai_ in the style of Bihari-Lal called
+  _Sapta-satika_ and several other works. He and Jawan worked together
+  at the _Singhasan Battisi_ (1801), a redaction in mixed Urdu and Hindi
+  (Devanagari character) of a famous collection of legends relating the
+  prowess of King Vikramaditya; and he also aided the latter author in
+  the production of the _Sakuntala Natak_. Mazhar 'Ali Wila was his
+  collaborator in the _Baital Pachisi_, a collection of stories similar
+  in many respects to the _Singhasan Battisi_, and also in mixed
+  Urdu-Hindi; and he aided Wila in the preparation in Urdu of the _Story
+  of Madhonal_, a romance originally composed in Braj-bhasha by Moti
+  Ram.
+
+  The works of these authors, though compiled and published under the
+  superintendence of Dr Gilchrist, Captain Abraham Lockett, Professor J.
+  W. Taylor, Dr W. Hunter and other European officers of the college of
+  Fort William, and originally intended for the instruction of the
+  Company's officers in the vernacular, are essentially Indian in taste
+  and style, and, until superseded by the more recent developments of
+  literature noticed below, enjoyed a very wide reputation and
+  popularity. They may, indeed, be said to have set the standard of
+  prose composition in Urdu and Hindi, and for the first half of the
+  19th century their influence in this respect continued almost
+  unchallenged. Side by side with them, among the Musalman population of
+  northern India, another almost contemporaneous impulse did much for
+  the expansion of the Urdu language, and, like the work of the
+  Vaishnava reformers in moulding literary Hindi, gave an impetus to
+  composition which might otherwise have been lacking. This was the
+  reform in Islam led by Sayyid Ahmad[16] and his followers. In all
+  Eastern countries religion is the first and chief subject of literary
+  production; and the controversies which the new preaching aroused in
+  India at once afforded abundant material for authorship in Urdu, and
+  interested deeply the people to whom the works were addressed.
+
+  Sayyid Ahmad was born in 1782, and received his early education at
+  Delhi; his instructors were two learned Muslims, Shah 'Abdul-'Aziz,
+  author of a celebrated commentary on the Qur'an (the _Tafsir-i
+  'Aziziyyah_), and his brother 'Abdu-l-Qadir, the writer of the first
+  translation of the holy volume into Urdu. Under their guidance Sayyid
+  Ahmad embraced the doctrines of the Wahhabis, a sect whose preaching
+  appears at this time to have first reached India. He gathered round
+  him a large number of fervent disciples, among others Isma'il Haji,
+  nephew of 'Abdu-l'Aziz and 'Abdu-l-Qadir, the chief author of the
+  sect. After a course of preaching and apostleship at Delhi, Sayyid
+  Ahmad set out in 1820 for Calcutta, attended by numerous adherents.
+  Thence in 1822 he started on a pilgrimage to Mecca, whence he went to
+  Constantinople, and was there received with distinction and gained
+  many disciples. He travelled for nearly six years in Turkey and
+  Arabia, and then returned to Delhi. The religious degradation and
+  coldness which he found in his native country strongly impressed him
+  after his sojourn in lands where the life of Islam is stronger, and he
+  and his disciples established a propaganda throughout northern India,
+  reprobating the superstitions which had crept into the faith from
+  contact with Hindus, and preaching a _jihad_ or holy war against the
+  Sikhs. In 1828 he started for Peshawar, attended by, it is said,
+  upwards of 100,000 Indians, and accompanied by his chief followers,
+  Haji Isma'il and 'Abdu-l-Hayy. He was furnished with means by a
+  general subscription in northern India, and by several Muhammadan
+  princes who had embraced his doctrines. At the beginning of 1829 he
+  declared war against the Sikhs, and in the course of time made himself
+  master of Peshawar. The Afghans, however, with whom he had allied
+  himself in the contest, were soon disgusted by the rigour of his
+  creed, and deserted him and his cause. He fled across the Indus and
+  took refuge in the mountains of Pakhli and Dhamtor, where in 1831 he
+  encountered a detachment of Sikhs under the command of Sher Singh, and
+  in the combat he and Haji Isma'il were slain. His sect is, however, by
+  no means extinct; the Wahhabi doctrines have continued to gain ground
+  in India, and to give rise to much controversial writing, down to our
+  own day.
+
+  The translation of the Quran by 'Abdu-l-Qadir was finished in 1803,
+  and first published by Sayyid 'Abdullah, a fervent disciple of Sayyid
+  Ahmad, at Hughli in 1829. The _Tambihu-l-ghafilin_, or "Awakener of
+  the Heedless," a work in Persian by Sayyid Ahmad, was rendered into
+  Urdu by 'Abdullah, and published at the same press in 1830. Haji
+  Isma'il was the author of a treatise in Urdu entitled
+  _Taqwiyatu-l-Iman_ ("Confirmation of the Faith"), which had great
+  vogue among the following of the Sayyid. Other works by the disciples
+  of the _Tariqah-e Muhammadiyyah_ (as the new preaching was called) are
+  the _Targhib-i Jihad_ ("Incitation to Holy War"), _Hidayatu-l-Muminin_
+  ("Guide of the Believers"), _Muzihu-l-Kabair_ wa-l-Bid'ah ("Exposition
+  of Mortal Sins and Heresy"), _Naslhatu-l-Muslimin_ ("Admonition to
+  Muslims"), and the _Mi'at Masail_, or "Hundred Questions."
+
+  Printing was first used for vernacular works by the College Press at
+  Fort William, at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th
+  century, and all the compositions prepared for Dr Gilchrist and his
+  successors which have been mentioned were thus given to the public.
+  But the expense of this method of reproduction long precluded its
+  extensive use in India, and movable types, though well suited for
+  alphabets derived from the Sanskrit, were not equally applicable to
+  the flowing and graceful characters of Persian. Lithography was
+  introduced about 1837, when the first press was set up at Delhi, and
+  immediately gave a powerful stimulus to the multiplication of
+  literature, both original and editions of older works. In 1832 the
+  vernaculars were substituted for Persian as the official language of
+  the courts and the acts of the legislature, and this at once led to
+  the transfer to the former of a mass of technical and forensic terms
+  which had previously been only to a limited extent in popular use.
+  Thirdly, the spread of education in subjects of Western learning, for
+  which text-books (many of them translations from English) were
+  required, not only greatly enlarged the vocabulary of the common
+  speech, but led by degrees to the use of a simpler and more direct
+  style, and the abandonment wholesale of the florid and artificial
+  ornament which was the legacy of the Persian literature upon which
+  Urdu prose had at first modelled itself. Lastly, the establishment of
+  a vernacular newspaper press, which lithography had rendered possible,
+  placed within the reach of a continually widening public the means of
+  becoming acquainted with new ideas in every department of culture, and
+  practised the writers who contributed to it in the art of wielding
+  their mother-tongue with effect in its application to European themes.
+
+  All these revolutionary agencies were at work, though in a tentative
+  and limited fashion, when the great change, following on the Mutiny of
+  1857, of the transfer of the government of India from the Company to
+  the Crown inaugurated a new era. Since 1860 their operation has become
+  extremely rapid and far-reaching. The use of lithography both for Urdu
+  and Hindi annually gives birth to hundreds of works. The extension of
+  education through both public and private agency has created an
+  immense mass of school-books, and the spread of instruction in English
+  and the activity of translators have filled the vernaculars with a
+  multitude of new words drawn from that language. The newspaper press,
+  in Urdu and Hindi, now counts over two hundred journals, the majority
+  issued in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and in the Punjab, but
+  a few at Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bombay and Calcutta. Of this
+  great body of literary production it is possible to speak only in
+  general terms. Style and vocabulary are still in a somewhat fluid and
+  unsettled condition, and the subjects treated are almost as various as
+  they are in European literatures. Much, indeed, of the work produced
+  has scarcely any claim to literary excellence, and in the crowd of
+  writers we may content ourselves with mentioning only a few whose
+  influence and authority make it probable that they will hereafter be
+  known as leaders in the new culture.
+
+  One of the first effects of the new literary inspiration seemed to be
+  the extinction of poetical composition as previously practised. With
+  the deaths of Zauq (1854) and Ghalib (1869) of the Delhi school, and
+  those of Anis (1875) and Dabir (1876) of Lucknow, the end of Urdu
+  poetry appeared to have come. The new age was intensely practical and
+  eager to engage in the race for material and political advancement,
+  and had no time for sentiment, or taste for mystical conceits.
+  Moreover, poetical composition in India, as in other Eastern
+  countries, has always owed much to the patronage of courts and
+  princes. The thrones of Delhi and Lucknow had passed away, and the new
+  rulers showed little interest in this form of achievement. Only at
+  Hyderabad in the Deccan, under the patronage of the Nizam, were
+  laureates still honoured; the last of these, Mirza Khan Dagh
+  (1831-1905), enjoyed a wide reputation as a graceful and eloquent
+  master of the poetic art.
+
+  But prose and material prosperity did not succeed in monopolizing the
+  genius of the people. The great movement of reform and liberalism in
+  Islam led by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) found its bard in
+  Sayyid Altaf Husain of Panipat, poetically styled Hali--an ambiguous
+  _nom-de-plume_ now generally taken in the sense of "modern," or
+  "up-to-date." Hali in his youth was a pupil of the famous Ghalib,
+  whose life he has written and of whose writings he has published an
+  able criticism. At the age of forty he came under the influence of Sir
+  Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and from that time devoted his great poetic gifts
+  to the service of his co-religionists. He has published much verse, of
+  which an interesting specimen will be found in the edition of his
+  _Ruba'is_ or quatrains (101 in number), with an English translation,
+  by Mr G. E. Ward (Oxford, 1904); in this is included a famous poem
+  addressed to his muse, setting forth his ideals in poetry--simplicity,
+  avoidance of exaggeration and unreality, direct and emotional appeal
+  to the heart, and above all sincerity. There can be no doubt that he
+  has succeeded in becoming the leader of a new poetic school, which
+  shows much vigour and promise.
+
+  Perhaps the most memorable of all Hali's compositions is his long poem
+  in six-line stanzas (called _musaddas_) on "the flow and ebb of Islam"
+  (1879), which has had an extraordinary influence in stimulating
+  enthusiasm in the cause of progress among the Musalmans of the north
+  of India. In it he draws, in simple and direct but searching and
+  eloquent language, a rapid sketch of the glories of Islam in the past,
+  its principles and precepts, and the sources of its strength; and then
+  turns to contrast with this picture the degradation and decay into
+  which it had, when he wrote, fallen in Hindostan. Never have the vices
+  and shortcomings of a people been lashed by one of themselves with
+  more vigorous denunciation, or with more earnestness of moral purpose.
+  In his preface he explains how the poem came to be written--after a
+  youth spent in heedlessness and unsettlement, at the instigation of
+  Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and in the cause of that great reformer. The
+  poem is still recited and imitated by Muslims in the Punjab and United
+  Provinces, though the picture which it presents of Indian Musalmans is
+  no longer wholly applicable to the community. Hali has recently
+  completed a life of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan in two volumes, entitled
+  _Hayat-i Javid_ ("eternal life"), a work of great merit.
+
+  Another writer whose work, though chiefly in prose, deals with poetry
+  and poetic style, is Maulavi Muhammad Husain Azad, lately professor of
+  Arabic at the Government College, Lahore. He has not himself composed
+  much verse; but his biographies of Urdu poets, with criticisms of
+  their works, entitled _Äb-i Hayat_ ("Water of Life," Lahore, 1883), is
+  by far the best book dealing with the subject. His prose style is much
+  admired. As Hali was the pupil of Ghalib, so was Azad that of Zauq, of
+  whose poems he has published a revised and annotated edition. His
+  other works in prose are _Qisas-i Hind_, episodes of Indian history
+  arranged for schools; _Nairang-i Khayal_, an allegory dealing with
+  human life; and _Darbar-i Akbari_, an account of the reign of Akbar.
+
+  Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's life and work are dealt with elsewhere. Among
+  his literary achievements may be mentioned the _Asarus-Sanadid_
+  ("Vestiges of Princes"), an excellent account of Delhi and its
+  monuments, which has passed through several editions since it was
+  first lithographed in 1847. His essays and occasional papers,
+  published in the _Aligarh Institute Gazette_ (started in 1864), and
+  afterwards (from 1870 onwards) in a periodical entitled
+  _Tahzibul-Akhlaq_ (or "Muhammadan Social Reformer"), handle all the
+  problems of religious, social and educational advancement among Indian
+  Musalmans--the cause with which his life was identified. His great
+  _Commentary on the Qur'an_, in seven volumes, the last finished only a
+  few days before his death in 1898, is carried to the end of Surah xx.,
+  a little more than half the book. In him Urdu prose found its most
+  powerful wielder for the diffusion of modern ideas, and the movement
+  which he set on foot has been the spring of the best literature in the
+  language during recent years.
+
+  Another excellent writer of Urdu is Shamsul-'Ulama Maulavi Nazir Ahmad
+  of Delhi, who is the author of a series of novels describing domestic
+  life, of a somewhat didactic character, which have had a wide
+  popularity, and from their admirable moral tone have been specially
+  serviceable in the education of Indian women. These are entitled the
+  _Mir'atul-'Arus_ (or "Brides' Mirror"); _Taubatun-Nasuh_ ("the
+  Repentance of Nasuh"), _Banatun-Na'sh_ ("the Seven Stars of the Great
+  Bear"), _Ibnul-Waqt_ ("Son of the Age"), and _Ayama_ ("Widows"). But
+  Nazir Ahmad is a man of many sides; before he took to novel-writing he
+  was the principal translator into Urdu of the _Indian Penal Code_
+  (1861), which is reckoned a masterpiece in the exact rendering of
+  European legal ideas; and more lately he gave to the world the best
+  Urdu version of the Quran. He has been a popular lecturer on social
+  subjects, displaying a rich vein of humour, and in his old age even
+  ventured upon verse. During the latter portion of his life he was most
+  closely associated with Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
+
+  The novel is one of the most noteworthy features of recent literary
+  composition in Urdu. India has from time immemorial been rich in
+  stories and romances of adventure; but the description of actual life
+  and character in action, as the modern novel is understood in Europe,
+  is quite a new development. The most admired production of this kind
+  in Urdu is a work entitled _Fisana-e Azad_, by Pandit Ratan-nath
+  Sarshar of Lucknow. The story, which is very long, is remarkable for
+  the faithful and vivid pictures of Lucknow society which it presents,
+  and its exact and lifelike delineation of character; it appeared
+  originally as a _feuilleton_ of the _Awadh Akhbar_, of which paper the
+  author was at the time editor. Another good writer in the same branch
+  of literature is Maulavi 'Abdul-Halim Sharar, also a native of the
+  neighbourhood of Lucknow, but settled at Hyderabad. He was editor of a
+  monthly periodical called the _Dil-gudaz_ ("melter of hearts"), which
+  contained essays and papers in European style, and in it his novels,
+  which are all of an historical character, in the style of Sir Walter
+  Scott, originally appeared. The best are _'Aziz and Virgina_, a tale
+  of the Crusades, and _Mansur and Mohina_, a story of which the scene
+  is laid in India at the time of the invasions of Sultan Mahmud of
+  Ghazni.
+
+  Although Urdu chiefly represents Musalman culture, its use is by no
+  means confined to adherents of that faith. It has just been mentioned
+  that the most popular Urdu novelist is a Hindu (a Brahman from
+  Kashmir); and the statistics of the vernacular press show that this
+  form of the language is widely used by Hindus as well as Musalmans.
+  Thus, of eighty periodicals in Urdu published in the United Provinces,
+  twenty-nine are conducted by Hindus; similarly, in the Punjab, of
+  forty-eight Urdu journals, twenty are edited by Hindus.
+
+  "High Hindi" has scarcely adapted itself to modern requirements with
+  the thoroughness displayed by Urdu. It is taught in the schools where
+  the population is mainly Hindu, and books of science have been written
+  in it with a terminology borrowed from Sanskrit, in place of the
+  Persian terms used in the other dialect. But Sanskrit is far removed
+  from the daily life of the people, and the majority of works in this
+  style are read only by Pandits, the great bulk of them dealing with
+  religion, philosophy and the ancient literature. There are
+  thirty-seven Hindi and four Hindi-Urdu journals in the United
+  Provinces; but many of them are exclusively religious in their
+  character, and several, though written in Devanagari, employ a mixed
+  language which admits Persian words freely. The old dialects of
+  literature, Awadhi and Braj-bhasha, are now only used for poetry; High
+  Hindi has been a complete failure for this purpose.
+
+  The most noticeable authors in Hindi since the middle of the 19th
+  century have been Babu Harishchandra and Raja Siva Prasad, both of
+  Benares. The former, during his short life (1850-1885), was an
+  enthusiastic cultivator of the old poetic art, using the dialects just
+  mentioned. He published in the _Sundari Tilak_ an anthology of the
+  best Hindi poetry, and in the _Kabi-bachan-Sudha_ ("ambrosia of the
+  words of poets") and the magazine called _Harishchandrika_ a quantity
+  of old texts, with much added matter. He also wrote a volume of
+  biographies of famous men, European and Indian, and many critical
+  studies, historical and literary. In history especially he cleared up
+  many problems, and traced the lines for further investigation. In his
+  _Kashmir Kusum_, or history of Kashmir, a list is given of about a
+  hundred works by him. He was also the real founder of the modern Hindi
+  drama; he wrote plays himself, and inspired others. Raja Siva Prasad
+  (1823-1895) served for many years in the educational department, and
+  published a number of works intended for use in schools, which have
+  greatly contributed to the formation of a sound vernacular form of
+  Hindi, not excessively Sanskritized, and not rejecting current Persian
+  forms. The society at Benares called the _Nagari Pracharini Sabha_
+  ("Society for promoting the use of the Nagari character") has, since
+  the death of Harishchandra, been active in procuring the publication
+  of works in Hindi, and has issued many useful books, besides
+  conducting a systematic search for old MSS.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best account in English of Hindi literature is Dr
+  G. A. Grierson's _Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindostan_, issued
+  by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889; the dates in this work,
+  which is founded on indigenous compilations, have, however, in many
+  cases to be received with caution. Before it appeared, Garcin de
+  Tassy's _Histoire de la littérature Hindouie et Hindoustanie_, and his
+  annual summaries of the progress made from 1850 to 1877, were our
+  chief authority, and may still be consulted with advantage. For the
+  religious literature of the Vaishnava sects, Professor H. H. Wilson's
+  _Essay on the Religious Sects of the Hindus_ (vol. i. of his collected
+  works) has not yet been superseded.
+
+  For Urdu poets, Professor Azad's _Ab-i Hayat_ (in Urdu) is the most
+  trustworthy record. For the new school of Urdu literature reference
+  may be made to a series of lectures (in English) by Shaikh
+  'Abdul-Qadir of Lahore, printed in 1898. The catalogues by Professor
+  Blumhardt of Hindostani and Hindi books in the libraries of the
+  British Museum and the India Office will give a good idea of the
+  volume of the recent productions of the press in those languages.
+       (C. J. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Urdu_ is a Turkish word meaning a camp or army with its
+    followers, and is the origin of the European word _horde_. _Rekhta_
+    means "scattered, strewn," referring to the way in which Persian
+    words are intermixed with those of Indian origin; it is used chiefly
+    for the literary form of Urdu.
+
+  [2] The only known exceptions are a work in Hindi called the
+    _Chaurasi Varta_ (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems;
+    the latter can scarcely be called literature.
+
+  [3] A fresh critical edition of the text by Pandit Mohan Lal Vishnu
+    Lal Pandia at Benares, under the auspices of the _Nagari Pracharini
+    Sabha_, had reached canto xxiv. in 1907.
+
+  [4] See _J.A.S.B._ (1886), pp. 6 sqq.
+
+  [5] _Annals and Antiquities_, ii. 452 n. and 472 n.
+
+  [6] Worshippers of the energic power--_Sakti_--of Siva, represented
+    by his consort Parvati or Bhawaní.
+
+  [7] Quoted from G. A. Grierson, chapter on "Literature," in the
+    _India Gazetteer_ (ed. 1907).
+
+  [8] The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 300 B.C.),
+    who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathura on
+    the Jumna river. That of Rama is probably still more ancient; the
+    name occurs in stories of the Buddha.
+
+  [9] _Religious Sects of the Hindus_, p. 40.
+
+  [10] This name of Krishna, which means "He who quits the battle," is
+    connected with the story of the transfer of the Yadava clan from
+    Mathura to the new capital on the coast of the peninsula of
+    Kathiawar, the city of Dwaraka. This migration was the result of an
+    invasion of Braj by Jarasandha, king of Magadha, before whom Krishna
+    resolved to retreat. As his path southwards took him through
+    Rajputana and Gujarat, it is in these regions that his form Ranchhor
+    is most generally venerated as a symbol of the shifting of the centre
+    of divine life from Gangetic to southern India.
+
+  [11] In the _Granth_ Namdeo is called a calico-printer, _Chhipi_. The
+    Marathi tradition is that he was a tailor, _Shimpi_; it is probable
+    that the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been
+    wrongly rendered by the former.
+
+  [12] It will be remembered that Akbar's reign was remarkable for the
+    translation into Persian of a large number of Sanskrit works of
+    religion and philosophy, most of the versions being made by, or in
+    the names of, members of his court.
+
+  [13] _Religious Sects_, p. 132.
+
+  [14] Amir Khusrau is credited with the authorship of many still
+    popular rhymes, riddles or punning verses (called _pahelis_ and
+    _mukuris_); but these, though often containing Persian words, are in
+    Hindi and scanned according to the prosody of that language; they
+    are, therefore, like Malik Muhammad's _Padmawat_, not Urdu or Rekhta
+    verse (see Professor Azad's _Abi-Hayat_, pp. 72-76). A late Dakkhani
+    poet who used the _takkallus_ of Sa'di is said by Azad (p. 79) to
+    have been confused by Mirza Rafi'us-Sauda in his _Tazkira_ with Sa'di
+    of Shiraz.
+
+  [15] An exception may be made to this general statement in favour of
+    the _genre_ pictures of city and country life contained in the
+    _masnavis_ of Sauda and Nazir. These are often satires (in the vein
+    of Horace rather than Juvenal), and are full of interest as pictures
+    of society. In Sauda, however, the conventional language used in
+    description is often Persian rather than Indian.
+
+  [16] To be carefully distinguished from the reformer of the same name
+    who flourished half a century later.
+
+
+
+
+HINDU CHRONOLOGY. The subject of Hindu chronology divides naturally into
+three parts: the calendar, the eras, and other reckonings.
+
+
+I. THE CALENDAR
+
+The Hindus have had from very ancient times the system of lunisolar
+cycles, made by the combination of solar years, regulated by the course
+of the sun, and lunar years, regulated by the course of the moon, but
+treated in such a manner as to keep the beginning of the lunar year near
+the beginning of the solar year. The exact manner in which they arranged
+the details of their earliest calendar is still a subject of research.
+We deal here with their calendar as it now stands, in a form which was
+developed from about A.D. 400 under the influence of the Greek astronomy
+which had been introduced into India at no very long time previously.
+
+The Hindu calendar, then, is determined by years of two kinds, solar and
+lunar. For civil purposes, solar years are used in Bengal, including
+Orissa, and in the Tamil and Malayalam districts of Madras, and lunar
+years throughout the rest of India. But the lunar year regulates
+everywhere the general religious rites and festivals, and the details of
+private and domestic life, such as the selection of auspicious occasions
+for marriages and for starting on journeys, the choice of lucky moments
+for shaving, and so on. Consequently, the details of the lunar year are
+shown even in the almanacs which follow the solar year. On the other
+hand, certain details of the solar year, such as the course of the sun
+through the signs and other divisions of the zodiac, are shown in the
+almanacs which follow the lunar year. We will treat the solar year
+first, because it governs the lunisolar system, and the explanation of
+it will greatly simplify the process of explaining the lunar calendar.
+
+
+  The astronomical solar year.
+
+The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical solar year. The
+latter professes to begin at the vernal equinox, but the actual position
+is as follows. In our Western astronomy the signs of the zodiac have, in
+consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, drawn away to a large
+extent from the constellations from which they derived their names; with
+the result that the sun now comes to the vernal equinox, at the first
+point of the sign Aries, not in the constellation Aries, but at a point
+in Pisces, about 28 degrees before the beginning of Aries. The Hindus,
+however, have disregarded precession in connexion with their calendar
+from the time (A.D. 499, 522, or 527, according to different schools)
+when, by their system, the signs coincided with the constellations; and
+their sign Aries, called Mesha by them, is still their constellation
+Aries, beginning, according to them, at or near the star [zeta] Piscium.
+Their astronomical solar year is, in fact, not the tropical year, in the
+course of which the sun really passes from one vernal equinox to the
+next, but a sidereal year, the period during which the earth makes one
+revolution in its orbit round the sun with reference to the first point
+of Mesha; its beginning is the moment of the Mesha-samkranti, the
+entrance of the sun into the sidereal sign Mesha, instead of the
+tropical sign Aries; and it begins, not with the true equinox, but with
+an artificial or nominal equinox.
+
+The length of this sidereal solar year was determined in the following
+manner. The astronomer selected what the Greeks termed an _exeligmos_,
+the Romans an _annus magnus_ or _mundanus_, a period in the course of
+which a given order of things is completed by the sun, moon, and planets
+returning to a state of conjunction from which they have started. The
+usual Hindu _exeligmos_ has been the Great Age of 4,320,000 sidereal
+solar years, the aggregate of the Krita or golden age, the Treta or
+silver age, the Dvapara or brazen age, and the Kali or iron age, in
+which we now are; but it has sometimes been the Kalpa or aeon,
+consisting according to one view of 1000, according to another view of
+1008, Great Ages. He then laid down the number of revolutions, in the
+period of his _exeligmos_, of the _nakshatras_, certain stars and groups
+of stars which will be noticed more definitely in our account of the
+lunar year; that is, the number of rotations of the earth on its axis,
+or, in other words, the number of sidereal days. A deduction of the
+number of the years from the number of the sidereal days gave, as
+remainder, the number of civil days in the _exeligmos_. And, this
+remainder being divided by the number of the years, the quotient gave
+the length of the sidereal solar year: refinements, suggested by
+experience, inference, or extraneous information, were made by
+increasing or decreasing the number of sidereal days assigned to the
+_exeligmos_. The Hindus now recognize three standard sidereal solar
+years determined in that manner. (1) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min.
+30 sec. according to the _Aryabhatiya_, otherwise called the _First
+Arya-Siddhanta_, which was written by the astronomer Aryabhata (b. A.D.
+476): this year is used in the Tamil and Malayalam districts, and, we
+may add, in Ceylon. (2) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30.915 sec.
+according to the _Rajamriga ka_, a treatise based on the
+_Brahma-Siddhanta_ of Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598) and attributed to king
+Bhoja, of which the epoch, the point of time used in it for
+calculations, falls in A.D. 1042: this year is used in parts of Gujarat
+(Bombay) and in Rajputana and other western parts of Northern India. (3)
+A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 36.56 sec. according to the present
+_Surya-Siddhanta_, a work of unknown authorship which dates from
+probably about A.D. 1000: this year is used in almost all the other
+parts of India. It may be remarked that, according to modern science,
+the true mean sidereal solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.6
+sec., and the mean tropical year measures 365 days 5 hrs. 48 min.
+46.054440 sec.
+
+The result of the use of this sidereal solar year is that the beginning
+of the Hindu astronomical solar year, and with it the civil solar year
+and the lunar year and the nominal incidence of the seasons, has always
+been, and still is, travelling slowly forward in our calendar year by an
+amount which varies according to the particular authority.[1] For
+instance, Aryabhata's year exceeds the Julian year by 12 min. 30 sec.
+This amounts to exactly one day in 115(1/5) years, and five days in 576
+years. Thus, if we take the longer period and confine ourselves to a
+time when the Julian calendar (old style) was in use, according to
+Aryabhata the Mesha-samkranti began to occur in A.D. 603 on 20th March,
+and in A.D. 1179 on 25th March. The intermediate advances arrange
+themselves into four steps of one day each in 116 years, followed by one
+step of one day in 112 years: thus, the Mesha-samkranti began to occur
+on 21st March in A.D. 719, on 22nd March in A.D. 835, on 23rd March in
+A.D. 951, and on 24th March in A.D. 1067 (whence 112 years take us to
+25th March in A.D. 1179). It is now occurring sometimes on 11th April,
+sometimes on the 12th; having first come to the 12th in A.D. 1871.
+
+
+  The civil solar year.
+
+The civil solar year exists in more varieties than one. The principal
+variety, conveniently called the Meshadi year, i.e. "the year beginning
+at the Mesha-samkranti," is the only one that we need notice at this
+point. The beginning of it is determined directly by the astronomical
+solar year; and for religious purposes it begins, with that year, at the
+moment of the Mesha-samkranti. Its first civil day, however, may be
+either the day on which the _samkranti_ occurs, or the next day, or even
+the day after that: this is determined partly by the time of day or
+night at which the _samkranti_ occurs, which, moreover, of course varies
+in accordance with the locality as well as the particular authority that
+is followed; partly by differing details of practice in different parts
+of the country. In these circumstances an exact equivalent of the
+Meshadi civil solar year cannot be stated; but it may be taken as now
+beginning on or closely about the 12th of April.
+
+
+    The solar month.
+
+  The solar year is divided into twelve months, in accordance with the
+  successive _samkrantis_ or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal)
+  signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are twelve in number. The
+  names of the signs in Sanskrit are as follows: Mesha, the ram (Aries);
+  Vrishabha, the bull (Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini);
+  Karka, Karkata, Karkataka, the crab (Cancer); Simha, the lion (Leo);
+  Kanya, the maiden (Virgo); Tula, the scales (Libra); Vrischika, the
+  scorpion (Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius); Makara, the
+  sea-monster (Capricornus); Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius); and Mina,
+  the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some parts by the
+  names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them; and these are the
+  best names for them for general use, because they lead to no
+  confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of names, preserving
+  the connexion of them with the lunar months: the Sanskrit forms of
+  these names are Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyaishtha, Ashadha, Sravana,
+  Bhadrapada, Asvina or Asvayuja, Karttika, Margasira or Margasirsha
+  (also known as Agrahayana), Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna: in some
+  localities these names are used in corrupted forms, and in others
+  vernacular names are substituted for some of them; and, while in some
+  parts the name Chaitra is attached to the month Mesha, in other parts
+  it is attached to the month Mina, and so on throughout the series in
+  each case. The astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one
+  _samkranti_ of the sun to the moment of the next _samkranti_; and, as
+  the signs of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as
+  with us, while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its
+  orbit round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the
+  length of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the
+  longest is Mithuna. The civil solar month begins with its first civil
+  day, which is determined, in different localities, in the same manner
+  with the first civil day of the Meshadi year, as indicated above. The
+  civil month is of variable length; partly for that reason, partly
+  because of the variation in the length of the astronomical month. No
+  exact equivalents of the civil months, therefore, can be stated; but,
+  speaking approximately, we may say that, while the month Mesha now
+  begins on or closely about 12th April, the beginning of a subsequent
+  month may come as late as the 16th day of the English month in which
+  it falls.
+
+
+    The seasons.
+
+  The solar year is also divided into six seasons, the Sanskrit names of
+  which are Vasanta, spring; Grishma, the hot weather; Varsha, the rainy
+  season; Sarad, autumn; Hemanta, the cold weather; and Sisira, the dewy
+  season. Vasanta begins at the Mina-samkranti; the other seasons begin
+  at each successive second _samkranti_ from that. Originally, this
+  scheme was laid out with reference to the true course of the sun, and
+  the starting-point of it was the real winter solstice, with Sisira, as
+  the first season, beginning then; now, owing partly to the disregard
+  of precession, partly to our introduction of New Style, each season
+  comes about three weeks too late; Vasanta begins on or about 12th
+  March, instead of 19th or 20th February, and so on with the rest. It
+  may be added that in early times the year was also divided into three
+  or four, and even into five or seven, seasons; and there appears to
+  have been also a practice of reckoning the seasons according to the
+  lunar months, which, however, would only give a very varying
+  arrangement, in addition to neglecting the point that the seasons are
+  naturally determined by the course of the sun, not of the moon. But
+  there is now recognized only the division into six seasons, determined
+  as stated above.
+
+
+    The solstitial divisions of the year.
+
+  The solar year is also divided into two parts called Uttarayana, the
+  period during which the sun is moving to the north, and Dakshinayana,
+  the period during which it is moving to the south. The Uttarayana
+  begins at the nominal winter solstice, as marked by the
+  Makara-samkranti; and the day on which this solstice occurs, usually
+  12th January at present, is still a special occasion of festivity and
+  rejoicing; the Dakshinayana begins at the nominal summer solstice, as
+  marked by the Karka-samkranti. It may be added here that, while the
+  Hindus disregard precession in the actual computation of their years
+  and the regulation of their calendar, they pay attention to it in
+  certain other respects, and notably as regards the solstices: the
+  precessional solstices are looked upon as auspicious occasions, as
+  well as the non-precessional solstices, and are customarily shown in
+  the almanacs; and some of the almanacs show also the other
+  precessional _samkrantis_ of the sun.
+
+
+    The civil day.
+
+  The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are numbered
+  1, 2, 3, &c., in unbroken succession to the end of the month. And, the
+  length of the month being variable for the reasons stated above, the
+  number of the civil days may range from twenty-nine to thirty-two.
+
+
+    The weekday.
+
+  The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual
+  appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some of the
+  names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit Adityavara or
+  Ravivara, the day of the sun, sometimes called Adivara, the
+  beginning-day (Sunday); Somavara, the day of the moon (Monday);
+  Mangalavara, the day of Mars (Tuesday); Budhavara, the day of Mercury
+  (Wednesday); Brihas-pativara or Guruvara, the day of Jupiter
+  (Thursday); Sukravara, the day of Venus (Friday); and Sanivara, the
+  day of Saturn (Saturday). It may be mentioned, as a matter of
+  archaeological interest, that, while some of the astronomical books
+  perhaps postulate an earlier knowledge of the "lords of the days," and
+  other writings indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven
+  days, the first proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is
+  of the year A.D. 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor
+  district, Central India.
+
+
+    Divisions of the day.
+
+  The divisions of the civil day, as far as we need note them, are 60
+  _vipalas_ = 1 _pala_ = 24 seconds; 60 _palas_ = 1 _ghatika_ = 24
+  minutes; 60 _ghatikas_ = 24 hours = 1 day. There is also the _muhurta_
+  = 2 _ghatikas_ = 48 minutes: this is the nearest approach to the
+  "hour." The comparative value of these measures of time may perhaps be
+  best illustrated thus: 2½ _muhurtas_ = 2 hours; 2½ _ghatikas_ = 1
+  hour; 2½ _palas_ = 1 minute; 2½ _vipalas_ = 1 second.
+
+
+    Civil time.
+
+  As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count all
+  their times, in _ghatikas_ and _palas_, from that moment. But the
+  moment is a varying one, though not in India to anything like the
+  extent to which it is so in European latitudes; and under the British
+  Government the Hindus have recognized the advantage, and in fact the
+  necessity, especially in connexion with their lunar calendar, of
+  having a convenient means of referring their own times to the time
+  which prevails officially. Consequently, some of the almanacs have
+  adopted the European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours
+  and minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset
+  from noon.
+
+
+  The lunar year.
+
+The lunar year consists primarily of twelve lunations or lunar months,
+of which the present Sanskrit names, generally used in more or less
+corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c., to Phalguna, as given above
+in connexion with the solar months. It is of two principal varieties,
+according as it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or with
+the corresponding day in Karttika: the former variety is conveniently
+known as the Chaitradi year; the latter as the Karttikadi year. For
+religious purposes the lunar year begins with its first lunar day: for
+civil purposes it begins with its first civil day, the relation of which
+to the lunar day will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which,
+as we shall explain, the beginning of the lunar year is always shifting
+backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay down any close
+equivalents for comparison: but an indication may be given as follows.
+The first civil day of the Chaitradi year is the day after the new-moon
+conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Mina,
+and it now falls from about 13th March to about 11th April: the first
+civil day of the Karttikadi year is the first day after the new-moon
+conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Tula,
+and it now falls from about 17th October to about 15th November.
+
+
+    The lunar month.
+
+  The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were derived
+  from the _nakshatras_, which are certain conspicuous stars and groups
+  of stars lying more or less along the neighbourhood of the ecliptic.
+  The _nakshatras_ are regarded sometimes as twenty-seven in number,
+  sometimes as twenty-eight, and are grouped in twelve sets of two or
+  three each, beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the
+  list, with the pair Krittika and Rohini, and including in the sixth
+  place Chitra and Svati, and ending with the triplet Revati, Asvini and
+  Bharani. They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes
+  spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac; and it is, no doubt,
+  chiefly in connexion with the moon that they are now taken into
+  consideration. But they mark divisions of the ecliptic: according to
+  one system, twenty-seven divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes;
+  according to two other systems, twenty-seven or twenty-eight unequal
+  divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs show the
+  course of the sun through them, as well as the course of the moon; and
+  the course of the sun was marked by them only, before the time when
+  the Hindus began to use the twelve signs of the solar zodiac. So there
+  is nothing exclusively lunar about them. The present names of the
+  lunar months were derived from the _nakshatras_ in the following
+  manner: the full-moon which occurred when the moon was in conjunction
+  with Chitra (the star [alpha] Virginis) was named Chaitri, and the
+  lunar month, which contained the Chaitri full-moon, was named Chaitra;
+  and so on with the others. The present names have superseded another
+  set of names which were at one time in use concurrently with them;
+  these other names are Madhu (= Chaitra), Madhava, Sukra, Suchi,
+  Nabhas, Nabhasya, Isha, Urja (= Karttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and
+  Tapasya (= Phalguna): they seem to have marked originally solar
+  season-months of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar
+  year.
+
+  A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new-moon,
+  which is called _amavasya_, or with the full-moon, which is called
+  _purnamasi_, _purnima_: a month of the former kind is termed _amanta_,
+  "ending with the new-moon," or _sukladi_, "beginning with the bright
+  fortnight;" a month of the latter kind is termed purnimanta, "ending
+  with the full-moon," or _krishnadi_, "beginning with the dark
+  fortnight." For all purposes of the calendar, the _amanta_ month is
+  used in Southern India, and the _purnimanta_ month in Northern India.
+  But only the _amanta_ month, the period of the synodic revolution of
+  the moon, is recognized in Hindu astronomy, and for the purpose of
+  naming the lunations and adjusting the lunar to the solar year by the
+  intercalation and suppression of lunar months; and the rule is that
+  the lunar Chaitra is the _amanta_ or synodic month at the first moment
+  of which the sun is in the sign Mina, and in the course of which the
+  sun enters Mesha: the other months follow in the same way; and the
+  lunar Karttika is the _amanta_ month at the first moment of which the
+  sun is in Tula, and in the course of which the sun enters Vrischika.
+  The connexion between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by
+  the point that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice
+  to the solar Mina, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to
+  another practice to the solar Mesha, in which the lunar Chaitra ends.
+  Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious purposes
+  with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil
+  day.
+
+
+    Intercalation and suppression of lunar months.
+
+  One mean lunar year of twelve lunations measures very nearly 354 days
+  8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures 365 days 6
+  hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to Aryabhata, or slightly more
+  according to the other two authorities. Consequently, the beginning of
+  a lunar year pure and simple would be always travelling backwards
+  through the solar year, by about eleven days on each occasion, and
+  would in course of time recede entirely through the solar year, as it
+  does in the Mahommedan calendar. The Hindus prevent that in the
+  following manner. The length of the Hindu astronomical solar month,
+  measured by the _samkrantis_ of the sun, its successive entrances into
+  the signs of the zodiac, ranges, in accordance with periodical
+  variations in the speed of the sun, from about 29 days 7 hrs. 38 min.
+  up to about 31 days 15 hrs. 28 min. The length of the _amanta_ or
+  synodic lunar month ranges, in accordance with periodical variations
+  in the speed of the moon and the sun, from about 29 days 19 hrs. 30
+  min. down to about 29 days 7 hrs. 20 min. Consequently, it happens
+  from time to time that there are two new-moon conjunctions, so that
+  two lunations begin, in one astronomical solar month, between two
+  _samkrantis_ of the sun, while the sun is in one and the same sign of
+  the zodiac, and there is no _samkranti_ in the lunation ending with
+  the second new-moon: when this is the case, there are two lunations to
+  which the same name is applicable, and so there is an additional or
+  intercalated month, in the sense that a name is repeated: thus, when
+  two new-moons occur while the sun is in Mesha, the lunation ending
+  with the first of them, during which the sun has entered Mesha, is
+  Chaitra; the next lunation, in which there is no _samkranti_, is
+  Vaisakha, because it begins when the sun is in Mesha; and the next
+  lunation after that is again Vaisakha, for the same reason, and also
+  because the sun enters Vrishabha in the course of it: in these
+  circumstances, the first of the two Vaisakhas is called
+  Adhika-Vaisakha, "the additional or intercalated Vaisakha," and the
+  second is called simply Vaisakha, or sometimes Nija-Vaisakha, "the
+  natural Vaisakha." On the other hand, it occasionally happens, in an
+  autumn or winter month, that there are two _samkrantis_ of the sun in
+  one and the same _amanta_ or synodic lunar month, between two new-moon
+  conjunctions, so that no lunation begins between the two _samkrantis_:
+  when this is the case, there is one lunation to which two names are
+  applicable, and there is a suppressed month, in the sense that a name
+  is omitted: thus, if the sun enters both Dhanus and Makara during one
+  synodic lunation, that lunation is Margasira, because the sun was in
+  Vrischika at the first moment of it and enters Dhanus in the course of
+  it;[2] the next lunation is Magha, because the sun is in Makara by the
+  time when it begins and will enter Kumbha in the course of it; and the
+  name Pausha, between Margasira and Magha, is omitted. When a month is
+  thus suppressed, there is always one intercalated month, and sometimes
+  two, in the same Chaitradi lunar year, so that the lunar year never
+  contains less than twelve months, and from time to time consists of
+  thirteen months. There are normally seven intercalated months, rising
+  to eight when a month is suppressed, in 19 solar years, which equal
+  very nearly 235 lunations;[3] and there is never less than one year
+  without an intercalated month between two years with intercalated
+  months, except when there is only one such month in a year in which a
+  month is suppressed; then there is always an intercalated month in the
+  next year also. The suppression of a month takes place at intervals of
+  19 years and upwards, regarding which no definite statement can
+  conveniently be made here. It may be added that an intercalated
+  Chaitra or Karttika takes the place of the ordinary month as the first
+  month of the year; an intercalated month is not rejected for that
+  purpose, though it is tabooed from the religious and auspicious points
+  of view.
+
+  The manner in which this arrangement of intercalated and suppressed
+  months works out, so as to prevent the beginning of the Chaitradi
+  lunar year departing far from the beginning of the Meshadi solar
+  year, may be illustrated as follows. In A.D. 1815 the Mesha-samkranti
+  occurred on 11th April; and the first civil day of the Chaitradi year
+  was 10th April. In A.D. 1816 and 1817 the first civil day of the
+  Chaitradi year fell back to 29th March and 18th March. In A.D. 1817,
+  however, there was an intercalated month, Sravana; with the result
+  that in A.D. 1818 the first civil day of the Chaitradi year advanced
+  to 6th April. And, after various shiftings of the same kind--including
+  in A.D. 1822 an intercalation of Asvina and a suppression of Pausha,
+  followed in A.D. 1823, when the first civil day of the Chaitradi year
+  had fallen back to 13th March, by an intercalation of Chaitra
+  itself--in A.D. 1834, when the Mesha-samkranti occurred again on 11th
+  April, the first civil day of the Chaitradi year was again 10th April.
+
+
+    The lunar fortnight.
+
+  The lunar month is divided into two fortnights (_paksha_), called
+  bright and dark, or, in Indian terms, _sukla_ or _suddha_, _sudi_,
+  _sudi_, and _krishna_ or _bahula_, _badi_, _vadi_: the bright
+  fortnight, _sukla-paksha_, is the period of the waxing moon, ending at
+  the full-moon; the dark fortnight, _krishna-paksha_, is the period of
+  the waning moon, ending at the new-moon. In the _amanta_ or _sukladi_
+  month, the bright fortnight precedes the dark; in the _purnimanta_ or
+  _krishnadi_ month, the dark fortnight comes first; and the result is
+  that, whereas, for instance, the bright fortnight of Chaitra is the
+  same period of time throughout India, the preceding dark fortnight is
+  known in Northern India as the dark fortnight of Chaitra, but in
+  Southern India as the dark fortnight of Phalguna. This, however, does
+  not affect the period covered by the lunar year; the Chaitradi and
+  Karttikadi years begin everywhere with the bright fortnight of Chaitra
+  and Karttika respectively; simply, by the _amanta_ system the dark
+  fortnights of Chaitra and Karttika are the second fortnights, and by
+  the _purnimanta_ system they are the last fortnights, of the years.
+  Like the month, the fortnight begins for religious purposes with its
+  first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil day.
+
+
+    The lunar day.
+
+  The lunar fortnights are divided each into fifteen tithis or lunar
+  days.[4] The _tithi_ is the time in which the moon increases her
+  distance from the sun round the circle by twelve degrees; and the
+  almanacs show each _tithi_ by its ending-time; that is, by the moment,
+  expressed in _ghatikas_ and _palas_, after sunrise, at which the moon
+  completes that distance. In accordance with that, the _tithi_ is
+  usually used and cited with the weekday on which it ends; but there
+  are special rules regarding certain rites, festivals, &c., which
+  sometimes require the _tithi_ to be used and cited with the weekday on
+  which it begins or is current at a particular time. The first _tithi_
+  of each fortnight begins immediately after the moment of new-moon and
+  full-moon respectively; the last _tithi_ ends at the moment of
+  full-moon and new-moon. The _tithis_ are primarily denoted by the
+  numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., for each fortnight; but, while the full-moon
+  _tithi_ is always numbered 15, the new-moon _tithi_ is generally
+  numbered 30, even where the _purnimanta_ month is used. The _tithis_
+  may be cited either by their figures or by the Sanskrit ordinal words
+  _prathama_, "first," _dvitiya_, "second," &c., or corruptions of them.
+  But usually the first _tithi_ of either fortnight is cited by the term
+  _pratipad_, _pratipada_, and the new-moon and full-moon _tithis_ are
+  cited by the terms _amavasya_ and _purnima_; or here, again,
+  corruptions of the Sanskrit terms are used. And special names are
+  sometimes prefixed to the numbers of the _tithis_, according to the
+  rites, festivals, &c., prescribed for them, or events or merits
+  assigned to them: for instance, Vaisakha sukla 3 is Akshaya or
+  Akshayya-tritiya, the third _tithi_ which ensures permanence to acts
+  performed on it; Bhadrapada sukla 4 is Ganesa-chaturthi, the fourth
+  _tithi_ dedicated to the worship of the god Ganesa, Ganapati, and the
+  _amanta_ Bhadrapada or _purnimanta_ Asvina krishna 13 is
+  Kaliyugadi-trayodasi, as being regarded (for some reason which is not
+  apparent) as the anniversary of the beginning of the Kaliyuga, the
+  present Age. The first _tithi_ of the year is styled
+  Samvatsara-pratipada, which term answers closely to our "New Year's
+  Day."
+
+
+    The civil day.
+
+  The civil days of the lunar month begin, like those of the solar
+  month, at sunrise, and bear in the same way the names of the weekdays.
+  But they are numbered in a different manner; fortnight by fortnight
+  and according to the _tithis_. The general rule is that the civil day
+  takes the number of the _tithi_ which is current at its sunrise. And
+  the results are as follows. As the motions of the sun and the moon
+  vary periodically, a tithi is of variable length, ranging, according
+  to the Hindu calculations, from 21 hrs. 34 min. 24 sec. to 26 hrs. 6
+  min. 24 sec.: it may, therefore, be either shorter or longer than a
+  civil day, the duration of which is practically 24 hours (one minute,
+  roughly, more or less, according to the time of the year). A _tithi_
+  may end at any moment during the civil day; and ordinarily it ends on
+  the civil day after that on which it begins, and covers only one
+  sunrise and gives its number to the day on which it ends. It may,
+  however, begin on one civil day and end on the next but one, and so
+  cover two sunrises; and it is then treated as a repeated _tithi_, in
+  the sense that its number is repeated: for instance, if the seventh
+  _tithi_ so begins and ends, the civil day on which it begins is
+  numbered 6, from the _tithi_ which is current at the sunrise of that
+  day and ends on it; the day covered entirely by the seventh _tithi_ is
+  numbered 7, because that _tithi_ is current at its sunrise; the next
+  day, at the sunrise of which the seventh _tithi_ is still current and
+  during which it ends, is again numbered 7; and the number 8 falls to
+  the next day after that, when the eighth tithi is current at
+  sunrise.[5] On the other hand, a _tithi_ may begin and end during one
+  and the same civil day, so as not to touch a sunrise at all: in this
+  case, it exists for any practical purposes for which it may be wanted
+  (it is, however, to be avoided if possible, as being an unlucky
+  occasion), but it is suppressed or expunged for the numbering of the
+  civil day, in the sense that its number is omitted; for instance, if
+  the seventh _tithi_ begins and ends during one civil day, that day is
+  numbered 6 from, as before, the _tithi_ which is current at its
+  sunrise and ends when the seventh _tithi_ begins; the next day is
+  numbered 8, because the eighth _tithi_ is current at its sunrise; and
+  there is, in this case, no civil day bearing the number seven. In
+  consequence of this method of numbering, it sometimes happens, as the
+  result of the suppression of a _tithi_, that the day of a full-moon is
+  numbered 14 instead of 15; that the day of a new-moon is numbered 14
+  instead of 30; and that the first day of a fortnight, and even the
+  first day of a lunar year, is numbered 2 instead of 1.
+
+  There are, on an average, thirteen suppressed _tithis_ and seven
+  repeated _tithis_ in twelve lunar months; and so the lunar year
+  averages 354 days, rising to about 384 when a month is intercalated.
+  It occasionally happens that there are two suppressions of _tithis_ in
+  one and the same fortnight; and the almanacs show such a case in the
+  bright fortnight of Jyaishtha, A.D. 1878: but this occurs only after
+  very long intervals.
+
+
+    The Karana.
+
+  The _tithi_ is divided into two _karanas_; each _karana_ being the
+  time in which the moon increases her distance from the sun by six
+  degrees. But this is a detail of astrological rather than
+  chronological interest. So, also, are two other details to which a
+  prominent place is given in the lunar calendars; to yoga, or time in
+  which the joint motion in longitude, the sum of the motions of the sun
+  and the moon, is increased by 13 degrees 20 minutes; and the
+  _nakshatra_, the position of the moon as referred to the ecliptic by
+  means of the stars and groups of stars which have been mentioned above
+  under the lunar month.
+
+  In the Indian calendar everything depends upon exact times, which
+  differ, of course, on every different meridian; and (to cite what is
+  perhaps the most frequent and generally important occurrence)
+  suppression and repetition may affect one _tithi_ and civil day in one
+  locality, and another _tithi_ and civil day in another locality not
+  very far distant. Consequently, neither for the lunar nor for the
+  solar calendar is there any almanac which is applicable to even the
+  whole area in which any particular length of the astronomical solar
+  year prevails; much less, for the whole of India. Different almanacs
+  are prepared and published for places of leading importance; details
+  for minor places, when wanted, have to be worked out by the local
+  astrologer, the modern representative of an ancient official known as
+  Sammvatsara, the "clerk of the year."
+
+
+II. ERAS
+
+As far as the available evidence goes (and we have no reason to expect
+to discover anything opposed to it), any use of eras, in the sense of
+continuous reckonings which originated in historical occurrences or
+astronomical epochs and were employed for official and other public
+chronological purposes, did not prevail in India before the 1st century
+B.C. Prior to that time, there existed, indeed, in connexion with the
+sacrificial calendar, a five-years lunisolar cycle, and possibly some
+extended cycles of the same nature; and there was in Buddhist circles a
+record of the years elapsed since the death of Buddha, which we shall
+mention again further on. But, as is gathered from books and is well
+illustrated by the edicts of Asoka (reigned 264-227 B.C.) and the
+inscriptions of other rulers, the years of the reign of each successive
+king were found sufficient for the public dating of proclamations and
+the record of events. There is no known case in which any Indian king,
+of really ancient times, deliberately applied himself to the foundation
+of an era: and we have no reason for thinking that such a thing was ever
+done, or that any Hindu reckoning at all owes its existence to a
+recognition of historical requirements. The eras which came into
+existence from the 1st century B.C. onwards mostly had their origin in
+the fortuitous extension of regnal reckonings. The usual course has been
+that, under the influence of filial piety, pride in ancestry, loyalty to
+a paramount sovereign, or some other such motive, the successor of some
+king continued the regnal reckoning of his predecessor, who was not
+necessarily the first king in the dynasty, and perhaps did not even
+reign for any long time, instead of starting a new reckoning, beginning
+again with the year 1, according to the years of his own reign. Having
+thus run for two reigns, the reckoning was sufficiently well established
+to continue in the same form, and to eventually develop into a generally
+accepted local era, which might or might not be taken over by subsequent
+dynasties ruling afterwards over the same territory. In these
+circumstances, we find the establisher of any particular era in that
+king who first continued his predecessor's regnal reckoning, instead of
+replacing it by his own; but we regard as the founder of the era that
+king whose regnal reckoning was so continued. We may add here that it
+was only in advanced stages that any of the Hindu eras assumed specific
+names: during the earlier period of each of them, the years were simply
+cited by the term _samvatsara_ or _varsha_, "the year (bearing
+such-and-such a number)," or by the abbreviations _samvat_ and _sam_,
+without any appellative designation.
+
+
+  The Buddhist and Jain religious reckonings.
+
+The Hindus have had two religious reckonings, which it will be
+convenient to notice first. Certain, statements in the Ceylonese
+chronicles, the _Dipavamsa_ and _Mahavamsa_, endorsed by an entry in a
+record of Asoka, show that in the 3rd century B.C. there existed among
+the Buddhists a record of the time elapsed since the death of Buddha in
+483 B.C., from which it was known that Asoka was anointed to the
+sovereignty 218 years after the death. The reckoning, however, was
+confined to esoteric Buddhist circles, and did not commend itself for
+any public use; and the only known inscriptional use of it, which also
+furnishes the latest known date recorded in it, is found in the Last
+Edict of Asoka, which presents his dying speech delivered in 226 B.C.,
+256 years after the death of Buddha. In Ceylon, where, also the original
+reckoning was not maintained, there was devised in the 12th century A.D.
+a reckoning styled Buddhavarsha, "the years of Buddha," which still
+exists, and which purports to run from the death of Buddha, but has set
+up an erroneous date for that event in 544 B.C. This later reckoning
+spread from Ceylon to Burma and Siam, where, also, it is still used. It
+did not obtain any general recognition in India, because, when it was
+devised, Buddhism had practically died out there, except at Bodh-Gaya.
+But, as there seems to have been constant intercourse between Bodh-Gaya
+and Ceylon as well as other foreign Buddhist countries, we should not be
+surprised to find an occasional instance of its use at Bodh-Gaya: and it
+is believed that one such instance, belonging to A.D. 1270, has been
+obtained.
+
+The Jains have had, and still maintain, a reckoning from the death of
+the founder of their faith, Vira, Mahavira, Vardhamana, which event is
+placed by them in 528 B.C. This reckoning figures largely in the Jain
+books, which put forward dates in it for very early times. But the
+earliest known synchronous date in it--by which we mean a date given by
+a writer who recorded the year in which he himself was writing--is one
+of the year 980, or, according to a different view mentioned in the
+passage itself, of the year 993. This reckoning, again, did not commend
+itself for any official or other public use. And the only known
+inscriptional instances of the use of it are modern ones, of the 19th
+century. While it is certain that the Jain reckoning, as it exists, has
+its initial point in 528 B.C. it has not yet been determined whether
+that is actually the year in which Vira died. All that can be said on
+this point is that the date is not inconsistent with certain statements
+in Buddhist books, which mention, by a Prakrit name of which the
+Sanskrit form is Nirgrantha-Jnata-putra, a contemporary of Buddha, in
+whom there is recognized the original of the Jain Vira, Mahavira, or
+Vardhamana, and who, the same books say, died while Buddha was still
+alive. But there are some indications that Nirgrantha-Jñataputra may
+have died only a short time before Buddha himself; and the event may
+easily have been set back to 528 B.C. in circumstances, attending a
+determination of the reckoning long after the occurrence, analogous to
+those in which the Ceylonese Buddhavarsha set up the erroneous date of
+544 B.C. for the death of Buddha.
+
+
+    Bygone Eras of royal origin.
+
+  In the class of eras of royal origin, brought into existence in the
+  manner indicated above, the Hindus have had various reckonings which
+  have now mostly fallen into disuse. We may mention them, without
+  giving them the detailed treatment which the more important of the
+  still existing reckonings demand.
+
+  The Kalachuri or Chedi era, commencing in A.D. 248 or 249, is known
+  best from inscriptional records, bearing dates which range from the
+  10th to the 13th century A.D., of the Kalachuri kings of the Chedi
+  country in Central India; and it is from them that it derived the name
+  under which it passes. In earlier times, however, we find this era
+  well established, without any appellation, in Western India, in
+  Gujarat and the Thana district of Bombay, where it was used by kings
+  and princes of the Chalukya, Gurjara, Sendraka, Katachchuri and
+  Traikutaka families. It is traced back there to A.D. 457, at which
+  time there was reigning a Traikutaka king named Dahrasena. Beyond that
+  point, we have at present no certain knowledge about it. But it seems
+  probable that the founder of it may be recognized in an Abhira king
+  Isvarasena, or else in his father Sivadatta, who was reigning at Nasik
+  in or closely about A.D. 248-49.
+
+  The Gupta era, commencing in A.D. 320, was founded by Chandragupta I.,
+  the first paramount king in the great Gupta dynasty of Northern India.
+  When the Guptas passed away, their reckoning was taken over by the
+  Maitraka kings of Valabhi, who succeeded them in Kathiawar and some of
+  the neighbouring territories; and so it became also known as the
+  Valabhi era.
+
+  From Halsi in the Belgaum district, Bombay, we have a record of the
+  Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, which was framed during the time when he
+  was the Yuvaraja or anointed successor to the sovereignty, and may be
+  referred to about A.D. 500. It is dated in "the eightieth victorious
+  year," and thus indicates the preservation of a reckoning running from
+  the foundation of the Kadamba dynasty by Mayuravarman, the
+  great-grandfather of Kakusthavarman. But no other evidence of the
+  existence of this era has been obtained.
+
+  The records of the Ganga kings of Kalinganagara, which is the modern
+  Mukhalingam-Nagarikatakam in the Gañjam district, Madras, show the
+  existence of a Ganga era which ran for at any rate 254 years. And
+  various details in the inscriptions enable us to trace the origin of
+  the Ganga kings to Western India, and to place the initial point of
+  their reckoning in A.D. 590, when a certain
+  Satyasraya-Dhruvaraja-Indravarman, an ancestor and probably the
+  grandfather of the first Ganga king Rajasimha-Indravarman I.,
+  commenced to govern a large province in the Konkan under the Chalukya
+  king Kirtivarman I.
+
+  An era commencing in A.D. 605 or 606 was founded in Northern India by
+  the great king Harshavardhana, who reigned first at Thanesar and then
+  at Kanauj, and who was the third sovereign in a dynasty which traced
+  its origin to a prince named Naravardhana. A peculiarity about this
+  era is that it continued in use for apparently four centuries after
+  Harshavardhana, in spite of the fact that his line ended with him.
+
+  The inscriptions assert that the Western Chalukya king Vikrama or
+  Vikramaditya VI. of Kalyani in the Nizam's dominions, who reigned from
+  A.D. 1076 to 1126, abolished the use of the Saka era in his dominions
+  in favour of an era named after himself. What he or his ministers did
+  was to adopt, for the first time in that dynasty, the system of regnal
+  years, according to which, while the Saka era also remained in use,
+  most of the records of his time are dated, not in that era, but in the
+  year so-and-so of the Chalukya-Vikrama-kala or
+  Chalukya-Vikrama-varsha, "the time or years of the Chalukya Vikrama."
+  There is some evidence that this reckoning survived Vikramaditya VI.
+  for a short time. But his successors introduced their own regnal
+  reckonings; and that prevented it from acquiring permanence.
+
+  In Tirhut, there is still used a reckoning which is known as the
+  Lakshmanasena era from the name of the king of Bengal by whom it was
+  founded. There is a difference of opinion as to the exact initial
+  point of this reckoning; but the best conclusion appears to be that
+  which places it in A.D. 1119. This era prevailed at one time
+  throughout Bengal: we know this from a passage in the _Akbarnama_,
+  written in A.D. 1584, which specifies the Saka era as the reckoning of
+  Gujarat and the Dekkan, the Vikrama era as the reckoning of Malwa,
+  Delhi, and those parts, and the Lakshmanasena era as the reckoning of
+  Bengal.
+
+  The last reckoning that we have to mention here is one known as the
+  Rajyabhisheka-Saka, "the era of the anointment to the sovereignty,"
+  which was in use for a time in Western India. It dated from the day
+  Jyaishtha sukla 13 of the Saka year 1597 current, = 6 June, A.D. 1674,
+  when Sivaji, the founder of the Maratha kingdom, had himself
+  enthroned.
+
+
+    Miscellaneous Eras.
+
+  There are four reckonings which it is difficult at present to class
+  exactly. Two inscriptions of the 15th and 17th centuries, recently
+  brought to notice from Jesalmer in Rajputana, present a reckoning
+  which postulates an initial point in A.D. 624 or in the preceding or
+  the following year, and bears an appellation, Bhatika, which seems to
+  be based on the name of the Bhatti tribe, to which the rulers of
+  Jesalmer belong. No historical event is known, referable to that time,
+  which can have given rise to an era. It is possible that the apparent
+  initial date represents an epoch, at the end of the Saka year 546 or
+  thereabouts, laid down in some astronomical work composed then or soon
+  afterwards and used in the Jesalmer territory. But it seems more
+  probable that it is a purely fictitious date, set up by an attempt to
+  evolve an early history Of the ruling family.
+
+  In the Tinnevelly district of Madras, and in the territories of the
+  same presidency in which the Malayalam language prevails, namely,
+  South Kanara below Mangalore, the Malabar district, and the Cochin and
+  Travancore states, there is used a reckoning which is known sometimes
+  as the Kollam or Kolamba reckoning, sometimes as the era of
+  Parasurama. The years of it are solar: in the southern parts of the
+  territory in which it is current, they begin with the month Simha; in
+  the northern parts, they begin with the next month, Kanya. The initial
+  point of the reckoning is in A.D. 825; and the year 1076 commenced in
+  A.D. 1900. The popular view about this reckoning is that it consists
+  of cycles of 1000 years; that we are now in the fourth cycle; and that
+  the reckoning originated in 1176 B.C. with the mythical Parasurama,
+  who exterminated the Kshatriya or warrior caste, and reclaimed the
+  Konkan countries, Western India below the Ghauts, from the ocean. But
+  the earliest known date in it, of the year 149, falls in A.D. 973; and
+  the reckoning has run on in continuation of the thousand, instead of
+  beginning afresh in A.D. 1825. It seems probable, therefore, that the
+  reckoning had no existence before A.D. 825. The years are cited
+  sometimes as "the Kollam year (of such-and-such a number)," sometimes
+  as "the year (so-and-so) after Kollam appeared;" and this suggests
+  that the reckoning may possibly owe its origin to some event,
+  occurring in A.D. 825, connected with one or other of the towns and
+  ports named Kollam, on the Malabar coast; perhaps Northern Kollam in
+  the Malabar district, perhaps Southern Kollam, better known as Quilon,
+  in Travancore. But the introduction of Parasurama into the matter,
+  which would carry back (let us say) the foundation of Kollam to
+  legendary times, may indicate, rather, a purely imaginative origin.
+  Or, again, since each century of the Kollam reckoning begins in the
+  same year A.D. with a century of the Saptarshi reckoning (see below
+  under III. Other Reckonings), it is not impossible that this reckoning
+  may be a southern offshoot of the Saptarshi reckoning, or at least may
+  have had the same astrological origin.
+
+  In Nepal there is a reckoning, known as the Newar era and commencing
+  in A.D. 879, which superseded the Gupta and Harsha eras there. One
+  tradition attributes the foundation of it to a king Raghavadeva;
+  another says that, in the time and with the permission of a king
+  Jayadevamalla, a merchant named Sakhwal paid off, by means of wealth
+  acquired from sand which turned into gold, all the debts then existing
+  in the country, and introduced the new era in commemoration of the
+  occurrence. It is possible that the era may have been founded by some
+  ruler of Nepal: but nothing authentic is known about the particular
+  names mentioned in connexion with it. This era appears to have been
+  discarded for state and official purposes, in favour of the Saka era,
+  in A.D. 1768, when the Gurkhas became masters of Nepal; but
+  manuscripts show that in literary circles it has remained in use up to
+  at any rate A.D. 1875.
+
+  Inscriptions disclose the use in Kathiawar and Gujarat, in the 12th
+  and 13th centuries, of a reckoning, commencing in A.D. 1114, which is
+  known as the Simha-samvat. No historical occurrence is known, on which
+  it can have been based; and the origin of it is obscure.
+
+
+  Three great Eras in general use.
+
+The eras mentioned above have for the most part served their purposes
+and died out. But there are three great reckonings, dating from a very
+respectable antiquity, which have held their own and survived to the
+present day. These are the Kaliyuga, Vikrama, and Saka eras. It will be
+convenient to treat the Kaliyuga first, though, in spite of having the
+greatest apparent antiquity, it is the latest of the three in respect of
+actual date of origin.
+
+
+  The Kaliyuga Era of 3102 B.C.
+
+The Kaliyuga era is the principal astronomical reckoning of the Hindus.
+It is frequently, if not generally, shown in the almanacs: but it can
+hardly be looked upon as being now in practical use for civil purposes;
+and, as regards the custom of previous times as far as we can judge it
+from the inscriptional use, which furnishes a good guide, the position
+is as follows: from Southern India we have one such instance of A.D.
+634, one of A.D. 770, three of the 10th century, and then, from the 12th
+century onwards, but more particularly from the 14th, a certain number
+of instances, not exactly very small in itself, but extremely so in
+comparison with the number of cases of the use of the Vikrama and Saka
+eras and other reckonings: from Northern India the earliest known
+instance of is A.D. 1169 or 1170, and the later ones number only four.
+Its years are by nature sidereal solar years, commencing with the
+Mesha-samkranti, the entrance of the sun into the Hindu constellation
+and sign Mesha, i.e. Aries (for this and other technical details, see
+above, under the Calendar);[6] but they were probably cited as lunar
+years in the inscriptional records which present the reckoning; and the
+almanacs appear to treat them either as Meshadi civil solar years with
+solar months, or as Chaitradi lunar years with lunar months _amanta_
+(ending with the new-moon) or _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon)
+as the case may be, according to the locality. Its initial point lies in
+3102 B.C.; and the year 5002 began in A.D. 1900.[7]
+
+  This reckoning is not an historical era, actually running from 3102
+  B.C. It was devised for astronomical purposes at some time about A.D.
+  400, when the Hindu astronomers, having taken over the principles of
+  the Greek astronomy, recognized that they required for purposes of
+  computation a specific reckoning with a definite initial occasion.
+  They found that occasion in a conjunction of the sun, the moon, and
+  the five planets which were then known, at the first point of their
+  sign Mesha. There was not really such a conjunction; nor, apparently,
+  is it even the case that the sun was actually at the first point of
+  Mesha at the moment arrived at. But there was an approach to such a
+  conjunction, which was turned into an actual conjunction by taking the
+  mean instead of the true positions of the sun, the moon, and the
+  planets. And, partly from the reckoning which has come down to us,
+  partly from the astronomical books, we know that the moment assigned
+  to the assumed conjunction was according to one school the midnight
+  between Thursday the 17th, and Friday the 18th, February, 3102 B.C.,
+  and according to another school the sunrise on the Friday.
+
+  The reckoning thus devised was subsequently identified with the
+  Kaliyuga as the iron age, the last and shortest, with a duration of
+  432,000 years, of the four ages in each cycle of ages in the Hindu
+  system of cosmical periods. Also, traditional history was fitted to it
+  by one school, represented notably by the Puranas, which, referring
+  the great war between the Pandavas and the Kurus, which is the topic
+  of the Mahabharata, to the close of the preceding age, the Dvapara,
+  placed on the last day of that age the culminating event which ushered
+  in the Kali age; namely, the death of Krishna (the return to heaven of
+  Vishnu on the termination of his incarnation as Krishna), which was
+  followed by the abdication of the Pandava king Yudhishthira, who,
+  having installed his grand-nephew Parikshit as his successor, then set
+  out on his own journey to heaven. Another school, however, placed the
+  Pandavas and the Kurus 653 years later, in 2449 B.C. A third school
+  places in 3102 B.C. the anointment of Yudhishthira to the sovereignty,
+  and treats that event as inaugurating the Kali age; from this point of
+  view, the first 3044 years of the Kaliyuga--the period from its
+  commencement in 3102 B.C. to the commencement of the first historical
+  era, the so-called Vikrama era, in 58 B.C.--are also known as "the era
+  of Yudhishthira."
+
+
+  The Vikrama Era of 58 B.C.
+
+The Vikrama era, which is the earliest of all the Hindu eras in respect
+of order of foundation, is the dominant era and the great historical
+reckoning of Northern India--that is, of the territory on the north of
+the rivers Narbada and Mahanadi--to which part of the country its use
+has always been practically confined. Like, indeed, the Kaliyuga and
+Saka eras, it is freely cited in almanacs in any part of India; and it
+is sometimes used in the south by immigrants from the north: but it is,
+by nature, so essentially foreign to the south that the earliest known
+inscriptional instance of the use of it in Southern India only dates
+from A.D. 1218, and the very few later instances that have been
+obtained, prior to the 15th century A.D., come, along with the instance
+of A.D. 1218, from the close neighbourhood of the dividing-line between
+the north and the south. The Vikrama era has never been used for
+astronomical purposes. Its years are lunar, with lunar months, but seem
+liable to be sometimes regarded as solar, with solar months, when they
+are cited in almanacs of Southern India which present the solar
+calendar. Originally they were Kartti-kadi, with _purnimanta_ months
+(ending with the full-moon). They now exist in the following three
+varieties: in Kathiawar and Gujarat, they are chiefly Karttikadi, with
+_amanta_ months (ending with the new-moon); and they are shown in this
+form in almanacs for the other parts of the Bombay Presidency; but there
+is also found in Kathiawar and that neighbourhood an Ashadhadi variety,
+commencing with Ashadha sukla I, similarly with _amanta_ months; in the
+rest of Northern India, they are Chaitradi, with _purnimanta_ months.
+The era has its initial point in 58 B.C., and its first civil day,
+Karttika sukla I, is 19th September in that year if we determine it with
+reference to the Hindu Tula-samkranti, or 18th October if we determine
+it with reference to the tropical equinox. The years of the three
+varieties, Chaitradi, Ashadhadi, and Karttikadi, all commence in the
+same year A.D.; and the year 1958 began in A.D. 1900.
+
+  Hindu legend connects the foundation of this era with a king Vikrama
+  or Vikramaditya of Ujjain in Malwa, Central India: one version is that
+  he began to reign in 58 B.C.; another is that he died in that year,
+  and that the reckoning commemorates his death. Modern research,
+  however, based largely on the inscriptional records, has shown that
+  there was no such king, and that the real facts are very different.
+  The era owes its existence to the Kushan king Kanishka, a foreign
+  invader, who established himself in Northern India and commenced to
+  reign there in B.C. 58.[8] He was the founder of it, in the sense that
+  the opening years of it were the years of his reign. It was
+  established and set going as an era by his successor, who continued
+  the reckoning so started, instead of breaking it by introducing
+  another according to his own regnal years. And it was perpetuated as
+  an era, and transmitted as such to posterity by the Malavas, the
+  people from whom the modern territory Malwa derived its name, who were
+  an important section of the subjects of Kanishka and his successors.
+  In consonance with that, records ranging in date from A.D. 473 to 879
+  style it "the reckoning of the Malavas, the years of the Malava lords,
+  the Malava time or era." Prior to that, it had no specific name; the
+  years of it were simply cited, in ordinary Hindu fashion, by the term
+  _samvatsara_, "the year (of such-and-such a number)," or by its
+  abbreviations _samvat_ and _sam_: and the same was frequently done in
+  later times also, and is habitually done in the present day; and so,
+  in modern times, this era has often been loosely styled "the Samvat
+  era." The idea of a king Vikrama in connexion with it appears to date
+  from only the 9th or 10th century A.D.
+
+
+  The Saka Era of A.D. 78.
+
+The Saka era, though it actually had its origin in the south-west corner
+of Northern India, is the dominant era and the great historical
+reckoning of Southern India; that is, of the territory below the rivers
+Narbada and Mahanadi. It is also the subsidiary astronomical reckoning,
+largely used, from the 6th century A.D. onwards, in the _Karanas_, the
+works dealing with practical details of the calendar, for laying down
+epochs or points of time furnishing convenient bases for computation. As
+a result of that, it came to be used in past times for general purposes
+also, to a limited extent, in parts of Northern India where it was not
+indigenous. And it is now used more or less freely, and is cited in
+almanacs everywhere. Its years are usually lunar, Chaitradi, and its
+months are _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon) in Northern India,
+and _amanta_ (ending with the new-moon) in Southern India; but in times
+gone by it was sometimes treated for purposes of calculation as having
+astronomical solar years, and it is now treated as having Mesh di civil
+solar years and solar months in those parts of India where that form of
+the solar calendar prevails. It has its initial point in A.D. 78; and
+its first civil day, Chaitra sukla I, is 3rd March in that year, as
+determined with reference either to the Hindu M'na-samkranti or to the
+entrance of the sun into the tropical Pisces. The year 1823 began in
+A.D. 1900.
+
+Regarding the origin of the Saka era, there was current in the 10th and
+11th centuries A.D. a belief which, ignoring the difference of a hundred
+and thirty-five years between the two reckonings, connected the
+legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjain, mentioned above under the Vikrama
+era, with the foundation of this era also. The story runs, from this
+point of view, that the Sakas were a barbarous people who established
+themselves in the western and north-western dominions of that king, but
+were met in battle and destroyed by him, and that the era was
+established in celebration of that event. The modern belief, however,
+ascribes the foundation of this era to a king Salivahana of
+Pratishthana, which is the modern Paithan, on the Godavari, in the
+Nizam's dominions. But in this case, again, research has shown that the
+facts are very different. Like the Vikrama era, the Saka era owes its
+existence to foreign invaders. It was founded by the Chhaharata or
+Kshaharata king Nahapana, who appears to have been a Pahlava or Palhava,
+i.e. of Parthian extraction, and who reigned from A.D. 78 to about
+125.[9] He established himself first in Kathiawar, but subsequently
+brought under his sway northern Gujarat (Bombay) and Ujjain, and, below
+the Narbada, southern Gujarat, Nasik and probably Khandesh. His capital
+seems to have been Dohad, in the Panch Mahals. And he had two viceroys:
+one, named Bhumaka, of the same family with himself, in Kathiawar; and
+another, Chashtana, son of Ghsamotika, at Ujjain. Soon after A.D. 125,
+Nahapana was overthrown, and his family was wiped out, by the
+Satavahana-Satakarni king Gautamiputra-Sri-Satakarni, who thereby
+recovered the territories on the south of the Narbada, and perhaps
+secured for a time Kathiawar and some other parts on the north of that
+river. Very soon, however, Chashtana, or else his son Jayadaman,
+established his sway over all the territory which had belonged to
+Nahapana on the north of the Narbada; founded a line of Hinduized
+foreign kings, who ruled there for more than three centuries; and,
+continuing Nahapana's regnal reckoning, established the era to which the
+name Saka eventually became attached. Inscriptions and coins show that,
+up to at least the second decade of its fourth century, this reckoning
+had no specific appellation; its years were simply cited, in the usual
+fashion, as _varsha_, "the year (of such-and-such a number)." The
+reckoning was then taken up by the astronomers. And we find it first
+called Sakakala, "the time or era of the Sakas," in an epochal date, the
+end of the year 427, falling in A.D. 505, which was used by the
+astronomer Varahamihira (d. A.D. 587) in his Panchasiddhantika. That
+this name came to be attached to it appears to be due to the points
+that, along with some of the Pahlavas or Palhavas and the Yavanas or
+descendants of the Asiatic Greeks, some of the Sakas, the Scythians, had
+made their way into Kathiawar and neighbouring parts by about A.D. 100,
+and that the Sakas incidentally came to acquire prominence in the memory
+of the Hindus regarding these occurrences, in such a manner that their
+name was selected when the occasion arose to devise an appellation for
+an era the exact origin of which had been forgotten. The name of the
+imaginary king Salivahana first figures in connexion with the era in a
+record of A.D. 1272, and seems plainly to have been introduced in
+imitation of the coupling of the name Vikrama, Vikramaditya, with the
+era of B.C. 58.
+
+  That the Saka era, though it had its origin in the south-west corner
+  of Northern India, is essentially an era of Southern India, is proved
+  by its inscriptional and numismatic history. During the period before
+  the time when it was taken up by the astronomers, it is found only in
+  the inscriptions of Nahapana, and in the similar records and on the
+  coins of the descendants of Chashtana. After that same time, it
+  figures first in a record of the Chalukya king Kirtivarman I., at
+  Badami in the Bijapur district, Bombay, which is dated on the
+  full-moon day of the month Karttika, falling in A.D. 578, "when there
+  had elapsed five centuries of the years of the anointment of the Saka
+  king to the sovereignty." And from this date onwards the records of a
+  large part of Southern India are mostly dated in this era, by various
+  expressions all of which include the term Saka or Saka. In Northern
+  India the case is very different. We have a record dated in the month
+  Karttika, the Saka year 631 (expired), falling in A.D. 709: it comes
+  from Multai in the Betul district, Central Provinces, that is, from
+  the south of the Narbada; but it belongs to Gujarat (Bombay), and
+  perhaps to the north, though more probably to the south, of that
+  province. But, setting that aside, the earliest inscriptional instance
+  of the use of this era in Northern India, outside Kathiawar and
+  Gujarat, is found in a record of A.D. 862 at Deogarh near Lalitpur,
+  the headquarters town of the Lalitpur district, United Provinces of
+  Agra and Oude; here, however, the record is primarily dated, with the
+  full details of the month, &c., in "Samvat 919," that is, in the
+  Vikrama year 919; it is only as a subsidiary detail that the Saka year
+  784 is given in a separate passage at the end of the record, a sort of
+  postscript. From this date onwards the era is found in other records
+  of Northern India, but to any appreciable extent only from A.D. 1137,
+  and to only a very small extent in comparison with the Vikrama and
+  other northern eras; and the cases in which it was used exclusively
+  there, without being coupled with one or other of the northern
+  reckonings, are still more conspicuously few. In short, the general
+  position is that the Saka era has been essentially foreign to Northern
+  India until recent times; it was used there quite exceptionally and
+  sporadically, and in very few cases indeed at any appreciable distance
+  from the dividing-line between the north and the south. That it found
+  its way into Northern India, outside Kathiawar and northern Gujarat at
+  all, is unquestionably due to its use by the astronomers. It also
+  travelled, across the sea, by the 7th century A.D. to Cambodia, and
+  somewhat later to Java; to which parts it was doubtless taken in
+  almanacs, or in invoices, statements of account, &c., by the persons
+  engaged in the trade between Broach and the far east via Tagara (Ter)
+  and the east coast. It also found its way in subsequent times to Assam
+  and Ceylon, and more recently still to Nepal.
+
+
+III. OTHER RECKONINGS
+
+  The Cycles of Jupiter.
+
+We come now to certain reckonings consisting of cycles, and will take
+first the cycles of Guru or Brihaspati, Jupiter. This planet, a very
+conspicuous object in eastern skies, requires a period of 4332.6 days, =
+50.4 days less than twelve Julian years, to make a circuit of the
+heavens, and has provided the Hindus with two reckonings, each in more
+than one variety; a cycle of twelve years, and a cycle of sixty years.
+The years of Jupiter, in all their varieties, are usually styled
+_samvatsara_; and it is convenient to use this term here, in order to
+preserve clearly the distinction between them and the solar and lunar
+years. The _samvatsaras_ have no divisions of their own; the months,
+days, &c., cited with them are those of the ordinary solar or lunar
+calendar, as the case may be.
+
+
+  The 12-years Cycle.
+
+The older reckoning of Jupiter appears to be that of the 12-years cycle,
+which is found in two varieties; in both of them the _samvatsaras_ bear,
+according to certain rules which need not be explained here, the same
+names with the lunar months, Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c. In one variety, each
+_samvatsara_ runs from one of the planet's heliacal risings--that is,
+from the day on which it becomes visible as a morning star on the
+eastern horizon--to the next such rising; and the length of such a
+_samvatsara_, according to the Hindu data, is from 392 to 405 days, with
+an average of 399 days. Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle
+are found in six of the Gupta records of Northern India, ranging from
+A.D. 475 to 528.
+
+In the other variety of the 12-years cycle, which is mentioned in
+astronomical works from the time of Aryabhata onwards (b. A.D. 476), the
+_samvatsaras_ are regulated by Jupiter's course with reference to his
+mean motion and mean longitude: a _samvatsara_ of this variety commences
+when Jupiter thus enters a sign of the zodiac, and lasts for the time
+occupied by him in traversing that sign from the same point of view; and
+the period taken by him to do that--that is, the duration of such a
+_samvatsara_--is slightly in excess, according to the Hindu data, of
+361.02 days, which amount is very close to the actual fact, 361.05 days.
+Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle are perhaps found in
+two records of Southern India of the Kadamba series, belonging to about
+A.D. 575.
+
+The 12-years mean-sign cycle seems to be still used in some parts. And
+the heliacal risings of Jupiter, as also, indeed, those of the other
+planets, are shown in almanacs for astrological purposes. In either
+variety, however, the 12-years cycle is now chiefly of antiquarian
+interest.
+
+
+  The 60-years cycle.
+
+The cycle of Jupiter now in general use is a cycle of sixty years, the
+_samvatsaras_ of which bear certain special names, Prabhava, Vibhava,
+Sukla, Pramoda, &c., again in accordance with certain rules which we
+need not explain here. This cycle exists in three varieties.
+
+According to the original constitution of this cycle, the _samvatsaras_
+are determined as in the second or mean-sign variety of the 12-years
+cycle: each _samvatsara_ commences when Jupiter enters a sign of the
+zodiac with reference to his mean motion and longitude; and it lasts for
+slightly more than 361.02 days. This variety is traced back in
+inscriptional records to A.D. 602, and is still used in Northern India.
+
+Now, the _samvatsaras_ are calculated by means of the astronomical solar
+year commencing with the Mesha-samkranti, the entrance of the sun into
+the sign Mesha (Aries). The process gives the number of the _samvatsara_
+last expired before any particular Mesha-samkranti, with a remainder
+denoting the portion of the current _samvatsara_ elapsed up to the same
+time; and the remainder, reduced to months, &c., gives the moment of the
+commencement of the current _samvatsara_, by reckoning back from the
+Mesha-samkranti. As the result, apparently, of unwillingness to take the
+trouble to work out the full details, at some time about A.D. 800 a
+practice arose, in some quarters, according to which that _samvatsara_
+of the 60-years cycle which was current at any particular
+Mesha-samkranti was taken as coinciding with the astronomical solar year
+beginning at that _samkranti_, and with the Chaitradi lunar year
+belonging to that same solar year. And this practice set up a lunisolar
+variety of the cycle, in connexion with which we have to notice the
+following point. While the duration of a mean-sign _samvatsara_ is
+closely about 361.02 days, the length of the Hindu astronomical solar
+year is closely about 365.258 days. It consequently happens, after every
+85 or 86 years, that a mean-sign _samvatsara_ begins and ends between
+two successive Mesha-samkrantis. In the mean-sign cycle, such a
+_samvatsara_ retains its existence unaffected; and the names Prabhava,
+Vibhava, &c., run on without any interruption. According to the
+lunisolar system, however, the position is different; the _samvatsara_
+beginning and ending between the two Mesha-samkrantis is expunged or
+suppressed, in the sense that its name is omitted and is replaced by the
+next name on the list. The second variety of the 60-years cycle, thus
+started, ran on alongside of the mean-sign variety, and, being
+eventually transferred, with that variety, to Northern India, is now
+known as the northern lunisolar variety. It preserves a connexion
+between the _samvatsaras_ and the movements of Jupiter: but the
+connexion is an imperfect one; and both in this variety, and still more
+markedly in the remaining one still to be described, the _samvatsaras_
+practically became mere appellations for the solar and lunar years.
+
+Meanwhile, just after A.D. 900, another development occurred, and there
+was started a third variety, which is now known as the southern
+lunisolar variety. The precise year in which this happened depends on
+the particular authority that we follow. If we take the elements adopted
+in the Surya-Siddhanta as the proper data for that time and for the
+locality--Western India below the Narbada--to which the early history of
+the cycle belongs, the position was as follows. At the Mesha-samkranti
+in A.D. 908 there was current, by the mean-sign system, the _samvatsara_
+No. 2, Vibhava: but No. 4, Pramoda, was current by the same system at
+the Mesha-samkranti in A.D. 909; and No. 3, Sukla, began and ended
+between the two Mesha-samkrantis. Accordingly, No. 2, Vibhava, was the
+lunisolar _samvatsara_ for the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi
+lunar year commencing in A.D. 908; and by the strict lunisolar system,
+which was adhered to by some people and is now known as the northern
+lunisolar system, it was followed in A.D. 909 by No. 4, Pramoda, the
+name of the intermediate _samvatsara_, No. 3, Sukla, being passed over.
+On the other hand, whether through oversight, or whatever the reason may
+have been, by other people the name of No. 3, Sukla, was not passed
+over, but that _samvatsara_ was taken as the lunisolar _samvatsara_ for
+the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi lunar year beginning in A.D.
+909, and No. 4, Pramoda, followed it in A.D. 910. On subsequent similar
+occasions, also, there was, in the same quarters, no passing over of
+the name of any _samvatsara_. And this practice established itself in
+Southern India, to the exclusion there of the mean-sign and the northern
+lunisolar varieties; the discrepancy between the last-mentioned variety
+and the variety thus set up continuing, of course, to increase by one
+_samvatsara_ after every 85 or 86 years. In this variety, the southern
+lunisolar variety, all connexion between the _samvatsaras_ and the
+movements of Jupiter has now been lost.
+
+  The present position of the 60-years cycle in its three varieties may
+  be illustrated thus. In Northern India, by the mean-sign system the
+  _samvatsara_ No. 46, Paridhavin, began, according to different
+  authorities, in August, September or October, A.D. 1899. Consequently,
+  by the northern or expunging lunisolar system, that same _samvatsara_,
+  No. 46, Paridhavin, coincided with the Meshadi civil solar year
+  beginning with or just after 12th April, and with the Chaitradi lunar
+  year beginning with 31st March, A.D. 1900. But by the southern or
+  non-expunging lunisolar system those same solar and lunar years were
+  No. 34, Sarvarin.
+
+  The treatment of the cycles of Jupiter in the Sanskrit books shows
+  that it was primarily from the astrological point of view that they
+  appealed to the Hindus; it was only as a secondary consideration that
+  they acquired anything of a chronological nature. For the practical
+  application of any of them to historical purposes, it is, of course,
+  necessary that, along with the mention of a _samvatsara_, there should
+  always be given the year of some known era, or some other specific
+  guide to the exact period to which that _samvatsara_ is to be
+  referred. But it is fortunately the case that the _samvatsaras_ have
+  been but rarely cited in the inscriptional records without such a
+  guide, of some kind or another.
+
+
+  The Saptarshi reckoning.
+
+The Saptarshi reckoning is used in Kashmir, and in the Kangra district
+and some of the Hill states on the south-east of Kashmir; some nine
+centuries ago it was also in use in the Punjab, and apparently in Sind.
+In addition to being cited by such expressions as Saptarshi-samvat, "the
+year (so-and-so) of the Saptarshis," and Sastra-samvatsara, "the year
+(so-and-so) of the scriptures," it is found mentioned as Lokakala, "the
+time or era of the people," and by other terms which mark it as a vulgar
+reckoning. And it appears that modern popular names for it are
+Pahari-samvat and Kachcha-samvat, which we may render by "the Hill era"
+and "the crude era." The years of this reckoning are lunar, Chaitradi;
+and the months are _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon). As matters
+stand now, the reckoning has a theoretical initial point in 3077 B.C.;
+and the year 4976, more usually called simply 76, began in A.D. 1900;
+but there are some indications that the initial point was originally
+placed one year earlier.
+
+  The idea at the bottom of this reckoning is a belief that the
+  Saptarshis, "the Seven Rishis or Saints," Marichi and others, were
+  translated to heaven, and became the stars of the constellation Ursa
+  Major, in 3076 B.C. (or 3077); and that these stars possess an
+  independent movement of their own, which, referred to the ecliptic,
+  carries them round at the rate of 100 years for each _nakshatra_ or
+  twenty-seventh division of the circle. Theoretically, therefore, the
+  Saptarshi reckoning consists of cycles of 2700 years; and the
+  numbering of the years should run from 1 to 2700, and then commence
+  afresh. In practice, however, it has been treated quite differently.
+  According to the general custom, which has distinctly prevailed in
+  Kashmir from the earliest use of the reckoning for chronological
+  purposes, and is illustrated by Kalhana in his history of Kashmir, the
+  _Rajataramgini_, written in A.D. 1148-1150, the numeration of the
+  years has been centennial; whenever a century has been completed, the
+  numbering has not run on 101, 102, 103, &c., but has begun again with
+  1, 2, 3, &c. Almanacs, indeed, show both the figures of the century
+  and the full figures of the entire reckoning, which is treated as
+  running from 3076 B. C., not from 376 B.C. as the commencement of a
+  new cycle, the second; thus, an almanac for the year beginning in A.D.
+  1793 describes that year as "the year 4869 according to the course of
+  the Seven Rishis, and similarly the year 69." And elsewhere sometimes
+  the full. figures are found, sometimes the abbreviated ones; thus,
+  while a manuscript written in A.D. 1648 is dated in "the year 24" (for
+  4724), another, written in A.D. 1224 is dated in "the year 4300." But,
+  as in the _Rajataramgini_, so also in inscriptions, which range from
+  A.D. 1204 onwards, only the abbreviated figures have hitherto been
+  found. Essentially, therefore, the Saptarshi reckoning is a centennial
+  reckoning, by suppressed or omitted hundreds, with its earlier
+  centuries commencing in 3076, 2976 B.C., and so on, and its later
+  centuries commencing in A.D. 25, 125, 225, &c.; on precisely the same
+  lines with those according to which we may use, e.g. 98 to mean A.D.
+  1798, and 57 to mean A.D. 1857, and 9 to mean A.D. 1909. And the
+  practical difficulties attending the use of such a system for
+  chronological purposes are obvious; isolated dates recorded in such a
+  fashion cannot be allocated without some explicit clue to the
+  centuries to which they belong. Fortunately, however, as regards
+  Kashmir, we have the necessary guide in the facts that Kalhana
+  recorded his own date in the Saka era as well as in this reckoning,
+  and gave full historical details which enable us to determine
+  unmistakably the equivalent of the first date in this reckoning cited
+  by him, and to arrange with certainty the chronology presented by him
+  from that time.
+
+  The belief underlying this reckoning according to the course of the
+  Seven Rishis is traced back in India, as an astrological detail, to at
+  least the 6th century A.D. But the reckoning was first adopted for
+  chronological purposes in Kashmir and at some time about A.D. 800; the
+  first recorded date in it is one of "the year 89," meaning 3889, =
+  A.D. 813-814, given by Kalhana. It was introduced into India between
+  A.D. 925 and 1025.
+
+
+  The Grahaparivritti cycle.
+
+The Grahaparivritti is a reckoning which is used in the southernmost
+parts of Madras, particularly in the Madura district. It consists of
+cycles of 90 Meshadi solar years, and is said, in conformity with its
+name, which means "the revolution of planets," to be made up by the sum
+of the days in 1 revolution of the sun, 22 of Mercury, 5 of Venus, 15 of
+Mars, 11 of Jupiter, and 29 of Saturn. The first cycle is held to have
+commenced in 24 B.C., the second in A.D. 67, and so on; and, in
+accordance with that view, the year 34, which began in A.D. 1900, was
+the 34th year of the 22nd cycle.
+
+  No inscriptional use of this cycle has come to notice. There seems no
+  substantial reason for believing that the reckoning was really started
+  in 24 B.C. The alleged constitution of the cycle, which appears to be
+  correct within about twelve days, and might possibly be made
+  apparently exact, suggests an astrological origin. And, if a guess may
+  be hazarded, we would conjecture that the reckoning is an offshoot of
+  the southern lunisolar variety of the 60-years cycle of Jupiter, and
+  had its real origin in some year in which a Prabhava _samvatsara_ of
+  that variety commenced, and to which the first year of a
+  Grahaparivritti cycle can be referred: that was the case in A.D. 967
+  and at each subsequent 180th year.
+
+
+  The Onko cycle.
+
+In part of the Gañjam district, Madras, there is a reckoning, known as
+the Onko or Anka, i.e. literally "the number or numbers," consisting of
+lunar years, each commencing with Bhadrapada sukla 12, which run
+theoretically in cycles of 59 years. But the reckoning has the
+peculiarity that, whether the explanation is to be found in a
+superstition about certain numbers or in some other reason, the year 6,
+and any year the number of which ends with 6 or 0 (except the year 10),
+is omitted from the numbering; so that, for instance, the year 7 follows
+next after the year 5. The origin of the reckoning is not known. But the
+use of it seems to be traceable in records of the Ganga kings who
+reigned in that part of the country and in Orissa in the 12th and
+following centuries. And the initial day, Bhadrapada sukla 12, which
+figures again in the Vilayati and Amli reckoning of Orissa (see farther
+on), is perhaps to be accounted for on the view that this day was the
+day of the anointment, in the 7th century, of the first Ganga king,
+Rajasimha-Indravarman I.
+
+
+  The Maghi reckoning.
+
+In the Chittagong district, Bengal, there is a solar reckoning, known by
+the name Maghi, of which the year 1262 either began or ended in A.D.
+1900; so that it has an initial point in A.D. 639 or 638. It appears
+that Chittagong was conquered by the king of Arakan in the 9th century,
+and remained usually in the possession of the Maghs--the Arakanese or a
+class of them--till A.D. 1666, when it was finally annexed to the Mogul
+empire. In these circumstances it is plain that the Magh reckoning took
+its name from the Maghs; its year, which is Meshadi, from Bengal; and
+its numbering from the Sakkaraj, the ordinary era of Arakan and Burma,
+which has its initial point in A.D. 638.
+
+
+  Hinduized offshoots of the Hijra era.
+
+The Hijra (Hegira) era, the reckoning from the flight of Mahomet, which
+dates from the 16th of July, A.D. 662, is, of course, used by the
+Mahommedans in India, and is customarily shown, with the details of its
+calendar, in the Hindu almanacs. An account of it does not fall within
+the scope of this article. But we have to mention it because we come now
+to certain Hinduized reckonings which are hybrid offshoots of it. We
+need only say, however, in explanation of some of the following figures,
+that the years of the Hijra era are purely lunar, consisting of twelve
+lunar months and no more; with the result that the initial day of the
+year is always travelling backwards through the Julian year, and makes a
+complete circuit in thirty-four years. The reckonings derived from it,
+which we have to describe, have apparent initial points in A.D. 591,
+593, 594, and 600. They had their real origin, however, in the 14th,
+16th, and 17th centuries.
+
+The emperor Akbar succeeded to the throne in February, A.D. 1556, in the
+Hijra year 963, which ran from 16th November 1555 to 3rd November 1556.
+Amongst the reforms aimed at by him and his officials, one was to
+abolish, or at least minimize, by introducing uniformity of numbering,
+the confusion due to the existence of various reckonings, both
+Mahommedan and Hindu. And one step taken in that direction was to assign
+to the Hindu year the same number with the Hijra year. It is believed
+that this was first done by the Persian clerks of the revenue and
+financial offices at an early time in Akbar's reign, and that it
+received authoritative sanction in the Hijra year 971 (21st August 1563
+to 8th August 1564). At any rate, the innovation was certainly first
+made in Upper India; and the numbering started there was introduced into
+Bengal and those parts as Akbar extended his dominions, but without
+interfering with local customs as to the commencement of the Hindu year.
+The result is that we now have the following reckonings, the years of
+which are used as revenue years:--
+
+
+    The Fasli reckoning of Upper India.
+
+  In the United Provinces and the Punjab, there is an Asvinadi lunar
+  reckoning, known as the Fasli, according to which the year 1308 began
+  in A.D. 1900; so that the reckoning has an apparent initial point in
+  A.D. 593. The name of this reckoning is derived from _fasl_, "a
+  harvest," of which there are two; the _fasl-i-rabi_ or "spring
+  harvest," commencing in February, and the _fasl-i-kharif_, or "autumn
+  harvest" commencing in October. The years of this reckoning begin with
+  the _purnimanta_ Asvina krishna 1, which now falls in September. A
+  peculiar feature of it is that, though the months are lunar, they are
+  not divided into fortnights, and the numbering of the days runs on, as
+  in the Mahommedan month, from the first to the end of the month
+  without being affected by any expunction and repetition of _tithis_;
+  and, for this and other reasons, it seems that in this case a new form
+  of Hindu year was devised, of such a kind as to enable the
+  agriculturists to realize their produce and pay their assessments
+  comfortably within the year. The Hijra era has, of course, now drawn
+  somewhat widely away from this and the other reckonings derived from
+  it; the Hijra year commencing in A.D. 1900 was 1318, ten years in
+  advance of the Fasli year.
+
+
+    The Vilayati-san and Amli-san of Orissa.
+
+  In Orissa and some other parts of Bengal, there is a reckoning, or two
+  almost identical reckonings, the facts of which are not quite clear.
+  According to one account, the term Amli-san, "the official year," is
+  only another name of the Vilayati-san, "the year received from the
+  _vilayat_ or province of Hindustan." But we are also told that the
+  Vilayati-san is a Kanyadi solar year, whereas the Amli-san, though it
+  too has solar months, changes its number on the lunar day Bhadrapada
+  sukla 12 (mentioned above in connexion with the Onko cycle of Orissa),
+  which comes sometimes in Kanya, but sometimes in the preceding month,
+  Simha. Elsewhere, again, it is the Vilayati-san which is shown as
+  changing its number on Bhadrapada sukla 12. In either case, the year
+  1308 of this reckoning, also, began in A.D. 1900; and so, like the
+  Fasli of Upper India, this reckoning, too, has an apparent initial
+  point in A.D. 593. The day Bhadrapada sukla 12 now usually falls in
+  September, but may come during the last three days of August. The
+  first day of the solar month Kanya now falls on 15th or 16th
+  September.
+
+
+    The Bengali-san.
+
+  In Bengal there is in more general use a Meshadi solar reckoning,
+  known as the Bengali-san or "Bengal year," according to which the year
+  1307 began in A.D. 1900; so that this reckoning has an apparent
+  initial point in A.D. 594. The initial day of the year is the first
+  day of the solar month Mesha, now falling on 12th or 13th April.
+
+
+    The Fasli of Bombay and Madras.
+
+  The system of Fasli reckonings was introduced into Southern India
+  under the emperor Shah Jahan, at some time in the Hijra year 1046,
+  which ran from 26th May, A.D. 1636, to 15th May, A.D. 1637. But the
+  numbering which was current in Northern India was not taken over. A
+  new start was made; and, as the year of the Hijra had gone back,
+  during the intervening seventy-three Julian years, by two years and a
+  quarter (less by only five days) from the date of its commencement in
+  the year 971, the Fasli reckoning of Southern India began with a
+  nominal year 1046 (instead of 971 + 73 = 1044), commencing in A.D.
+  1636. The Fasli reckoning of Southern India exists in two varieties.
+  The years of the Bombay Fasli are popularly known as Mrigasal years,
+  because they commence when the sun enters the _nakshatra_ Mrigasiras,
+  which occurs now on 6th or 7th June: the reckoning seems to have taken
+  over this initial day from the Maratha Sur-san (see below). The Fasli
+  years of Madras originally began at the Karka-samkranti, the nominal
+  summer solstice: under the British government, the commencement of
+  them was first fixed to 12th July, on which day the _samkranti_ was
+  then usually occurring; but it was afterwards changed to 1st July as a
+  more convenient date. The years of the Bombay and Madras Fasli have no
+  division of their own into months, fortnights, &c.; the year is always
+  used along with one or other of the real Hindu reckonings, and the
+  details are cited according to that reckoning.
+
+
+    The Maratha Sur-san or Arabi-san.
+
+  Another offshoot of the Hijra era, but one of earlier date and not
+  belonging to the class of Fasli reckonings, is found, in the Maratha
+  country, in the Sur-san or Shahur-san, "the year of months," also
+  known as Arabi-san, "the Arab year." This reckoning, which is met with
+  chiefly in old _sanads_ or charters, appears to have branched off in
+  or closely about the Hijra year 745, which ran from 15th May, A.D.
+  1344, to 3rd May, A.D. 1345; but the exact circumstance in which it
+  originated is not known. The years of this reckoning begin, like those
+  of the Bombay Fasli, with the entrance of the sun into the _nakshatra_
+  Mrigasiras, which now occurs on 6th or 7th June; but the months and
+  days are those of the Hijra year. The Sur-san year 1301 began in A.D.
+  1900; and so the reckoning has an apparent initial point in A.D. 600.
+  A peculiarity attending this reckoning is that, whatever may be the
+  vernacular of a clerk, he uses the Arabic numeral words in reading out
+  the year; and the same words are given alongside of the figures in the
+  Hindu almanacs.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The Hindu astronomy had already begun to attract
+  attention before the close of the 18th century. The investigation,
+  however, of the calendar and the eras, along with the verification of
+  dates, was started by Warren, whose _Kala Sankalita_ was published in
+  1825. The inquiry was carried on by Prinsep in his _Useful Tables_
+  (1834-1836), by Cowasjee Patell in his _Chronology_ (1866), and by
+  Cunningham in his _Book of Indian Eras_ (1883). But Warren's
+  processes, though mostly giving accurate results, were lengthy and
+  troublesome; and calculations made on the lines laid down by his
+  successors gave results which might or might not be correct, and could
+  only be cited as approximate results. The exact calculation of Hindu
+  dates by easy processes was started by Shankar Balkrishna Dikshit, in
+  an article published in the _Indian Antiquary_, vol. 16 (1887). This
+  was succeeded by methods and tables devised by Jacobi, which were
+  published in the next volume of the same journal. There then followed
+  several contributions in the same line by other scholars, some for
+  exact, others for closely approximate, results, and some valuable
+  articles by Kielhorn on some of the principal Hindu eras and other
+  reckonings, which were published in the same journal, vols. 17 (1888)
+  to 26 (1897). And the treatment of the matter culminated for the time
+  being in the publication, in 1896, of Sewell and Dikshit's _Indian
+  Calendar_, which contains an appendix by Schram on eclipses of the sun
+  in India, and was supplemented in 1898 by Sewell's _Eclipses of the
+  Moon in India_. The present article is based on the above-mentioned
+  and various detached writings, supplemented by original research. For
+  the exact calculation of Hindu dates and the determination of the
+  European equivalents of them, use may be made either of Sewell and
+  Dikshit's works mentioned above, or of the improved tables by Jacobi
+  which were published in the _Epigraphia Indica_, vols. 1 and 2
+  (1892-1894).     (J. F. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The disregard of precession, and the consequent travelling
+    forward of the year through the natural seasons, is, of course, a
+    serious defect in the Hindu calendar, the principles of which are
+    otherwise good. Accordingly, an attempt was made by a small band of
+    reformers to rectify this state of things by introducing a
+    precessional calendar, taking as the first lunar month the synodic
+    lunation in which the sun enters the tropical Aries, instead of the
+    sidereal Mesha; and the publication was started, in or about 1886, of
+    the Sayana-Pañchang or "Precessional Almanac."
+
+    Further, the Hindu sidereal solar year is in excess of the true mean
+    sidereal year by (if we use Aryabhata's value) 3 min. 20.4 sec. If we
+    take this, for convenience, at 3 min. 20 sec., the excess amounts to
+    exactly one day in 432 years. And so even the sidereal
+    Mesha-samkranti is now found to occur three or four days later than
+    the day on which it should occur. Accordingly, another reformer had
+    begun, in or about 1865, to publish the Navin athava Patwardhani
+    Pañchang, the "New or Patwardhani Almanac," in which he determined
+    the details of the year according to the proper Mesha-samkranti.
+
+  [2] It might also be called Pausha, because the sun enters Makara in
+    the course of it; and it may be observed that, in accordance with a
+    second rule which formerly existed, it would have been named Pausha
+    because it ends while the sun is in Makara, and the omitted name
+    would have been Margasira. But the more important condition of the
+    present rule, that Pausha begins while the sun is in Dhanus, is not
+    satisfied.
+
+  [3] The well-known Metonic cycle, whence we have by rearrangement our
+    system of Golden Numbers, naturally suggests itself; and we have been
+    told sometimes that that cycle was adopted by the Hindus, and
+    elsewhere that the intercalation of a month by them generally takes
+    place in the years 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 19 of each cycle,
+    differing only in respect of the 14th year, instead of the 13th, from
+    the arrangement which is said to have been fixed by Meton. As regards
+    the first point, however, there is no evidence that a special period
+    of 19 years was ever actually used by the Hindus during the period
+    with which we are dealing, beyond the extent to which it figures as a
+    component of the number of years, 19 × 150 = 2850, forming the
+    lunisolar cycle of an early work entitled _Romaka-Siddhanta_; and, as
+    was recognized by Kalippos not long after the time of Meton himself,
+    the Metonic cycle has not, for any length of time, the closeness of
+    results which has been sometimes supposed to attach to it; it
+    requires to be readjusted periodically. As regards the second point,
+    the precise years of the intercalated months depend upon, and vary
+    with, the year that we may select as the apparent first year of a set
+    of 19 years, and it is not easy to arrange the Hindu years in sets
+    answering to a direct continuation of the Metonic cycle.
+
+  [4] It is customary to render the term _tithi_ by "lunar day:" it is,
+    in fact, explained as such in Sanskrit works; and, as the _tithis_ do
+    mark the age of the moon by periods approximating to 24 hours, they
+    are, in a sense, lunar days. But the _tithi_ must not be confused
+    with the lunar day of western astronomy, which is the interval, with
+    a mean duration of about 24 hrs. 54 min., between two successive
+    meridian passages of the moon.
+
+  [5] We illustrate the ordinary occurrences. But there are others.
+    Thus, a repeated _tithi_ may occasionally be followed by a suppressed
+    one: in this case the numbering of the civil days would be 6, 7, 7,
+    9, &c., instead of 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, &c. Or it may occasionally be
+    preceded by a suppressed one: in this case the numbering would be 5,
+    7, 7, 8, &c., instead of 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, &c.
+
+  [6] It is always to be borne in mind that, as already explained,
+    while the Hindu Mesha answers to our Aries, it does not coincide with
+    either the sign or the constellation Aries.
+
+  [7] We select A.D. 1900 as a gauge-year, in preference to the year in
+    which we are writing, because its figures are more convenient for
+    comparative purposes. In accordance with the general tendency of the
+    Hindus to cite expired years, the almanacs would mostly show 5001
+    (instead of 5002) as the number for the Kaliyuga year answering to
+    A.D. 1900-1901. And, for the same reason, this reckoning has often
+    been called the Kaliyuga era of 3101 B.C. There is, perhaps, no
+    particular objection to that, provided that we then deal with the
+    Vikrama and Saka eras on the same lines, and bear in mind that in
+    each case the initial point of the reckoning really lies in the
+    preceding year. But we prefer to treat these reckonings with exact
+    correctness.
+
+  [8] It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views
+    regarding the date of Kanishka and the origin of the Vikrama era.
+    Some writers hold that Kanishka began to reign in A.D. 78, and
+    founded the so-called Saka era beginning in that year; one writer
+    would place his initial date about A.D. 123, others would place it in
+    A.D. 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held at one
+    time by Sir A. Cunningham: and, as some others have already begun to
+    recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating in support of the
+    correctness of it.
+
+  [9] See the preceding note.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4
+       "Hero" to "Hindu Chronology"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 2, 2012 [EBook #39353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE IV<br /><br />
+Hero to Hindu Chronology</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HERO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HIAWATHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HERO AND LEANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HIBBING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HERO OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HIBERNACULUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HERO</a> (the Younger)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HIBERNATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HEROD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HIBERNIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HERODAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HICKERINGILL, EDMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HERODIANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HICKES, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HERODIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HERODIANUS, AELIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HICKORY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HERODOTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HICKS, ELIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HÉROET, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HICKS, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HEROIC ROMANCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HICKS, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HEROIC VERSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HIDALGO</a> (state of Mexico)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HÉROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HIDALGO</a> (Spanish title)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HERON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HERPES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HIDDENITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HERRERA, FERNANDO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HIDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HERRERA, FRANCISCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HIEL, EMMANUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HIEMPSAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HERRICK, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HIERAPOLIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HIERARCHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HIERATIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HERRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HIERAX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HERRING-BONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HIERO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HIERO II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HERRNHUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HIEROCLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HIEROGLYPHICS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HIERONYMITES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HERSENT, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HIERRO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HERSFELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HIGDON, RANULF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HERSTAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HERTFORD</a> (Hertfordshire, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HIGHAM FERRERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HERTFORDSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HIGHGATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HERTHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HIGHLANDS, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HIGHNESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HERTZ, HENRIK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HIGH PLACE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HIGH SEAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HERTZEN, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HIGHWAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HERULI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HERVÁS Y PANDURO, LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HILARION, ST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HERVEY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HILARIUS, ST</a> (bishop of Pictavium)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HILARIUS</a> (bishop of Rome)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HILARIUS</a> (Latin poet)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HERVIEU, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HILARIUS, ST</a> (bishop of Arles)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HILDA, ST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HERWEGH, GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HILDBURGHAUSEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HERZBERG</a> (town in the province of Hanover)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HILDEBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HERZBERG</a> (town in the province of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HILDEBRAND, LAY OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HERZL, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HERZOG, HANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HILDEGARD, ST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HILDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HESILRIGE, SIR ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HILDESHEIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HESIOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HILDRETH, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HESPERIDES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HESPERUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HILL, AARON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HESS</a> (family of German artists)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HILL, AMBROSE POWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HILL, DANIEL HARVEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HESSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HILL, DAVID BENNETT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HESSE-CASSEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HESSE-DARMSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HILL, JAMES J.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HESSE-HOMBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HILL, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HESSE-NASSAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HESSE-ROTENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HILL, OCTAVIA and MIRANDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HESSIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HILL, ROWLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HILL, SIR ROWLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HESTIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HILL, ROWLAND HILL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HESYCHASTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HILL</a> (elevation)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HESYCHIUS</a> (grammarian of Alexandria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HILLAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HETAERISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HILLEBRAND, KARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HETEROKARYOTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HILLEL</a> (Jewish rabbi)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HETERONOMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HILLER, FERDINAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HETMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HILLER, JOHANN ADAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HILLIARD, LAWRENCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HETTSTEDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HILLIARD, NICHOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HILLSDALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HEULANDITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HILL TIPPERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HEUSCH, WILLEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HILTON, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HEVELIUS, JOHANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HILTON, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HILVERSUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HIMALAYA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HIMERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HEXAMETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HIMERIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HEXAPLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HEXAPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HEXASTYLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HINCKLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HEXATEUCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HINCKS, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HEXHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">HINCMAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HEYLYN, PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">HIND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">HIND&#298;, EASTERN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">HIND&#298;, WESTERN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HEYSHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">HINDKI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HEYWOOD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">HINDLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HEYWOOD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">HINDOSTANI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HEYWOOD</a> (Lancashire, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">HIND&#332;ST&#256;N&#298; LITERATURE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HEZEKIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">HINDU CHRONOLOGY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HIATUS</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HERO<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêrôs">&#7973;&#961;&#969;&#962;</span>), a term specially applied to warriors of
+extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who
+were distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical
+or intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the
+word has been suggested.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Ancient Greek Heroes.</i></p>
+
+<p>In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult,
+and as such were intimately connected with its religious life.
+Various theories have been put forward as to the nature of these
+heroes. According to some authorities, they were idealized
+historical personages; according to others, symbolical representations
+of the forces of nature. The view most commonly
+held is that they were degraded or &ldquo;depotentiated&rdquo; gods,
+occupying a position intermediate between gods and men.
+According to E. Rohde (in <i>Psyche</i>) they are souls of the dead,
+which after separation from the body enter upon a higher,
+eternal existence. But it is only a select minority who
+attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the distinguished
+men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality an
+ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was
+preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being
+degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real
+heroes, the heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes
+were all persons who had lived the life of man on earth, and it
+was necessary for the degraded gods to pass through this stage.
+They did not at once become cult-heroes, but only after they had
+undergone death like other mortals. Only one who has been a
+man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of the dead, not
+demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods and
+men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class.</p>
+
+<p>In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to
+kings and kings&rsquo; sons, even to distinguished persons of lower
+rank, and free men generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly confined
+to those who fought before Troy and Thebes; in view
+of their supposed divine origin, he calls them demi-gods
+(<span class="grk" title="hêmitheoi">&#7969;&#956;&#943;&#952;&#949;&#959;&#953;</span>). This name is also given them in an interpolated
+passage in the <i>Iliad</i> (xii. 23), which is quite at variance with the
+general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more than men,
+even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess.
+But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea
+that the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over
+the lives of those who survived them; and consequently, no
+cult. Nevertheless, traces of an earlier ancestor worship
+appear, <i>e.g.</i> in funeral games in honour of Patroclus and other
+heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five ages of man is a
+reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence of souls in a
+higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a time
+obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry
+(<i>De abstinentia</i>, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica
+to honour the gods and heroes of their country &ldquo;in accordance
+with the usage of their fathers&rdquo; with offerings of first fruits and
+sacrificial cakes every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom
+of high antiquity. Solon also ordered that the tombs of the
+heroes should be treated with the greatest respect, and Cleisthenes
+(<i>q.v.</i>) sought to create a pan-Athenian enthusiasm by
+calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and setting up their
+statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first bestowed upon
+the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of families; if
+their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In
+many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the
+supposed ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica
+and elsewhere (Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus
+Ceryces at Eleusis), of the eponymi of the tribes and demes.
+Again, side by side with gods of superior rank, certain heroes
+were worshipped as protecting spirits of the country or state;
+such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans, Ajax son of
+Oïleus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at
+Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span>
+responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes,
+while, on the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was
+equally beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic
+oracle, which was largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship
+and keeping alive its due observance. Special importance was
+attached to the grave of the hero and to his bodily remains, with
+which the spirit of the departed was inseparably connected. The
+grave was regarded as his place of abode, from which he could
+only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones were fetched
+from abroad (<i>e.g.</i> Cimon brought those of Theseus from Scyros),
+or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was erected
+in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the
+house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone
+on which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special
+shrines (<span class="grk" title="hêrôa">&#7969;&#961;&#8183;&#945;</span>) were also erected in their honour, usually over their
+graves. In these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in
+accordance with the idea that the hero was essentially a warrior,
+who on occasion came forth from his grave and fought at the
+head of his countrymen, putting the enemy to flight as during his
+lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes were supposed to exercise
+an influence on human affairs, though not to the same extent,
+their sphere of action being confined to their own localities.
+Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the elevation
+of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of
+Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton
+and Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local
+Athenian hero Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank
+of a hero became far more common, and was even accorded to the
+living, such as Lysimachus in Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias
+of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene instituted an order of priests
+to celebrate the anniversary of his birth and coronation in a
+special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed divine
+honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime.
+The birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month
+sacrifice was offered to him and games held in his honour. In
+addition to persons of high rank, poets, legendary and others
+(Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus and Sophocles), legislators
+and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the patrons of various
+trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers, potters), the heads of
+philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus, Epicurus) received the
+honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered before the statue
+of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some countries the
+honour became so general that every man after death was
+described as a hero in his epitaph&mdash;in Thessaly even slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that
+of the chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that
+of the ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not
+&ldquo;depotentiated&rdquo; gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at
+night or in the evening; not on a high, but on a low altar (<span class="grk" title="eschara">&#7952;&#963;&#967;&#940;&#961;&#945;</span>),
+surrounded by a trench to receive the blood of the victim, which
+was supposed to make its way through the ground to the
+occupant of the grave; the victims were black male animals,
+whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards; their blood
+was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed
+(<span class="grk" title="haimakouria">&#945;&#7985;&#956;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no
+mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the
+sacrifice was not <span class="grk" title="thuein">&#952;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> but <span class="grk" title="enagizein">&#7952;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> (less commonly <span class="grk" title="entemnein">&#7952;&#957;&#964;&#941;&#956;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>).
+The chthonian aspect of the hero is further shown by his attribute
+the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form himself.
+On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set out
+for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake.
+The fullest description of such a festival is the account given by
+Plutarch (<i>Aristides</i>, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans
+in honour of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of
+Plataea. On the 16th of the month Maimacterion, a long procession,
+headed by a trumpeter playing a warlike air, set out for
+the graves; wagons decked with myrtle and garlands of flowers
+followed, young men (who must be of free birth) carried jars of
+wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull destined
+for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who
+wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand,
+in the other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew
+some water with which he washed the gravestones, afterwards
+anointing them with perfume; he then sacrificed the bull on the
+altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and Hermes Psychopompos, and
+inviting them in company with the heroes to the festival of blood.
+Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words: &ldquo;I drink
+to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See especially E. Rohde, <i>Psyche</i> (1905) and in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>,
+li. (1895), 28; P. Stengel, <i>Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer</i>
+(Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schömann, <i>Griechische Altertümer</i>,
+ii. (1897), 159; J. Wassner, <i>De heroum apud Graecos cultu</i> (Kiel,
+1883); article by F. Deneken in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>,
+in which a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild,
+<i>Étude sur les démons</i> (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Teutonic Legend.</i></p>
+
+<p>Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek
+heroes are reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the
+parallel being in some cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance,
+like Achilles, is vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith,
+like Hephaestus, is lame. Superhuman qualities and powers,
+too, are commonly ascribed to both, an important difference,
+however, being that whatever worship may have been paid to the
+Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult. This applies
+equally to those who have a recognized historical origin and to
+those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the
+number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship.
+The fashion during the 19th century set strongly in the other
+direction, and the &ldquo;degraded gods&rdquo; theory was applied not
+only to such conspicuous heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and
+Beowulf, but to a host of minor characters, such as the good
+marquis Rüdeger of the Nibelungenlied and our own Robin
+Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The reaction
+from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until
+not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being
+traced to very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus
+M. Henri de Tourville, in his<i> Histoire de la formation particulariste</i>
+(1903), basing his argument on the <i>Ynglinga Saga</i>, interpreted
+in the light of &ldquo;Social Science,&rdquo; reveals Odin, &ldquo;the traveller,&rdquo;
+as a great &ldquo;caravan-leader&rdquo; and warrior, who, driven from
+Asgard&mdash;a trading city on the borders of the steppes east of the
+Don&mdash;by &ldquo;the blows that Pompey aimed at Mithridates,&rdquo;
+brought to the north the arts and industries of the East. The
+argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be
+doubted whether it has permanently &ldquo;rescued Odin from the
+misty dreamland of mythology and restored him to history.&rdquo;
+It is now, however, admitted that, whatever influence the one
+may have from time to time exercised on the other, Teutonic
+myth and Teutonic heroic legend were developed on independent
+lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main, historical personages,
+never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they are sometimes
+endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as symbolical
+representations of natural forces.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded
+as including that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and
+Scandinavians, is to be looked for in the period of the so-called
+migration of nations (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 350-650). It consequently rests
+upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga (in the older and wider
+sense of any story said or sung) being indeed the oldest form
+of historical tradition; though this of course does not exclude
+the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round
+persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the
+heroic sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds
+of Arminius were still celebrated in song a hundred years after
+his death (<i>Annals</i>, ii. 88) and in the <i>Germania</i> he speaks of &ldquo;old
+songs&rdquo; as the only kind of &ldquo;annals&rdquo; which the ancient Germans
+possessed; but, whatever relics of the old songs may be embedded
+in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no recognizable mark on the
+heroic poetry of the German peoples. The attempt to identify
+Arminius with Siegfried is now generally abandoned. Teutonic
+heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions connected
+with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are found
+in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus
+and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span>
+Cassiodorus&rsquo;s <i>History of the Goths</i>) at the funeral of Attila his
+vassals, as they rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds.
+The next step in the development of epic narrative was the
+single lay of an episodic character, sung by a single individual,
+who was frequently a member of a distinguished family, not
+merely a professional minstrel. Then, as different stories grew
+up round the person of a particular hero, they formed a connected
+cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person of the hero
+(<i>e.g.</i> Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these
+cycles are the following.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its
+present form was probably brought from the continent by the
+Angles. It is an amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the
+slayer of the water-demon and the dragon, with the historical
+legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of Hygelac (Chochilaicus),
+king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain (<i>c.</i> 520)
+while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel
+and the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally
+wounded, have been supposed to represent the powers of autumn
+and darkness, the floods which at certain seasons overflow the
+low-lying countries on the coast of the North Sea and sweep
+away all human habitations; Beowulf is the hero of spring and
+light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging waters,
+finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others
+regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours
+of the fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf-Scyld
+(<i>i.e.</i> Scyld Scefing, &ldquo;the protector with the sheaf&rdquo;) lands
+on the Anglian or Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudderless
+ship, asleep on a sheaf of grain, symbolical of the means
+whereby his kingdom shall become great; the son indicates
+the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured against the attacks
+of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest German epic.
+A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when
+threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty
+years&rsquo; absence, he returns to his home In Italy; his son Hadubrand,
+believing his father to be dead, suspects treachery and
+refuses to accept presents offered by the father in token of
+good-will. A fight takes place, in which the son is slain by the
+father. In a later version, recognition and reconciliation take
+place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and Telegonis,
+Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths,
+who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (<i>c.</i> 375)
+in terror at the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected
+the old German Dioscuri myth of the Harlungen. (4) Dietrich
+of Bern (Verona), the legendary name of Theodoric the Great.
+Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is supposed to have been
+his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been deprived by
+Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a
+typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes
+refuge in Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally
+recovers his kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented
+as fighting with giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears
+on a black horse. Some attempts have been made to identify
+him as a kind of Donar or god of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H.
+Ger. Sîvrit), the hero of the <i>Niebelungenlied</i>, the Sigurd of the
+related northern sagas, is usually regarded as a purely mythical
+figure, a hero of light who is ultimately overcome by the powers
+of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He is, however,
+closely associated with historical characters and events, <i>e.g.</i>
+with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the
+overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars
+have exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify
+him with various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (<i>Das
+Nibelungenlied</i>, Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to
+three groups of Burgundian legends, each based on fact: the
+Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the murder of Segeric, son
+of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by his father
+at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian
+story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. 11), of the defeat of the
+Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity
+and murder of Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation
+of their mother Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her
+father Chilperich and of her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish-Burgundian
+story of the ruin of Gundahari&rsquo;s kingdom by Attila&rsquo;s
+Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried (Sigurd) with Segeric,
+while&mdash;according to him&mdash;the heroine of the Nibelung sagas,
+Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two historical
+persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde),
+the wife of Attila. (See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kriemhild</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>(6) Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like
+that of Siegfried, is of Frankish origin. It is preserved in four
+versions, the best of which is the oldest, and has an historical
+foundation. Hugdietrich is the &ldquo;Frankish Dietrich&rdquo; (= Hugo
+Theodoric), king of Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and
+successor Theodebert, was illegitimate; both had to fight for
+their inheritance with relatives. The transference of the scene to
+Constantinople is a reminiscence of the events of the Crusades
+and Theodebert&rsquo;s projected campaign against that city. The
+version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife by
+disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As
+the myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so
+another Dioscuri myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the
+Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend. The Hartungen are probably
+identical with the divine youths (mentioned in Tacitus as
+worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from
+whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent.
+Asdingi (<span class="grk" title="Astiggoi">&#7948;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#947;&#959;&#953;</span>) would be represented in Gothic by Hazdiggos,
+&ldquo;men with women&rsquo;s hair&rdquo; (cf. <i>muliebri ornatu</i> in Tacitus), and
+in middle high German by Hartungen. (7) Rother, king of
+Lombardy. Desiring to wed the daughter of Constantine, king of
+Constantinople, he sends twelve envoys to ask her in marriage.
+They are arrested and thrown into prison by the king. Rother,
+who appears under the name of Dietrich, sets out with an army,
+liberates the envoys and carries off the princess. One version
+places the scene in the land of the Huns. The character of
+Constantine in many respects resembles that of Alexius Comnenus;
+the slaying of a tame lion by one of the gigantic followers
+of Rother is founded on an incident which actually took place at
+the court of Alexius during the crusade of 1101 under duke Welf
+of Bavaria, when <i>King Rother</i> was composed about 1160 by a
+Rhenish minstrel. Rother may be the Lombard king Rothari
+(636-650), transferred to the period of the Crusades. (8) Walther
+of Aquitaine, chiefly known from the Latin poem <i>Waltharius</i>,
+written by Ekkehard of St Gall at the beginning of the 10th
+century, and fragments of an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Epic
+<i>Waldere</i>. Walther is not an historical figure, although the legend
+undoubtedly represents typical occurrences of the migration
+period, such as the detention and flight of hostages of noble
+family from the court of the Huns, and the rescue of captive
+maidens by abduction. (9) Wieland (Volundr), Wayland the
+Smith, the only Teutonic hero (his original home was lower
+Saxony) who firmly established himself in England. There is
+absolutely no historical background for his legend. He is a fire-spirit,
+who is pressed into man&rsquo;s service, and typifies the advance
+from the stone age to a higher stage of civilization (working in
+metals). As the lame smith he reminds us of Hephaestus, and in
+his flight with wings of Daedalus escaping from Minos. (10) Högni
+(Hagen) and Hedin (Hetel), whose personalities are overshadowed
+by the heroines Hilde and Gudrun (Kudrun, Kutrun). In one
+version occurs the incident of the never-ending battle between
+the forces of Hagen and Hedin. Every night Hilde revives the
+fallen, and &ldquo;so will it continue till the twilight of the gods.&rdquo; The
+battle represents the eternal conflict between light and darkness,
+the alternation of day and night. Hilde here figures as a typical
+Valkyr delighting in battle and bloodshed, who frustrates a
+reconciliation. Hedin had sent a necklace as a peace-offering to
+Hagen, but Hilde persuades her father that it is only a ruse.
+This necklace occurs in the story of the goddess Freya (Frigg),
+who is said to have caused the battle to conciliate the wrath of
+Odin at her infidelity, the price paid by her for the possession of
+the necklace Brisnigamen; again, the light god Heimdal is said to
+have fought with Loki for the necklace (the sun) stolen by the
+latter. Hence the battle has been explained as the necklace
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span>
+myth in epic form. The historical background is the raids of the
+Teutonic maritime tribes on the coasts of England and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Famous heroes who are specially connected with England are
+Alfred the Great, Richard C&oelig;ur-de-Lion, King Horn, Havelok
+the Dane, Guy of Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton (or Southampton),
+Robin Hood and his companions.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Celtic Heroes.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Celtic heroic saga in the British islands may be divided into
+the two principal groups of Gaelic (Irish) and Brython (Welsh), the
+first, excluding the purely mythological, into the Ultonian (connected
+with Ulster) and the Ossianic. The Ultonianis grouped
+round the names of King Conchobar and the hero Cuchulainn, &ldquo;the
+Irish Achilles,&rdquo; the defender of Ulster against all Ireland, regarded
+by some as a solar hero. The second cycle contains the epics
+of Finn (Fionn, Fingal) mac Cumhail, and his son Oisin (Ossian),
+the bard and warrior, chiefly known from the supposed Ossianic
+poems of Macpherson. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>, sec. <i>Celtic Literature</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Of Brython origin is the cycle of King Arthur (Artus), the
+adopted national hero of the mixed nationalities of whom the
+&ldquo;English&rdquo; people was composed. Here he appears as a chiefly
+mythical personality, who slays monsters, such as the giant of
+St Michel, the boar Troit, the demon cat, and goes down to the
+underworld. The original Welsh legend was spread by British
+refugees in Brittany, and was thus celebrated by both English and
+French Celts. From a literary point of view, however, it is
+chiefly French and forms &ldquo;the matter of Brittany.&rdquo; Arthur,
+the leader (<i>comes Britanniae, dux bellorum</i>) of the Siluri or
+Dumnonii against the Saxons, flourished at the beginning of the
+6th century. He is first spoken of in Nennius&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Britons</i> (9th century), and at greater length in Geoffrey of
+Monmouth&rsquo;s <i>History of the Kings of Britain</i> (12th century),
+at the end of which the French Breton cycle attained its fullest
+development in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes and others.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking generally, the Celtic heroes are differentiated from
+the Teutonic by the extreme exaggeration of their superhuman,
+or rather extra-human, qualities. Teutonic legend does not
+lightly exaggerate, and what to us seems incredible in it may be
+easily conceived as credible to those by whom and for whom the
+tales were told; that Sigmund and his son Sinfiotli turned themselves
+into wolves would be but a sign of exceptional powers to
+those who believed in werewolves; Fafnir assuming the form of
+a serpent would be no more incredible to the barbarous Teuton
+than the similar transformation of Proteus to the Greek. But in
+the characterization of their heroes the Celtic imagination runs
+riot, and the quality of their persons and their acts becomes
+exaggerated beyond the bounds of any conceivable probability.
+Take, for instance, the description of some of Arthur&rsquo;s knights in
+the Welsh tale of <i>Kilhwch and Olwen</i> (in the <i>Mabinogion</i>). Along
+with Kai and Bedwyr (Bedivere), Peredur (Perceval), Gwalchmai
+(Gawain), and many others, we have such figures as Sgilti
+Yscandroed, whose way through the wood lay along the tops of the
+trees, and whose tread was so light that no blade of grass bent
+beneath his weight; Sol, who could stand all day upon one leg;
+Sugyn the son of Sugnedydd, who was &ldquo;broad-chested&rdquo; to such
+a degree that he could suck up the sea on which were three
+hundred ships and leave nothing but dry land; Gweyyl, the son of
+Gwestad, who when he was sad would let one of his lips drop
+beneath his waist and turn up the other like a cap over his head;
+and Uchtry Varyf Draws, who spread his red untrimmed beard
+over the eight-and-forty rafters of Arthur&rsquo;s hall. Such figures as
+these make no human impression, and criticism has busied itself
+in tracing them to one or other of the shadowy divinities of the
+Celtic pantheon. However this may be, remnants of their
+primitive superhuman qualities cling to the Celtic heroes long
+after they have been transfigured, under the influence of Christianity
+and chivalry, into the heroes of the medieval Arthurian
+romance, types&mdash;for the most part&mdash;of the knightly virtues as
+these were conceived by the middle ages; while shadowy
+memories of early myths live on, strangely disguised, in certain of
+the episodes repeated uncritically by the medieval poets. So
+Merlin preserves his diabolic origin; Arthur his mystic coming and
+his mystic passing; while Gawain, and after him Lancelot, journey
+across the river, as the Irish hero Bran had done before them to
+the island of fair women&mdash;the Celtic vision of the realm of death.</p>
+
+<p>The chief heroes of the medieval Arthurian romances are
+the following. Arthur himself, who tends however to become
+completely overshadowed by his knights, who make his court
+the starting-point of their adventures. Merlin (Myrddin), the
+famous wizard, bard and warrior, perhaps an historical figure,
+first introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth, originally called
+Ambrose from the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, under
+whom he is said to have first served. Perceval (Parzival,
+Parsifal), the Welsh Peredur, &ldquo;the seeker of the basin,&rdquo; the most
+intimately connected with the quest of the Grail (<i>q.v.</i>). Tristan
+(Tristram), the ideal lover of the middle ages, whose name is
+inseparably associated with that of Iseult. Lancelot, son of
+Ban king of Brittany, a creation of chivalrous romance, who
+only appears in Arthurian literature under French influence,
+known chiefly from his amour with Guinevere, perhaps in
+imitation of the story of Tristan and Iseult. Gawain (Welwain,
+Welsh Gwalchmai), Arthur&rsquo;s nephew, who in medieval romance
+remains the type of knightly courage and chivalry, until his
+character is degraded in order to exalt that of Lancelot. Among
+less important, but still conspicuous, figures may be mentioned
+Kay (the Kai of the <i>Mabinogion</i>), Arthur&rsquo;s foster-brother and
+<span class="correction" title="amended from sensechal">seneschal</span>, the type of the bluff and boastful warrior, and Bedivere
+(Bedwyr), the type of brave knight and faithful retainer, who
+alone is with Arthur at his passing, and afterwards becomes
+&ldquo;a hermit and a holy man.&rdquo; (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthur</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Merlin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perceval</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tristan</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lancelot</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gawain</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Heroes of Romance.</i></p>
+
+<p>Another series of heroes, forming the central figures of stories
+variously derived but developed in Europe by the Latin-speaking
+peoples, may be conveniently grouped under the heading
+of &ldquo;romance.&rdquo; Of these the most important are Alexander
+of Macedon and Charlemagne, while alongside of them Priam
+and other heroes of the Trojan war appear during the middle ages
+in strangely altered guise. Of all heroes of romance Alexander
+has been the most widely celebrated. His name, in the form of
+Iskander, is familiar in legend and story all over the East to this
+day; to the West he was introduced through a Latin translation
+of the original Greek romance (by the pseudo-Callisthenes)
+to which the innumerable Oriental versions are likewise traceable
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander III., King of Macedon</a></span>; sec. <i>The Romance of
+Alexander</i>). More important in the West, however, was the
+cycle of legends gathering round the figure of Charlemagne,
+forming what was known as &ldquo;the matter of France.&rdquo; The
+romances of this cycle, of Germanic (Frankish) origin and
+developed probably in the north of France by the French
+(probably in the north of France) contain reminiscences
+of the heroes of the Merovingian period, and in their later
+development were influenced by the Arthurian cycle. Just
+as Arthur was eclipsed by his companions, so Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+vassal nobles, except in the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, are exalted at
+the expense of the emperor, probably the result of the changed
+relations between the later emperors and their barons. The
+character of Charlemagne himself undergoes a change; in the
+<i>Chanson de Roland</i> he is a venerable figure, mild and dignified,
+while later he appears as a cruel and typical tyrant (as is also the
+case with Ermanaric). The basis of his legend is mainly historical,
+although the story of his journey to Constantinople and the
+East is mythical, and incidents have been transferred from the
+reign of Charles Martel to his. Charlemagne is chiefly venerated as
+the champion of Christianity against the heathen and the Saracens.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charlemagne</a></span>, <i>ad fin.</i> &ldquo;The Charlemagne Legends.&rdquo;)</p>
+
+<p>The most famous heroes who are associated with him are
+Roland, praefect of the marches of Brittany, the Orlando of
+Ariosto, slain at Roncevaux (Roncevalles) in the Pyrenees,
+and his friend and rival Oliver (Olivier); Ogier the Dane, the
+Holger Danske of Hans Andersen, and Huon of Bordeaux,
+probably both introduced from the Arthurian cycle; Renaud
+(Rinaldo) of Montauban, one of the four sons of Aymon, to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+whom the wonderful horse Bayard was presented by Charlemagne;
+the traitor Doon of Mayence; Ganelon, responsible for the
+treachery that led to the death of Roland; Archbishop Turpin,
+a typical specimen of muscular Christianity; William Fierabras,
+William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and William of
+Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of the
+latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances
+originated the legends, in English form, of <i>Sowdone of Babylone</i>,
+<i>Sir Otnel</i>, <i>Sir Firumbras</i> and <i>Huon of Bordeaux</i> (in which Oberon,
+the king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the
+Fay, was first made known to England).</p>
+
+<p>The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems
+on the Cid, on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fernán
+Gonzalez, count of Castile. The legend of Charlemagne as told
+in the <i>Crónica general</i> of Alfonso X. created the desire for a
+national hero distinguished for his exploits against the Moors,
+and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del Carpio.
+Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of
+romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish,
+although the Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from
+their own language. There is no trace of a French original.</p>
+
+<p><i>Slavonic Heroes.</i>&mdash;The Slavonic heroic saga of Russia centres
+round Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), the first Christian ruler
+of that country, whose personality is eclipsed by that of Ilya
+(Elias) of Mourom, the son of a peasant, who was said to have
+saved the empire from the Tatars at the urgent request of his
+emperor. It is not known whether he was an historical personage;
+many of the achievements attributed to him border on the
+miraculous. A much-discussed work is the <i>Tale of Igor</i>, the oldest
+of the Russian medieval epics. Igor was the leader of a raid
+against the heathen Polovtsi in 1185; at first successful, he was
+afterwards defeated and taken prisoner, but finally managed
+to escape. Although the Finns are not Slavs, on topographical
+grounds mention may here be made of Wainamoinen, the great
+magician and hero of the Finnish epic <i>Kalevala</i> (&ldquo;land of
+heroes&rdquo;). The popular hero of the Servians and Bulgarians is
+Marko Kralyevich (<i>q.v.</i>), son of Vukashin, characterized by
+Goethe as a counterpart of the Greek Heracles and the Persian
+Rustem. For the Persian, Indian, &amp;c., heroes see the articles on
+the literature and religions of the various countries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grässe, <i>Die
+grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters</i> (Dresden, 1842), forming part of
+his <i>Lehrbuch einer Literärgeschichte der berühmtesten Völker des
+Mittelalters</i>; W. P. Ker, <i>Epic and Romance</i> (2nd ed., 1908). <span class="sc">Teutonic.</span>&mdash;B.
+Symons, &ldquo;Germanische Heldensage&rdquo; in H. Paul&rsquo;s
+<i>Grundris der germanischen Philologie</i>, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd
+revised edition, separately printed (<i>ib.</i>, 1905); W. Grimm, <i>Die
+deutsche Heldensage</i> (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most
+important works; W. Müller, <i>Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage</i>
+(Heilbronn, 1886) and supplement, <i>Zur Mythologie der griechischen
+und deutschen Heldensage</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1889); O. L. Jiriczek, <i>Deutsche
+Heldensagen</i>, i. (Strassburg, 1898) and <i>Die deutsche Heldensage</i>
+(3rd revised edition, Leipzig, 1906); Chantepie de la Saussaye, <i>The
+Religion of the Teutons</i> (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902); J. G.
+Robertson, <i>History of German Literature</i> (1902). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heldenbuch</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Celtic.</span>&mdash;M. H. d&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Cours de littérature
+celtique</i> (12 vols., 1883-1902), one vol. trans. into English by R. I.
+Best, <i>The Irish Mythological Cycle and Celtic Mythology</i> (1903);
+L. Petit de Julleville, <i>Hist. de la langue et de la litt. française</i>, i.
+<i>Moyen âge</i> (1896); C. Squire, <i>The Mythology of the British Isles:
+an Introduction to Celtic Myth and Romance</i> (1905); J. Rhys, <i>Celtic
+Britain</i> (3rd ed., 1904). <span class="sc">Slavonic.</span>&mdash;A. N. Rambaud, <i>La Russie
+épique</i> (1876); W. Wollner, <i>Untersuchungen über die Volksepik der
+Grossrussen</i> (1879); W. R. Morfill, <i>Slavonic Literature</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERO AND LEANDER,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> two lovers celebrated in antiquity.
+Hero, the beautiful priestess of Aphrodite at Sestos, was seen by
+Leander, a youth of Abydos, at the celebration of the festival
+of Aphrodite and Adonis. He became deeply enamoured of
+her; but, as her position as priestess and the opposition of her
+parents rendered their marriage impossible they agreed to carry
+on a clandestine intercourse. Every night Hero placed a lamp
+in the top of the tower where she dwelt by the sea, and Leander,
+guided by it, swam across the dangerous Hellespont. One
+stormy night the lamp was blown out and Leander perished.
+On finding his body next morning on the shore, Hero flung
+herself into the waves. The story is referred to by Virgil (<i>Georg.</i>
+iii. 258), Statius (<i>Theb.</i> vi. 535) and Ovid (<i>Her.</i> xviii. and xix.).
+The beautiful little epic of Musaeus has been frequently translated,
+and is expanded in the <i>Hero and Leander</i> of C. Marlowe
+and G. Chapman. It is also the subject of a ballad by Schiller
+and a drama by F. Grillparzer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. H. Jellinek, <i>Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Dichtung</i>
+(1890), and G. Knaack &ldquo;Hero und Leander&rdquo; in <i>Festgabe für Franz
+Susemihl</i> (1898). A careful collection of materials will be found in
+F. Köppner, <i>Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Literatur und
+Kunst des Altertums</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERO OF ALEXANDRIA,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> Greek geometer and writer on
+mechanical and physical subjects, probably flourished in the
+second half of the 1st century. This is the more modern view,
+in contrast to the earlier theory most generally accepted, according
+to which he flourished about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The earlier theory started
+from the superscription of one of his works, <span class="grk" title="Hêrônos Ktêsibiou
+belopoiïka">&#7981;&#961;&#969;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#922;&#964;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#946;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#946;&#949;&#955;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#970;&#954;&#940;</span>, from which it was inferred that Hero was a pupil of
+Ctesibius. Martin, Hultsch and Cantor took this Ctesibius to be
+a barber of that name who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes
+II. (d. 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and is credited with having invented an improved
+water-organ. But this identification is far from certain, as a
+Ctesibius <i>mechanicus</i> is mentioned by Athenaeus as having lived
+under Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Nor can the
+relation of master and pupil be certainly inferred from the superscription
+quoted (observe the omission of any article), which
+really asserts no more than that Hero re-edited an earlier treatise
+by Ctesibius, and implies nothing about his being an <i>immediate</i>
+predecessor. Further, it is certain that Hero used physical and
+mathematical writings by Posidonius, the Stoic, of Apamea,
+Cicero&rsquo;s teacher, who lived until about the middle of the 1st
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The positive arguments for the more modern view
+of Hero&rsquo;s date are (1) the use by him of Latinisms from which
+Diels concluded that the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> was the earliest possible
+date, (2) the description in Hero&rsquo;s <i>Mechanics</i> iii. of a small
+olive-press with one screw which is alluded to by Pliny (<i>Nat.
+Hist.</i> viii.) as having been introduced since <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 55, (3) an
+allusion by Plutarch (who died <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120) to the proposition that
+light is reflected from a surface at an angle equal to the angle of
+incidence, which Hero proved in his <i>Catoptrica</i>, the words used
+by Plutarch fitting well with the corresponding passage of that
+work (as to which see below). Thus we arrive at the latter half of
+the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> as the approximate date of Hero&rsquo;s activity.</p>
+
+<p>The geometrical treatises which have survived (though not
+interpolated) in Greek are entitled respectively <i>Definitiones</i>,
+<i>Geometria</i>, <i>Geodaesia</i>, <i>Stereometrica</i> (i. and ii.), <i>Mensurae</i>, <i>Liber
+Geoponicus</i>, to which must now be added the <i>Metrica</i> recently discovered
+by R. Schöne in a MS. at Constantinople. These books,
+except the <i>Definitiones</i>, mostly consist of directions for obtaining,
+from given parts, the areas or volumes, and other parts, of plane or
+solid figures. A remarkable feature is the bare statement of a
+number of very close approximations to the square roots of
+numbers which are not complete squares. Others occur in the
+<i>Metrica</i> where also a method of finding such approximate square,
+and even approximate cube, roots is shown. Hero&rsquo;s expressions
+for the areas of regular polygons of from 5 to 12 sides in terms of
+the squares of the sides show interesting approximations to the
+values of trigonometrical ratios. Akin to the geometrical works
+is that <i>On the Dioptra</i>, a remarkable book on land-surveying,
+so called from the instrument described in it, which was used for
+the same purposes as the modern theodolite. It is in this book
+that Hero proves the expression for the area of a triangle in
+terms of its sides. The <i>Pneumatica</i> in two books is also extant in
+Greek as is also the <i>Automatopoietica</i>. In the former will be
+found such things as siphons, &ldquo;Hero&rsquo;s fountain,&rdquo; &ldquo;penny-in-the-slot&rdquo;
+machines, a fire-engine, a water-organ, and arrangements
+employing the force of steam. Pappus quotes from three books
+of <i>Mechanics</i> and from a work called <i>Barulcus</i>, both by Hero.
+The three books on <i>Mechanics</i> survive in an Arabic translation
+which, however, bears a title &ldquo;On the lifting of heavy objects.&rdquo;
+This corresponds exactly to <i>Barulcus</i>, and it is probable that
+<i>Barulcus</i> and <i>Mechanics</i> were only alternative titles for one and
+the same work. It is indeed not credible that Hero wrote two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span>
+separate treatises on the subject of the mechanical powers,
+which are fully discussed in the <i>Mechanics</i>, ii., iii. The <i>Belopoiica</i>
+(on engines of war) is extant in Greek, and both this and the
+<i>Mechanics</i> contain Hero&rsquo;s solution of the problem of the two
+mean proportionals. Hero also wrote <i>Catoptrica</i> (on reflecting
+surfaces), and it seems certain that we possess this in a Latin
+work, probably translated from the Greek by Wilhelm van
+Moerbeek, which was long thought to be a fragment of
+Ptolemy&rsquo;s <i>Optics</i>, because it bore the title <i>Ptolemaei de speculis</i>
+in the MS. But the attribution to Ptolemy was shown to be
+wrong as soon as it was made clear (especially by Martin) that
+another translation by an Admiral Eugenius Siculus (12th
+century) of an optical work from the Arabic was Ptolemy&rsquo;s
+<i>Optics</i>. Of other treatises by Hero only fragments remain. One
+was four books on <i>Water Clocks</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hydriôn horoskopeiôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#8017;&#948;&#961;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#8033;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>), of
+which Proclus (<i>Hypotyp. astron.</i>, ed. Halma) has preserved a
+fragment, and to which Pappus also refers. Another work was a
+commentary on Euclid (referred to by the Arabs as &ldquo;the book of
+the resolution of doubts in Euclid&rdquo;) from which quotations have
+survived in an-Nair&#299;z&#299;&rsquo;s commentary.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Pneumatica</i>, <i>Automatopoietica</i>, <i>Belopoiica</i> and <i>Cheiroballistra</i>
+of Hero were published in Greek and Latin in Thévenot&rsquo;s <i>Veterum
+mathematicorum opera graece et latine pleraque nunc primum edita</i>
+(Paris, 1693); the first important critical researches on Hero
+were G. B. Venturi&rsquo;s <i>Commentari sopra la storia e la teoria dell&rsquo;ottica</i>
+(Bologna, 1814) and H. Martin&rsquo;s &ldquo;Recherches sur la vie et les
+ouvrages d&rsquo;Héron d&rsquo;Alexandrie disciple de Ctésibius et sur tous les
+ouvrages mathématiques grecs conservés ou perdus, publiés ou inédits,
+qui ont été attribués à un auteur nommé Héron&rdquo; (<i>Mém. presentés à
+l&rsquo;Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</i>, i. série, iv., 1854). The
+geometrical works (except of course the <i>Metrica</i>) were edited (Greek
+only) by F. Hultsch (<i>Heronis Alexandrini geometricorum et stereometricorum
+reliquiae</i>, 1864), the <i>Dioptra</i> by Vincent (<i>Extraits des
+manuscrits relatifs à la géométrie pratique des Grecs, Notices et extraits
+des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Impériale</i>, xix. 2, 1858), the
+treatises on <i>Engines of War</i> by C. Wescher (<i>Poliorcétique des Grecs</i>,
+Paris, 1867). The <i>Mechanics</i> was first published by Carra de Vaux
+in the <i>Journal asiatique</i> (ix. série, ii., 1893). In 1899 began the
+publication in Teubner&rsquo;s series of <i>Heronis Alexandrini opera quae
+supersunt omnia</i>. Vol. i. and Supplement (by W. Schmidt) contains
+the <i>Pneumatica</i> and <i>Automata</i>, the fragment on <i>Water Clocks</i>, the
+<i>De ingeniis spiritualibus</i> of Philon of Byzantium and extracts on
+Pneumatics by Vitruvius. Vol. ii. pt. i., by L. Nix and W. Schmidt,
+contains the <i>Mechanics</i> in Arabic, Greek fragments of the same, the
+<i>Catoptrica</i> in Latin with appendices of extracts from Olympiodorus,
+Vitruvius, Pliny, &amp;c. Vol. iii. (by Hermann Schöne) contains the
+<i>Metrica</i> (in three books) and the <i>Dioptra</i>. A German translation is
+added throughout. The approximation to square roots in Hero
+has been the subject of papers too numerous to mention. But
+reference should be made to the exhaustive studies on Hero&rsquo;s
+arithmetic by Paul Tannery, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Arithmétique des Grecs dans Héron
+d&rsquo;Alexandrie&rdquo; (<i>Mém. de la Soc. des sciences phys. et math. de Bordeaux</i>,
+ii. série, iv., 1882), &ldquo;La Stéréométrie d&rsquo;Héron d&rsquo;Alexandrie&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Études Héroniennes&rdquo; (<i>ibid.</i> v., 1883), &ldquo;Questions Héroniennes&rdquo;
+(<i>Bulletin des sciences math.</i>, ii. série, viii., 1884), &ldquo;Un Fragment des
+Métriques d&rsquo;Héron&rdquo; (<i>Zeitschrift für Math. und Physik</i>, xxxix., 1894;
+<i>Bulletin des sciences math.</i>, ii. série, xviii., 1894). A good account
+of Hero&rsquo;s works will be found in M. Cantor&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i>,
+i.² (1894), chapters 18 and 19, and in G. Loria&rsquo;s studies, <i>Le
+Scienze esatte nell&rsquo; antica Grecia</i>, especially libro iii. (Modena, 1900),
+pp. 103-128.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERO,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> <span class="sc">the Younger</span>, the name given without any sufficient
+reason to a Byzantine land-surveyor who wrote (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 938)
+a treatise on land-surveying modelled on the works of Hero of
+Alexandria, especially the <i>Dioptra</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Géodésie de Héron de Byzance,&rdquo; published by Vincent in
+<i>Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothéque Impériale</i>, xix. 2
+(Paris, 1858), and T. H. Martin in <i>Mémoires présentés à l&rsquo; Académie
+des Inscriptions</i>, 1st series, iv. (Paris, 1854).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEROD,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the name borne by the princes of a dynasty which
+reigned in Judaea from 40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Herod</span> (surnamed <span class="sc">the Great</span>), the son of Antipater, who
+supported Hyrcanus II. against Aristobulus II. with the aid first
+of the Nabataean Arabs and then of Rome. The family seems to
+have been of Idumaean origin, so that its members were liable to
+the reproach of being half-Jews or even foreigners. Justin Martyr
+has a tradition that they were originally Philistines of Ascalon
+(<i>Dial.</i> c. 52), and on the other hand Nicolaus of Damascus (<i>apud</i>
+Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiv. 1. 3) asserted that Herod, his royal patron, was
+descended from the Jews who first returned from the Babylonian
+Captivity. The tradition and the assertion are in all probability
+equally fictitious and proceed respectively from the foes and the
+friends of the Herodian dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>Antipas (or Antipater), the father of Antipater, had been
+governor of Idumaea under Alexander Jannaeus. His son allied
+himself by marriage with the Arabian nobility and became the
+real ruler of Palestine under Hyrcanus II. When Rome intervened
+in Asia in the person of Pompey, the younger Antipater
+realized her inevitable predominance and secured the friendship
+of her representative. After the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Pompey installed Hyrcanus, who was little better than a
+figurehead, in the high-priesthood; and when in 55 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the son
+of Aristobulus renewed the civil war in Palestine, the Roman
+governor of Syria in the exercise of his jurisdiction arranged a
+settlement &ldquo;in accordance with the wishes of Antipater&rdquo; (Jos.
+<i>Ant.</i> xiv. 6. 4). To this policy of dependence upon Rome
+Antipater adhered, and he succeeded in commending himself to
+Mark Antony and Caesar in turn. After the battle of Pharsalia
+Caesar made him procurator and a Roman citizen.</p>
+
+<p>At this point Herod appears on the scene as ruler of Galilee
+(Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiv. 9. 2) appointed by his father at the age of fifteen
+or, since he died at seventy, twenty-five. In spite of his youth he
+soon found an opportunity of displaying his mettle; for he
+arrested Hezekiah the arch-brigand, who had overrun the Syrian
+border, and put him to death. The Jewish nobility at Jerusalem
+seized upon this high-handed action as a pretext for satisfying
+their jealousy of their Idumaean rulers. Herod was cited in the
+name of Hyrcanus to appear before the Sanhedrin, whose prerogative
+he had usurped in executing Hezekiah. He appeared
+with a bodyguard, and the Sanhedrin was overawed. Only
+Sameas, a Pharisee, dared to insist upon the legal verdict of condemnation.
+But the governor of Syria had sent a demand for
+Herod&rsquo;s acquittal, and so Hyrcanus adjourned the trial and
+persuaded the accused to abscond. Herod returned with an
+army, but his father prevailed upon him to depart to Galilee
+without wreaking his vengeance upon his enemies. About this
+time (47-46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) he was created <i>strategus</i> of Coelesyria by the
+provincial governor. The episode is important for the light
+which it throws upon Herod&rsquo;s relations with Rome and with
+the Jews.</p>
+
+<p>In 44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cassius arrived in Syria for the purpose of filling
+his war-chest: Antipater and Herod collected the sum of money
+at which the Jews of Palestine had been assessed. In 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Antipater was poisoned at the instigation of one Malichus, who
+was perhaps a Jewish patriot animated by hatred of the Herods
+and their Roman patrons.</p>
+
+<p>With the connivance of Cassius Herod had Malichus assassinated;
+but the country was in a state of anarchy, thanks to the
+extortions of Cassius and the encroachments of neighbouring
+powers. Antony, who became master of the East after Philippi,
+was ready to support the sons of his friend Antipater; but he
+was absent in Egypt when the Parthians invaded Palestine to
+restore Antigonus to the throne of his father Aristobulus (40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Herod escaped to Rome: the Arabians, his mother&rsquo;s people, had
+repudiated him. Antony had made him tetrarch, and now with
+the assent of Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare him king
+of Judaea.</p>
+
+<p>In 39 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Herod returned to Palestine and, when the presence
+of Antony put the reluctant Roman troops entirely at his disposal,
+he was able to lay siege to Jerusalem two years later. Secure of
+the support of Rome he was concerned also to legitimize his
+position in the eyes of the Jews by taking, for love as well as
+policy, the Hasmonaean princess Mariamne to be his second wife.
+Jerusalem was taken by storm; the Roman troops withdrew
+to behead Antigonus the usurper at Antioch. In 37 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Herod
+was king of Judaea, being the client of Antony and the husband
+of Mariamne.</p>
+
+<p>The Pharisees, who dominated the bulk of the Jews, were
+content to accept Herod&rsquo;s rule as a judgment of God. Hyrcanus
+returned from his prison: mutilated, he could no longer hold
+office as high-priest; but his mutilation probably gave him the
+prestige of a martyr, and his influence&mdash;whatever it was worth&mdash;seems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span>
+to have been favourable to the new dynasty. On the other
+hand Herod&rsquo;s marriage with Mariamne brought some of his
+enemies into his own household. He had scotched the faction
+of Hasmonaean sympathizers by killing forty-five members of
+the Sanhedrin and confiscating their possessions. But so long
+as there were representatives of the family alive, there was always
+a possible pretender to the throne which he occupied; and the
+people had not lost their affection for their former deliverers.
+Mariamne&rsquo;s mother used her position to further her plots for the
+overthrow of her son-in-law; and she found an ally in Cleopatra
+of Egypt, who was unwilling to be spurned by him, even if she
+was not weary of his patron, Antony.</p>
+
+<p>The events of Herod&rsquo;s reign indicate the temporary triumphs
+of his different adversaries. His high-priest, a Babylonian,
+was deposed in order that Aristobulus III., Mariamne&rsquo;s brother,
+might hold the place to which he had some ancestral right.
+But the enthusiasm with which the people received him at the
+Feast of Tabernacles convinced Herod of the danger; and the
+youth was drowned by order of the king at Jericho. Cleopatra
+had obtained from Antony a grant of territory adjacent to
+Herod&rsquo;s domain and even part of it. She required Herod to
+collect arrears of tribute. So it fell out that, when Octavian and
+the Senate declared war against Antony and Cleopatra, Herod
+was preoccupied in obedience to her commands and was thus
+prevented from fighting against the future emperor of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle of Actium (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Herod executed Hyrcanus
+and proceeded to wait upon the victorious Octavian at Rhodes.
+His position was confirmed and his territories were restored.
+On his return he took in hand to heal with the Hasmonaeans,
+and in 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the old intriguers, their victims like Mariamne,
+and all pretenders were dead. From this time onwards Herod
+was free to govern Palestine, as a client-prince of the Roman
+Empire should govern his kingdom. In order to put down the
+brigands who still infested the country and to check the raids
+of the Arabs on the frontier, he built or rebuilt fortresses, which
+were of material assistance to the Jews in the great revolt against
+Rome. Within and without Judaea he erected magnificent
+buildings and founded cities. He established games in honour
+of the emperor after the ancient Greek model in Caesarea and
+Jerusalem and revived the splendour of the Olympic games.
+At Athens and elsewhere he was commemorated as a benefactor;
+and as Jew and king of the Jews he restored the temple at
+Jerusalem. The emperor recognized his successful government
+by putting the districts of Ulatha and Panias under him in 20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>But Herod found new enemies among the members of his
+household. His brother Pheroras and sister Salome plotted for
+their own advantage and against the two sons of Mariamne.
+The people still cherished a loyalty to the Hasmonaean lineage,
+although the young princes were also the sons of Herod. The
+enthusiasm with which they were received fed the suspicion,
+which their uncle instilled into their father&rsquo;s mind, and they
+were strangled at Sebaste. On his deathbed Herod discovered
+that his eldest son, Antipater, whom Josephus calls a &ldquo;monster
+of iniquity,&rdquo; had been plotting against him. He proceeded to
+accuse him before the governor of Syria and obtained leave
+from Augustus to put him to death. The father died five days
+after his son in 4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He had done much for the Jews, thanks
+to the favour he had won and kept in spite of all from the
+successive heads of the Roman state; he had observed the
+Law publicly&mdash;in fact, as the traditional epigram of Augustus
+says, &ldquo;it was better to be Herod&rsquo;s <i>swine</i> than a <i>son</i> of Herod.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8, <i>B.J.</i> i. 18-33; Schürer, <i>Gesch.
+d. jüd. Völk.</i>, 4th ed., i. pp. 360-418.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Herod Antipas</span>, son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan
+Malthace, and full brother of Archelaus, received as his share
+of his father&rsquo;s dominions the provinces of Galilee and Peraea,
+with the title of tetrarch. Like his father, Antipas had a turn
+for architecture: he rebuilt and fortified the town of Sepphoris
+in Galilee; he also fortified Betharamptha in Peraea, and called
+it Julias after the wife of the emperor. Above all he founded the
+important town of Tiberias on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee,
+with institutions of a distinctly Greek character. He reigned
+4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 39. In the gospels he is mentioned as Herod. He
+it was who was called a &ldquo;fox&rdquo; by Christ (Luke xiii. 32). He is
+erroneously spoken of as a king in Mark vi. 14. It was to him
+that Jesus was sent by Pilate to be tried. But it is in connexion
+with his wife Herodias that he is best known, and it was through
+her that his misfortunes arose. He was married first of all to a
+daughter of Aretas, the Arabian king; but, making the acquaintance
+of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip (not the tetrarch),
+during a visit to Rome, he was fascinated by her and arranged
+to marry her. Meantime his Arabian wife discovered the plan
+and escaped to her father, who made war on Herod, and completely
+defeated his army. John the Baptist condemned his
+marriage with Herodias, and in consequence was put to death
+in the way described in the gospels and in Josephus. When
+Herodias&rsquo;s brother Agrippa was appointed king by Caligula, she
+was determined to see her husband attain to an equal eminence,
+and persuaded him, though naturally of a quiet and unambitious
+temperament, to make the journey to Rome to crave a crown
+from the emperor. Agrippa, however, managed to influence
+Caligula against him. Antipas was deprived of his dominions
+and banished to Lyons, Herodias voluntarily sharing his exile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Herod Philip</span>, son of Herod the Great by Cleopatra of
+Jerusalem, received the tetrarchate of Ituraea and other districts
+to E. and N.E. of the Lake of Galilee, the poorest part of his
+father&rsquo;s kingdom. His subjects were mainly Greeks or Syrians,
+and his coins bear the image of Augustus or Tiberius. He is
+described as an excellent ruler, who loved peace and was careful
+to maintain justice, and spent his time in his own territories.
+He was also a builder of cities, one of which was Caesarea Philippi,
+and another was Bethsaida, which he called Julias. He died after
+a reign of thirty-seven years (4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 34); and his dominions
+were incorporated in the province of Syria.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERODAS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hêrôdas">&#7977;&#961;&#8180;&#948;&#945;&#962;</span>), or <span class="sc">Herondas</span> (the name is spelt
+differently in the few places where he is mentioned), Greek poet,
+the author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written
+under the Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apart
+from the intrinsic merit of these pieces, they are interesting in the
+history of Greek literature as being a new species, illustrating
+Alexandrian methods. They are called <span class="grk" title="Mimiamboi">&#924;&#953;&#956;&#943;&#945;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#953;</span>, &ldquo;Mimeiambics.&rdquo;
+Mimes were the Dorian product of South Italy and
+Sicily, and the most famous of them&mdash;from which Plato is said
+to have studied the drawing of character&mdash;were the work of
+Sophron. These were scenes in popular life, written in the
+language of the people, vigorous with racy proverbs such as we
+get in other reflections of that region&mdash;in Petronius and the
+<i>Pentamerone</i>. Two of the best known and the most vital
+among the <i>Idylls</i> of Theocritus, the 2nd and the 15th, we know
+to have been derived from mimes of Sophron. What Theocritus
+is doing there, Herodas, his younger contemporary, is doing
+in another manner&mdash;casting old material into novel form, upon a
+small scale, under strict conditions of technique. The method
+is entirely Alexandrian: Sophron had written in a peculiar kind
+of rhythmical prose; Theocritus uses the hexameter and Doric,
+Herodas the <i>scazon</i> or &ldquo;lame&rdquo; iambic (with a dragging spondee
+at the end) and the old Ionic dialect with which that curious
+metre was associated. That, however, hardly goes beyond the
+choice and form of words; the structure of the sentences is
+close-knit Attic. But the grumbling metre and quaint language
+suit the tone of common life which Herodas aims at realizing;
+for, as Theocritus may be called idealist, Herodas is a realist
+unflinching. His persons talk in vehement exclamations and
+emphatic turns of speech, with proverbs and fixed phrases;
+and occasionally, where it is designed as proper to the part, with
+the most naked coarseness of expression.</p>
+
+<p>The scene of the second and the fourth is laid at Cos, and the
+speaking characters in each are never more than three. In
+Mime I. the old nurse, now the professional go-between or bawd,
+calls on Metriche, whose husband has been long away in Egypt,
+and endeavours to excite her interest in a most desirable young
+man, fallen deeply in love with her at first sight. After hearing
+all the arguments Metriche declines with dignity, but consoles the
+old woman with an ample glass of wine, this kind being always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span>
+represented with the taste of Mrs Gamp. II. is a monologue by
+the <span class="grk" title="Pornoboskos">&#928;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Whoremonger&rdquo;) prosecuting a merchant-trader
+for breaking into his establishment at night and attempting
+to carry off one of the inmates, who is produced in court.
+The vulgar blackguard, who is a stranger to any sort of shame,
+remarking that he has no evidence to call, proceeds to a peroration
+in the regular oratorical style, appealing to the Coan judges
+not to be unworthy of their traditional glories. In fact, the
+whole oration is also a burlesque in every detail of an Attic
+speech at law; and in this case we have the material from which
+to estimate the excellence of the parody. In III. a desperate
+mother brings to the schoolmaster a truant urchin, with whom
+neither she nor his incapable old father can do anything. In a
+voluble stream of interminable sentences she narrates his misdeeds
+and implores the schoolmaster to flog him. The boy
+accordingly is hoisted on another&rsquo;s back and flogged; but his
+spirit does not appear to be subdued, and the mother resorts
+to the old man after all. IV. is a visit of two poor women with
+an offering to the temple of Asclepius at Cos. While the humble
+cock is being sacrificed, they turn, like the women in the <i>Ion</i> of
+Euripides, to admire the works of art; among them a small boy
+strangling a vulpanser&mdash;doubtless the work of Boëthus that we
+know&mdash;and a sacrificial procession by Apelles, &ldquo;the Ephesian,&rdquo;
+of whom we have an interesting piece of contemporary eulogy.
+The oily sacristan is admirably painted in a few slight strokes.
+V. brings us very close to some unpleasant facts of ancient life.
+The jealous woman accuses one of her slaves, whom she has
+made her favourite, of infidelity; has him bound and sent
+degraded through the town to receive 2000 lashes; no sooner is
+he out of sight than she recalls him to be branded &ldquo;at one job.&rdquo;
+The only pleasing person in the piece is the little maidservant&mdash;permitted
+liberties as a <i>verna</i> brought up in the house&mdash;whose
+ready tact suggests to her mistress an excuse for postponing
+execution of a threat made in ungovernable fury. VI. is a
+friendly chat or a private conversation. The subject is an ugly
+one, but the dialogue is as clever and amusing as the rest, with
+some delicious touches. Our interest is engaged here in a certain
+Kerdon, the artistic shoemaker, to whom we are introduced in
+VII. (the name had already become generic for the shoemaker
+as the typical representative of retail trade), a little bald man with
+a fluent tongue, complaining of hard times, who bluffs and
+wheedles by turns. VII. opens with a mistress waking up her
+maids to listen to her dream; but we have only the beginning,
+and the other fragments are very short.</p>
+
+<p>Within the limits of 100 lines or less Herodas presents us with
+a highly entertaining scene and with characters definitely drawn.
+Some of these had been perfected no doubt upon the Attic stage,
+where the tendency in the 4th century had been gradually to
+evolve accepted types&mdash;not individuals, but generalizations
+from a class, an art in which Menander&rsquo;s was esteemed the
+master-hand. The <span class="grk" title="Pornoboskos">&#928;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> and the <span class="grk" title="Mastropos">&#924;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#972;&#962;</span> we can
+piece together from succeeding literature, and see how skilfully
+the established traits are indicated here. This is achieved by
+true dramatic means, with touches never wasted and the more
+delightful often because they do not clamour for attention.
+The execution has the qualities of first-rate Alexandrian work
+in miniature, such as the epigrams of Asclepiades possess, the
+finish and firm outlines; and these little pictures bear the test
+of all artistic work&mdash;they do not lose their freshness with
+familiarity, and gain in interest as one learns to appreciate their
+subtle points.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The papyrus MS., obtained from the Fayum, is in the possession of
+the British Museum, and was first printed by F. G. Kenyon in 1891.
+Editions by O. Crusius (1905, text only, in Teubner series) and
+J. A. Nairn (1904), with introduction, notes and bibliography.
+There is an English verse translation of the mimes by H. Sharpley
+(1906) under the title <i>A Realist of the Aegean</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERODIANS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hêrôdianoi">&#7977;&#961;&#969;&#948;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#943;</span>), a sect or party mentioned in
+Scripture as having on two occasions&mdash;once in Galilee, and again
+in Jerusalem&mdash;manifested an unfriendly disposition towards
+Jesus (Mark iii. 6, xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 6; cf. also Mark viii. 15).
+In each of these cases their name is coupled with that of the
+Pharisees. According to many interpreters the courtiers or
+soldiers of Herod Antipas (&ldquo;Milites Herodis,&rdquo; Jerome) are
+intended; but more probably the Herodians were a public
+political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great
+historical parties of post-exilian Judaism by the fact that they
+were and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great and to
+his dynasty (cf. such formations as &ldquo;Caesariani,&rdquo; &ldquo;Pompeiani&rdquo;).
+It is possible that, to gain adherents, the Herodian
+party may have been in the habit of representing that the
+establishment of a Herodian dynasty would be favourable to
+the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may account
+for Tertullian&rsquo;s (<i>De praescr.</i>) allegation that the Herodians
+regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called
+by the Rabbis Boethusians as being friendly to the family of
+Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of Herod the
+Great&rsquo;s wives.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERODIANUS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> Greek historian, flourished during the third
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He is supposed to have been a Syrian Greek.
+In 203 he was in Rome, where he held some minor posts. He does
+not appear to have attained high official rank; the statement
+that he was imperial procurator and legate of the Sicilian provinces
+rests upon conjecture only. His historical work (<span class="grk" title="Hêrôdianou
+tês meta Markon basileias historiôn biblia oktô">&#7977;&#961;&#969;&#948;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#8166; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#8048; &#924;&#940;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#957; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#8182;&#957; &#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#943;&#945; &#8000;&#954;&#964;&#974;</span>) narrates
+the events of the fifty-eight years between the death of Marcus
+Aurelius and the proclamation of Gordianus III. (180-238).
+The narrative is of special value as supplementing Dion Cassius,
+whose history ends with Alexander Severus. His work has
+the value that attaches to a record written by one chronicling
+the events of his own times, gifted with ordinary powers of
+observation, indubitable candour and independence of view.
+But while he gives a lively account of external events&mdash;such as
+the death of Commodus and the assassination of Pertinax&mdash;the
+barbarian invasions, the spread of Christianity, the extension
+of the franchise by Caracalla are unnoticed. The dates are often
+wrong, and little attention is paid to geographical details, which
+makes the narrative of military expeditions beyond the borders
+of the empire difficult to understand. Herodian has been accused
+of prejudice against Alexander Severus. His style, modelled
+on that of Thucydides and unreservedly praised by Photius, is
+on the whole pure, though somewhat rhetorical and showing a
+fondness for Latinisms.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Extensive use has been made of Herodianus by later chroniclers,
+especially the &ldquo;Scriptores historiae Augustae&rdquo; and John of Antioch.
+His history was first translated into Latin at the end of the 15th
+century by Politian. The most complete edition is by G. W. Irmisch
+(1789-1805), with elaborate indices, but the notes are very diffuse;
+critical editions by I. Bekker (1855), L. Mendelssohn (1883); see
+also C. Dändliker.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERODIANUS, AELIUS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> called <span class="grk" title="ho technikos">&#8001; &#964;&#949;&#967;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, Alexandrian
+grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He early took
+up his residence at Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of
+Marcus Aurelius (161-180), to whom he dedicated his great
+treatise on prosody. This work in twenty-one books (<span class="grk" title="Katholikê
+prosôdia">&#922;&#945;&#952;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#8179;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>) included also an account of the etymological part of
+grammar. The work itself is lost, but several epitomes of it have
+been preserved. His <span class="grk" title="Hepimerismoi">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span> dealt with difficult words
+and peculiar forms in Homer. Herodianus also wrote numerous
+grammatical treatises, of which only one has come down to us in a
+complete form (<span class="grk" title="Perí monêrous lexeôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#956;&#959;&#957;&#942;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>, on peculiar style), articles
+on exceptional or anomalous words. Numerous quotations and
+fragments still exist, chiefly in the Homeric scholiasts and
+Stephanus of Byzantium. Herodianus enjoyed a great reputation
+as a grammarian, and Priscian styles him &ldquo;maximus auctor
+artis grammaticae.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition is by A. Lentz, <i>Herodiani. Technici reliquiae</i>
+(1867-1870); a supplementary volume is included in Uhling&rsquo;s <i>Corpus
+grammaticorum Graecorum</i>; for further bibliographical information
+see W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERODOTUS<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 484-425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek historian, called the
+Father of History, was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, then
+dependent upon the Persians, in or about the year 484 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Herodotus was thus born a Persian subject, and such he continued
+until he was thirty or five-and-thirty years of age. At the
+time of his birth Halicarnassus was under the rule of a queen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span>
+Artemisia (<i>q.v.</i>). The year of her death is unknown; but she
+left her crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who
+was succeeded upon the throne by his son Lygdamis about the
+time that Herodotus grew to manhood. The family of Herodotus
+belonged to the upper rank of the citizens. His father was
+named Lyxes, and his mother Rhaeo, or Dryo. He had a brother
+Theodore, and an uncle or cousin Panyasis (<i>q.v.</i>), the epic poet,
+a personage of so much importance that the tyrant Lygdamis,
+suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to death.
+It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative&rsquo;s political
+opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted
+it voluntarily at the time of his execution.</p>
+
+<p>Of the education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it
+was thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects
+essential to a Greek liberal education&mdash;grammar, gymnastic
+training and music. His studies would be regarded as completed
+when he attained the age of eighteen, and took rank among the
+<i>ephebi</i> or <i>eirenes</i> of his native city. In a free Greek state he
+would at once have begun his duties as a citizen, and found
+therein sufficient employment for his growing energies. But in a
+city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no political life
+worthy of the name existed. Herodotus may thus have had his
+thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory
+career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the
+example of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his
+writings when Herodotus was still an infant. At any rate it is
+clear from the extant work of Herodotus that he must have
+devoted himself early to the literary life, and commenced that
+extensive course of reading which renders him one of the most
+instructive as well as one of the most charming of ancient writers.
+The poetical literature of Greece was already large; the prose
+literature was more extensive than is generally supposed; yet
+Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of it.
+The <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> are as familiar to him as Shakespeare to
+the educated Englishman. He is acquainted with the poems of
+the epic cycle, the <i>Cypria</i>, the <i>Epigoni</i>, &amp;c. He quotes or otherwise
+shows familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus,
+Bacis, Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon,
+Aesop, Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus,
+Aeschylus and Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the
+best of the prose writers who had preceded him, and makes
+numerous allusions to other authors of the same class.</p>
+
+<p>It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a
+mere student. It is probable that from an early age his inquiring
+disposition led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in
+foreign countries. He traversed Asia Minor and European
+Greece probably more than once; he visited all the most important
+islands of the Archipelago&mdash;Rhodes, Cyprus, Delos, Paros,
+Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and Aegina. He
+undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the
+Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western
+shores of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he
+travelled in Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna
+Graecia, explored the antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores
+of Palestine, saw Gaza, and made a long stay in Egypt. At the
+most moderate estimate, his travels covered a space of thirty-one
+degrees of longitude, or 1700 miles, and twenty-four of latitude,
+or nearly the same distance. At all the more interesting sites he
+took up his abode for a time; he examined, he inquired, he made
+measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in his mind
+the scheme of his great work, he gave ample time to the elaboration
+of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal observation
+a full knowledge of the various countries.</p>
+
+<p>The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished
+between his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+It was probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject
+he visited Susa and Babylon, taking advantage of the Persian
+system of posts which he describes in his fifth book. His residence
+in Egypt must, on the other hand, have been subsequent to 460
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, since he saw the skulls of the Persians slain by Inarus in that
+year. Skulls are rarely visible on a battlefield for more than two
+or three seasons after the fight, and we may therefore presume
+that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> when the
+Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he visited the
+country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and therefore
+receiving favour and attention on the part of the Egyptians, who
+were so much beholden to his countrymen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>). On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the
+Syrian shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence
+to have gone to Thasos. His Scythian travels are thought to have
+taken place prior to 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>It is a question of some interest from what centre or centres
+these various expeditions were made. Up to the time of the
+execution of Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about
+the year 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, there is every reason to believe that Herodotus
+lived at Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European
+Greece, and among the islands of the Aegean, probably belong to
+this period, as also his journey to Susa and Babylon. We are
+told that when he quitted Halicarnassus on account of the
+tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the year 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he took up
+his abode in Samos. That island was an important member of the
+Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home Herodotus
+would have put himself under the protection of Athens. The
+fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian influence (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or
+456 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, to that country. The stories that he had heard in Egypt
+of Sesostris may then have stimulated him to make voyages from
+Samos to Colchis, Scythia and Thrace. He was thus acquainted
+with almost all the regions which were to be the scene of his
+projected history.</p>
+
+<p>After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in
+Samos, events occurred in his native city which induced him to
+return thither. The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from bad
+to worse, and at last he was expelled. According to Suidas,
+Herodotus was himself an actor, and indeed the chief actor, in the
+rebellion against him; but no other author confirms this statement,
+which is intrinsically improbable. It is certain, however,
+that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary member of
+the Athenian confederacy. Herodotus would now naturally
+return to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those
+rights of free citizenship on which every Greek set a high value.
+He would also, if he had by this time composed his history, or any
+considerable portion of it, begin to make it known by recitation
+among his friends. There is reason to believe that these first
+attempts were not received with much favour, and that it was
+in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately withdrew from his
+native town, and sought a refuge in Greece proper (about 447
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> We learn that Athens was the place to which he went, and
+that he appealed from the verdict of his countrymen to Athenian
+taste and judgment. His work won such approval that in the
+year 445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted
+a sum of ten talents (£2400) by decree of the people. At one of
+the recitations, it was said, the future historian Thucydides was
+present with his father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst
+into tears, whereupon Herodotus remarked to the father&mdash;&ldquo;Olorus,
+your son has a natural enthusiasm for letters.&rdquo;<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and
+could boast an almost unique galaxy of talent&mdash;Pericles,
+Thucydides the son of Melesias, Aspasia, Antiphon, the musician
+Damon, Pheidias, Protagoras, Zeno, Cratinus, Crates, Euripides
+and Sophocles. Accepted into this brilliant society, on familiar
+terms with all probably, as he certainly was with Olorus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span>
+Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted, like many
+another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home. It is to
+his credit that he did not yield to this temptation. At Athens
+he must have been a dilettante, an idler, without political rights
+or duties. As such he would have soon ceased to be respected
+in a society where literature was not recognized as a separate
+profession, where a Socrates served in the infantry, a Sophocles
+commanded fleets, a Thucydides was general of an army, and an
+Antiphon was for a time at the head of the state. Men were not
+men according to Greek notions unless they were citizens; and
+Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling, was
+anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to
+obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens the franchise, jealously
+guarded at this period, was not to be attained without great
+expense and difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following
+year he sailed from Athens with the colonists who went out
+to found the colony of Thurii (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>), and became a
+citizen of the new town.</p>
+
+<p>From this point of his career, when he had reached the age
+of forty, we lose sight of him almost wholly. He seems to have
+made but few journeys, one to Crotona, one to Metapontum,
+and one to Athens (about 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) being all that his work
+indicates.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> No doubt he was employed mainly, as Pliny testifies,
+in retouching and elaborating his general history. He may also
+have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of
+Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is
+quoted by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that he
+lived to a great age, and argued that &ldquo;the never-to-be-mistaken
+fundamental tone of his performance is the quiet talkativeness
+of a highly cultivated, tolerant, intelligent, <i>old</i> man&rdquo; (Dahlmann).
+But the indications derived from the later touches added to his
+work, which form the sole evidence on the subject, would rather
+lead to the conclusion that his life was not very prolonged.
+There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been
+written as early as 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; there is no touch which, even
+probably, points to a later date than 424 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As the author was
+evidently engaged in polishing his work to the last, and even
+promises touches which he does not give, we may assume that
+he did not much outlive the date last mentioned, or in other
+words, that he died at about the age of sixty. The predominant
+voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii, where his tomb
+was shown in later ages.</p>
+
+<p><i>The History.</i>&mdash;In estimating the great work of Herodotus,
+and his genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to
+conceive aright what that work was intended to be. It has
+been called &ldquo;a universal history,&rdquo; &ldquo;a history of the wars
+between the Greeks and the barbarians,&rdquo; and &ldquo;a history of
+the struggle between Greece and Persia.&rdquo; But these titles are all
+of them too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits wholly
+the histories of Phoenicia, Carthage and Etruria, three of the
+most important among the states existing in his day, cannot have
+intended to compose a &ldquo;universal history,&rdquo; the very idea of
+which belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object
+was to record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians;
+but as he omits the Trojan war, in which he fully believes,
+the expedition of the Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace
+and Thessaly, the wars connected with the Ionian colonization
+of Asia Minor and others, it is evident that he does not really
+aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars between Greeks
+and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it
+even seem to have been his object to give an account of the
+entire struggle between Greece and Persia. That struggle was
+not terminated by the battle of Mycale and the capture of Sestos
+in 479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It continued for thirty years longer, to the peace
+of Callias (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Callias</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>). The fact that Herodotus
+ends his history where he does shows distinctly that his intention
+was, not to give an account of the entire long contest between
+the two countries, but to write the history of a particular war&mdash;the
+great Persian war of invasion. His aim was as definite as
+that of Thucydides, or Schiller, or Napier or any other writer
+who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined
+to treat it in a certain way. Every partial history requires
+an &ldquo;introduction&rdquo;; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples,
+resolved to give his history a magnificent introduction. Thucydides
+is content with a single introductory book, forming little
+more than one-eighth of his work; Herodotus has six such books,
+forming two-thirds of the entire composition.</p>
+
+<p>By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in
+the <i>grand</i> way, which is so characteristic of him. Making it his
+main object in his &ldquo;introduction&rdquo; to set before his readers the
+previous history of the two nations who were the actors in the
+great war, he is able in tracing their history to bring into his
+narrative some account of almost all the nations of the known
+world, and has room to expatiate freely upon their geography,
+antiquities, manners and customs and the like, thus giving his
+work a &ldquo;universal&rdquo; character, and securing for it, without
+trenching upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which
+are a principal charm of the best histories, and of none more than
+his. In tracing the growth of Persia from a petty subject
+kingdom to a vast dominant empire, he has occasion to set out
+the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Scythia,
+Thrace, and to describe the countries and the peoples inhabiting
+them, their natural productions, climate, geographical position,
+monuments, &amp;c.; while, in noting the contemporaneous changes
+in Greece, he is led to tell of the various migrations of the Greek
+race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the arts, revolutions,
+internal struggles, wars with one another, legislation, religious
+tenets and the like. The greatest variety of episodical matter
+is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion and the
+mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made;
+the episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly
+interrupt the main narrative.</p>
+
+<p>It has been questioned, both in ancient and in modern times,
+whether the history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite
+of trustworthiness. Several ancient writers accuse him of
+intentional untruthfulness. Moderns generally acquit him of this
+charge; but his severer critics still urge that, from the inherent
+defects of his character, his credulity, his love of effect and his
+loose and inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the
+historian&rsquo;s office, and has produced a work of but small historical
+value. Perhaps it may be sufficient to remark that the defects
+in question certainly exist, and detract to some extent from the
+authority of the work, more especially of those parts of it which
+deal with remoter periods, and were taken by Herodotus on
+trust from his informants, but that they only slightly affect
+the portions which treat of later times and form the special
+subject of his history. In confirmation of this view, it may be
+noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances
+of the great Persian war, and for all local and other details which
+come under his immediate notice, is accepted by even the most
+sceptical of modern historians, and forms the basis of their
+narratives.</p>
+
+<p>Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most
+prominent are the diligence with which he collected his materials,
+the candour and impartiality with which he has placed his facts
+before the reader, the absence of party bias and undue national
+vanity, and the breadth of his conception of the historian&rsquo;s
+office. On the other hand, he has no claim to rank as a critical
+historian; he has no conception of the philosophy of history,
+no insight into the real causes that underlie political changes,
+no power of penetrating below the surface, or even of grasping
+the real interconnexion of the events which he describes. He
+belongs distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and
+picturesque description, the lively presentation of scenes and
+actions, characters and states of society, not the subtle analysis
+of motives, the power of detecting the undercurrents or the
+generalizing faculty.</p>
+
+<p>But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span>
+conspicuous. &ldquo;O that I were in a condition,&rdquo; says Lucian,
+&ldquo;to resemble Herodotus, if only in some measure! I by no means
+say in all his gifts, but only in some single point; as, for instance,
+the beauty of his language, or its harmony, or the natural and
+peculiar grace of the Ionic dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by
+whatever name those thousand beauties are called which to
+the despair of his imitator are united in him.&rdquo; Cicero calls
+his style &ldquo;copious and polished,&rdquo; Quintilian, &ldquo;sweet, pure
+and flowing&rdquo;; Longinus says he was &ldquo;the most Homeric of
+historians&rdquo;; Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucydides,
+and regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree
+the excellences of sublimity, beauty and the true historical
+method of composition. Modern writers are almost equally
+complimentary. &ldquo;The style of Herodotus,&rdquo; says one, &ldquo;is
+universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and
+sweetness.&rdquo; &ldquo;The charm of his style,&rdquo; argues another, &ldquo;has
+so dazzled men as to make them blind to his defects.&rdquo; Various
+attempts have been made to analyse the charm which is so
+universally felt; but it may be doubted whether any of them
+are very successful. All, however, seem to agree that among
+the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be admired
+are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of rhythm.
+Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical,
+and possessed of a delicate ear which instinctively suggested
+the most musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences,
+without art or effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt,
+never too diffuse, much less prolix or wearisome, and being
+himself simple, fresh, <i>naif</i> (if we may use the word), honest and
+somewhat quaint, he delights us by combining with this melody of
+sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts, perspicuously expressed,
+often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and always
+manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and unsophisticated
+mind. Reminding us in some respects of the
+quaint medieval writers, Froissart and Philippe de Comines,
+he greatly excels them, at once in the beauty of his language
+and the art with which he has combined his heterogeneous
+materials into a single perfect harmonious whole. See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>, section <i>History</i>, &ldquo;Authorities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The history of Herodotus has been translated
+by many persons and into many languages. About 1450, at the time
+of the revival of learning, a Latin version was made and published
+by Laurentius Valla. This was revised in 1537 by Heusbach, and
+accompanies the Greek text of Herodotus in many editions. The
+first complete translation into a modern language was the English
+one of Littlebury, published in 1737. This was followed In 1786
+by the French translation of Larcher, a valuable work, accompanied
+by copious notes and essays. Beloe, the second English translator,
+based his work on that of Larcher. His first edition, in 1791, was
+confessedly very defective; the second, in 1806, still left much to
+be desired. A good German translation, but without note or comment,
+was brought out by Friedrich Lange at Berlin in 1811. Andrea
+Mustoxidi, a native of Corfu, published an Italian version in 1820.
+In 1822 Auguste Miot endeavoured to improve on Larcher; and in
+1828-1832 Dr Adolf Schöll brought out a German translation with
+copious notes (new ed., 1855), which has to some extent superseded
+the work of Lange. About the same time a new English version
+was made by Isaac Taylor (London, 1829). In 1858-1860, the history
+of Herodotus was translated by Canon G. Rawlinson, assisted in
+the copious notes and appendices accompanying the work by
+Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Sir Henry Rawlinson. More recently
+we have translations in English by G. C. Macaulay (2 vols., 1890);
+in German by Bähr (Stuttgart, 1867) and Stein (Oldenburg, 1875);
+in French by Giguet (1857) and Talbot (1864); in Italian by Ricci
+(Turin, 1871-1876), Grandi (Asti, 1872) and Bertini (Naples, 1871-1872).
+A Swedish translation by F. Carlstadt was published at
+Stockholm in 1871.</p>
+
+<p>The best of the older editions of the Greek text are the following:&mdash;<i>Herodoti
+historiae</i>, ed. Schweighäuser (5 vols., Strassburg, 1816);
+<i>Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX.</i> (ed. Gaisford, Oxford,
+1840); <i>Herodotus, with a Commentary</i>, by J. W. Blakesley (2 vols.
+London, 1854); <i>Herodoti musae</i> (ed. Bähr, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1856-1861,
+2nd ed.); and <i>Herodoti historiae</i> (ed. Abicht, Leipzig, 1869).</p>
+
+<p>The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with
+and without commentaries are the following:&mdash;H. Stein, <i>Herodoti
+Historiae</i> (ed. Major, 2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1871, with <i>apparatus
+criticus</i>; still the best edition of the text); H. Kellenberg, <i>Historiarum
+libri IX.</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); van Herwerden, <span class="grk" title="Historiai">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>
+(Leiden, 1885); H. Stein, <i>Herodotus, erklärt</i> (Berlin, 1856-1861,
+and several editions since; the best short commentary and introduction);
+A. H. Sayce, <i>The Ancient Empires of the East, Herodotus
+I.-III., with introductions and appendices</i> (1883; an attempt to prove
+the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to the extent of his
+travels, which has found little support amongst more recent English
+or German writers); R. W. Macan, <i>Herodotus IV.-VI.</i> (2 vols.,
+1895) and <i>Herodotus VII.-IX.</i> (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive introduction,
+appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of these
+books in English; E. Abbott, <i>Herodotus V. and VI.</i> (Oxford, 1893);
+A. Wiedemann, <i>Herodots zweites Buch mit sachlichen Bemerkungen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1890; the best and fullest commentary on book ii.).</p>
+
+<p>Among works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned
+Bouhier, <i>Recherches sur Hérodote</i> (Dijon, 1746); Rennell, <i>Geography
+of Herodotus</i> (London, 1800); Niebuhr, <i>Geography of Herodotus
+and Scythia</i> (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830); Dahlmann, <i>Herodot,
+aus seinem Buche sein Leben</i> (Altona, 1823); Eltz, <i>Quaestiones
+Herodoteae</i> (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, <i>Egypt of Herodotus</i> (London,
+1841); Mure, <i>Literature of Greece</i>, vol. iv. (London, 1852); Abicht,
+<i>Übersicht über den Herodoteischen Dialekt</i> (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed.,
+1874), and <i>De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctoritate</i> (Naumburg,
+1869); Melander, <i>De anacoluthis Herodoteis</i> (Lund, 1869); Matzat,
+&ldquo;Über die Glaubenswürdigkeit der geograph. Angaben Herodots
+über Asien,&rdquo; in <i>Hermes</i>, vi.; Büdinger, <i>Zur ägyptischen Forschung
+Herodots</i> (Vienna, 1873, reprinted from the <i>Sitzungsber.</i> of the Vienna
+Acad.); Merzdorf, <i>Quaestiones grammaticae de dialecto Herodotea</i>
+(Leipzig, 1875); A. Kirchhoff, <i>Über die Entstehungszeit des Herodotischen
+Geschichtswerkes</i> (Berlin, 1878); Adolf Bauer, <i>Herodots
+Biographie</i> (Vienna, 1878); H. Delbrück, <i>Perser und Burgunderkriege</i>
+(Berlin, 1887; of great importance for the criticism of the
+Persian Wars); N. Wecklein, <i>Über die Tradition der Perserkriege</i>
+(Munich, 1876); A. Hauvette-Besnault, <i>Hérodote historien des
+guerres médiques</i> (Paris, 1894); J. A. R. Munro, <i>Some Observations
+on the Persian Wars</i> (in various vols. of the <i>Journal of Hellenic
+Studies</i>; acute and suggestive); G. B. Grundy, <i>The Great Persian
+War</i> (London, 1901); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>History of Greek Classical
+Literature</i>, ii. 16 ff. (London, 1880); E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur
+alten Geschichte</i>, i. 151 ff., and ii. 196 ff. (Halle, 1892-1899); Busolt,
+<i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, ii. 602 ff. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1895); J. B. Bury,
+<i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> (1908), lecture 2. For notices of current
+literature see Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Jahresbericht</i>. Students of the original may
+also consult with advantage the lexicons of Aemilius Portus (Oxford,
+1817) and of Schweighäuser (London, 1824). On Herodotus&rsquo; debt
+to Hecataeus see Wells, in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, 1909, pt. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. R.; E. M. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The date of his travels is difficult to determine. E. Meyer
+inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between
+440 and 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by
+C. F. Lehmann <i>c.</i> 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and by H. Stein before 450.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Most recent critics (<i>e.g.</i> Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to
+Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarus and Amyrtaeus
+(<i>i.e.</i> after 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), on the strength of Herod. 2. 30, which implies
+the restoration of Persian authority.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his
+departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, <i>e.g.</i> the ascendancy
+of the anti-Athenian party in the state.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This story is on chronological grounds rejected by all recent
+critics.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his settlement
+at Thurii. Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his work
+(especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after 430
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> See further Wachsmuth, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, lvi. (1901)
+215-218. Macan, <i>Herodotus</i> VII.-IX. (<i>Introduction</i>, pp. xlv.-lxvi.),
+seeks to prove that the last three books were the first part of the
+<i>Histories</i> to be composed. He is followed in this view by Bury.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉROET, ANTOINE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> surnamed <span class="sc">La Maison-neuve</span> (d. 1568),
+French poet, was born in Paris of a family connected with the
+famous chancellor, François Olivier. His poetry belongs to his
+early years, for after he had taken orders he ceased to write
+profane poetry, no doubt because he considered it out of keeping
+with his calling, in which he attained the dignity of bishop of
+Digue. His chief work is <i>La Parfaicte Amye</i> (Lyons, 1542) in which
+he developed the idea of a purely spiritual love, based chiefly on
+the reading of the Italian Neo-Platonists. The book aroused
+great controversy. La Borderie replied in <i>L&rsquo;Amye de cour</i> with
+a description of a very much more human woman, and Charles
+Fontaine contributed a <i>Contr&rsquo; amye de cour</i> to the dispute.
+Héroet, in addition to some translations from the classics, wrote
+the <i>Complainte d&rsquo;une dame nouvellement surprise d&rsquo;amour</i>, an
+<i>Épistre a François I<span class="sp">er</span></i>, and some pieces included in the now
+very rare <i>Opuscules d&rsquo;amour par Héroet, La Borderie et autres
+divins poëtes</i> (Lyons, 1547). Héroet belongs to the Lyonnese
+school of which Maurice Scève may be regarded as the leader.
+Clément Marot praises him, and Ronsard was careful to exempt
+him with one or two others from the scorn he poured on his
+immediate predecessors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. F. Cary, <i>The Early French Poets</i> (1846).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEROIC ROMANCES,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> the name by which is distinguished a
+class of imaginative literature which flourished in the 17th
+century, principally in France. The beginnings of modern
+fiction in that country took a pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated
+<i>Astrée</i> (1610) of Honoré d&rsquo;Urfé (1568-1625), which is the
+earliest French novel, is properly styled a pastoral. But this
+ingenious and diffuse production, in which all is artificial, was
+the source of a vast literature, which took many and diverse
+forms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and
+sentimental, there was a side of the <i>Astrée</i> which encouraged
+that extravagant love of glory, that spirit of &ldquo;panache,&rdquo; which
+was now rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which
+animated Marin le Roy, sieur de Gomberville (1600-1674),
+who was the inventor of what have since been known as the
+Heroical Romances. In these there was experienced a violent
+recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span>
+impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty,
+but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere
+of the age in which the books were written. In order to give
+point to the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always
+hinted that they were well-known public characters of the day
+in a romantic disguise.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Astrée</i> of Honoré d&rsquo;Urfé, which was a pure pastoral,
+in the religious romances of Pierre Camus (1582-1653), in the
+comic <i>Francion</i> of Charles Sorel, piquancy had been given to
+the recital by this belief that real personages could be recognized
+under the disguises. But in the <i>Carithée</i> of Gomberville (1621)
+we have a pastoral which is already beginning to be a heroic
+romance, and a book in which, under a travesty of Roman
+history, an appeal is made to an extravagantly chivalrous
+enthusiasm. A further development was seen in the <i>Polyxène</i>
+(1623) of François de Molière, and the <i>Endymion</i> (1624) of
+Gombauld; in the latter the elderly queen, Marie de&rsquo; Medici,
+was celebrated under the disguise of Diana, for whom a beautiful
+shepherd of Caria (the author himself) nourishes a hopeless
+passion. The earliest of the Heroic Romances, pure and simple,
+is, however, the celebrated <i>Polexandre</i> (1629) of Gomberville.
+The author began by intending his hero to represent Louis XIII.,
+but he changed his mind, and drew a portrait of Cardinal
+Richelieu. In this novel, for the first time, the romantic character
+proper to this class of books is seen undiluted; there is no
+intrusion of a personage who is not celebrated for his birth, his
+beauty or his exploits. The story deals with the adventures of
+a hero who visits all the sea-coasts of the world, the most remote
+as well as the most fabulous, in search of an ineffable princess,
+Alcidiane. This absurd and pretentious, yet very original piece
+of invention enjoyed an immense success, and historical romances
+of a similar class competed for the favour of the public. There
+was an equal amount of geography and more of ancient history
+in the <i>Ariane</i> (1632) of Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676),
+a book which, long neglected, has in late years been rediscovered,
+and which has been greeted by M. Paul Morillot as the most
+readable and the least tiresome of all the Heroic Romances.
+The type of that class of literature, however, has always been
+found in the highly elaborate writings of Gauthier de Coste de
+la Calprenède (1609-1663), which enjoyed for a time a prodigious
+celebrity, and were read and imitated all over Europe. La
+Calprenède was a Gascon soldier, imbued with all the extravagance
+of his race, and in full sympathy with the audacity and
+violence of the aristocratic society of France in his day. His
+<i>Cassandre</i>, which appeared in ten volumes between 1642 and 1645,
+is perhaps the most characteristic of all the Heroic Romances.
+It deals with a highly romantic epoch of ancient history, the
+decline of the empire of Alexander the Great. The wars of the
+Persians and of the Scythians are introduced, and among the
+characters are discovered such personages as Artaxerxes, Roxana
+and Ephestion. It must not be supposed, however, that la
+Calprenède makes the smallest effort to deal with the subject
+accurately or realistically. The figures are those of his own day;
+they are seigneurs and great ladies of the court of Louis XIII.,
+masquerading in Macedonian raiment. The passion of love is
+dominant throughout, and it is treated in the most exalted and
+hyperbolical spirit. The central heroes of the story, Oroondate
+and Lysimachus, are dignified, eloquent and amorous; they
+undergo unexampled privations in the quest of incomparable
+ladies whose beauty and whose nobility is only equalled by their
+magnificent loyalty. These books were written with an aim
+that was partly didactic. Their object was to entertain the
+ladies and to gratify a taste for endlessly wire-drawn sentimentality,
+but it was also to teach fortitude and grandeur of soul
+and to inculcate lessons of practical chivalry. La Calprenède
+followed up the success of his <i>Cassandre</i> with a <i>Cléopâtre</i> (1647)
+in twelve volumes, and a <i>Faramond</i> (1661) which he did not live
+to finish. He became more extravagant, more rhapsodical as
+he proceeded, and he lost all the little hold on history which he
+had ever held. <i>Cléopâtre</i>, nevertheless, enjoyed a prodigious
+popularity, and it became the fashion to emulate as far as
+possible the prowess of its magnificent hero, the proud Artaban.
+It should be said that la Calprenède objected to his books being
+styled romances, and insisted that they were specimens of
+&ldquo;history embellished with certain inventions.&rdquo; He may, in
+opposition to his wishes, claim the doubtful praise of being, in
+reality, the creator of the modern historical novel. He was
+immediately imitated or accompanied by a large number of
+authors, of whom two have achieved a certain immortality,
+which, unhappily, must be confessed to be partly of ridicule.
+The vogue of the historical romance was carried to its height by
+a brother and a sister, Georges de Scudéry (1601-1667) and
+Madeleine de Scudéry (1608-1701), who represented in their
+own persons all the extravagant, tempestuous and absurd
+elements of the age, and whose elephantine romances remain as
+portents in the history of literature. These novels&mdash;there
+are five of them&mdash;were signed by Georges de Scudéry, but it is
+believed that all were in the main written by Madeleine. The
+earliest was <i>Ibrahim, ou l&rsquo;Illustre Bassa</i> (1641); it was followed
+by <i>Le Grand Cyrus</i> (1648-1653) and the final, and most preposterous
+member of the series was <i>Clélie</i> (1649-1654). The
+romances of Mlle de Scudéry (for to her we may safely attribute
+them) are much inferior in style to those of la Calprenède. They
+are pretentious, affected and sickly. The author abuses the
+element of analysis, and pushes a psychology, which was beyond
+the age in penetration, to a wearisome and excessive extent.
+Nothing, it is probable, in the whole evolution of the Historical
+Romances has attracted so much attention as the &ldquo;Carte de
+Tendre&rdquo; which occurs in the opening book of <i>Clélie</i>. This
+celebrated map, drawn by the heroine in order to show the route
+from New Friendship to Tender, and a geographical symbol,
+therefore, of the progress of love, with its city of Tender-upon-Esteem,
+its sea of Enmity, its river of Inclination, its rock-built
+citadel of Pride, its cold lake of Indifference, is a miracle of
+elaborate and incongruous ingenuity. But, amusing as it is,
+it shows into what depths of puerility the amorous casuistry of
+these romances had fallen. These novels formed the chief
+topic of conversation and of correspondence in the literary
+society which gathered at and around the Hotel de Rambouillet,
+and in the personages of Mlle de Scudéry&rsquo;s romances could be
+recognized all the famous leaders of that society. The mawkish
+love-making and the false heroism of these monstrous novels
+went rapidly out of fashion in France soon after 1660, when the
+epoch of the Heroic Romance came to an end. In England the
+Heroic Romance had a period of flourishing popularity. All
+the principal French examples were very promptly translated,
+and &ldquo;he was not to be admitted into the academy of wit who
+had not read <i>Astrea</i> and <i>The Grand Cyrus</i>.&rdquo; The great vogue
+of these books in England lasted from about 1645 to 1660.
+It led, of course, to the composition of original works in imitation
+of the French. The most remarkable and successful of these
+was <i>Parthenissa</i>, published in 1654 by Roger Boyle, Lord
+Broghill and afterwards Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), which was
+greatly admired by Dorothy Osborne and her correspondents.
+Addison speaks in the &ldquo;Spectator&rdquo; of the popularity of all
+these huge books, &ldquo;the <i>Grand Cyrus</i>, with a pin stuck in one of
+the middle leaves, <i>Clélie</i>, which opened of itself in the place that
+describes two lovers in a bower.&rdquo; When the drama, and in
+particular tragedy, was reinstituted in England, sentimental
+readers found a field for their emotions on the stage, and the
+heroic romances immediately began to go out of fashion. They
+lingered, however, for a quarter of a century more, and M.
+Jusserand has analysed what may be considered the very
+latest of the race, <i>Pandion and Amphigenia</i>, published in 1665
+by the dramatist, John Crowne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gordon de Percel, <i>De l&rsquo;usage des romans</i> (1734); André Le
+Breton, <i>Le Roman au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1890); Paul Morillot, <i>Le Roman
+en France depuis 1610</i> (1894); J. J. Jusserand, <i>Le Roman anglais au
+XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEROIC VERSE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, a term exclusively used in English to
+Indicate the rhymed iambic line or <span class="sc">Heroic Couplet</span>. In ancient
+literature, the heroic verse, <span class="grk" title="hêrôikon metron">&#7969;&#961;&#969;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#956;&#941;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, was synonymous
+with the dactylic hexameter. It was in this measure that those
+typically heroic poems, the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> and the <i>Aeneid</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+were written. In English, however, it was not enough to
+designate a single iambic line of five beats as heroic verse, because
+it was necessary to distinguish blank verse from the distich,
+which was formed by the heroic couplet. This had escaped the
+notice of Dryden, when he wrote &ldquo;The English Verse, which we
+call Heroic, consists of no more than ten syllables.&rdquo; If that
+were the case, then <i>Paradise Lost</i> would be written in heroic
+verse, which is not true. What Dryden should have said is
+&ldquo;consists of two rhymed lines, each of ten syllables.&rdquo; In French
+the alexandrine has always been regarded as the heroic measure
+of that language. The dactylic movement of the heroic line in
+ancient Greek, the famous <span class="grk" title="rhythmos hêrôos">&#8165;&#965;&#952;&#956;&#8056;&#962; &#7969;&#961;&#8183;&#959;&#962;</span> of Homer, is expressed
+in modern Europe by the iambic movement. The consequence
+is that much of the rush and energy of the antique verse, which
+at vigorous moments was like the charge of a battalion, is lost.
+It is owing to this, in part, that the heroic couplet is so often
+required to give, in translation, the full value of a single Homeric
+hexameter. It is important to insist that it is the couplet, not
+the single line, which constitutes heroic verse. It is interesting
+to note that the Latin poet Ennius, as reported by Cicero, called
+the heroic metre of one line <i>versum longum</i>, to distinguish it
+from the brevity of lyrical measures. The current form of
+English heroic verse appears to be the invention of Chaucer,
+who used it in his <i>Legend of Good Women</i> and afterwards, with
+still greater freedom, in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>. Here is an
+example of it in its earliest development:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;And thus the longë day in fight they spend,</p>
+<p class="i05">Till, at the last, as everything hath end,</p>
+<p class="i05">Anton is shent, and put him to the flight,</p>
+<p class="i05">And all his folk to go, as best go might.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This way of writing was misunderstood and neglected by Chaucer&rsquo;s
+English disciples, but was followed nearly a century later by the
+Scottish poet, called Blind Harry (<i>c.</i> 1475), whose <i>Wallace</i> holds
+an important place in the history of versification as having
+passed on the tradition of the heroic couplet. Another Scottish
+poet, Gavin Douglas, selected heroic verse for his translation of
+the <i>Aeneid</i> (1513), and displayed, in such examples as the following,
+a skill which left little room for improvement at the hands of
+later poets:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;One sang, &lsquo;The ship sails over the salt foam,</p>
+<p class="i05">Will bring the merchants and my leman home&rsquo;;</p>
+<p class="i05">Some other sings, &lsquo;I will be blithe and light,</p>
+<p class="i05">Mine heart is leant upon so goodly wight.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The verse so successfully mastered was, however, not very
+generally used for heroic purposes in Tudor literature. The early
+poets of the revival, and Spenser and Shakespeare after them,
+greatly preferred stanzaic forms. For dramatic purposes blank
+verse was almost exclusively used, although the French had
+adopted the rhymed alexandrine for their plays. In the earlier
+half of the 17th century, heroic verse was often put to somewhat
+unheroic purposes, mainly in prologues and epilogues, or other short
+poems of occasion; but it was nobly redeemed by Marlowe in his
+<i>Hero and Leander</i> and respectably by Browne in his <i>Britannia&rsquo;s
+Pastorals</i>. It is to be noted, however, that those Elizabethans
+who, like Chapman, Warner and Drayton, aimed at producing a
+warlike and Homeric effect, did so in shambling fourteen-syllable
+couplets. The one heroic poem of that age written at considerable
+length in the appropriate national metre is the <i>Bosworth Field</i> of
+Sir John Beaumont (1582-1628). Since the middle of the 17th
+century, when heroic verse became the typical and for a while
+almost the solitary form in which serious English poetry was
+written, its history has known many vicissitudes. After having
+been the principal instrument of Dryden and Pope, it was almost
+entirely rejected by Wordsworth and Coleridge, but revised,
+with various modifications, by Byron, Shelley (in <i>Julian and
+Maddalo</i>) and Keats (in <i>Lamia</i>). In the second half of the 19th
+century its prestige was restored by the brilliant work of Swinburne
+in <i>Tristram</i> and elsewhere.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1791-1833), French
+musician, the son of François Joseph Hérold, an accomplished
+pianist, was born in Paris, on the 28th of January 1791. It was
+not till after his father&rsquo;s death that Hérold in 1806 entered the
+Paris conservatoire, where he studied under Catal and Méhul.
+In 1812 he gained the grand prix de Rome with the cantata
+<i>La Duchesse de la Vallière</i>, and started for Italy, where he remained
+till 1815 and composed a symphony, a cantata and
+several pieces of chamber music. During his stay in Italy also
+Hérold for the first time ventured on the stage with the opera
+<i>La Gioventù di Enrico V.</i>, first performed at Naples in 1815 with
+moderate success. During a short stay in Vienna he was much
+in the society of Salieri. Returning to Paris he was invited by
+Boieldieu to collaborate with him on an opera called <i>Charles de
+France</i>, performed in 1816, and soon followed by Hérold&rsquo;s first
+French opera, <i>Les Rosières</i> (1817), which was received very
+favourably. Hérold produced numerous dramatic works for the
+next fifteen years in rapid succession. Only the names of some of
+the more important need here be mentioned:&mdash;<i>La Clochette</i> (1817),
+<i>L&rsquo;Auteur mort et vivant</i> (1820), <i>Marie</i> (1826), and the ballets <i>La
+Fille mal gardée</i> (1828) and <i>La Belle au bois dormant</i> (1829).
+Hérold also wrote a vast quantity of pianoforte music, in spite of
+his time being much occupied by his duties as accompanist at the
+Italian opera in Paris. In 1831 he produced the romantic opera
+<i>Zampa</i>, and in the following year <i>Le Pré aux clercs</i> (first performance
+December 15, 1832), in which French <i>esprit</i> and French
+chivalry find their most perfect embodiment. These two operas
+secured immortality for the name of the composer, who died on
+the 18th of January 1833, of the lung disease from which he had
+suffered for many years, and the effects of which he had accelerated
+by incessant work. Hérold&rsquo;s incomplete opera <i>Ludovic</i> was
+afterwards printed by J. F. F. Halévy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERON<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Fr. <i>héron</i>; Ital. <i>aghirone</i>, <i>airone</i>; Lat. <i>ardea</i>;
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="erôdios">&#7952;&#961;&#969;&#948;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span>: A.-S. <i>hragra</i>; Icelandic, <i>hegre</i>; Swed. <i>häger</i>;
+Dan. <i>heire</i>; Ger. <i>Heiger</i>, <i>Reiher</i>, <i>Heergans</i>; Dutch, <i>reiger</i>), a
+long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical
+representative of the group <i>Ardeidae</i>. It is difficult or even impossible
+to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of
+<i>Ardeidae</i> which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863
+enumerated 61, besides 5 of what he terms &ldquo;conspecies,&rdquo; as
+contained in the collection at Leyden (<i>Mus. des Pays-Bas</i>,
+Ardeae, 64 pp.),&mdash;on the other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871
+(<i>Handlist</i>, &amp;c. iii. 26-34) admitted above 90, while Dr Anton
+Reichenow (<i>Journ. für Ornithologie</i>, 1877, pp. 232-275) recognizes
+67 as known, besides 15 &ldquo;subspecies&rdquo; and 3 varieties, arranging
+them in 3 genera, <i>Nycticorax</i>, <i>Botaurus</i> and <i>Ardea</i>, with 17 sub-genera.
+But it is difficult to separate the family, with any
+satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have to
+be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost
+insensibly into each other&mdash;though in common language it is
+easy to speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+boatbills. With the exception of the last, Professor Schlegel
+retains all in the genus <i>Ardea</i>, dividing it into <i>eight</i> sections, the
+names of which may perhaps be Englished&mdash;great herons, small
+herons, egrets, semi-egrets, rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns
+and night-herons.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:476px" src="images/img386.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Heron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The common heron of Europe, <i>Ardea cinerea</i> of Linnaeus, is
+universally allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also
+be regarded as that of Professor Schlegel&rsquo;s first section. The
+species inhabits suitable localities throughout the whole of
+Europe, Africa and Asia, reaching Japan, many of the islands
+of the Indian Archipelago and even Australia. Though by no
+means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is still sufficiently
+common,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and there must be few persons who have not seen it
+rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing overhead
+in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its
+daily haunts; while they are many who have been entertained
+by watching it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly
+of fishes (especially eels and flounders) and amphibians&mdash;though
+young birds and small mammals come not amiss&mdash;wading midleg
+in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out of its depth, or
+standing motionless to strike its prey with its formidable and sure
+beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in societies,
+known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by law
+and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the
+sport their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly
+owing to the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and
+still more, it would seem, from agricultural improvement, which,
+by draining meres, fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding-places
+of a great population of herons, many of the larger
+heronries have broken up&mdash;the birds composing them dispersing
+to neighbouring localities and forming smaller settlements, most
+of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of heronry, though
+commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called
+heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and
+Wales, has become far greater than formerly, but no one can
+doubt that the number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen
+by the heron for its nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the
+top of a lofty tree, but not unfrequently (and this seems to have
+been much more usual in former days) near or on the ground
+among rough vegetation, on an island in a lake, or again on a
+rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a huge mass of
+sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs, and in it
+are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are clothed
+in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a considerable
+time, therein differing remarkably from the &ldquo;pipers&rdquo; of the
+crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched.
+The first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way
+resemble those of the adult, but the pure white breast, the
+black throat-streaks and especially the long pendent plumes,
+which characterize only the very old birds, and are most beautiful
+in the cocks, are subsequently acquired. The heron measures
+about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the expanse of its wings is
+sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs only between 3 and
+4 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in
+size by the great blue heron of America (<i>Ardea herodias</i>), which
+generally resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are
+smaller than the <i>A. sumatrana</i> or <i>A. typhon</i> of India and the
+Malay Archipelago, while the <i>A. goliath</i>, of wide distribution in
+Africa and Asia, is the largest of all. The purple heron, <i>A.
+purpurea</i>, as a well-known European species having a great
+range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The
+species included in Professor Schlegel&rsquo;s second section inhabit the
+tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets,
+forming his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they
+are by their pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by
+the beautiful dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily
+droop over the tail, and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by
+Oriental magnates. The largest species is <i>A. occidentalis</i>, only
+known apparently from Florida and Cuba; but one not much
+less, the great egret (<i>A. alba</i>), belongs to the Old World, breeding
+regularly in south-eastern Europe, and occasionally straying to
+Britain. A third, <i>A. egretta</i>, represents it in America, while much
+the same may be said of two smaller species, <i>A. garzetta</i>, the little
+egret of English authors, and <i>A. candidissima</i>; and a sixth,
+<i>A. intermedia</i>, is common in India, China and Japan, besides
+occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing
+some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron
+(<i>A. bubulcus</i>), is the only species that is known to have occurred in
+Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except
+by their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species
+with slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons
+form Professor Schlegel&rsquo;s next section, but it can scarcely be
+satisfactorily differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its
+members have no rail-like affinities, though the typical species,
+which inhabits the south of Europe, and occasionally finds its
+way to England, has long been known as <i>A. ralloides</i>.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Nearly
+all these birds are tropical or subtropical. Then there is the
+somewhat better defined group of little bitterns, containing
+about a dozen species&mdash;the smallest of the whole family. One
+of them, <i>A. minuta</i>, though very local in its distribution, is a
+native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England.
+It has a close counterpart in the <i>A. exilis</i> of North America, and
+is represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world,
+the <i>A. pusilla</i> of Australia especially differing very slightly from
+it. Ranged by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all
+remarkable for their skulking habits, but more resembling the true
+herons in their nature, are the common green bittern of America
+(<i>A. virescens</i>) and its very near ally the African <i>A. atricapilla</i>,
+from which last it is almost impossible to distinguish the <i>A.
+javanica</i>, of wide range throughout Asia and its islands, while
+other species, less closely related, occur elsewhere as <i>A. flavicollis</i>&mdash;one
+form of which, <i>A. gouldi</i>, inhabits Australia.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:373px; height:505px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Bittern.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The true bitterns, forming the genus <i>Botaurus</i> of most authors,
+seem to be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their
+wholly nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage
+than on strictly structural grounds, though some differences of
+proportion are observable. The common bittern (<i>q.v.</i>) of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+Europe (<i>B. stellaris</i>), is widely distributed over the eastern
+hemisphere.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Australia and New Zealand have a kindred species,
+<i>B. poeciloptilus</i>, and North America a third, <i>B. mugitans</i><a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> or
+<i>B. lentiginosus</i>. Nine other species from various parts of the
+world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some of them
+should perhaps be excluded from the genus <i>Botaurus</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 440px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:390px; height:445px" src="images/img388.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Boatbill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all
+of which may be reasonably placed in the genus <i>Nycticorax</i>,
+characterized by a shorter beak and a few other peculiarities,
+among which the large eyes deserve mention. The first is <i>N.
+griseus</i>, a bird widely spread over the Old World, and not unfrequently
+visiting England, where it would undoubtedly breed if
+permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the common night-heron
+of America; but this, though very closely allied, is generally
+deemed distinct, and is the <i>N. naevius</i> or <i>N. gardeni</i> of most
+writers. A clearly different American species, with a more
+southern habitat, is the <i>N. violaceus</i> or <i>N. cayennensis</i>, while others
+are found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands
+and in West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species,
+<i>N. pauper</i>, and
+another, so far
+as is known,
+peculiar to
+Rodriguez, <i>N.
+megacephalus</i>,
+existed in that
+island at the
+time of its being
+first colonized,
+but is now
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p>The boatbill,
+of which only
+one species is
+known, seems
+to be merely
+a night-heron
+with an exaggerated
+bill,&mdash;so
+much
+widened as to
+suggest its
+English name,&mdash;but
+has always
+been allowed generic rank. This curious bird, the
+<i>Cancroma cochlearia</i> of most authors, is a native of tropical
+America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are
+essentially those of a <i>Nycticorax</i>.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in
+the peat of the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and
+Langy in France have been referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards
+to herons under the names of <i>Ardea perplexa</i> and <i>A. formosa</i>; a
+tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am Albuch by Dr Fraas to an
+<i>A. similis</i>, while Sir R. Owen recognized a portion of a sternum
+from the London Clay as most nearly approaching this family.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley&rsquo;s section
+<i>Pelargomorphae</i>, belonging to his larger group <i>Desmognathae</i>, and
+to draw attention to the singular development of the patches
+of &ldquo;powder-down&rdquo; which in the family <i>Ardeidae</i> attain a
+magnitude hardly to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly
+unknown.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In many parts of England it is generally called a &ldquo;hernser&rdquo;&mdash;being
+a corruption of &ldquo;heronsewe,&rdquo; which, as Professor Skeat states
+(<i>Etymol. Dictionary</i>, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct word from
+&ldquo;heronshaw,&rdquo; commonly confounded with it. The further corruption
+of &ldquo;hernser&rdquo; into &ldquo;handsaw,&rdquo; as in the well-known proverb,
+was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was
+unfamiliar.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is the &ldquo;Squacco-Heron&rdquo; of modern British authors&mdash;the
+distinctive name, given &ldquo;Sguacco&rdquo; by Willughby and Ray from
+Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England
+was in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (<i>Birds of Norfolk</i>, ii.
+164).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (<i>Fauna Boreali-Americana</i>,
+ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet) exactly
+resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American ornithologists
+seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes when
+disturbed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The very wonderful shoe-bird (<i>Balaeniceps</i>) has been regarded by
+many authorities as allied to <i>Cancroma</i>; but there can be little doubt
+that it is more nearly related to the genus <i>Scopus</i> belonging to the
+storks. The sun-bittern (<i>Eurypyga</i>) forms a family of itself, allied
+to the rails and cranes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERPES<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="herpein">&#7957;&#961;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to creep), an inflammation of
+the true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or
+its ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped
+vesicles of various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a
+clear fluid, and either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked
+varieties of herpes are frequently met with. (<i>a</i>) In <i>herpes
+labialis et nasalis</i> the eruption occurs about the lips and nose.
+It is seen in cases of certain acute febrile ailments, such as fevers,
+inflammation of the lungs or even in a severe cold. It soon passes
+off. (<i>b</i>) In the <i>herpes zoster, zona</i> or &ldquo;shingles&rdquo; the eruption
+occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous nerves, often on one
+side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs or other parts.
+It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently met
+with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually
+preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and,
+not only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long
+after they have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes
+continue and give rise to great suffering. The disease seldom
+recurs. The most that can be done for its relief is to protect the
+parts with cotton wool or some dusting powder, while the pain
+may be allayed by opiates or bromide of potassium. Quinine
+internally is often of service.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRERA, FERNANDO DE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical
+poet, was born at Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed
+many impassioned poems to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro
+Colon de Portugal; but it is suggested that these should be
+regarded as Platonic literary exercises in the manner of Petrarch.
+As is shown by his <i>Anotaciones á las obras de Garcilaso de la Vega</i>
+(1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for the Italian
+poets, and continued the work of Boscán in naturalizing the
+Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso
+involved him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal
+innovations laid him open to attack. But, even if his amatory
+sonnets are condemned as insincere in sentiment, their workmanship
+is admirable, while his odes on the battle of Lepanto, on
+Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King Sebastian of Portugal
+entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian poets and as the
+most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vega</a></span>). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with
+additions in 1619; they are reissued in the <i>Biblioteca de autores
+españoles</i>, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera&rsquo;s prose works only the <i>Vida y
+muerta de Tomas Moro</i> (1592) survives; it is a translation of the
+life in Thomas Stapleton&rsquo;s <i>Tres Thomae</i> (1588).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;E. Bourciez, &ldquo;Les Sonnets de Fernando de
+Herrera,&rdquo; <i>Annales de la Faculté des Lettres de Bordeaux</i> (1891);
+<i>Fernando de Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones á les obras
+de Garcilaso de la Vega</i> (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, <i>L&rsquo;Hymne
+sur Lépante</i> (Paris, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRERA, FRANCISCO<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the
+old), Spanish historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis
+Fernandez in Seville, his native city, where he spent most of his
+life. Although so rough and coarse in manners that neither
+scholar nor child could remain with him, the great talents of
+Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used them, brought
+him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in
+bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with
+coining base money. From this accusation, whether true or
+false, he sought sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermenegildo,
+which he adorned with a fine picture of its patron saint.
+Philip IV., on his visit to Seville in 1624, having seen this picture,
+and learned the position of the artist, pardoned him at once, warning
+him, however, that such powers as his should not be degraded.
+In 1650 Herrera removed to Madrid, where he lived in great honour
+till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first to relinquish the
+timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of painting, and
+to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which reached such
+perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his pupil.
+His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of
+execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is
+said to have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also
+said that, when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours
+on the canvas with a broom under his directions, and that he
+worked them up into his designs before they dried. The drawing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+in his pictures is correct, and the colouring original and skilfully
+managed, so that the figures stand out in striking relief. What
+has been considered his best easel-work, the &ldquo;Last Judgment,&rdquo; in
+the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an original and striking
+composition, showing in its treatment of the nude how ill-founded
+the common belief was that Spanish painters, through ignorance
+of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his best
+fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura;
+but many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the
+weather and others by the artist&rsquo;s own carelessness in preparing
+his surfaces. He has, however, preserved several of his own
+designs in etchings. For his easel-works Herrera often chose such
+humble subjects as fairs, carnivals, ale-houses and the like.</p>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Francisco Herrara</span> (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo
+(the young), was also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to
+endure his father&rsquo;s cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what
+money he could find, fled from Seville to Rome. There, instead
+of devoting himself to the antiquities and the works of the old
+Italian masters, he gave himself up to the study of architecture
+and perspective, with the view of becoming a fresco-painter. He
+did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became renowned for
+his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his skill in
+painting fish was called by the Italians <i>Lo Spagnuolo degli pesci</i>.
+In later life he painted portraits with great success. He returned
+to Seville on hearing of his father&rsquo;s death, and in 1660 was
+appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo.
+His vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and
+throwing up his appointment he went to Madrid. There he was
+employed to paint a San Hermenegildo for the barefooted
+Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco the roof of the choir of San
+Felipe el Real. The success of this last work procured for him a
+commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco the roof of the
+Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the Assumption
+of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title of
+painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the
+royal buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo
+was of a somewhat similar temperament to his father, and offended
+many people by his inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy.
+His pictures are inferior to the older Herrera&rsquo;s both in design and
+in execution; but in some of them traces of the vigour of his
+father, who was his first teacher, are visible. He was by no
+means an unskilful colourist, and was especially master of the
+effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund Head in
+his <i>Handbook</i> names his &ldquo;San Francisco,&rdquo; in Seville Cathedral.
+An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who
+died very young, gave great promise as a painter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1549-1625),
+Spanish historian, was born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia
+in Spain. His father, Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother,
+Agnes de Herrera, were both of good family. After studying for
+some time in his native country, Herrera proceeded to Italy, and
+there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago, with whom, on
+his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to Spain.
+Gonzago, sensible of his secretary&rsquo;s abilities, commended him to
+Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first
+historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of
+Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary,
+Herrera devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature,
+retaining his offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was
+appointed secretary of state very shortly before his death,
+which took place at Madrid on the 29th of March 1625. Of
+Herrera&rsquo;s writings, the most valuable is his <i>Historia general de
+los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del Mar
+Oceano</i> (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a work which relates the
+history of the Spanish-American colonies from 1492 to 1554.
+The author&rsquo;s official position gave him access to the state papers
+and to other authentic sources not attainable by other writers,
+while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS.,
+especially from that of Bartolomé de Las Casas. He used his
+facilities carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on
+the whole accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable
+to the student either of the history of the early colonies, or of the
+institutions and customs of the aboriginal American peoples.
+Although it is written in the form of annals, mistakes are not
+wanting, and several glaring anachronisms have been pointed
+out by M. J. Quintana. &ldquo;If,&rdquo; to quote Dr Robertson,
+&ldquo;by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New
+World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events
+in his work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected
+and obscure that it is an unpleasant task to collect from different
+parts of his book and piece together the detached shreds of a
+story, he might justly have been ranked among the most eminent
+historians of his country.&rdquo; This work was republished in 1730,
+and has been translated into English by J. Stevens (London,
+1740), and into other European languages.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Herrera&rsquo;s other works are the following: <i>Historia de lo sucedido
+en Escocia é Inglaterra en quarenta y quatro años que vivió la reyna
+Maria Estuarda</i> (Madrid, 1589); <i>Cinco libros de la historia de
+Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Açores, 1582-1583</i> (Madrid,
+1591); <i>Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594</i> (Madrid,
+1598); <i>Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II,
+desde 1559 hasta su muerte</i> (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); <i>Tratado,
+relacion, y discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon</i> (Madrid,
+1612); <i>Comentarios de los hechos de los Españoles, Franceses, y
+Venecianos en Italia, &amp;c., 1281-1559</i> (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H.
+Prescott, <i>History of the Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRICK, ROBERT<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1591-1674), English poet, was born at
+Cheapside, London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591.
+He belonged to an old Leicestershire family which had settled in
+London. He was the seventh child of Nicholas Herrick, goldsmith,
+of the city of London, who died in 1592, under suspicion
+of suicide. The children were brought up by their uncle, Sir
+William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to
+whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably
+been educated at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to
+Cambridge; and it was no doubt during his apprenticeship that
+the young poet was introduced to that circle of wits which he was
+afterwards to adorn. He seems to have been present at the first
+performance of <i>The Alchemist</i> in 1610, and it was probably about
+this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical &ldquo;son.&rdquo;
+He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John&rsquo;s
+College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his
+degree, he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen
+letters to his uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beaumanoir,
+and shows that Herrick suffered much from poverty at
+the university. He took his B.A. in 1617, and in 1620 he became
+master of arts. From this date until 1627 we entirely lose sight of
+him; it has been variously conjectured that he spent these years
+preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much looser
+pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by
+the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in
+Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when
+he was ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed
+him at first; the village was dull and remote, and he felt very
+bitterly that he was cut off from all literary and social associations;
+but soon the quiet existence in Devonshire soothed and
+delighted him. He was pleased with the rural and semi-pagan
+customs that survived in the village, and in some of his most
+charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances, wakes
+and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night
+revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick
+never married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy
+family of pets, and tended by an excellent old servant named
+Prudence Baldwin. His first appearance in print was in some
+verses he contributed to <i>A Description of the King and Queen
+of Fairies</i>, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of <i>Wit&rsquo;s Recreations</i>
+contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by
+Herrick in the <i>Hesperides</i>, and one not reprinted until our own
+day. These partial appearances make it probable that he visited
+London from time to time. We have few hints of his life as a
+clergyman. Anthony Wood says that Herricks&rsquo;s sermons were
+florid and witty, and that he was &ldquo;beloved by the neighbouring
+gentry.&rdquo; A very aged woman, one Dorothy King, stated that
+the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation, cursing them
+for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his
+favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+was a devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil
+War, and immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his
+celebrated collection of lyrical poems, entitled <i>Hesperides; or the
+Works both Human and Divine of Robert Herrick</i>. The &ldquo;divine
+works&rdquo; bore the title of <i>Noble Numbers</i> and the date 1647.
+That he was reduced to great poverty in London has been stated,
+but there is no evidence of the fact. In August 1662 Herrick
+returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own supplanter, Dr
+John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was buried
+at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his
+memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a
+descendant of a collateral branch of the family. The <i>Hesperides</i>
+(and <i>Noble Numbers</i>) is the only volume which Herrick published,
+but he contributed poems to <i>Lachrymae Musarum</i> (1649) and to
+<i>Wit&rsquo;s Recreations</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets.
+His genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious,
+but in its own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems&mdash;and of the
+thirteen hundred that he has left behind him not one is long&mdash;are
+like jewels of various value, heaped together in a casket.
+Some are of the purest water, radiant with light and colour,
+some were originally set in false metal that has tarnished, some
+were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of the unarranged,
+heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not worth
+reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is astonished
+at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains.
+Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his
+sylvan muse when he says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers,</p>
+<p class="i05">Of April, May, of June and July flowers,</p>
+<p class="i05">I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes,</p>
+<p class="i05">Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no
+one before him had seen it, and he described it in his verse
+with a certain purple glow of Arcadian romance over it, in
+tones of immortal vigour and freshness. His love poems are
+still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour and
+tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of
+modern lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace
+and in the poets of the Greek anthology.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the
+fame of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his
+poems to the readers of the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> of 1796 and 1797.
+Dr Drake followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810
+interest had so far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured
+to print a selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable
+notice of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>. In 1823 the <i>Hesperides</i> and the
+<i>Noble Numbers</i> were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland,
+afterwards Lord Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick&rsquo;s
+have been too numerous to be mentioned here; there are few
+English poets of the 17th century whose writings are now more
+accessible. See F. W. Moorman, <i>Robert Herrick</i> (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1778-1855), English politician,
+son of a London merchant, began his career as a junior clerk
+in the treasury, and became known for his financial abilities
+as private secretary to successive ministers. He was appointed
+commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the abolition of that office
+(1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he entered parliament
+as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became chancellor of the
+exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of internal
+differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries, the
+ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master
+of the mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade,
+and for the earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war.
+From 1841 to 1847 he was out of parliament, but during 1852
+he was president of the board of control under Lord Derby.
+He was a consistent and upright Tory of the old school, who
+carried weight as an authority on financial subjects. His eldest
+son, <span class="sc">Sir Charles John Herries</span> (1815-1882), was chairman
+of the board of inland revenue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life</i> by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Lord</span> (<i>c.</i> 1512-1583),
+Scottish politician, was the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th
+Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he married Agnes (d. 1594),
+daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries (d. 1543), a
+grandson of Herbert Herries (d. <i>c.</i> 1500) of Terregles, Kirkcudbrightshire,
+who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament
+about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries.
+But before this event Maxwell had become prominent among
+the men who rallied round Mary queen of Scots, although
+during the earlier part of his public life he had been associated
+with the religious reformers and had been imprisoned by the
+regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover&mdash;at least until
+1563&mdash;very friendly with John Knox, who calls him &ldquo;a man
+zealous and stout in God&rsquo;s cause.&rdquo; But the transition from one
+party to the other was gradually accomplished, and from March
+1566, when Maxwell joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder
+of David Rizzio and her escape from Holyrood, he remained one
+of her staunchest friends, although he disliked her marriage with
+Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and after this battle
+she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with the queen
+into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of
+Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York.
+He continued to labour in Mary&rsquo;s cause after returning to
+Scotland, and was imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also
+incurred Elizabeth&rsquo;s displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard
+Dacres, but he soon made his peace with the English queen.
+He showed himself in general hostile to the regent Morton, but
+he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox until his
+death on the 20th of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord
+Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches.</p>
+
+<p>William&rsquo;s grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became
+3rd earl of Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell,
+the 2nd earl, in 1667. John&rsquo;s grandson was William, 5th earl of
+Nithsdale, the Jacobite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nithsdale</a></span>). William was deprived
+of his honours in 1716, but in 1858 the House of Lords decided
+that his descendant William Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was
+rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In 1876 William&rsquo;s son Marmaduke
+Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became 12th Lord Herries,
+and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRING<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (<i>Clupea harengus</i>, <i>Häring</i> in German, <i>le hareng</i>
+in French, <i>sill</i> in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus <i>Clupea</i>,
+of which more than sixty different species are known in various
+parts of the globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad
+are species of the same genus. Of all sea-fishes <i>Clupeae</i> are the
+most abundant; for although other genera may comprise a
+greater variety of species, they are far surpassed by <i>Clupea</i>
+with regard to the number of individuals. The majority of the
+species of <i>Clupea</i> are of greater or less utility to man; it is only
+a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their food,
+highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons
+eating them. But no other species equals the common herring
+in importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in
+incredible numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the
+Atlantic and the seas north of Asia. The herring inhabiting
+the corresponding latitudes of the North Pacific is another
+species, but most closely allied to that of the eastern hemisphere.
+Formerly it was the general belief that the herring inhabits
+the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates
+at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and
+America. This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we
+know now that this fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity
+of our shores, but at a greater depth, and at a greater distance
+from the coast, than at the time when it approaches land for
+the purpose of spawning.</p>
+
+<p>Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the
+other species of <i>Clupea</i> by having an ovate patch of very small
+teeth on the vomer (that is, the centre of the palate). In the
+dorsal fin they have from 17 to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from
+16 to 18; there are from 53 to 59 scales in the lateral line and
+54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral column. They have a
+smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of bone which
+are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other <i>Clupeae</i>. The
+sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth
+on the vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line.</p>
+
+<p>The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span>
+rough gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and
+always in comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning
+is different in different places, and even in the same district, <i>e.g.</i>
+the east coast of Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring
+and others in autumn. These are not the same fish but different
+races. Those which breed in winter or spring deposit their
+spawn near the coast at the mouths of estuaries, and ascend the
+estuaries to a considerable distance at certain times, as in the
+Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which spawn in summer or
+autumn belong more to the open sea, <i>e.g.</i> the great shoals that
+visit the North Sea annually.</p>
+
+<p>Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer&rsquo;s
+observations, they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during
+the first month after hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second,
+45 to 50 mm. during the third, 55 to 61 mm. during the fourth,
+and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The size which they finally
+attain and their general condition depend chiefly on the abundance
+of food (which consists of crustaceans and other small
+marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the season
+at which they have been hatched, &amp;c. Their usual size is
+about 12 in., but in some particularly suitable localities they
+grow to a length of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring
+17 in. are on record. In the Baltic, where the water is gradually
+losing its saline constituents, thus becoming less adapted for
+the development of marine species, the herring continues to
+exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not growing
+either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring.
+The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically
+identical with that of Europe. A second species (<i>Clupea leachii</i>)
+has been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises
+only individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or
+late spawn. Also the so-called &ldquo;white-bait&rdquo; is not a distinct
+species, but consists chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings
+and sprats, and is obtained &ldquo;in perfection&rdquo; at localities where
+these small fishes find an abundance of food, as in the estuary
+of the Thames.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published,
+as by Valenciennes in the 20th vol. of the <i>Histoire naturelle des
+poissons</i>, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, <i>The Herring,
+its Natural History and National Importance</i> (Edinburgh, 1864).
+Recent investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery
+<i>Board for Scotland</i>, and in the reports of the German <i>Kommission
+zur Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere</i> (published at Kiel).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRING-BONE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a term in architecture applied to alternate
+courses of bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding
+courses above and below: this is said to give a better bond to
+the wall, especially when the stone employed is stratified, such
+as Stonefield stone, and too thin to be laid in horizontal courses.
+Although it is only occasionally found in modern buildings, it
+was a type of construction constantly employed in Roman,
+Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is regarded
+as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the Byzantine
+walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed
+decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the
+diagonal courses are reversed one above the other. Examples
+in France exist in the churches at Querqueville in Normandy
+and St Christophe at Suèvres (Loir et Cher), both dating from
+the 10th century, and in England herring-bone masonry is
+found in the walls of castles, such as at Guildford, Colchester and
+Tamworth. The term is also applied to the paving of stable
+yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating so that the
+head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the
+effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> the name applied to the
+action of Rouvray, fought in 1429 between the French (and
+Scots) and the English, who, under Sir John Falstolfe (or
+Falstaff), were convoying Lenten provisions, chiefly herrings,
+to the besiegers of Orleans. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orleans</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hundred
+Years&rsquo; War</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERRNHUT,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
+18 m. S.E. of Bautzen, and situated on the Löbau-Zittau railway.
+Pop. 1200. It is chiefly known as the principal seat of
+the Moravian or Bohemian brotherhood, the members of which
+are called <i>Herrnhuter</i>. A colony of these people, fleeing from
+persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut in 1722 on a site
+presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the society
+include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the sisters
+and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an ethnographical
+museum and other collections of interest. The town
+is remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous
+cleanliness. Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives
+its name), tobacco and various minor articles are manufactured.
+The Hutberg, at the foot of which the town lies, commands a
+pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village about a mile distant, has
+been the seat of the directorate of the community since about
+1789.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1750-1848), English
+astronomer, sister of Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and
+fourth daughter of her parents, was born at Hanover on the
+16th of March 1750. On account of the prejudices of her mother,
+who did not desire her to know more than was necessary for
+being useful in the family, she received, in youth only the first
+elements of education. After the death of her father in 1767 she
+obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a
+view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother
+in the management of the household until the autumn of 1772,
+when she joined her brother William, who had established himself
+as a teacher of music at Bath. At once she became a valuable
+co-operator with him both in his professional duties and in the
+astronomical researches to which he had already begun to devote
+all his spare time. She was the principal singer at his oratorio
+concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she
+was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which,
+however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office
+of astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant
+in his observations, and also executed the laborious calculations
+which were connected with them. For these services
+she received from the king in 1787 a salary of £50 a year. Her
+chief amusement during her leisure hours was sweeping the
+heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this means she
+detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the
+eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with unquestioned
+priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal
+Society an Index to Flamsteed&rsquo;s observations, together with a
+catalogue of 561 stars accidentally omitted from the &ldquo;British
+Catalogue,&rdquo; and a list of the errata in that publication. Though
+she returned to Hanover in 1822 she did not abandon her astronomical
+studies, and in 1828 she completed the reduction, to
+January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother. In
+1828 the Astronomical Society, to mark their sense of the benefits
+conferred on science by such a series of laborious exertions,
+unanimously resolved to present her with their gold medal, and
+in 1835 elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846
+she received a gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on
+the 9th of January 1848.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel</i>, by Mrs
+John Herschel (1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1738-1822),
+generally known as Sir William Herschel, English astronomer,
+was born at Hanover on the 15th of November 1738. His
+father was a musician employed as hautboy player in the
+Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony
+in the early part of the 17th century on account of religious
+troubles, they themselves being Protestants. Herschel&rsquo;s earlier
+education was necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly
+owing to the warlike commotions of his country; but being at
+all times an indomitable student, he, by his own exertions, more
+than repaired this deficiency. He became a very skilful musician,
+both theoretical and practical; while his attainments as a
+self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to the prosecution
+of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently advanced
+and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and
+thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret
+of what Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific
+success.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the
+Hanoverian guard, and with his detachment visited England
+in 1755, accompanied by his father and eldest brother; in the
+following year he returned to his native country; but the
+hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years&rsquo; War imperilling
+his health, his parents privately removed him from the
+regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to
+England. There, as might have been expected, the earlier part
+of his career was attended with formidable difficulties and much
+privation. We find him engaged in several towns in the north
+of England as organist and teacher of music, which were not
+lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began to
+flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to
+the Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth
+and fashion of the city.</p>
+
+<p>During the next five or six years he became the leading musical
+authority, and the director of all the chief public musical entertainments
+at Bath. His circumstances having thus become
+easier, he revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back
+with him his sister Caroline, whose services he much needed in
+his multifarious undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August
+1772, being at that time in her twenty-third year. She thus
+describes her brother&rsquo;s life soon after her arrival: &ldquo;He used
+to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass of water, with
+Smith&rsquo;s <i>Harmonics</i> and Ferguson&rsquo;s <i>Astronomy</i>, &amp;c., and so went
+to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first thoughts
+on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those
+objects himself of which he had been reading.&rdquo; It is not without
+significance that we find him thus reading Smith&rsquo;s <i>Harmonics</i>;
+to that study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a
+reward for his thoroughness this led him to Smith&rsquo;s <i>Optics</i>;
+and this, by a natural sequence, again led him to astronomy,
+for the purposes of which the chief optical instruments were
+devised. It was in this way that he was introduced to the
+writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to those of
+Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer
+of undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very
+expensive and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet
+perfected even their beautiful little achromatics of 2¾ in. aperture.
+So Herschel was obliged to content himself with hiring a small
+Gregorian reflector of about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen
+exposed for loan in a tradesman&rsquo;s shop. Not satisfied with this
+implement, he procured a small lens of about 18 ft. focal length,
+and set his sister to work on a pasteboard tube to match it, so as
+to make him a telescope. This unsatisfactory material was soon
+replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort of vision was obtained of
+Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought in London for
+a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such instrument
+was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a
+reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too
+exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own.
+So he was driven to the only alternative that remained; he
+must himself build a large telescope. His first step in this
+direction was to purchase the débris of an amateur&rsquo;s implements
+for grinding and polishing small mirrors; and thus, by slow
+degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he in 1774 had, as
+he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a Newtonian
+telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he
+was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary,
+he had from the very first conceived the gigantic project of
+surveying the entire heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining
+the plan of their general structure by a settled mode of procedure,
+if only he could provide himself with adequate instrumental
+means. For this purpose he, his brother and his sister toiled
+for many years at the grinding and polishing of hundreds of
+specula, always retaining the best and recasting the others, until
+the most perfect of the earlier products had been surpassed.
+This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of the year
+when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place, and
+had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774
+every available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped-for
+scrutiny of the skies. In those days no machinery had been
+invented for the construction of telescopic mirrors; the man
+who had the hardihood to undertake polishing them doomed
+himself to walk leisurely and uniformly round an upright post
+for many hours, without removing his hands from the mirror, until
+his work was done. On these occasions Herschel received his food
+from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward was nigh.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his
+observations on the variable star &ldquo;Mira&rdquo; and the mountains of
+the moon were communicated to the Royal Society through
+the influential introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel
+had made his acquaintance in a characteristic manner. In order
+to obtain a sight of the moon the astronomer had taken his
+telescope into the street opposite his house; the celebrated
+physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his eye
+removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission
+to take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversation
+which ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a
+solid and enduring regard.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel
+as a guide to what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun,
+he knew, rotated on its axis, and he knew that dark spots often
+exist on its photosphere; the questions that he put to himself
+were&mdash;Are there dark spots also on variable stars? Do the stars
+also rotate on their axes? or are they sometimes partially
+eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And he went on
+to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and
+have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet?
+To these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts;
+and he communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less
+than six memoirs, occupying very many pages in the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i>, and extending in date from 1780 to 1801. It was
+in the latter year that these remarkable papers culminated in the
+inquiry whether any relation could be traced in the recurrence of
+sun-spots, regarded as evidences of solar activity, and the varying
+seasons of our planet, as exhibited by the varying price of corn.
+Herschel&rsquo;s reply was inconclusive; nor has a final solution of the
+related problems yet been obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a
+series of papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several
+satellites. The object which he had in view was not so much to
+ascertain the times of their rotation as to discover whether
+those rotations are strictly uniform. From the result he expected
+to gather, by analogy, the probability of an alteration in the
+length of our own day. These inquiries occupy the greater part of
+seven memoirs extending from 1781 to 1797. While engaged on
+them he noticed the curious appearance of a white spot near to
+each of the poles of the planet Mars. On investigating the inclination
+of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and finding that it differed
+little from that of the earth, he concluded that its changes of
+climate also would resemble our own, and that these white
+patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have confirmed
+his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his
+observations extended, the times of the rotations of the various
+satellites round their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by
+equalling the times of their revolution round their primaries.
+Here again we perceive that his discoveries arose out of the
+systematic and comprehensive nature of his investigation.
+Nothing with such a man is accidental.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which
+completely altered the character of his professional life. In the
+course of a methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an
+object which at first he supposed to be a comet, but which, by
+its subsequent motions and appearance, averred itself to be a
+new planet, moving outside the orbit of Saturn. The name of
+Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has by general
+consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was
+detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 6½ in.; subsequently,
+when he had provided himself with a much more
+powerful telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he
+believed, no less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations,
+while abolishing four of these supposed attendants, have added
+two others apparently not observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span>
+on the subject were communicated by him to the Royal Society,
+extending from the date of the discovery in 1781 to 1815. A
+noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel&rsquo;s mode of observation led to
+the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious
+diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magnifying
+powers, but that the case is different with other celestial
+objects; hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as
+unusual in aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power
+in order to decide its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered; and
+had a similar method been applied to Neptune, that planet
+would have been found at Cambridge some months before it was
+recognized at Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the beginning of Herschel&rsquo;s most important
+series of observations, culminating in what ought probably to be
+regarded as his capital discovery. A material part of the task
+which he had set himself embraced the determination of the
+relative distances of the stars from our sun and from each other.
+Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the heavens, he had observed
+many stars in apparently very close contiguity, but often
+differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that, on
+the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the
+smaller enormously more distant; and considering that an
+astronomer on the earth, in consequence of its immense orbital
+displacement of some 180 millions of miles every six months,
+would see such a pair of stars under different perspective aspects,
+he perceived that the measurement of these changes should lead
+to an approximate determination of the stars&rsquo; relative distances.
+He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of all the
+double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and
+1785 very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very
+last scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in
+the year 1822, when he was its first president and already in the
+eighty-fourth year of his age, related to these investigations.
+In the memoir of 1782 he threw out the hint that these apparently
+contiguous stars might be genuine pairs in mutual revolution;
+but he significantly added that the time had not yet arrived for
+settling the question. Eleven years afterwards (1793), he remeasured
+the relative positions of many such couples, and we
+may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding his
+prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars
+circulated round each other, after the manner required by the
+laws of gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the
+distant members of the starry firmament of the same mechanical
+laws which bind together the harmonious motions of our solar
+system. This sublime discovery, announced in 1802, would of
+itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If only he had lived
+long enough to learn the approximate distances of some of
+these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to
+calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the
+quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would
+have found another of his analogical conjectures realized.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by
+George III., and accepted the king&rsquo;s offer to become his private
+astronomer, and henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific
+career. His salary was fixed at £200 per annum, to which an
+addition of £50 per annum was subsequently made for the
+astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr Watson, to whom alone
+the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark, &ldquo;Never
+before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate.&rdquo;
+In this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to
+Datchet and soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy
+access of his royal patron at Windsor.</p>
+
+<p>The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but
+with renewed vigour and without the former professional
+interruptions. The greater part, in fact, of the papers already
+referred to are dated from Datchet and Slough; for the magnificent
+astronomical speculations in which he was engaged, though
+for the most part conceived in the earlier portion of his philosophical
+career, required years of patient observation before
+they could be fully examined and realized.</p>
+
+<p>It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable
+paper on the &ldquo;Motion of the Solar System in Space,&rdquo;&mdash;a sublime
+speculation, yet through his genius realized by considerations
+of the utmost simplicity. He returned to the same subject
+with fuller details in 1805. It was also after his removal to
+Slough that he published his first memoir on the construction
+of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring idea
+of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers,
+addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from
+the year 1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demonstrated
+the fact that our sun is a star situated not far from the
+bifurcation of the Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to
+us lie more or less in clusters scattered throughout a comparatively
+thin, but immensely extended stratum. At one time he imagined
+that his powerful instruments had pierced through this stellar
+stratum, and that he had approximately determined the form
+of some of its boundaries. In the last of his memoirs, having
+convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his telescopes
+the Milky Way was &ldquo;fathomless.&rdquo; On either side of this
+assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their
+common centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of
+discrete nebulous masses, such as those from the condensation
+of which he supposed the whole stellar universe to have been
+formed,&mdash;a magnificent conception, pursued with a force of
+genius and put to the practical test of observation with an
+industry almost incredible.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting
+telescope, of 40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction
+of which is often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief
+performance. The full description of this celebrated instrument
+will be found in the 85th volume of the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal
+Society. On the day that it was finished (August 28, 1789)
+Herschel saw at the first view, in a grandeur not witnessed
+before, the Saturnian system with six satellites, five of which
+had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D.
+Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had,
+two years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little
+telescope of 6½ in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable
+brightness with the towering giant he had just completed. On
+the 17th of September he discovered a seventh, which proved
+to be the nearest to the globe of Saturn. It has since received
+the name of Mimas. It is somewhat remarkable that, notwithstanding
+his long and repeated scrutinies of this planet, the
+eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should have
+escaped him.</p>
+
+<p>Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr
+John Pitt, a wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an
+only son, John Frederick William. The prince regent conferred
+a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in 1816. But a far more
+valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley medal assigned
+to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781.</p>
+
+<p>He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-fourth
+year of his age, and was buried under the tower of St
+Laurence&rsquo;s Church, Upton, within a few hundred yards of the
+old site of the 40-ft. telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of
+the church bears a Latin inscription from the pen of the late
+Dr Goodall, provost of Eton College.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mrs John Herschel, <i>Memoir of Caroline Herschel</i> (1876);
+E. S. Holden, <i>Herschel, his Life and Works</i> (1881); A. M. Clerke,
+<i>The Herschels and Modern Astronomy</i> (1895); E. S. Holden and
+C. S. Hastings, <i>Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William
+Herschel</i> (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, <i>Éloge historique</i>, Paris
+Memoirs (1823), p. lxi.; F. Arago, <i>Analyse historique, Annuaire du
+Bureau des Longitudes</i> (1842), p. 249; Arago, <i>Biographies of Scientific
+Men</i>, p. 167; Madame d&rsquo;Arblay&rsquo;s <i>Diary, passim; Public Characters</i>
+(1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, <i>William Herschel and
+his Work</i> (1900). Herschel&rsquo;s photometric Star Catalogues were
+discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in <i>Harvard Annals</i>, vols.
+xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. P.; A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span>
+(1792-1871), English astronomer, the only son of Sir William
+Herschel, was born at Slough, Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792.
+His scholastic education commenced at Eton, but maternal
+fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of a private
+tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to
+St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span>
+mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material
+influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In
+due time the young student won the highest academical distinction
+of his year, graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was
+during his undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow-students
+who subsequently attained to very high eminence,
+Dean Peacock and Charles Babbage, entered into a compact
+that they would &ldquo;do their best to leave the world wiser than they
+found it,&rdquo;&mdash;a compact loyally and successfully carried out by
+all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable
+attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in
+the production of a work on the differential calculus, and on
+cognate branches of mathematical science, which changed the
+style and aspect of mathematical learning in England, and brought
+it up to the level of the Continental methods. Two or three
+memoirs communicated to the Royal Society on new applications
+of mathematical analysis at once placed him in the front
+rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of these
+his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the
+others were presented in his own right as a fellow.</p>
+
+<p>With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his
+name at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed
+himself under the guidance of an eminent special pleader.
+Probably this temporary choice of a profession was inspired
+by the extraordinary success in legal pursuits which had attended
+the efforts of some noted Cambridge mathematicians. Be that
+as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr Wollaston in London
+soon changed the direction of his studies. He experimented
+in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820,
+assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a
+mirror of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subsequently
+improved by his own hands, became the instrument
+which enabled him to effect the astronomical observations
+forming the chief basis of his fame. In 1821-1823 we find him
+associated with Sir James South in the re-examination of his
+father&rsquo;s double stars, by the aid of two excellent refractors, of
+7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he was
+presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society&rsquo;s gold medal;
+and with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825;
+while the Royal Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the
+Copley medal for his mathematical contributions to their
+<i>Transactions</i>. From 1824 to 1827 he held the responsible post
+of secretary to that society; and was in 1827 elected to the chair
+of the Astronomical Society, which office he also filled on two
+subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to the last-named
+society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote
+obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their
+combination of eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of
+knighthood was conferred on him by William IV., and two years
+later he again received the recognition of the Royal Society by
+the award of one of their medals for his memoir &ldquo;On the Investigation
+of the Orbits of Revolving Double Stars.&rdquo; The
+award significantly commemorated his completion of his father&rsquo;s
+discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of a
+graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the
+two component stars of the binary system revolving under the
+prescription of the Newtonian law.</p>
+
+<p>Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years
+of age, Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father&rsquo;s double
+stars and nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his
+own lists; thus accomplishing, under the conditions then prevailing,
+the full work of a lifetime. For it should be remembered
+that astronomers were not as yet provided with those valuable
+automatic contrivances which at present materially abridge
+the labour and increase the accuracy of their determinations.
+Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork,
+electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena
+observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had
+no assistant.</p>
+
+<p>His scientific life now entered upon another and very characteristic
+phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was
+wont to declare, was towards chemistry and the phenomena
+of light, rather than towards astronomy. Indeed, very shortly
+after taking his degree at Cambridge, he proposed himself as a
+candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in that university;
+but, as he said with some humour, the result of the election was
+to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact Herschel
+had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by
+filial loyalty to his father&rsquo;s memory that he was now impelled
+to undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough.
+William Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John
+Herschel determined to explore the southern, besides re-exploring
+northern skies. &ldquo;I resolved,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;to attempt the
+completion of a survey of the whole surface of the heavens;
+and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere the
+same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give
+a unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to
+render them comparable with each other.&rdquo; In accordance with
+this resolution, he and his family embarked for the Cape on the
+13th November 1833; they arrived in Table Bay on the 15th
+January 1834; and proceedings, he says, &ldquo;were pushed forward
+with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was enabled to
+gratify my curiosity by a view of &kappa; Crucis, the nebula about &eta;
+Argûs, and some other remarkable objects in the 20-ft. reflector,
+and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular
+course of sweeping.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour completed
+during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen
+would require the transcription of a considerable portion of the
+<i>Cape Observations</i>, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance;
+although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from
+Sir William&rsquo;s &ldquo;Memoirs,&rdquo; now scattered through some thirty
+volumes of the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. It was published, at
+the sole expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till
+1847, nine years after the author&rsquo;s return to England, for the cogent
+reason, that as he said, &ldquo;The whole of the observations, as well
+as the entire work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for
+the press, have been executed by myself.&rdquo; There are 164 pages of
+catalogues of southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then
+careful and elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of
+the region surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour
+and the thought bestowed upon some of these objects are almost
+incredible; several months were spent upon a minute spot in the
+heavens containing 1216 stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held
+at a distance of an arm&rsquo;s length, would eclipse. These catalogues
+and charts being completed, he proceeded to discuss their significance.
+He confirmed his father&rsquo;s hypothesis that these wonderful masses of
+glowing vapours are not irregularly scattered over the visible heavens,
+but are collected in a sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of
+that vast stratum of stars in which our solar system finds itself buried,
+as Herschel supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average
+distance from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his
+catalogue of the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern
+double stars, to one of which, &gamma; Virginis, he applied the beautiful
+method of orbital determination invented by himself, and he had
+the satisfaction of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the
+components would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up
+into a single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next
+chapter he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying
+and relative brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed
+how his father began his scientific career by similar observations on
+stellar light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years
+afterwards in the question whether the radiative changes of our
+sun, due to the presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests
+and the price of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther,
+pointing out that variations to the extent of half a magnitude in
+the sun&rsquo;s brightness would account for those strange alternations
+of semi-arctic and semi-tropical climates which geological researches
+show to have occurred in various regions of our globe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838.
+As was natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic
+greeting. By the queen at her coronation he was created a
+baronet; and, what to him was better than all such rewards,
+other men caught the contagion of his example, and laboured
+in fields similar to his own, with an adequate portion of his success.</p>
+
+<p>Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery
+in 1819 of the solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the
+otherwise insoluble salts of silver was the prelude to its use
+as a fixing agent in photography; and he invented in 1839,
+independently of Fox Talbot, the process of photography on
+sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the now
+well-known terms <i>positive</i> and <i>negative</i> to photographic images,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span>
+and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a
+sensitive film. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes&rsquo;s
+discovery of fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to
+the spectrum, and by his announcement in 1845 of &ldquo;epipolic dispersion,&rdquo;
+as exhibited by sulphate of quinine. Several other
+important researches connected with the undulatory theory of
+light are embodied in his treatise on &ldquo;Light&rdquo; published in the
+<i>Encyclopaedia metropolitana</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or
+philosopher if devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel
+possessed this endowment to a large extent; and he solaced
+his declining years with the translation of the <i>Iliad</i> into verse,
+having earlier executed a similar version of Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Walk</i>. But
+the main work of his later life was the collection of all his father&rsquo;s
+catalogues of nebulae and double stars combined with his own
+observations and those of other astronomers each into a single
+volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to the
+Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, vol. cliv. The latter work he left
+unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astronomical
+Society. That society printed a portion of it, which
+serves as an index to the observations of various astronomers on
+double stars up to the year 1866.</p>
+
+<p>A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will
+be found in the Royal Society&rsquo;s great catalogue, and from them
+may be gathered most of the records of his busy scientific life.
+Sir John Herschel met with an amount of public recognition
+which was unusual in the time of his illustrious father. Naturally
+he was a member of almost every important learned society in
+both hemispheres. For five years he held the same office of
+master of the mint, which more than a century before had
+belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose
+him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of
+parliament for the university of Cambridge, but neither position
+was desired by him.</p>
+
+<p>In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active
+friend; he had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds;
+he gladly lent a helping hand to those who consulted him in
+scientific difficulties; he never discouraged, and still less disparaged,
+men younger than or inferior to himself; he was
+pleased by appreciation of his work without being solicitous for
+applause; it was said of him by a discriminating critic, and
+without extravagance, that &ldquo;his was a life full of serenity of the
+sage and the docile innocence of a child.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in
+Kent, on the 11th of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his
+age, and his remains are interred in Westminster Abbey close to
+the grave of Sir Isaac Newton.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the laborious <i>Cape Observations</i>, Sir John Herschel was
+the author of several books, one of which at least, <i>On the Study
+of Natural Philosophy</i> (1830), possesses an interest which no future
+advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In
+1849 came the <i>Outlines of Astronomy</i>, a volume still replete with
+charm and instruction. His articles, &ldquo;Meteorology,&rdquo; &ldquo;Physical
+Geography,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Telescope,&rdquo; contributed to the 8th edition of
+the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, were afterwards published separately.
+When he was at the Cape he was more than once assisted in the
+attempts there made to diffuse a love of knowledge among men not
+engaged in literary pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his
+return to England, published, in <i>Good Words</i> and elsewhere, a series
+of papers on interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently
+collected in a volume called <i>Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects</i>.
+Another less widely known volume is his <i>Collected Addresses</i>, in which
+he is seen in his happiest and most instructive mood.</p>
+
+<p>See also Mrs John Herschel, &ldquo;Memoir of Caroline Herschel,&rdquo;
+<i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); <i>Proceedings
+Roy. Society</i>, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson); <i>Proceedings
+Roy. Society of Edinburgh</i> vii. 543 (P. G. Tait); <i>Nature</i> iv. 69;
+E. Dunkin, <i>Obituary Notices</i>, p. 47; <i>Report Brit. Association</i>
+(1871), p. lxxxv. (Lord Kelvin); <i>The Times</i>. (May 13, 1871); R.
+Grant, <i>History of Phys. Astronomy</i>; A. M. Clerke, <i>Popular Hist.
+of Astronomy</i>; A. M. Clerke, <i>The Herschels and Modern Astronomy</i>;
+J. H. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, Bd. ii.; <i>Mémoires de la
+Société Physique de Genève</i>, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions,
+based on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by
+Herschel in sequences of relative brightness, were published by W.
+Doberck in the <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>, xi. 192, 270, and in <i>Harvard
+Annals</i>, vol. xli., No. viii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. P.; A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1837-1899),
+lord chancellor of England, was born on the 2nd of
+November 1837. His father was the Rev. Ridley Haim Herschell,
+a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who, when a young
+man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a leading
+part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the
+Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled
+down to the charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware
+Road, in London, where he ministered to a large congregation.
+His mother was a daughter of William Mowbray, a merchant of
+Leith. He was educated at a private school and at University
+College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A. degree at the University
+of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in the
+school debating society, and he displayed there the same command
+of language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics
+during his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed
+during his school days was maintained after he became a law-student
+at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of
+Thomas Chitty, the famous common law pleader, father of the
+late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils, amongst whom
+were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and Arthur
+Charles, afterwards judge of the queen&rsquo;s bench division, gave
+him the sobriquet of &ldquo;the chief baron&rdquo; in recognition of his
+superiority. He subsequently read with James Hannen, afterwards
+Lord Hannen. In 1860 he was called to the bar and
+joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy days of undividedness.
+For four or five years he did not obtain much work.
+Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced
+into journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a
+living. Two of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved
+great eminence, found themselves in like case. One of these,
+Charles Russell, became lord chief justice of England; the other,
+William Court Gully, speaker of the House of Commons. It is
+said that these three friends, dining together during a Liverpool
+assize some years after they had been called, agreed that their
+prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that about
+this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and
+practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon
+made himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the
+northern circuit, and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff-gownsman.
+For the latter he was content to note briefs and
+draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain donned &ldquo;silk,&rdquo; it was
+on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle descended.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 Herschell was made a queen&rsquo;s counsel. He had all the
+necessary qualifications for a leader&mdash;a clear, though not resonant
+voice; a calm, logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal principles;
+and (greatest gift of all) an abundance of common sense.
+He never wearied the judges by arguing at undue length, and
+he knew how to retire with dignity from a hopeless cause. His
+only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a hostile
+witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins
+nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he
+made up for all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts
+as told in his client&rsquo;s favour with the most consummate skill.
+He very seldom made use of notes, but trusted to his memory,
+which he had carefully trained. By this means he was able to
+conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid advocate than as an
+outsider interested in the case anxious to assist the jury in
+arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell&rsquo;s business had become
+so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February
+of that year there was a general election, with the result that the
+Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty.
+The usual crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson
+and Henderson) who had been returned for Durham city were
+unseated, and an attack was then made on the seats of two other
+Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had been returned for Durham
+county. For one of these last Herschell was briefed. He made
+so excellent an impression on the local Radical leaders that they
+asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight&rsquo;s
+electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874
+and 1880 Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the
+House of Commons. He was not a frequent speaker, but a few
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span>
+great efforts sufficed in his case to gain for him a reputation as a
+debater. The best examples of his style as a private member
+will be found in <i>Hansard</i> under the dates 18th February 1876,
+23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879. On the last occasion he carried a
+resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of promise of
+marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the
+damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such
+loss. The grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he
+acquitted himself during these displays obtained for him the
+notice of Gladstone, who in 1880 appointed Herschell
+solicitor-general.</p>
+
+<p>Herschell&rsquo;s public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great
+value, particularly in dealing with the &ldquo;cases for opinion&rdquo;
+submitted by the Foreign Office and other departments. He was
+also very helpful in speeding government measures through the
+House, notably the Irish Land Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices
+and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County Franchise Act 1884 and
+the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last was a bitter pill
+for Herschell, since it halved the representation of Durham city,
+and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the
+local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North
+Lonsdale division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful
+influence of Lord Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll,
+though Mr Gladstone again obtained a majority in the country.
+Herschell now thought he saw the solicitor-generalship slipping
+away from him, and along with it all prospect of high promotion.
+Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however, successively
+declined Gladstone&rsquo;s offer of the Woolsack, and in 1886 Herschell,
+by a sudden turn of fortune&rsquo;s wheel, found himself in his forty-ninth
+year lord chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>Herschell&rsquo;s chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in
+August 1886 Gladstone&rsquo;s Home Rule Bill was rejected in the
+Commons and his administration fell. In August 1892, when
+Gladstone returned to power, Herschell again became lord
+chancellor. In September 1893, when the second Home Rule
+Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords, Herschell
+took advantage of the opportunity to justify the &ldquo;sudden conversion&rdquo;
+to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by
+comparing it to the duke of Wellington&rsquo;s conversion to Catholic
+Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free
+Trade in 1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship
+came to an end with the defeat of the Rosebery ministry.</p>
+
+<p>Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the
+judicial committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords,
+Lord Herschell&rsquo;s judgments were distinguished for their acute
+and subtle reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and,
+whenever the occasion arose, for their broad treatment of constitutional
+and social questions. He was not a profound lawyer,
+but his quickness of apprehension was such that it was an
+excellent substitute for great learning. In construing a real
+property will or any other document, his first impulse was to
+read it by the light of nature, and to decline to be influenced by
+the construction put by the judges on similar phrases occurring
+elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had
+acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed without
+fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield
+to the established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He
+was perhaps seen at his judicial best in <i>Vagliano</i> v. <i>Bank of
+England</i> (1891) and <i>Allen</i> v. <i>Flood</i> (1898). Latterly he showed a
+tendency, which seems to grow on some judges, to interrupt
+counsel overmuch. The case last mentioned furnishes an
+example of this. The question involved was what constituted a
+molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling. At the
+close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently
+interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit,
+observed that although there might be a doubt as to what
+amounted to such molestation in point of law, the House could
+well understand, after that day&rsquo;s proceedings, what it was in
+actual practice. In addition to his political and judicial work,
+Herschell rendered many public services. In 1888 he presided
+over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with regard to
+the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two
+royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccination.
+He took a great interest in the National Society for the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts
+of 1889 and 1894, but also bestowing a good deal of time in
+sifting the truth of certain allegations which had been brought
+against the management of that society. In June 1893 he was
+appointed chancellor of the university of London in succession to
+the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new duties with the
+usual thoroughness. &ldquo;His views of reform,&rdquo; according to
+Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university,
+&ldquo;were always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at
+first they were not altogether popular with an important section
+of university opinion. He disarmed opposition by his intellectual
+power, rather than conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes
+was perhaps a little masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his
+treatment of the various burning questions that agitated the
+university during his tenure of office. His characteristic power
+of detachment was well illustrated by his treatment of the
+proposal to remove the university to the site of the Imperial
+Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time
+chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the
+removal never questioned his absolute impartiality.&rdquo; With the
+Imperial Institute Herschell had been officially connected from
+its inception. He was chairman of the provisional committee
+appointed by the prince of Wales to formulate a scheme for its
+organization, and he took an active part in the preparation of its
+charter and constitution in conjunction with Lord Thring, Lord
+James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He was the
+first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in India
+in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the
+Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting.
+For his special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in
+1893, this being the only instance of a lord chancellor being
+decorated with an order.</p>
+
+<p>In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to
+represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission,
+which assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a
+business involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study
+of maps and historic documents. Not content with this, he
+accepted in 1898 a seat on the joint high commission appointed to
+adjust certain boundary and other important questions pending
+between Great Britain and Canada on the one hand and the
+United States on the other hand. He started for America in
+July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington.
+His fellow commissioners elected him their president. In
+February 1899, while the commission was in full swing, he had
+the misfortune to slip in the street and in falling to fracture a hip
+bone. His constitution, which at one time was a robust one,
+had been undermined by constant hard work, and proved unequal
+to sustaining the shock. On the 1st of March, only a fortnight
+after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel, Washington,
+a <i>post-mortem</i> examination revealing disease of the heart. Mr
+Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the
+United States ambassador in London, the &ldquo;deep sorrow&rdquo; felt by
+President McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day,
+in the parliament chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell&rsquo;s
+death &ldquo;as a misfortune to Canada and to the British Empire.&rdquo;
+A funeral service held in St John&rsquo;s Episcopal Church, Washington,
+was attended by the president and vice-president of the United
+States, by the cabinet ministers, the judges of the Supreme
+Court, the members of the joint high commission, and a large
+number of senators and other representative men. The body
+was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second
+funeral service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was
+conveyed to its final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the
+parish church of which he had been married. Herschell left a
+widow, granddaughter of Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son,
+Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who succeeded him as second baron;
+and two daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A &ldquo;reminiscence&rdquo; of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (Lord Selby)
+will be found in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i> for April 1899. <i>The
+Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i> (of which he had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July
+of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord
+Davey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend),
+and also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks
+(both of the United States).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. H. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSENT, LOUIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1777-1860), French painter, was born at
+Paris on the 10th of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David,
+obtained the Prix de Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802
+appeared his &ldquo;Metamorphosis of Narcissus,&rdquo; and he continued to
+exhibit with rare interruptions up to 1831. His most considerable
+works under the empire were &ldquo;Achilles parting from Briseis,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Atala dying in the arms of Chactas&rdquo; (both engraved in Landon&rsquo;s
+<i>Annales du Musée</i>); an &ldquo;Incident of the life of Fénelon,&rdquo; painted
+in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and &ldquo;Passage of the Bridge
+at Landshut,&rdquo; which belongs to the same date, is now at Versailles.
+Hersent&rsquo;s typical works, however, belong to the period of the Restoration;
+&ldquo;Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted&rdquo; (Versailles) and
+&ldquo;Daphnis and Chloë&rdquo; (engraved by Langier and by Gelée) were
+both in the Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the &ldquo;Abdication of
+Gustavus Vasa&rdquo; brought to Hersent a medal of honour, but the
+picture, purchased by the duke of Orleans, was destroyed at the
+Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by Henriquel-Dupont is
+now its sole record. &ldquo;Ruth,&rdquo; produced in 1822, became the
+property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent
+rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him
+officer of the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the
+Institute, where he replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in
+favour under Charles X., for whom was executed &ldquo;Monks of Mount
+St Gotthard,&rdquo; exhibited in 1824. In 1831 Hersent made his last
+appearance at the Salon with portraits of Louis Philippe, Marie-Amélie
+and the duke of Montpensier; that of the king though
+good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Berlin), which is
+probably Hersent&rsquo;s <i>chef-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i>. After this date Hersent ceased
+to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an
+excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to
+the rooms of the Société d&rsquo;Artistes, he could not be tempted
+from his usual reserve even by the international contest of 1855.
+He died on the 2nd of October 1860.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSFELD,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Nassau, is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the
+Geis and Haun with the Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main
+to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688.
+Some of the old fortifications of the town remain, but the ramparts
+and ditches have been laid out as promenades. The principal
+buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic building,
+erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and a
+large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the
+ruins of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of
+the cathedral in the beginning of the 12th century; it was built
+in the Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761.
+Outside the town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on
+both of which are monastic ruins. Among the public institutions
+are a gymnasium and a military school. The town has important
+manufactures of cloth, leather and machinery; it has also dye-works,
+worsted mills and soap-boiling works.</p>
+
+<p>Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see
+below). It became a town in the 12th century and in 1370 the
+burghers, having meanwhile shaken off the authority of the
+abbots, placed themselves under the protection of the landgraves
+of Hesse. It was taken and retaken during the Thirty Years&rsquo;
+War and later it suffered from the attacks of the French.</p>
+
+<p>The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus,
+afterwards archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly
+endowed by Charlemagne and became an ecclesiastical principality
+in the 12th century, passing under the protection of the
+landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in 1648, having
+been previously administered for some years by a member of the
+ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed
+to Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in
+1866. In the middle ages the abbey was famous for its library.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Vigelius, <i>Denkwürdigkeiten von Hersfeld</i> (Hersfeld, 1888);
+Demme, <i>Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld</i> (Hersfeld,
+1891-1901), and P. Hafner, <i>Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte
+des 13ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Hersfeld, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERSTAL,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Heristal</span>, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N.
+of Liége and practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed
+to be derived from <i>Heerstelle</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Permanent Camp.&rdquo; The
+second Pippin was born here, and this mayor of the palace
+acquired the control of the kingdom of the Franks. His grandson,
+Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 768, and it disputes
+with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of
+Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and steel
+manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and
+cannon foundry are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> The English
+earldom of Hertford was held by members of the powerful family
+of Clare from about 1138, when Gilbert de Clare was created
+earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl Gilbert was killed
+at Bannockburn. In 1537 <span class="sc">Edward Seymour</span>, viscount Beauchamp,
+a brother of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s queen, Jane Seymour, was
+created earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the
+dignity of duke of Somerset and becoming protector of England.
+His son <span class="sc">Edward</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from
+1547 until the protector&rsquo;s attainder and death in January 1552,
+when the title was forfeited; in 1559, however, he was created
+earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly married to Lady
+Catherine Grey (<i>c.</i> 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey, duke of
+Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth
+greatly disliked this union, and both husband and wife were
+imprisoned, while the validity of their marriage was questioned.
+Catherine died on the 27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the
+6th of April 1621. Their son Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561-1612),
+who inherited his mother&rsquo;s title to the English throne,
+predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded in the
+earldom by his grandson <span class="sc">William Seymour</span> (1588-1660), who
+was created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his
+ancestor&rsquo;s dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess
+of Hertford became extinct when <span class="sc">John</span>, 4th duke of Somerset,
+died in 1675, and the earldom when <span class="sc">Algernon</span>, the 7th duke,
+died in February 1750.</p>
+
+<p>In August 1750 <span class="sc">Francis Seymour Conway</span>, 2nd Baron
+Conway (1718-1794), who was a direct descendant of the
+protector Somerset, was created earl of Hertford; this nobleman
+was the son of Francis Seymour Conway (1679-1732), who
+had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of Seymour,
+and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway.
+Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of
+the household from 1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his
+&ldquo;decorum and piety&rdquo; and refers to him as a &ldquo;perfect courtier,&rdquo;
+but says that he had &ldquo;too great propensity to heap emoluments
+on his children.&rdquo; In 1793 he became earl of Yarmouth and
+marquess of Hertford, and he died on the 14th of June 1794. His
+son, <span class="sc">Francis Ingram Seymour Conway</span> (1743-1822), who was
+known during his father&rsquo;s lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a
+prominent part in the debates of the House of Commons from
+1766 until he succeeded to the marquessate in 1794. He was
+sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in 1793 and from 1812
+to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son <span class="sc">Francis Charles</span>,
+the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the
+prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the
+&ldquo;Marquis of Steyne&rdquo; in Thackeray&rsquo;s <i>Vanity Fair</i> and of &ldquo;Lord
+Monmouth&rdquo; in Disraeli&rsquo;s <i>Coningsby</i>. The 4th marquess was his
+son, <span class="sc">Richard</span> (1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress,
+Maria Emily Fagniani, and whose brother was Lord Henry
+Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the Jockey Club at Paris.
+When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August 1870 his title
+passed to his kinsman, <span class="sc">Francis Hugh George Seymour</span> (1812-1884),
+a descendant of the 1st marquess, whose son, <span class="sc">Hugh de
+Grey</span> (b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th marquess
+left his great wealth and his priceless collection of art
+treasures to Sir Richard Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half-brother,
+and Wallace&rsquo;s widow, who died in 1897, bequeathed
+the collection to the British nation. It is now in Hertford
+House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of
+Hertford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTFORD,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough, and the
+county town of Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parliamentary
+division of the county, 24 m. N. from London, the
+terminus of branch lines of the Great Eastern and Great
+Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly situated
+in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the modern
+churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old
+ones, a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and
+the old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating
+from the Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque
+Jacobean building of brick, largely modernized. There are
+several educational establishments, including the preparatory
+school for Christ&rsquo;s Hospital, a picturesque building (in great part,
+however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town, Hale&rsquo;s grammar
+school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat school
+for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of
+the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the
+East India Company for their civil service students, who were
+then temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies
+high above the Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a
+stretch of finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable
+agricultural trade, and there are maltings, breweries, iron
+foundries, and oriental printing works. The town is governed
+by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors. Area, 1134
+acres.</p>
+
+<p>Hertford (<i>Herutford</i>, <i>Heorotford</i>, <i>Hurtford</i>) was the scene of a
+synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the
+Lea and the Thames gave it strategic importance during the
+Danish occupation of East Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a
+royal garrison and burgh. It made separate payments for aids
+to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331 was governed by
+a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter incorporated
+the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed
+under Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor,
+aldermen and commonalty was effective until the Municipal
+Corporation Act. Hertford returned two burgesses to the
+parliament of 1298, and to others until, after 1375/6, such
+right became abeyant, to be restored by order of parliament in
+1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation
+Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution
+Act in 1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or
+confirmed those held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and
+of St Simon and St Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs
+were confirmed by Elizabeth and Charles II. Another on the
+vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity of the Virgin was granted
+by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day under James I.
+Modern fairs are on the third Saturday before Easter, the 12th of
+May, the 5th of July and the 8th of November. Markets were
+held in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on
+Thursday and Saturday; and they returned to Wednesdays and
+Saturdays in 1680.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTFORDSHIRE<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Herts</span>], a county of England, bounded
+N. by Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex,
+S. by Middlesex, and S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is
+634.6 sq. m., the county being the sixth smallest in England.
+Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface generally undulating,
+while in some parts, where these undulations form a quick
+succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes
+very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood
+of Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and
+north considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing
+north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of
+the county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and
+Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills
+under the name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft.
+near Dunstable, sinking gradually north-eastward. These
+uplands are generally bare, and in parts remarkably sparsely
+populated as compared with the home counties at large. In the
+greater part of the county, however, rich arable lands are intermingled
+with the parks and woodlands of numerous fine country
+seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of the
+principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire,
+enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield,
+then E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and
+passing along the eastern boundary of the county falls into the
+Thames below London. It receives in its course the Maran, or
+Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the Stort, all joining on the
+north side; the Stort for some distance forming the county
+boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the south-western
+part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines.
+It receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel,
+rising in the N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the
+Great Ouse. To the south of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two
+streams of moderate size are lost in pot-holes, except in the
+highest floods. The New River, one of the water supplies of
+London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel
+with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout
+in the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are
+carefully preserved.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow
+syncline known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-easterly
+direction. The two most important formations are the
+Chalk, which forms the high ground in the north and west; and the
+Eocene Reading beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining
+southern part of the county. On the northern boundary, at the foot
+of the chalk hills, a small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand
+above it falls just within the county. The lowest subdivision of the
+chalk is the Chalk Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it,
+lies at the base of the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and
+Miswell to Tring. Above these beds, the Lower Chalk, without
+flints, rises up sharply to form the downs which are the easterly
+continuation of the Chiltern Hills. Next comes the Chalk Rock,
+which being a hard bed, lies near the hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley
+End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk slopes southward towards
+the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The Reading beds
+consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter are frequently
+hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous cement,
+known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay, a
+stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon the
+Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at Micklefield
+Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &amp;c. The Chalk is often covered by
+the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of
+Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a
+great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been
+disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was
+formerly used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime.
+Reading beds and London clay are dug for brick-making at Watford,
+Hertford and Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated
+from the base of the Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop;
+the Marl is worked for cement.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The climate is mild, dry and
+generally healthy. On this account London physicians were
+formerly accustomed to recommend the county to persons in
+weak health, and it was so much coveted by the noble and
+wealthy as a place of residence that it was a common saying that
+&ldquo;he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years&rsquo; purchase
+for the air.&rdquo; Of the total area about four-fifths is under cultivation,
+and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture.
+The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of
+the area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties
+mostly grown are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of
+any English county. Wheathampstead on the upper Lea
+receives its name from the fine quality of the wheat grown in that
+district. Barley is largely used in the county for malting
+purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables, and the
+greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are
+some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near
+Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area
+occupied by green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds,
+many cows being kept for the supply of milk and butter to
+London. The quantity of stock is generally small, but increasing
+except in the case of sheep, of which the numbers have greatly
+decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the Suffolk
+variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between
+Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities
+of cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London
+market; and on the best soils near London vegetables are forced
+by the aid of manure, and more than one crop is sometimes
+obtained in a year. A considerable industry lies in the growth of
+watercresses in the pure water of the upper parts of the rivers and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span>
+the smaller streams. There are a number of rose-gardens and
+nurseries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The manufacturing industries are slight;
+though the great brewing establishments at Watford may be
+mentioned, and straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building,
+tanning and brick-making are carried on in various towns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Owing to its proximity to the metropolis,
+Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the
+eastern border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line)
+with branches to Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line
+of the Great Northern passes through the centre by Hatfield,
+Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches from Hatfield to Hertford,
+to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and from Hitchin to
+Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes
+through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel
+Hempstead. The London &amp; North-Western traverses the south-west
+by Watford, Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to
+Rickmansworth and to St Albans. The Metropolitan &amp; Great
+Central joint line serves Rickmansworth, and suburban lines
+of the Great Northern the Barnet district. The existence of
+these communications has combined with the natural attractions
+of the county to cause many villages to become large residential
+centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford,
+Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the
+Lea and Stort Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from
+London to the north-west traverses the south-western corner
+of the county by Rickmansworth and Berkhampstead. Three
+great highways from London to the north traverse the county.
+The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and
+St Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great
+North Road branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and
+passes Potter&rsquo;s Bar, Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a
+branch from Welwyn to Hitchin and beyond. Another road
+follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs to Royston,
+being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known
+as the Old North Road.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient
+county is 406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162,
+and in 1901 of 250,152. The area of the administrative county
+is 404,518 acres. The county comprises eight hundreds. The
+municipal boroughs are: Hemel Hempstead (11,264), Hertford
+(9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The other urban districts are:
+Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead (Great Berkhampstead,
+5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564),
+Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden
+(4725), Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711), Rickmansworth
+(5627), Royston (3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957),
+Tring (4349), Ware (5573) and Watford (29,327). The county
+is in the home circuit, and assizes are held at Hertford. It has
+two courts of quarter-sessions, and is divided into 15 petty-sessional
+divisions. The boroughs of Hertford and St Albans
+have separate commissions of the peace. The total number
+of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of,
+or in which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross,
+London, are included in the metropolitan police district. The
+county contains 170 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or
+in part; it is nearly all in the diocese of St Albans, but small
+parts are in the dioceses of Ely, Oxford and London. It is
+divided into four parliamentary divisions&mdash;Northern or Hitchin,
+Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans, Western or Watford,
+each returning one member. There is no parliamentary borough
+within the county.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in
+Hertfordshire for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin.
+The diocesan limits show that part of the shire was included in
+the West Saxon kingdom. The East Saxons, as early as the
+6th century, were settled about Hertford, which in 673 was
+sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod convened
+by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the
+Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with
+Hatfield. In the 9th century the district was frequently visited
+by the Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east
+of the Lea was included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the
+Elder erected forts on both sides of the river at Hertford.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertfordshire
+and ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest
+received its formal ratification. In the sweeping confiscation
+of estates which followed, the church was generously endowed,
+the abbey of St Albans alone holding 172 hides, while Count
+Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a vast fief in the
+north-east of the county. Large estates were held by Geoffrey
+de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of the
+county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east
+of England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony.
+Berkhampstead was the head of an honour carved from the
+fief of Robert of Mortain. The Hertfordshire estates, however,
+for the most part changed hands very frequently and the county
+is noticeably lacking in historic families. Edmund Langley,
+fifth son of Edward III., was born at King&rsquo;s Langley in this
+county.</p>
+
+<p>During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of
+Salisbury and Falkes de Breauté had the king&rsquo;s orders to ravage
+Hertfordshire, and in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and
+Berkhampstead Castle besieged by Louis of France, who had
+come over by invitation of the barons. At the time of the rising
+of 1381 the abbot&rsquo;s tenants broke into the abbey of St Albans and
+forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the Wars of the
+Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the
+second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by
+Queen Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the
+earl at Barnet. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th
+century, Hertfordshire joined with Bedfordshire and Essex in
+petitioning for peace, and St Albans again played an important
+part in the struggle, being at different times the headquarters
+of Essex and Fairfax.</p>
+
+<p>As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the
+district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected
+at Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1011.
+At the time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were approximately
+those of the present day, but part of Meppershall in
+Bedfordshire formed a detached portion of the shire and is still
+assessed for land and income tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine
+Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and Tring were consolidated
+about 1200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern hundred of
+Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known
+as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond
+approximately both in name and extent with those of the present
+day.</p>
+
+<p>Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of
+London and Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln
+diocese formed part of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and
+comprised the deaneries of Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and
+Baldock, and the archdeaconry and deanery of St Albans; while
+that part within the London diocese formed the deanery of
+Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535
+the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London
+diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the
+whole county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and
+archdeaconry of St Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of
+Welwyn, Bennington, Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware
+were created, and that of Braughing abolished. In 1864 the
+archdeaconries of Rochester and St Albans were united under
+the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and St Albans. In
+1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of St
+Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries
+being unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time
+of its first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and
+were united under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held
+at Hertford. The hundred of St Albans was at an early date
+constituted a separate liberty, with independent courts and
+coroners under the control of the abbot; it preserved a separate
+commission of the peace until 1874, when by act of parliament
+the county was arranged in two divisions, the eastern division
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span>
+being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of St Albans.
+These divisions have since been abolished.</p>
+
+<p>Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few
+manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth
+was derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their
+water meadows, woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and
+water-mills, the shire on its eastern side being noticeably free from
+waste land. In Norman times the woollen trade was considerable,
+and the great corn market at Royston has been famous since the
+reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil War the malting
+industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was produced in
+the county. In the 17th century Hertfordshire was famous
+for its horses, and the 18th century saw the introduction of
+several minor industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making
+and silk weaving.</p>
+
+<p>In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament,
+and in 1298 the borough of Hertford was represented. St
+Albans, Bishop Stortford and Berkhampstead acquired representation
+in the 14th century, but from 1375 to 1553 no returns
+were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained representation
+in 1553 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of 1832
+the county returned three members. St Albans was disfranchised
+on account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one
+member in 1868, and was disfranchised by the act of 1885.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;Among the objects of antiquarian interest may
+be mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a
+hermitage; Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where
+rested the body of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to
+Westminster for interment; and the Great Bed of Ware referred
+to in Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Twelfth Night</i> and preserved at Rye House.
+The principal monastic buildings are the noble pile of St Albans
+abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine nunnery near St
+Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of Ware,
+dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of
+St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory
+at Hitchin built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the
+more interesting churches may be mentioned those of Abbots
+Langley and Hemel Hempstead, both of Late Norman architecture;
+Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic building supposed
+to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the reign of
+Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons
+regular; Hitchin of the 15th century; Hatfield, dating from the
+13th century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in
+the Perpendicular style, with a tower of the 16th century.
+Sandridge church shows good Norman work with the use of
+Roman bricks; Wheathampstead church, mainly very fine
+Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains of secular
+buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle,
+Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight
+traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey.
+Among the numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in
+the reign of Henry VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the
+principal agents in the plot to assassinate Charles II. Moor
+Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of St Albans abbey,
+was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of Oxford, and
+was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who
+built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently
+cased with Portland stone and received various other additions.
+Knebworth, the seat of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman
+fortress, rebuilt in the time of Elizabeth in the Tudor style and
+restored in the 19th century. Hatfield House is the seat of the
+marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history is of great interest,
+as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger House, until
+recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid mansion
+in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the 19th century. The
+manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was
+formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was
+rebuilt in the beginning of the 19th century from designs by
+Wyatt. Gorhambury House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl
+of Verulam, formerly the seat of the Bacons, and the residence of
+the great chancellor, was rebuilt at the close of the 18th century.
+At Kings Langley and Hunsdon were also former royal residences.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir H. Chauncy, <i>Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire</i> (London,
+1700, 2nd ed., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, <i>History of
+Hertfordshire</i> (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, <i>History and
+Antiquities of the County of Hertford</i> (London, 1815-1827); W.
+Berry, <i>Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families</i> (London, 1844);
+J. E. Cussans, <i>History of Hertfordshire</i> (London, 1870-1881);
+<i>Victoria County History, Hertfordshire</i> (London, 1902, &amp;c.); see
+also &ldquo;Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634,&rdquo; in <i>Harleian Society&rsquo;s
+Publ.</i> vol. xvii., and various papers in <i>Middlesex and Hertfordshire
+Notes and Queries</i> (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incorporated
+in the <i>Home Counties</i> Magazine.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTHA,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nerthus</span>, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess
+of fertility, &ldquo;Mother Earth.&rdquo; Tacitus states that many Teutonic
+tribes worshipped her with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated
+at night. The chief seat of her cult was an island which has not
+been identified. A single priest performed the service. Her
+veiled statue was moved from place to place by sacred cows on
+which none but the priest might lay hands. At the conclusion of
+the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were bathed in
+a lake.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1857-1894), German physicist,
+was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving
+school he determined to adopt the profession of engineering, and
+in the pursuance of this decision went to study in Munich in 1877.
+But soon coming to the conclusion that engineering was not his
+vocation he abandoned it in favour of physical science, and in
+October 1878 began to attend the lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and
+H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In preparation for these he spent
+the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up original treatises like those
+of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and mechanics, and in
+attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von Jolly and
+J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few days
+of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into
+original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best
+solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the
+University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper
+which was published in 1880 on the &ldquo;Kinetic Energy of Electricity
+in Motion.&rdquo; His next investigation, on &ldquo;Induction in Rotating
+Spheres,&rdquo; he offered in 1880 as his dissertation for his doctor&rsquo;s
+degree, which he obtained with the rare distinction of <i>summa
+cum laude</i>. Later in the same year he became assistant to
+Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin Institute.
+During the three years he held this position he carried out
+researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation
+and the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the
+special commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel,
+becoming <i>Privatdozent</i>, and there he began the studies in Maxwell&rsquo;s
+electromagnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the
+discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually
+made between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics
+in the Carlsruhe Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their
+origin is to be sought in a prize problem proposed by the Berlin
+Academy of Sciences in 1879, having reference to the experimental
+establishment of some relation between electromagnetic
+forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators. Imagining
+that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by
+him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised
+him the assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the
+subject; but Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time,
+because he could not think of any procedure likely to prove
+effective. It was of course well known, as a necessity of Maxwell&rsquo;s
+mathematical theory, that the polarization and depolarization of
+an insulator must give rise to the same electromagnetic effects in
+the neighbourhood as a voltaic current in a conductor. The experimental
+proof, however, was still lacking, and though several
+experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was the first
+who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing his
+inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the progressive
+propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to
+measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to
+show that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their susceptibility
+to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in
+complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The
+result, was in Helmholtz&rsquo;s words, to establish beyond doubt that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+ordinary light consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading
+ether which possesses the properties of an insulator and of a
+magnetic medium. Hertz himself gave an admirable account of
+the significance of his discoveries in a lecture on the relations
+between light and electricity, delivered before the German Society
+for the Advancement of Natural Science and Medicine at Heidelberg
+in September 1889. Since the time of these early experiments,
+various other modes of detecting the existence of electric
+waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which
+he first employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest
+interest of which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of
+an abstruse mathematical theory, have been applied to the
+practical purposes of signalling over considerable distances
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telegraphy</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wireless</a></span>). In 1889 Hertz was appointed to
+succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary professor of physics in the
+university of Bonn. There he continued his researches on the
+discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just missing the
+discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Röntgen a few years
+later, and produced his treatise on the <i>Principles of Mechanics</i>.
+This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on
+the 1st of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one
+of her most promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one
+of all his pupils who had penetrated farthest into his own circle of
+scientific thought, and looked to him with the greatest confidence
+for the further extension and development of his work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hertz&rsquo;s scientific papers were translated into English by Professor
+D. E. Jones, and published in three volumes: <i>Electric Waves</i> (1893),
+<i>Miscellaneous Papers</i> (1896), and <i>Principles of Mechanics</i> (1899).
+The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the
+introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard
+and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with
+statements of the scope and significance of his investigations.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTZ, HENRIK<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of
+Jewish parents in Copenhagen on the 25th of August 1798. In
+1817 he was sent to the university. His father died in his
+infancy, and the family property was destroyed in the bombardment
+of 1807. The boy was brought up by his relative, M. L.
+Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz
+passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for
+polite literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced,
+<i>Mr Burchardt and his Family</i> and <i>Love and Policy</i>; in 1828
+followed the comedy of <i>Flyttedagen</i>. In 1830 he brought out
+what was a complete novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in
+rhymed verse, <i>Amor&rsquo;s Strokes of Genius</i>. In the same year Hertz
+published anonymously <i>Gengangerbrevene</i>, or Letters from a
+Ghost, which he pretended were written by Baggesen, who had
+died in 1826. The book was written in defence of J. L. Heiberg,
+and was full of satirical humour and fine critical insight. Its
+success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his anonymity,
+and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832
+he published a didactic poem, <i>Nature and Art</i>, and <i>Four Poetical
+Epistles</i>. <i>A Day on the Island of Als</i> was his next comedy, followed
+in 1835 by <i>The Only Fault</i>. Hertz passed through Germany and
+Switzerland into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and
+returned the following autumn through France to Denmark. In
+1836 his comedy of <i>The Savings Bank</i> enjoyed a great success.
+But it was not till 1837 that he gave the full measure of his genius
+in the romantic national drama of <i>Svend Dyrings Hus</i>, a beautiful
+and original piece. His historical tragedy <i>Valdemar Atterdag</i> was
+not so well received in 1839; but in 1845 he achieved an immense
+success with his lyrical drama <i>Kong René&rsquo;s Datter</i> (King René&rsquo;s
+Daughter), which has been translated into almost every European
+language. To this succeeded the tragedy of <i>Ninon</i> in 1848, the
+romantic comedy of <i>Tonietta</i> in 1849, <i>A Sacrifice</i> in 1853, <i>The
+Youngest</i> in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive
+collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he
+edited a literary journal entitled <i>Weekly Leaves</i>. His last drama,
+<i>Three Days in Padua</i>, was produced in 1869, and he died on
+the 25th of February of the next year.</p>
+
+<p>Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems
+are full of colour and passion, his versification has more witchcraft
+in it than any other poet&rsquo;s of his age, and his style is grace
+itself. He has all the sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity
+to the antique. As a romantic dramatist he is scarcely less
+original. He has bequeathed to the Danish theatre, in <i>Svend
+Dyrings Hus</i> and <i>King René&rsquo;s Daughter</i>, two pieces which have
+become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he has little
+or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best
+when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing
+south.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Dramatic Works</i> (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in
+1854-1873; and his <i>Poems</i> (4 vols.) in 1851-1862.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Von</span> (1725-1795),
+Prussian statesman, who came of a noble family which had been
+settled in Pomerania since the  13th century, was born at Lottin,
+in that province, on the 2nd of September 1725. After 1739 he
+studied, chiefly classics and history at the gymnasium at Stettin,
+and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as a student of jurisprudence,
+becoming in due course a doctor of laws in 1745. In
+addition to this principal study, he was also interested while at
+the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff)
+studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled <i>Jus publicum
+Brandenburgicum</i>, was not printed, because it contained a
+criticism of the existing condition of the state. Shortly afterwards
+Hertzberg entered the government service, in which he
+was first employed in the department of the state archives (of
+which he became director in 1750), soon after in the foreign
+office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister (<i>Cabinetsminister</i>).
+In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen, a marriage
+which was happy, but childless.</p>
+
+<p>For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part
+in the Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive
+influence on Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and
+Frederick William II. At the beginning of the Seven Years&rsquo;
+War (1756) he took part as a political writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg
+quarrel, both in his <i>Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen
+bewogen haben, sich wider die Absichten des Wienerischen Hofes
+zu setzen und deren Ausführung zuvorzukommen</i> (&ldquo;Motives which
+have induced the king of Prussia to oppose the intentions of the
+court of Vienna, and to prevent them from being carried into
+effect&rdquo;), and in his <i>Mémoire raisonné sur la conduite des cours de
+Vienne et de Saxe</i>, based on the secret papers taken by Frederick
+the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the defeat at
+Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the
+national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the
+protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the
+same year he conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden,
+and was of great service in bringing about the peace of Hubertsburg
+(1763), on the conclusion of which the king received him
+with the words, &ldquo;I congratulate you. You have made peace
+as I made war, one against many.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great&rsquo;s reign, Hertzberg
+played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a
+memoir based upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended
+the Prussian claims to certain provinces of Poland. He also took
+part successfully as a publicist in the negotiations concerning the
+question of the Bavarian succession (1778) and those of the peace
+of Teschen (1779). But in 1780 he failed to uphold Prussian
+interests at the election of the bishop of Münster. In 1784
+appeared Hertzberg&rsquo;s memoir containing a thorough study of the
+<i>Fürstenbund</i>. He championed this latest creation of Frederick
+the Great&rsquo;s mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the
+empire, though the idea of German unity was naturally still
+far from his mind. In 1785 followed &ldquo;An explanation of the
+motives which have led the king of Prussia to propose to the other
+high estates of the empire an association for the maintenance of
+the system of the empire&rdquo; (<i>Erklärung der Ursachen, welche S.M.
+in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen Mitständen des Reichs
+eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems anzutragen</i>).
+By upholding the Fürstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies,
+prominent among whom was the king&rsquo;s brother, Prince Henry.
+Though the <i>Fürstenbund</i> failed to effect a reform of the empire,
+it at any rate prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II.&rsquo;s old desire
+for the incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of
+state in which Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span>
+was the commercial treaty concluded in 1785 between Prussia
+and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood
+in very intimate personal relations and was often the king&rsquo;s guest
+at Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential
+position at the court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king
+at once received him with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertzberg&rsquo;s
+elevation to the rank of count in 1786; and Mirabeau would
+never have attacked him with such violence in his <i>Secret History
+of the Court of Berlin</i>, which appeared in 1788, if he had not
+seen in him the most powerful man after the king. In this attack
+Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg&rsquo;s personal
+enemies at the court. Hertzberg&rsquo;s political system remained
+on the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had
+been under his predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a
+sharp opposition to the house of Habsburg and by a desire to
+win for Prussia the support of England, a policy supported by
+him in important memoirs of the years 1786 and 1787. His
+diplomacy was directed also against Austria&rsquo;s old ally, France.
+Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in spite of
+the king&rsquo;s unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in Holland
+in support of the stadtholder William V. against the democratic
+French party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holland</a></span>: <i>History</i>). The success of
+this intervention, which was the practical realization of a plan
+very characteristic of Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in
+his career.</p>
+
+<p>But the opposition between him and the new king, which had
+already appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple
+alliance between Holland, England and Prussia, became more
+marked in the following years, when Hertzberg, relying upon this
+alliance, and in conscious imitation of Frederick II.&rsquo;s policy at the
+time of the first partition of Poland, sought to take advantage of
+the entanglement of Austria with Russia in the war with Turkey
+to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by diplomatic
+intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her
+mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments
+that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and
+Thorn as her portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the
+restoration of the hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and
+secretly cherished the hope of restoring Frederick the Great&rsquo;s
+Russian alliance.</p>
+
+<p>With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims
+even when, owing to military and diplomatic events, they were
+already partly out of date. His personal position became
+increasingly difficult, as deep-rooted differences between him and
+the king were revealed during these diplomatic campaigns.
+Hertzberg wished to effect everything by peaceful means, while
+Frederick William II. was for a time determined on war with
+Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into
+conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the
+total annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the
+attitude of king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences
+at Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition
+became more and more acute, and Hertzberg was only with
+difficulty persuaded to come to an agreement merely on the
+basis of the <i>status</i> quo, as demanded by Pitt. The king&rsquo;s renunciation
+of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg&rsquo;s eyes
+impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck.
+A letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which
+Hertzberg severely criticized the king&rsquo;s foreign policy, and
+especially his plans for attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on
+the 5th of July 1791. He afterwards made several attempts to
+exert an influence over foreign affairs, but in vain. The king
+showed himself more and more personally hostile to the ex-minister,
+and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now quite
+embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering
+his letters to be opened.</p>
+
+<p>Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in
+the ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance,
+made it so difficult for him to use the archives that in the end
+Hertzberg entirely gave up the attempt. He found, however,
+some recompense for all his disillusionment and discouragement
+in learning, and, Wilhelm von Humboldt excepted, he was the
+most learned of all the Prussian ministers. As a member of the
+Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786 onwards, as its curator,
+Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable activity in the world of
+learning. His yearly reports dealt with history, statistics and
+political science. The most interesting is that of 1784: <i>Sur la
+forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure</i>. This is directed
+exclusively against the absolute system (following Montesquieu),
+upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending to
+the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke
+for the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages
+of monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation,
+since Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the
+financial situation, which in the days of absolutism seemed an
+unprecedented innovation. Besides this, Hertzberg exerted
+himself as an academician to change the strongly French character
+of the Academy and make it into a truly German institution. He
+showed a keen interest in the old German language and literature.
+A special &ldquo;German deputation&rdquo; was set aside at the Academy
+and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and
+dictionary. He also stood in very close relations with many of
+the German poets of the time, and especially with Daniel
+Schubart. Among the German historians in whom he took a great
+interest, he had the greatest esteem for Pufendorf. He was
+equally concerned in the improvement of the state of education.
+In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature,
+which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous
+writing <i>De la littérature allemande</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Hertzberg&rsquo;s frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be
+a successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified
+many of his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is
+honoured. He died at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;(1) By Hertzberg himself: The <i>Mémoires de
+l&rsquo;Académie</i> from 1780 on contain Hertzberg&rsquo;s discourses. The most
+noteworthy of them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found:
+<i>Histoire de la dissertation</i> [<i>du roi</i>] <i>sur la littérature allemande</i>; see
+also <i>Recueil des déductions, &amp;c., qui ont été rédigés ... pour la cour
+de Prusse par le ministre</i> (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an &ldquo;Autobiographical
+Sketch&rdquo; published by Höpke in Schmidt&rsquo;s <i>Zeitschrift
+für Geschichtswissenschaft</i>, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with
+Hertzberg: Mirabeau, <i>Histoire secrète de la cour de Berlin</i> (1788);
+P. F. Weddigen, <i>Hertzbergs Leben</i> (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt,
+<i>Hertzbergs Leben</i> (Tübingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in <i>Neustettiner
+Programm</i> (1862); E. Fischer, in <i>Staatsanzeiger</i> (1873); M. Duncker,
+in <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i> (1877); Paul Bailleu, in <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>
+(1879); and <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (1880); H.
+Petrich, <i>Pommersche Lebensbilder</i> i. (1880); G. Dressler, <i>Friedrich
+II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den holländischen Wirren</i>,
+Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, <i>Hertzberg als Minister
+Friedrich Wilhelms II</i>. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in
+<i>Historische Vierteljahrschrift</i>, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, <i>Ewald
+Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg</i> (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F.
+K. Wittichen, <i>Preussen und England, 1785-1788</i> (Heidelberg, 1902);
+F. Luckwaldt, <i>Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den
+Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte</i>, Bd. 15,
+and in the <i>Delbrückfestschrift</i> (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, <i>System der
+preussischen Geheimpolitik</i> 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation,
+1903); P. Wittichen, <i>Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790</i>
+(Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, <i>Preussische und russische Politik in
+Polen</i> 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck,
+<i>Deutschland vor 100 Jahren</i> (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack,
+<i>Geschichte der preussischen Akademie</i> (4 vols., 1899); Consentius,
+<i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i> (1904); J. Hashagen, &ldquo;Hertzbergs Verhältnis
+zur deutschen Literatur,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie</i>
+for 1903.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERTZEN, ALEXANDER<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1812-1870), Russian author, was
+born at Moscow, a very short time before the occupation of that
+city by the French. His father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal
+interview with Napoleon, was allowed to leave, when the invaders
+arrived, as the bearer of a letter from the French to the Russian
+emperor. His family attended him to the Russian lines. Then
+the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German Protestant
+of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von
+Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak
+Russian, was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant&rsquo;s
+hut. A year later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen
+passed his youth&mdash;remaining there, after completing his studies
+at the university, till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span>
+charge of having assisted, with some other youths, at a festival
+during which verses by Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary
+to the emperor, were sung. The special commission appointed to
+try the youthful culprits found him guilty, and in 1835 he was
+banished to Viatka. There he remained till the visit to that
+city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards Alexander II.),
+accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being allowed to
+quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of the
+official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the
+ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of
+having spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer&rsquo;s
+violence, he was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life,
+with the title of &ldquo;state councillor,&rdquo; till 1842. In 1846 his father
+died, leaving him by his will a very large property. Early in
+1847 he left Russia, never to return. From Italy, on hearing of
+the revolution of 1848, he hastened to Paris, whence he afterwards
+went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted Geneva for
+London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned to
+Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the
+21st of January 1870.</p>
+
+<p>His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an
+essay, in Russian, on <i>Dilettantism in Science</i>, under the pseudonym
+of &ldquo;Iskander,&rdquo; the Turkish form of his Christian name&mdash;convicts,
+even when pardoned, not being allowed in those days to
+publish under their own names. His second work, also in Russian,
+was his <i>Letters on the Study of Nature</i> (1845-1846). In 1847
+appeared, his novel <i>Kto Vinovat?</i> (Whose Fault?), and about the
+same time were published in Russian periodicals the stories
+which were afterwards collected and printed in London in 1854,
+under the title of <i>Prervannuie Razskazui</i> (Interrupted Tales).
+In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian
+manuscript, <i>Vom anderen Ufer</i> (From another Shore) and <i>Lettres
+de France et d&rsquo;Italie</i>. In French appeared also his essay <i>Du
+Développement des idées révolutionnaires en Russie</i>, and his
+<i>Memoirs</i>, which, after being printed in Russian, were translated
+under the title of <i>Le Monde russe et la Révolution</i> (3 vols., 1860-1862),
+and were in part translated into English as <i>My Exile to
+Siberia</i> (2 vols., 1855). From a literary point of view his most
+important work is <i>Kto Vinovat?</i> a story describing how the
+domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the unacknowledged
+daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull,
+ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the
+new school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there
+being any possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the
+tragic termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen
+gained the vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having
+founded in London his &ldquo;Free Russian Press,&rdquo; of the fortunes of
+which, during ten years, he gave an interesting account in a
+book published (in Russian) in 1863, he issued from it a great
+number of Russian works, all levelled against the system of
+government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays,
+such as his <i>Baptized Property</i>, an attack on serfdom; others were
+periodical publications, the <i>Polyarnaya Zvyezda</i> (or Polar Star),
+the <i>Kolokol</i> (or Bell), and the <i>Golosa iz Rossii</i> (or Voices from
+Russia). The <i>Kolokol</i> soon obtained an immense circulation, and
+exercised an extraordinary influence. For three years, it is
+true, the founders of the &ldquo;Free Press&rdquo; went on printing, &ldquo;not
+only without selling a single copy, but scarcely being able to get
+a single copy introduced into Russia&rdquo;; so that when at last a
+bookseller bought ten shillings&rsquo; worth of <i>Baptized Property</i>, the
+half-sovereign was set aside by the surprised editors in a special
+place of honour. But the death of the emperor Nicholas in 1855
+produced an entire change. Hertzen&rsquo;s writings, and the journals
+he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and their words
+resounded throughout that country, as well as all over Europe.
+Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden,
+evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into
+light and disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly
+expressed the thoughts which had long been secretly stirring
+Russian minds, and were now beginning to find a timid utterance
+at home. For some years his influence in Russia was a living
+force, the circulation of his writings was a vocation zealously
+pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a merchant, who had
+bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod, found that
+they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at another
+time a supposititious copy of the <i>Kolokol</i> was printed for the
+emperor&rsquo;s special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading
+statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was
+omitted. At length the sweeping changes introduced by
+Alexander II. greatly diminished the need for and appreciation
+of Hertzen&rsquo;s assistance in the work of reform. The freedom he
+had demanded for the serfs was granted, the law-courts he had so
+long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury was established,
+liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It became
+clear that Hertzen&rsquo;s occupation was gone. When the Polish
+insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents&rsquo;
+cause, his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From
+that time it was only with the revolutionary party that he was in
+full accord.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in
+Paris. A volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published
+at Geneva in 1870. His <i>Memoirs</i> supply the principal information
+about his life, a sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach&rsquo;s
+<i>Zeitgenossen</i>, pt. 7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the <i>Revue des deux
+mondes</i> for July 15 and Sept. 1, 1854. <i>Kto Vinovat?</i> has been translated
+into German under the title of <i>Wer ist schuld?</i> in Wolffsohn&rsquo;s
+<i>Russlands Novellendichter</i>, vol. iii. The title of <i>My Exile in Siberia</i>
+is misleading; he was never in that country.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.-R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERULI,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the
+history of the migration period. The name does not occur in
+writings of the first two centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Where the original home
+of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. Jordanes says
+that they had been expelled from their territories by the Danes,
+from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what
+is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the
+Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of
+Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths
+ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly
+afterwards, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 289, they appear in the region about the mouth
+of the Rhine. During the 4th century they frequently served
+together with the Batavi in the Roman armies. In the 5th
+century we again hear of piratical incursions by the Heruli in the
+western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom in central
+Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the Elbe. Together
+with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by Theodoric
+the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form
+an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very
+shortly afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by
+the Langobardi. A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where
+they settled among the Götar, while others crossed the Danube
+and entered the Roman service, where they are frequently
+mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars. After the
+middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely
+disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian
+works they are never mentioned, and there can be little
+doubt that they were known, especially among the western
+Teutonic peoples, by some other name. Probably they are
+identical either with the North Suabi or with the Iuti. The
+name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S. <i>eorlas</i>
+(nobles), O.S. <i>erlos</i> (men), the singular of which (erilaz) frequently
+occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a title
+of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow
+of their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs.
+When threatened with death by disease or old age, they were
+required to call in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre.
+Suttee was also customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare
+and served not only in the Roman armies, but also in
+those of all the surrounding nations. They disdained the use of
+helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves only with
+shields.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus <i>Paneg. Maximi</i>; Ammianus
+Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, <i>Chronica</i>; Jordanes, <i>De
+origine Getarum</i>; Procopius, esp. <i>Bellum Goticum</i>, ii. 14 f.; <i>Bellum
+Persicum</i>, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, <i>Hist. Langobardorum</i>, i. 20;
+K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 476 ff. (Munich,
+1837).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HERVÁS Y PANDURO, LORENZO<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1735-1809), Spanish
+philologist, was born at Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May
+1735. He joined the Jesuits on the 29th of September 1745
+and in course of time became successively professor of philosophy
+and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and Murcia. When
+the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervás settled
+at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his <i>Idea dell&rsquo;
+Universo</i> (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798,
+he published his famous <i>Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones
+conocidas</i> (6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological
+peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up
+grammars of forty languages. In 1802 he was appointed
+librarian of the Quirinal Palace in Rome, where he died on the 24th
+of August 1809. Max Müller credits him with having anticipated
+Humboldt, and with making &ldquo;one of the most brilliant discoveries
+in the history of the science of language&rdquo; by establishing
+the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of speech.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERVEY, JAMES<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1714-1758), English divine, was born at
+Hardingstone, near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714,
+and was educated at the grammar school of Northampton, and
+at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he came under the influence
+of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists; ultimately, however,
+while retaining his regard for the men and his sympathy with
+their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic creed,
+and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken
+orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded
+his father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree.
+He was never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous
+writer. His style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare
+appreciation of natural beauty, and his simple piety made him
+many friends. His earliest work, <i>Meditations and Contemplations</i>,
+said to have been modelled on Robert Boyle&rsquo;s <i>Occasional
+Reflexions on various Subjects</i>, within fourteen years passed
+through as many editions. <i>Theron and Aspasio, or a series of
+Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects</i>, which
+appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some
+adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies
+which were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly
+objected to by Wesley in his <i>Preservative against unsettled Notions
+in Religion</i>. Besides carrying into England the theological
+disputes to which the <i>Marrow of Modern Divinity</i> had given rise
+in Scotland, it also led to what is known as the Sandemanian
+controversy as to the nature of saving faith. Hervey died on
+the 25th of December 1758.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A &ldquo;new and complete&rdquo; edition of his <i>Works</i>, with a memoir,
+appeared in 1797. See also <i>Collection of the Letters of James Hervey,
+to which is prefixed an account of his Life and Death</i>, by Dr Birch
+(1760).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LÉON,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis
+d&rsquo;</span> (1823-1892), French Orientalist and man of letters, was born
+in Paris in 1823. He devoted himself to the study of Chinese,
+and in 1851 published his <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;agriculture et l&rsquo;horticulture
+des Chinois</i>, in which he dealt with the plants and animals
+that might be acclimatized in the West. At the Paris Exhibition
+of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese exhibits; in
+1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese at
+the Collège de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of
+the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works
+include <i>Poésies de l&rsquo;époque des T&rsquo;ang</i> (1862), translated from the
+Chinese; <i>Ethnographie des peuples étrangers à la Chine</i>, translated
+from Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); <i>Li-Sao</i> (1870), from the
+Chinese; <i>Mémoires sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius
+et de l&rsquo;école des lettres</i> (1887); and translations of some Chinese
+stories not of classical interest but valuable for the light they
+throw on oriental custom. Hervey de Saint Denys also translated
+some works from the Spanish, and wrote a history of the
+Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1696-1743),
+English statesman and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl
+of Bristol, by his second marriage, was born on the 13th of
+October 1696. He was educated at Westminster school and at
+Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1715.
+In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to Hanover to
+pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the
+court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in
+1720 he married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess&rsquo;s
+ladies-in-waiting, and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received
+the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of his half-brother
+Carr, and in 1725 he was elected M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He
+had been at one time on very friendly terms with Frederick,
+prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him, apparently
+because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These
+differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws
+of the prince&rsquo;s callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating
+between William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole,
+but in 1730 he definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he
+was thenceforward a faithful adherent. He was assumed by
+Pulteney to be the author of <i>Sedition and Defamation display&rsquo;d
+with a Dedication to the patrons of The Craftsman</i> (1731). Pulteney,
+who, up to this time, had been a firm friend of Hervey, replied
+with <i>A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous Libel</i>, and the quarrel
+resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly escaped with his
+life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of both the
+pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth,
+apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He
+was able to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence
+over the queen. Through him the minister governed Queen
+Caroline and indirectly George II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain
+in the royal household and a member of the privy council. In
+1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ in virtue of his
+father&rsquo;s barony. In spite of repeated requests he received no
+further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord privy
+seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed
+(July 1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet,
+<i>Miscellaneous Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and
+Domestic Affairs</i>, shows that he still retained his mental vigour,
+but he was liable to epilepsy, and his weak appearance and rigid
+diet were a constant source of ridicule to his enemies. He
+died on the 5th of August 1743. He predeceased his father, but
+three of his sons became successively earls of Bristol.</p>
+
+<p>Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court
+of George II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering
+account of the king, and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their
+family squabbles. For the queen and her daughter, Princess
+Caroline, he had a genuine respect and attachment, and the
+princess&rsquo;s affection for him was commonly said to be the reason
+for the close retirement in which she lived after his death. The
+MS. of Hervey&rsquo;s memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son,
+Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that
+they should not be published until after the death of George III.
+In 1848 they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker,
+but the MS. had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation
+before it came into his hands. Croker also softened in some cases
+the plainspokenness of the original. Hervey&rsquo;s bitter account of
+court life and intrigues resembles in many points the memoirs of
+Horace Walpole, and the two books corroborate one another in
+many statements that might otherwise have been received with
+suspicion.</p>
+
+<p>Until the publication of the <i>Memoirs</i> Hervey was chiefly known
+as the object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works
+he figured as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The
+quarrel is generally put down to Pope&rsquo;s jealousy of Hervey&rsquo;s
+friendship with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In the first of the
+<i>Imitations of Horace</i>, addressed to William Fortescue, &ldquo;Lord
+Fanny&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sappho&rdquo; were generally identified with Hervey
+and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal intention.
+Hervey had already been attacked in the <i>Dunciad</i> and the
+<i>Bathos</i>, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a
+share in the <i>Verses to the Imitator of Horace</i> (1732) and it is
+possible that he was the sole author. In the <i>Letter from a nobleman
+at Hampton Court to a Doctor of Divinity</i> (1733), he scoffed at
+Pope&rsquo;s deformity and humble birth. Pope&rsquo;s reply was a <i>Letter to
+a Noble Lord</i>, dated November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in
+the <i>Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot</i> (1735), which forms the prologue to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+the satires. Many of the insinuations and insults contained in it
+are borrowed from Pulteney&rsquo;s libel. The malicious caricature of
+Sporus does Hervey great injustice, and he is not much better
+treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting his death in a letter
+(14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had outlived his
+last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him to
+have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole&rsquo;s tactics
+and distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the
+weapons of which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost
+adroitness. His wife Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768),
+of whom an account is to be found in Lady Louisa Stuart&rsquo;s
+<i>Anecdotes</i>, was a warm partisan of the Stuarts. She retained her
+wit and charm throughout her life, and has the distinction of
+being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hervey&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of the Court of George II.</i>, edited by J. W.
+Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the <i>Dict.
+Nat. Biog.</i> (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the <i>Memoirs</i> he wrote numerous
+political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERVIEU, PAUL<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1857-&emsp;&emsp;), French dramatist and novelist,
+was born at Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He
+was called to the bar in 1877, and, after serving some time in the
+office of the president of the council, he qualified for the diplomatic
+service, but resigned on his nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship
+in the French legation in Mexico. He contributed novels, tales
+and essays to the chief Parisian papers and reviews, and published
+a series of clever novels, including <i>L&rsquo;Inconnu</i> (1887), <i>Flirt</i> (1890),
+<i>L&rsquo;Exorcisée</i> (1891), <i>Peints par eux-mêmes</i> (1893), an ironical study
+written in the form of letters, and <i>L&rsquo;Armature</i> (1895), dramatized
+in 1905 by Eugène Brieux. But his most important work consists
+of a series of plays: <i>Les Paroles restent</i> (Vaudeville, 17th of
+November 1892); <i>Les Tenailles</i> (Théâtre Français, 28th of
+September 1895); <i>La Loi de l&rsquo;homme</i> (Théâtre Français, 15th of
+February 1897); <i>La Course du flambeau</i> (Vaudeville, 17th of
+April 1901); <i>Point de lendemain</i> (Odéon, 18th of October 1901), a
+dramatic version of a story by Vivaut Denon; <i>L&rsquo;Ênigme</i> (Théâtre
+Français, 5th of November 1901); <i>Théroigne de Méricourt</i>
+(Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd of September 1902); <i>Le Dédale</i>
+(Théâtre Français, 19th of December 1903), and <i>Le Réveil</i> (Théâtre
+Français, 18th of December 1905). These plays are built upon a
+severely logical method, the mechanism of which is sometimes so
+evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion. The closing
+words of <i>La Course du flambeau</i>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Pour ma fille, j&rsquo;ai tué ma mère</i>&rdquo;&mdash;are
+an example of his selection of a plot representing an extreme
+theory. The riddle in <i>L&rsquo;Éngime</i> (staged at Wyndham&rsquo;s Theatre,
+London, March 1st 1902, as <i>Caesar&rsquo;s Wife</i>) is, however, worked out
+with great art, and <i>Le Dédale</i>, dealing with the obstacles to the
+remarriage of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces
+of the modern French stage. He was elected to the
+French Academy in 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Binet, in <i>L&rsquo;Année psychologique</i>, vol. x. Hervieu&rsquo;s <i>Théâtre</i>
+was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1796-1884),
+Prussian general field-marshal, came of an aristocratic
+family which had supplied many distinguished officers to the
+Prussian army. He entered the Guard infantry in 1811, and
+served through the War of Liberation (1813-15), distinguishing
+himself at Lützen and Paris. During the years of peace he rose
+slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848
+he was on duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards.
+Major-general in 1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received
+the grade of general of infantry and the command of the VIIth
+(Westphalian) Army Corps in 1860. In the Danish War of 1864
+he succeeded to the command of the Prussians when Prince
+Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the Allies,
+and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the
+passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866
+Herwarth commanded the &ldquo;Army of the Elbe&rdquo; which overran
+Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser.
+His troops won the actions of Hühnerwasser and Münchengrätz,
+and at Königgrätz formed the right wing of the Prussian army.
+Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left
+flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but was in
+charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing
+and forwarding all the reserves and material required for the
+armies in France. In 1871 his great services were recognized
+by promotion to the rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life
+was spent in retirement at Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since
+1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian) Infantry has borne his name.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld</i> (Münster, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERWEGH, GEORG<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1817-1875), German political poet, was
+born at Stuttgart on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant
+keeper. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native city,
+and in 1835 proceeded to the university of Tübingen as a theological
+student, where, with a view to entering the ministry,
+he entered the protestant theological seminary. But the strict
+discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was expelled
+in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest
+of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned
+to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a <span class="correction" title="amended from journalisitic">journalistic</span> post.
+Called out for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment
+when he committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled
+to Switzerland to avoid punishment. Here he published his
+<i>Gedichte eines Lebendigen</i> (1841), a volume of political poems,
+which gave expression to the fervent aspirations of the German
+youth of the day. The work immediately rendered him famous,
+and although confiscated, it soon ran through several editions.
+The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions of Prince
+Pückler-Muskau (<i>q.v.</i>) in his <i>Briefe eines Verstorbenen</i>. He
+next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany,
+visiting Jena, Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin&mdash;a journey which was
+described as being a &ldquo;veritable triumphal progress.&rdquo; His
+military insubordination appears to have been forgiven and
+forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William IV. had him
+introduced to him and used the memorable words: &ldquo;<i>ich liebe
+eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;I admire an opposition, when
+dictated by principle.&rdquo;) Herwegh next returned to Paris, where
+he published in 1844 the second volume of his <i>Gedichte eines
+Lebendigen</i>, which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the
+German police. At the head of a revolutionary column of German
+working men, recruited in Paris, Herwegh took an active part
+in the South German rising in 1848; but his raw troops were
+defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in Baden and, after
+a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to escape to
+Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of his
+literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to
+Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th
+of April 1875. A monument was erected to his memory there
+in 1904. Besides the above-mentioned works, Herwegh published
+<i>Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der Schweiz</i> (1843), and translations
+into German of A. de Lamartine&rsquo;s works and of seven of
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays. Posthumously appeared <i>Neue Gedichte</i>
+(1877).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Herwegh&rsquo;s correspondence was published by his son Marcel in
+1898. See also Johannes Scherr, <i>Georg Herwegh; literarische
+und politische Blätter</i> (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in
+the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERZBERG,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hanover, situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz,
+on the Sieber, 25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to
+Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop. (1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and a botanical garden,
+and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and weaving and
+dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively carried on
+here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the town
+lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession
+of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of
+the residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERZBERG,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Saxony, on the Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Jüterbog
+by the railway Berlin-Röderau-Dresden. It has a church
+(Evangelical) dating from the 13th century and a medieval
+town hall. Its industries include the founding and turning of
+metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making. Pop. (1905)
+4043.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERZL, THEODOR<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1860-1904), founder of modern political
+Zionism (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+and died at Edlach on the 3rd of July 1904. The greater part of
+his career was associated with Vienna, where he acquired high
+repute as a literary journalist. He was also a dramatist, and
+apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist would have
+found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to
+renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his
+work as the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political
+autonomy. Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of
+Jews under persecution, but he was even more powerfully moved
+by the difficulties experienced under conditions of assimilation.
+Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was both like and unlike the
+medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews continued in
+Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several national
+groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl
+believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the
+end of the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries
+had failed. The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but
+the Jews could find no entry into the comity of nations. The
+new nationalism of 1848 did not deprive the Jews of political
+rights, but it denied them both the amenities of friendly intercourse
+and the opportunity of distinction in the university, the
+army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this diagnosis,
+and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (<i>q.v.</i>) which spread
+over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against
+the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl
+published his famous pamphlet &ldquo;Der Judenstaat.&rdquo; Holding
+that the only alternatives for the Jews were complete merging
+by intermarriage or self-preservation by a national re-union,
+he boldly advocated the second course. He did not at first insist
+on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he attach himself
+to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic restoration
+to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent,
+in the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject
+entirely on its secular side, and his solution was economic and
+political rather than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for
+the complete separation of Church and State. The influence
+of Herzl&rsquo;s pamphlet, the progress of the movement he initiated,
+the subsequent modifications of his plans, are told at length in
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zionism</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm,
+and though he almost completely failed to win to his cause the
+classes, he rallied the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly
+gained the accession of many Jews by race who were
+indifferent to the religious aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed
+to convince the leaders of Jewish thought, who from first to last
+remained (with such conspicuous exceptions as Nordau and
+Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox were at first cool
+because they had always dreamed of a nationalism inspired by
+messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to dissociate
+those universalistic ideals from all national limitations. Herzl,
+however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel
+(beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable
+scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader.
+At all these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: &ldquo;the
+establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured
+home in Palestine.&rdquo; Herzl&rsquo;s personal charm was irresistible.
+Among his political opponents he had some close personal friends.
+His sincerity, his eloquence, his tact, his devotion, his power,
+were recognized on all hands. He spent his whole strength in the
+furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic interviews, exhausting
+journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant literary propaganda&mdash;all
+these methods were employed by him to the utmost
+limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the
+pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The
+British government was ready to grant land for an autonomous
+settlement in East Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl&rsquo;s
+peace of mind. Even as a temporary measure, the choice of an
+extra-Palestinian site for the Jewish state was bitterly opposed
+by many Zionists; others (with whom Herzl appears to have
+sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all events
+momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement
+elsewhere. Herzl&rsquo;s health had been failing and he did not long
+survive the initiation of the somewhat embittered &ldquo;territorial&rdquo;
+controversy. He died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation
+of supporters and the deep grief of opponents of his
+Zionistic aims.</p>
+
+<p>Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality
+of the 19th century. He had no profound insight into the
+problem of Judaism, and there was no lasting validity in his
+view that the problem&mdash;the thousands of years&rsquo; old mystery&mdash;could
+be solved by a retrogression to local nationality. But he
+brought home to Jews the perils that confronted them; he
+compelled many a &ldquo;semi-detached&rdquo; son of Israel to rejoin the
+camp; he forced the &ldquo;assimilationists&rdquo; to realize their position
+and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to &ldquo;Jewish
+culture,&rdquo; including the popularization of Hebrew as a living
+speech; and he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an
+earnest and vital interest in their present and their future.
+Herzl thus left an indelible mark on his time, and his renown is
+assured whatever be the fate in store for the political Zionism
+which he founded and for which he gave his life.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERZOG, HANS<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at
+Aarau. He became a Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then
+spent six years in travelling (visiting England among other
+countries), before he became a partner in his father&rsquo;s business in
+1846. In 1847 he saw his first active service (as artillery captain)
+in the short Swiss <i>Sonderbund</i> war. In 1860 he abandoned
+mercantile pursuits for a purely military career, becoming
+colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery. In 1870 he
+was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the
+Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and
+in February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrières
+with General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the
+remains of Bourbaki&rsquo;s army, when it took refuge in Switzerland.
+In 1875 he became the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery,
+which he did much to reorganize, helping also in the re-organization
+of the other branches of the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at
+his native town of Aarau.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1805-1882), German Protestant
+theologian, was born at Basel on the 12th of September 1805.
+He studied at Basel and Berlin, and eventually (1854) settled at
+Erlangen as professor of church history. He died there on the
+30th of September 1882, having retired in 1877. His most noteworthy
+achievement was the publication of the <i>Realencyklopädie
+für protestantische Theologie und Kirche</i> (1853-1868, 22 vols.),
+of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt (1836-1880)
+in 1877, and after Plitt&rsquo;s death with Albert Hauck
+(b. 1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in
+1896 (completed in 22 vols., 1909).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His other works include <i>Joh. Calvin</i> (1843), <i>Leben Ökolampads</i>
+(1843), <i>Die romanischen Waldenser</i> (1853), <i>Abriss der gesamten
+Kirchengeschichte</i> (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig,
+1890-1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1819-1874), German
+author, was born on the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his
+father, distinguished as a writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran
+pastor. Hesekiel studied history and philosophy in Halle, Jena
+and Berlin, and devoted himself in early life to journalism and
+literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where he lived until his
+death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a considerable reputation
+as a writer and as editor of the <i>Neue Preussische Zeitung</i>.
+He attempted many different kinds of literary work, the most
+ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs <i>Preussenlieder</i>, of which
+he published a volume during the revolutionary excitement of
+1848-1849. Another collection&mdash;<i>Neue Preussenlieder</i>&mdash;appeared
+in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in 1870&mdash;<i>Gegen die
+Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Königslieder</i>. Among his
+novels may be mentioned <i>Unter dem Eisenzahn</i> (1864) and <i>Der
+Schultheiss vom Zeyst</i> (1875). The best known of his works is his
+biography of Prince Bismarck (<i>Das Buch vom Fürsten Bismarck</i>)
+(3rd ed., 1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESILRIGE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Heselrig</span>), <b>SIR ARTHUR,</b> 2nd Bart. (d. 1661),
+English parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas
+Hesilrige, 1st baronet (<i>c.</i> 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+member of a very ancient family settled in Northumberland
+and Leicestershire, and of Frances, daughter of Sir William
+Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early imbibed
+strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism
+to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long
+Parliaments in 1640, and took a principal part in Strafford&rsquo;s
+attainder, the Root and Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the
+7th of December 1641, and was one of the five members impeached
+on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed much activity
+in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex, fought
+at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed
+his <i>fidus Achates</i>, and distinguished himself at the head
+of his cuirassiers, &ldquo;The Lobsters,&rdquo; at Lansdown on the 5th
+of July 1643, at Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both
+of which battles he was wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th
+1644. On the occasion of the breach between the army and
+the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former, took Cromwell&rsquo;s
+part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on the passing
+of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and
+became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament.
+On the 30th of December 1647 he was appointed
+governor of Newcastle, which he successfully defended, besides
+defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of July 1648 and regaining
+Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to Scotland,
+and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in
+1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king&rsquo;s execution,
+had declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the
+leading men in the Commonwealth, but Cromwell&rsquo;s expulsion
+of the Long Parliament threw him into antagonism, and he
+opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay taxes. He was
+returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and
+1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a
+seat in the Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him,
+and succeeded in again obtaining admission to the Commons
+in January 1658. On Cromwell&rsquo;s death Hesilrige refused support
+to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting his downfall.
+He was now one of the most influential men in the council
+and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican
+parliamentary administration, &ldquo;to keep the sword subservient
+to the civil magistrate,&rdquo; and opposed Lambert&rsquo;s schemes.
+On the latter succeeding in expelling the parliament, Hesilrige
+turned to Monk for support, and assisted his movements by
+securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched
+to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the
+2nd of January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner
+for the army. He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting
+to his assurance of fidelity to &ldquo;the good old cause&rdquo; consented
+to the retirement of his regiment from London. At the Restoration
+his life was saved by Monk&rsquo;s intervention, but he was
+imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the 7th of January
+1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as &ldquo;an absurd, bold man.&rdquo;
+He was rash, &ldquo;hare-brained,&rdquo; devoid of tact and had little
+claim to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field
+and in parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary
+cause. He exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his
+exactions and appropriations of confiscated landed property,
+though the accusation brought against him by John Lilburne
+was examined by a parliamentary committee and adjudged
+to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances, daughter of Thomas
+Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had two sons
+and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville,
+2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters.
+The family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur
+Grey Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dict.
+of Nat. Biography</i>, and authorities there quoted; <i>Early History
+of the Family of Hesilrige</i>, by W. G. D. Fletcher; <i>Cal. of State Papers,
+Domestic</i>, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important
+references, as also in <i>Hist. MSS.</i>, <i>Comm. Series</i>, <i>MSS. of Earl
+Cowper</i>, <i>Duke of Leeds</i> and <i>Duke of Portland</i>; <i>Egerton MSS.</i> 2618,
+<i>Harleian</i> 7001 f. 198, and in the <i>Sloane</i>, <i>Stowe</i> and <i>Additional</i> collections
+in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, <i>Hist. of England</i>,
+<i>Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth</i>; Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>History,
+State Papers and Cal. of State Papers</i>, J. L. Sanford&rsquo;s <i>Studies of the
+Great Rebellion</i>. His life is written by Noble in the <i>House of Cromwell</i>,
+i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in parliament see the
+catalogue of the British Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESIOD,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably
+flourished during the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His father had migrated
+from the Aeolic Cyme in Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod
+and his brother Perses were born at Ascra, near mount Helicon
+(<i>Works and Days</i>, 635). Here, as he fed his father&rsquo;s flocks,
+he received his commission from the Muses to be their prophet
+and poet&mdash;a commission which he recognized by dedicating to
+them a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at
+some funeral games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at
+Helicon in the age of Pausanias (<i>Theogony</i>, 20-34, <i>W. and D.</i>,
+656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3). After the death of his father Hesiod
+is said to have left his native land in disgust at the result of a
+law-suit with his brother and to have migrated to Naupactus.
+There was a tradition that he was murdered by the sons of his
+host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in
+Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains
+were removed for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to
+Orchomenus in Boeotia, where the Ascraeans settled after the
+destruction of their town by the Thespians, and where, according
+to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Hesiod&rsquo;s earliest poem, the famous <i>Works and Days</i>, and according
+to Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the
+experiences of his daily life and work, and, interwoven with
+episodes of fable, allegory, and personal history, forms a sort
+of Boeotian shepherd&rsquo;s calendar. The first portion is an ethical
+enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive of strife and idleness
+(1-383); the second consists of hints and rules as to husbandry
+(384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the
+months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary
+for rural or nautical employments. The connecting link of the
+whole poem is the author&rsquo;s advice to his brother, who appears
+to have bribed the corrupt judges to deprive Hesiod of his already
+scantier inheritance, and to whom, as he wasted his substance
+lounging in the agora, the poet more than once returned good
+for evil, though he tells him there will be a limit to this unmerited
+kindness. In the <i>Works and Days</i> the episodes which
+rise above an even didactic level are the &ldquo;Creation and Equipment
+of Pandora,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Five Ages of the World&rdquo; and the much-admired
+&ldquo;Description of Winter&rdquo; (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic).
+The poem also contains the earliest known fable
+in Greek literature, that of &ldquo;The Hawk and the Nightingale.&rdquo;
+It is in the <i>Works and Days</i> especially that we glean indications
+of Hesiod&rsquo;s rank and condition in life, that of a stay-at-home
+farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea was
+a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned
+bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony
+have been conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having
+a wife as extravagant as himself.</p>
+
+<p>The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which
+has come down in great part to modern times is <i>The Theogony</i>,
+a work of grander scope, inspired alike by older traditions and
+abundant local associations. It is an attempt to work into
+system, as none had essayed to do before, the floating legends of
+the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This task Herodotus
+(ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato in
+the <i>Symposium</i> (178 B) as the author of the <i>Theogony</i>. The
+first to question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias,
+the geographer (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had
+no doubt on the subject; and indications of the hand that
+wrote the <i>Works and Days</i> may be found in the severe strictures
+on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver Plutus
+and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt,
+of Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different
+recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations.
+The <i>Theogony</i> consists of three divisions&mdash;(1) a cosmogony,
+or creation; (2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of
+the dynasties of Zeus and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly
+terminated heroögony, the starting-point not improbably of
+the supplementary poem, the <span class="grk" title="katalogos">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, or &ldquo;Lists of Women&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span>
+who wedded immortals, of which all but a few fragments are
+lost.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The proem (1-116) addressed to the Heliconian and Pierian
+muses, is considered to have been variously enlarged, altered
+and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has interwoven
+several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of
+Zeus and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description
+of the prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined,
+with the Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors
+(735 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod&rsquo;s
+name is the <i>Shield of Heracles</i>, the opening verses of which are
+attributed by a nameless grammarian to the fourth book of
+<i>Eoiai</i>. The theme of the piece is the expedition of Heracles
+and Iolaus against the robber Cycnus; but its main object
+apparently is to describe the shield of Heracles (141-317). It
+is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of the shield of
+Achilles (<i>Iliad</i>, xviii. 479) and is now generally considered
+spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod
+have come down to us: didactic, as the <i>Maxims of Cheiron</i>;
+genealogical, as the <i>Aegimius</i>, describing the contest of that
+mythical ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and
+mythical, as the <i>Marriage of Ceyx</i> and the <i>Descent of Theseus
+to Hades</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Recent editions of Hesiod include the <span class="grk" title="Agôn Homêrou kai
+Hêsiodou">&#7944;&#947;&#8060;&#957; &#8009;&#956;&#942;&#961;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7977;&#963;&#953;&#972;&#948;&#959;&#965;</span>, the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the
+funeral games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis.
+This little tract belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually
+mentioned as having been present during its recitation, but is
+founded on an earlier account by the sophist Alcidamas (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Quotations (old and new) are made from the works of both
+poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, the judge
+decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of
+Homer and Hesiod are also given.</p>
+
+<p>A strong characteristic of Hesiod&rsquo;s style is his sententious
+and proverbial philosophy (as in <i>Works and Days</i>, 24-25, 40,
+218, 345, 371). There is naturally less of this in the <i>Theogony</i>,
+yet there too not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or
+adage. He has undying fame as the first of didactic poets
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didactic Poetry</a></span>), the accredited systematizer of Greek
+mythology and the rough but not unpoetical sketcher of the
+lines on which Virgil wrought out his exquisitely finished
+Georgics.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Complete works: <i>Editio princeps</i> (Milan, 1493);
+Göttling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of publication;
+C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and explanatory
+notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902), including
+the fragments. Separate works: <i>Works and Days</i>: Van Lennep
+(1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, <i>Die Werke und Tage des
+Hesiodos</i> (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement
+of the poem; G. Wlastoff, <i>Prométhée, Pandore, et la légende
+des siècles</i> (1883). <i>Theogony</i>: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker
+(1865), valuable edition; G. F. Schömann (1868), with text, critical
+notes and exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, <i>Die Hesiodische
+Theogonie</i> (1873), with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma
+in Hesiod, <i>System der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie</i> (1874), and <i>Glossen
+und Scholien zur Theogonie</i> (1876); Meyer, <i>De compositione
+Theogoniae</i> (1887). <i>Shield of Heracles</i>: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van
+Lennep-Hullemann (1854); F. Stegemann, <i>De scuti Herculis Hesiodei
+poëta Homeri carminum imitatore</i> (1904); the fragments were
+published by W. Marckscheffel in 1840; for the <span class="grk" title="Agôn Homêrou">&#7944;&#947;&#8060;&#957; &#8009;&#956;&#942;&#961;&#959;&#965;</span>
+(ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F. Nietzsche in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> (new
+series), xxv. p. 528. For papyrus fragments of the &ldquo;Catalogue,&rdquo;
+some 50 lines on the wooing of Helen, and a shorter fragment in
+praise of Peleus, see Wilamowitz-Möllendorff in <i>Sitzungsber. der
+königl. preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>, for 26th of July 1900;
+for fragments relating to Meleager and the suitors of Helen, <i>Berliner
+Klassikertexte</i>, v. (1907); of the <i>Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap.</i> vi. (1908).</p>
+
+<p>On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schömann, <i>Opuscula</i>, ii.
+(1857); H. Flach, <i>Die Hesiodischen Gedichte</i> (1874); A. Rzach,
+<i>Der Dialekt des Hesiodos</i> (1876); P. O. Gruppe, <i>Die griechischen
+Kulte und Mythen</i>, i. (1887); O. Friedel, <i>Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods</i>
+(1879), from <i>Jahrbücher für classische Philologie</i> (10th suppl. Band,
+1879); J. Adam, <i>Religious Teachers of Greece</i> (1908). There is a
+full bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898)
+by A. Rzach in Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der
+klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, xxvii. (1900).</p>
+
+<p>There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke
+(1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W.
+Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of Translations,
+1908); in German (metrical version) with valuable introductions
+and notes by R. Peppmüller (1896) and in other modern
+languages.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Da.; J. H. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of
+each heroine began with <span class="grk" title="ê oiê">&#7972; &#959;&#7988;&#951;</span>, "or like as." (See Bibliography.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESPERIDES,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded
+the golden apples which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to
+Zeus. According to Hesiod (<i>Theogony</i>, 215) they were the
+daughters of Erebus and Night; in later accounts, of Atlas and
+Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on Apoll. Rhod. iv.
+1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to be
+three in number&mdash;Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa);
+according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away
+in the west at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence
+the sun (according to Mimnermus <i>ap.</i> Athenaeum xi. p. 470)
+sails in the golden bowl made by Hephaestus from the abode
+of the Hesperides to the land where he rises again. According
+to other accounts their home was among the Hyperboreans.
+The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the ever-watchful
+dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian
+legends described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the
+nightly heaven, while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the
+light back from men till some beneficent power takes it from
+him. Heracles is the hero who brings back the golden apples
+to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies to the Nymphs,
+who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there he
+slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally,
+like Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are,
+like the Sirens, possessed of the gift of delightful song. The
+apples appear to have been the symbol of love and fruitfulness,
+and are introduced at the marriages of Cadmus and Harmonia
+and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the gift of Aphrodite
+to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also plucked
+from the garden of the Hesperides.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESPERUS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hesperos">&#7965;&#963;&#960;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, Lat. Vesper), the evening star,
+son or brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii.
+60, iv. 27), he ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of
+the stars, and was suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever
+afterwards he was honoured as a god, and the most brilliant star
+in the heavens was called by his name. Although as a mythological
+personality he is regarded as distinct from Phosphoros
+or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of
+light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars
+were early identified by the Greeks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Diog. Laërt. viii. 1. 14; Cicero, <i>De nat. deorum</i>, ii. 20; Pliny,
+<i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 6 [8].</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESS,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the name of a family of German artists.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Heinrich Maria Hess</span> (1798-1863)&mdash;von Hess, after he
+received a patent of personal nobility&mdash;was born at Düsseldorf
+and brought up to the profession of art by his father, the engraver
+Karl Ernst Christoph Hess (1755-1828). Karl Hess had already
+acquired a name when in 1806 the elector of Bavaria, having been
+raised to a kingship by Napoleon, transferred the Düsseldorf
+academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess accompanied the
+academy to its new home, and there continued the education
+of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently
+master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian.
+He was sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made
+of Raphael&rsquo;s Parnassus, and the study of great examples of
+monumental design, probably caused him to become a painter
+of ecclesiastical subjects on a large scale. In 1828 he was made
+professor of painting and director of all the art collections at
+Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the Glyptothek and the
+Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his cartoons
+were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne
+and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the
+basilica of St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture
+of the Virgin and Child enthroned between the four doctors,
+and receiving the homage of the four patrons of the Munich
+churches (now in the Pinakothek). His last work, the &ldquo;Lord&rsquo;s
+Supper,&rdquo; was found unfinished in his atelier after his death in
+1863. Before testing his strength as a composer Heinrich Hess
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering Rome,
+now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and
+twice had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack
+collections). But his fame rests on the frescoes representing
+scenes from the Old and New Testaments in the Allerheiligencapelle,
+and the episodes from the life of St Boniface and other
+German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here he holds
+rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting,
+being always true to nature though mindful of the traditions
+of Christian art, earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and
+powerful in expression. Through him and his pupils the sentiment
+of religious art was preserved and extended in the Munich school.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Peter Hess</span> (1792-1871)&mdash;afterwards von Hess&mdash;was born
+at Düsseldorf and accompanied his younger brother Heinrich
+Maria to Munich in 1806. Being of an age to receive vivid
+impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of the time and became a
+painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he was allowed to
+join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the Bavarians in
+the military operations which led to the abdication of Napoleon;
+and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for
+extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited
+Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho&rsquo;s election to
+the Greek throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather
+materials for pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches
+which he then made were placed, forty in number, in the Pinakothek,
+after being copied in wax on a large scale (and little to
+the edification of German feeling) by Nilsen, in the northern
+arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho&rsquo;s entrance
+into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now
+in the Pinakothek, which Hess executed in person. From these,
+and from battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal
+Palace, as well as from military episodes executed for the czar
+Nicholas, and the battle of Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery,
+we gather that Hess was a clever painter of horses. His conception
+of subject was lifelike, and his drawing invariably correct,
+but his style is not so congenial to modern taste as that of the
+painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully with thin
+medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a
+certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was
+not unaptly compared. He died suddenly, full of honours,
+at Munich, in April 1871. Several of his genre pictures, horse
+hunts, and brigand scenes may be found in the gallery of Munich.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Karl Hess</span> (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess,
+born at Düsseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped
+that he would obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however,
+after engraving one plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting
+under the guidance of Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied
+under his elder brother Peter. But historical composition
+proved to be as contrary to his taste as engraving, and he gave
+himself exclusively at last to illustrations of peasant life in the
+hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in representing
+the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and with
+constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood
+of Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced
+anything that was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly
+realism. Some of his pictures in the museum of Munich will
+serve as examples of his manner. He died at Reichenhall on
+the 16th of November 1874.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span>
+(1788-1870), Austrian soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was
+soon employed as a staff officer on survey work. He distinguished
+himself as a subaltern at Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a
+captain, again served on the staff. In 1815 he was with Schwarzenberg.
+He had in the interval between the two wars been
+employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at the
+peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved
+invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky
+became commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as
+his chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two
+famous soldiers which, like that of Blücher and Gneisenau, is a
+classical example of harmonious co-operation of commander and
+chief-of-staff. Hess put into shape Radetzky&rsquo;s military ideas, in
+the form of new drill for each arm, and, under their guidance,
+the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a war footing,
+became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was
+employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &amp;c., but, on the outbreak of
+revolution and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to
+Radetzky as chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King
+Charles Albert which followed, culminating in the victory of
+Novara, Hess&rsquo;s assistance to his chief was made still more
+valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and the old field-marshal
+acknowledged his services in general orders. Lieut.-Fieldmarshal
+Hess was at once promoted <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>, made a member of
+the emperor&rsquo;s council, and <i>Freiherr</i>, assuming at the same time
+the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became
+chief of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in
+missions to various capitals, and he appeared in the field in 1854 at
+the head of the Austrian army which intervened so effectually
+in the Crimean war. In 1859 he was sent to Italy after the early
+defeats. He became field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on
+resigning his position as chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the
+Trabant guard. He died in Vienna in 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;General Hess&rdquo; in <i>Lebensgeschichtlichen Hinrissen</i> (Vienna,
+1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSE<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Hessia</i>, Ger. <i>Hessen</i>), a grand duchy forming a
+state of the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-Darmstadt,
+the history of which is given under a separate heading
+below. It consists of two main parts, separated from each other
+by a narrow strip of Prussian territory. The northern part is the
+province of Oberhessen; the southern consists of the contiguous
+provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen. There are also
+eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg to
+the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on
+the north-west frontier of Württemberg. Oberhessen is hilly;
+though of no great elevation it extends over the water-parting
+between the basins of the Rhine and the Weser, and in the
+Vogelsberg it has as its culminating point the Taufstein (2533 ft.).
+In the north-west it includes spurs of the Taunus. Between
+these two systems of hills lies the fertile undulating tract known
+as the Wetterau, watered by the Wetter, a tributary of the
+Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main and
+the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the
+ranges of the Odenwald, the highest part being the Seidenbucher
+Höhe (1965 ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by
+the Rhine, and has that river as its northern as well as its eastern
+frontier, though it extends across it at the north-east corner,
+where the Rhine, on receiving the Main, changes its course
+abruptly from south to west. The territory consists of a fertile
+tract of low hills, rising towards the south-west into the northern
+extremity of the Hardt range, but at no point reaching a height of
+more than 1050 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are
+as follow:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="lb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Area.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Population.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">sq. m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oberhessen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1267</td> <td class="tcr rb">271,524</td> <td class="tcr rb">296,755</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Starkenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1169</td> <td class="tcr rb">444,562</td> <td class="tcr rb">542,996</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rheinhessen</td> <td class="tcr rb">530</td> <td class="tcr rb">322,934</td> <td class="tcr rb">369,424</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">2966</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,039,020</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,209,175</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the
+capital) and Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in
+Rheinhessen and Giessen in Oberhessen. More than two-thirds
+of the inhabitants are Protestants; the majority of the remainder
+are Roman Catholics, and there are about 25,000 Jews. The
+grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education is
+compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by
+state grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical
+high school at Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than
+three-fifths of the total area being under cultivation. The
+largest grain crops are rye and barley, and nearly 40,000 acres
+are under vines. Minerals, in which Oberhessen is much richer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+than the two other provinces, include iron, manganese, salt and
+some coal.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856,
+1862, 1872 and 1900. There are two legislative chambers. The
+upper consists of princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of
+mediatized houses, the head of the Roman Catholic and the
+superintendent of the Protestant church, the chancellor of the
+university, two elected representatives of the land-owning
+nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke.
+The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large towns and
+forty from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly
+elected, by deputy electors (<i>Wahlmänner</i>) nominated by the
+electors, who must be Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying
+direct taxes. The executive ministry of state is divided into the
+departments of the interior, justice and finance. The three
+provinces are divided for local administration into 18 circles and
+989 communes. The ordinary revenue and expenditure amount
+each to about £4,000,000 annually, the chief taxes being an
+income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public debt,
+practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to
+£19,097,468 in 1907.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;The name of Hesse, now used principally for the
+grand duchy formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a
+country which has had different boundaries and areas at different
+times. The name is derived from that of a Frankish tribe, the
+Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants of the country were the
+Chatti, who lived here during the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (Tacitus,
+<i>Germania</i>, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the Eder, was
+burned by the Romans about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15. &ldquo;Alike both in race and
+language,&rdquo; says Walther Schultze, &ldquo;the Chatti and the Hessi are
+identical.&rdquo; During the period of the <i>Völkerwanderung</i> many of
+these people moved westward, but some remained behind to give
+their name to the country, although it was not until the 8th
+century that the word Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was
+the district around the Fulda, the Werra, the Eder and the Lahn,
+and was part of the Frankish kingdom both during Merovingian
+and during Carolingian times. Soon <i>Hessegau</i> is mentioned, and
+this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during his
+campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843
+it fell to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly
+in the duchy of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The
+Hessians were converted to Christianity mainly through the
+efforts of St Boniface; their land was included in the archbishopric
+of Mainz; and religion and culture were kept alive
+among them largely owing to the foundation of the Benedictine
+abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany
+during the 9th century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central
+power, and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great,
+several counts, among whom were Giso and Werner, had made
+themselves practically independent; but after the accession of
+Otto in 936 the land quietly accepted the yoke of the medieval
+emperors. About 1120 another Giso, count of Gudensberg,
+secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on his death in
+1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis, landgrave
+of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the
+Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of
+Thuringia. The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of
+Thuringia, in 1247, caused a long war over the disposal of his
+lands, and this dispute was not settled until 1264 when Hesse,
+separated again from Thuringia, was secured by his niece Sophia
+(d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of Brabant. In the following
+year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry (1244-1308),
+who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took
+the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent
+rulers of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the
+Empire, and with him the history of Hesse properly begins.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively
+uneventful. The land, which fell into two main portions, upper
+Hesse round Marburg, and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice
+divided between two members of the ruling family, but no permanent
+partition took place before the Reformation. A <i>Landtag</i>
+was first called together in 1387, and the landgraves were constantly
+at variance with the electors of Mainz, who had large
+temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however,
+to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden,
+Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen
+were acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself
+under the protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the
+landgraves were perhaps Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the
+German throne in 1440, and William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of
+the German king, Maximilian I. In 1509 William&rsquo;s young son,
+Philip (<i>q.v.</i>), became landgrave, and by his vigorous personality
+brought his country into prominence during the religious troubles
+of the 16th century. Following the example of his ancestors
+Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his land,
+and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes
+to him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided
+between his four sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt,
+Hesse-Marburg and Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-Rheinfels
+and Hesse-Marburg, or upper Hesse, became extinct
+in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these lands passed to the two
+remaining branches of the family. The small landgraviate of
+Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt.
+After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by
+Prussia in 1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent
+part of Hesse, and it generally receives the common name.</p>
+
+<p>Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was
+founded in 1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave
+William VI. In 1909 the representative of this family was the
+Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846). Hesse-Barchfeld was founded
+in 1721 by Philip&rsquo;s son, William (d. 1761), and in 1909 its representative
+was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The lands of both
+these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a province
+of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of
+the duchy of Nassau.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. B. Wenck, <i>Hessische Landesgeschichte</i> (Frankfort, 1783-1803);
+C. von Rommel, <i>Geschichte von Hesse</i> (Cassel, 1820-1858);
+F. Münscher, <i>Geschichte von Hesse</i> (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach,
+<i>Hesse und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde</i> (Marburg, 1899); Walther,
+<i>Literarisches Handbuch für Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse</i>
+(Darmstadt, 1841; Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann,
+<i>Bibliotheca Hessiaca</i> (Cassel, 1884-1899); Hoffmeister, <i>Historischgenealogisches
+Handbuch über alle Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse</i>
+(Marburg, 1874), and the <i>Zeitschrift des Vereins für hessische Geschichte</i>
+(1837-1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSE-CASSEL<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (in German <i>Kurhessen</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Electoral Hesse),
+now the government district of Cassel in the Prussian province
+of Hesse-Nassau. It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate
+of Germany, consisting of several detached masses of territory,
+to the N.E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial
+area of 3699 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 745,063.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William
+IV., surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous.
+On his father&rsquo;s death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with
+Cassel as his capital; and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel.
+Additions were made to it by inheritance from his
+brother&rsquo;s possessions. His son, Maurice the Learned (1592-1627),
+turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War, and, after being forced to cede some of his territories
+to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son William V.
+(1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which created
+several cadet lines of the house, of which that of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg
+survived till 1834. On the death of William V.,
+whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his
+widow Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI.
+(1637-1663), reconquered the country and, with the aid of the
+French and Swedes, held it, together with part of Westphalia.
+At the peace of Westphalia (1648), accordingly, Hesse-Cassel
+was augmented by the larger part of the countship of Schaumburg
+and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a principality
+of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced
+the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650,
+was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was
+succeeded by his son William VII., an infant, who died in 1670,
+and was succeeded by his brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles&rsquo;s
+chief claim to remembrance is that he was the first ruler to adopt
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+the system of hiring his soldiers out to foreign powers as mercenaries,
+as a means of improving the national finances. Frederick
+I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had become by marriage king
+of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the landgraviate
+by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an ally
+of England during the Seven Years&rsquo; War. From his successor
+Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic,
+22,000 Hessian troops were hired by England for about £3,191,000,
+to assist in the war against the North American colonies. This
+action, often bitterly criticized, has of late years found apologists
+(cf. v. Werthern, <i>Die hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerikanischen
+Unabhängigkeitskriege</i>, Cassel, 1895). It is argued that
+the troops were in any case mercenaries, and that the practice
+was quite common. Whatever opinion may be held as to
+this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money well: he did
+much for the development of the economic and intellectual
+improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave,
+William IX. (1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history
+of Hesse-Cassel. Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part
+in the war against France a few years later, but in 1795 peace
+was arranged by the treaty of Basel. For the loss in 1801
+of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he was in 1803
+compensated by some of the former French territory round
+Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector
+(<i>Kurfürst</i>) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality
+with Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspecting
+William&rsquo;s designs, occupied his country, and expelled him.
+Hesse-Cassel was then added to Jerome Bonaparte&rsquo;s new kingdom
+of Westphalia; but after the battle of Leipzig in 1813 the
+French were driven out and on the 21st of November the elector
+returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty concluded by
+him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to receive
+back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the
+same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country.
+This treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried
+out by the powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused,
+however, the elector&rsquo;s request to be recognized as &ldquo;King of
+the Chatti&rdquo; (<i>König der Katten</i>), a request which was again
+rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). He
+therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with
+the predicate of &ldquo;royal highness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing
+with a stroke of the pen all the reforms introduced under the
+French régime, repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring
+null and void the sale of the crown domains. Everything was
+set back to its condition on the 1st of November 1806; even
+the officials had to descend to their former rank, and the army
+to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails. The
+estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt
+to devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal
+diet at Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of
+the debt and the domains came to nothing owing to the intervention
+of Metternich; and in May 1816 they were dissolved,
+never to meet again. William I. died on the 27th of February
+1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II. Under him
+the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He
+was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover
+shocked public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular
+Prussian princess, and his relations with his mistress, one
+Emilie Ortlöpp, created countess of Reichenbach, whom he
+loaded with wealth. The July revolution in Paris gave the
+signal for disturbances; the elector was forced to summon
+the estates; and on the 5th of January 1831 a constitution
+on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now
+retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent,
+and took no further part in public affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The regent, without his father&rsquo;s coarseness, had a full share
+of his <span class="correction" title="amended from arbitary">arbitrary</span> and avaricious temper. Constitutional restrictions
+were intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with
+the diet was aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (<i>q.v.</i>) was
+placed at the head of the administration. The whole efforts of
+the elector and his minister were directed to nullifying the
+constitutional control vested in the diet; and the Opposition was
+fought by manipulating the elections, packing the judicial
+bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of political
+&ldquo;suspects,&rdquo; and this policy continued after the retirement of
+Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the
+revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public
+discontent; and Frederick William, who had become elector
+on his father&rsquo;s death (November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss
+his reactionary ministry and to agree to a comprehensive programme
+of democratic reform. This, however, was but short-lived.
+After the breakdown of the Frankfort National Parliament,
+Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern Union,
+and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt parliament.
+But as Austria recovered strength, the elector&rsquo;s policy
+changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again
+placed at the head of the administration and threw himself
+with renewed zeal into the struggle against the constitution and
+into opposition to Prussia. On the 2nd of September the diet
+was dissolved; the taxes were continued by electoral ordinance;
+and the country was placed under martial law. It was at once
+clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his officers
+or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the constitution.
+Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly with
+him, and on the 15th of October appealed for aid to the reconstituted
+federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of &ldquo;intervention.&rdquo;
+On the 1st of November an Austrian and Bavarian
+force marched into the electorate.</p>
+
+<p>This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions
+with the elector had the right to the use of the military roads
+through Hesse that were her sole means of communication with
+her Rhine provinces. War seemed imminent; Prussian troops
+also entered the country, and shots were actually exchanged
+between the outposts. But Prussia was in no condition to take
+up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that followed
+issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmütz (1851). Hesse was
+surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the
+federal forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new
+order were dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished
+the constitution of 1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and
+in April issued a new provisional constitution. The new diet
+had, under this, very narrow powers; and the elector was free
+to carry out his policy of amassing money, forbidding the construction
+of railways and manufactories, and imposing strict
+orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however, Hassenpflug&mdash;who
+had returned with the elector&mdash;was dismissed; and
+five years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new
+constitution was granted with the consent of the federal diet
+(May 30, 1860). The new chambers, however, demanded the
+constitution of 1831; and, after several dissolutions which always
+resulted in the return of the same members, the federal diet
+decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24, 1862).
+This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it
+needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble
+the chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposition;
+and he revenged himself by refusing to transact any
+public business. In 1866 the end came. The elector, full of
+grievances against Prussia, threw in his lot with Austria; the
+electorate was at once overrun with Prussian troops; Cassel
+was occupied (June 20); and the elector was carried a prisoner
+to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed
+to Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been,
+by the terms of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed
+property of his house. This was, however, sequestered in 1868
+owing to his intrigues against Prussia; part of the income was
+paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the landgrave Frederick
+(d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles and palaces,
+was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and
+Philippsthal-Barchfeld.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See K. W. Wippermann, <i>Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen</i>
+(Cassel, 1850); Röth, <i>Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel</i> (Cassel, 1856;
+2nd ed. continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Gräfe, <i>Der Verfassungskampf
+in Kurhessen</i> (Leipzig, 1851) and works under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hesse</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSE-DARMSTADT,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a grand-duchy in Germany, the history
+of which begins with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I.
+(1547-1597), the youngest son of the landgrave Philip, received
+the upper county of Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt
+as his residence, became the founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt
+line. Additions to the landgraviate were made both in the
+reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V. (1577-1626),
+but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage
+for George&rsquo;s youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis
+V., who founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran,
+he and his son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the imperialists
+in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, during which Hesse-Darmstadt
+suffered very severely from the ravages of the Swedes.
+In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other side, and the rivalry
+between the two landgraviates was increased by a dispute over
+Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become extinct
+in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread
+of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and was not finally settled until 1648,
+when the disputed territory was divided between the two claimants.
+Louis VI. (d. 1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed
+the policy of the three previous landgraves, but the anxiety of
+his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739), to emulate the French court
+under Louis XIV. led his country into debt. Under Ernest
+Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768), another
+dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time
+it was over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was
+eventually divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg.
+During the 18th century the War of the Austrian Succession and
+the Seven Years&rsquo; War dealt heavy blows at the prosperity of
+the landgraviate, which was always loyal to the house of Austria.
+Louis IX. (1719-1790), who served in the Prussian army under
+Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of Caroline
+(1721-1774), &ldquo;the great landgravine,&rdquo; who counted Goethe,
+Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by
+Frederick the Great as <i>femina sexu, ingenio vir</i>. In April 1790,
+just after the outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X.
+(1753-1830), an educated prince who shared the tastes and
+friendships of his mother, Caroline, became landgrave. In 1792
+he joined the allies against France, but in 1799 he was compelled
+to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having formally surrendered
+the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine which
+had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution,
+Louis received in return a much larger district which had formerly
+belonged to the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz
+and the bishopric of Worms. In 1806, being a member of the
+confederation of the Rhine, he took the title of Louis I., grand-duke
+of Hesse; he supported Napoleon with troops from 1805
+to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined the allies.
+In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the
+area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again
+a district on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of
+Mainz and Worms, but he made cessions of territory to Prussia
+and to Bavaria and he recognized the independence of Hesse-Homburg,
+which had recently been incorporated with his lands.
+However, his title of grand-duke was confirmed, and as grand-duke
+of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the Germanic confederation.
+Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself
+felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land;
+various forms were carried through; the system of government
+was reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the
+Prussian <i>Zollverein</i>. Louis I., who did a great deal for the
+welfare of his country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was
+followed on the throne by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This
+grand-duke had some trouble with his <i>Landtag</i>, but, dying on
+the 16th of June 1848, he left his son, Louis III. (1806-1877),
+to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848. Many concessions
+were made to the popular will, but during the subsequent
+reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850
+and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk
+(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of Hesse-Darmstadt,
+was one of repression, although some benefits were
+conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia&rsquo;s
+enemies, and during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on
+the Austrian side, the result being that he was compelled to
+pay a heavy indemnity and to cede certain districts, including
+Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just acquired, to Prussia.
+In 1867 Louis entered the North German Confederation, but only
+for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871 Hesse-Darmstadt
+became one of the states of the new German empire. After the
+withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more
+liberal policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesiastical,
+educational, financial and administrative matters were
+introduced, and in general the grand-duchy may be said to have
+passed largely under the influence of Prussia, which, by an
+arrangement made in 1896, controls the Hessian railway system.
+The constitution of 1820, subject to four subsequent modifications,
+is still the law of the land, the legislative power being
+vested in two chambers and the executive power being exercised
+by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the
+annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy
+has been known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the 13th
+of June 1877, and was succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV.
+(1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen Victoria; he died on the
+13th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his son, Ernest
+Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke&rsquo;s marriage with Victoria
+(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha,
+was dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently
+in 1902 a law regulating the succession was passed. By this
+the landgrave Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative
+of the family which ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared
+the heir to Hesse in case the grand-duke died without sons.
+However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married Elenore, princess of
+Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a son George
+(b. 1906).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Baur, <i>Urkunden zur hessischen Landes-, Orts- und Familiengeschichte</i>
+(Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, <i>Geschichte des Grossherzogtums
+Hesse</i>n (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, <i>Das Grossherzogtum
+Hessen</i> (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, <i>Historische Übersicht der
+Territorialveränderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des Grossherzogtums
+Hessen</i> (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, <i>Geschichte des
+Grossherzogtums Hessen</i> (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, <i>Kirchengeschichte
+beider Hessen</i> (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, <i>Geschichte von
+Hessen</i> (Cassel, 1891), and <i>Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde</i>
+(Marburg, 1904-1906); F. Küchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber,
+<i>Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen</i> (Darmstadt,
+1894-1897); H. Künzel, <i>Grossherzogtum Hessen</i> (Giessen,
+1893); and W. Zeller, <i>Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung
+im Grossherzogtum Hessen</i> (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also
+<i>Archiv für hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde</i> (Darmstadt,
+1894 fol.) and <i>Hessisches Urkundenbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1879 fol.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSE-HOMBURG,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> formerly a small landgraviate in Germany.
+It consisted of two parts, the district of Homburg on the right
+side of the Rhine, and the district of Meisenheim, which was
+added in 1815, on the left side of the same river. Its area
+was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 27,374.
+Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-Homburg
+was formed into a separate landgraviate in 1622
+by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George I., landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt,
+although it did not become independent of Hesse-Darmstadt
+until 1768. By two of Frederick&rsquo;s sons it was divided
+into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but
+these parts were again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick&rsquo;s
+third son, Frederick II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign
+of the landgrave Frederick V., which extended from 1751 to
+1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and incorporated with
+Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna the
+latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of
+Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisenheim.
+Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a
+sovereign prince in 1817, and after his death his five sons in
+succession filled the throne. The last of these, Ferdinand,
+who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal constitution to his
+people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852. When he
+died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited
+by Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim
+fell to Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+was forced to cede his new possession to Prussia, as he had
+supported Austria during the war between these two powers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Schwartz, <i>Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und
+seine Familie</i> (1878); and von Herget, <i>Das landgräfliche Haus
+Homburg</i> (Homburg, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSE-NASSAU<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Hessen-Nassau</i>), a province of Prussia,
+bounded, from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia,
+Waldeck, Hanover, the province of Saxony, the Thuringian
+States, Bavaria, Hesse and the Rhine Province. There are
+small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia, &amp;c.; on the
+other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen
+belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar
+belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed
+in 1867-1868 out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after
+the war of 1866, namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and
+the duchy of Nassau, in addition to the greater part of the
+territory of Frankfort-on-Main, parts of the grand-duchy of
+Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the countship of Hesse-Homburg,
+together with certain small districts which belonged
+to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel
+and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former
+territory of Nassau (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population
+in 1905 of 2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated
+province in Prussia, after Berlin, the Rhine Province and
+Westphalia. The east and north parts lie in the basin of the
+river Fulda, which near the north-eastern boundary joins with
+the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of the
+southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the
+western part of the province lies mostly in the basin of the
+Lahn, a tributary of the Rhine. The province is generally hilly,
+the highest hills occurring in the east and west. The Fulda
+rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an eminence of the Rhöngebirge,
+the highest in the province. In the south-west are the
+Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west of the
+Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser
+Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The
+congeries of small groups of lower hills in the north are known as
+the Hessische Bergland.</p>
+
+<p>The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but
+in forests it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is
+large. The chief trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-breeding
+is extensively practised. The vine is cultivated
+chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus, in the south-west, where
+the names of several towns are well known for their wines&mdash;Schierstein,
+Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg, Geisenheim,
+Rüdesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese
+are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those
+at Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlangenbad
+and Soden. The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel,
+Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort, Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and
+Hersfeld. The province is divided for administration into
+42 circles (<i>Kreise</i>), 24 in the government of Cassel and 18 in that
+of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the Reichstag.
+Marburg is the seat of a university.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSE-ROTENBURG,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a German landgraviate which was
+broken up in 1834. In 1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son
+of Maurice, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheinsfels
+and lower Katzenelnbogen as his inheritance, and some years
+later, on the deaths of two of his brothers, he added Eschwege,
+Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to his possessions.
+Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, was
+a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two
+sons, William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their
+territories, and founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and
+Hesse-Wanfried. The latter family died out in 1755, when
+William&rsquo;s grandson, Constantine (d. 1778), reunited the lands
+except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by Hesse-Cassel in
+1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At
+the peace of Lunéville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on
+the left bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in
+1815 other parts were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor
+Amadeus being compensated by the abbey of Corvey and the
+Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the last male member
+of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he bequeathed
+his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and Chlodwig
+of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hohenlohe</a></span>).
+When the landgrave died on the 12th of November 1834 the
+remaining parts of Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-Cassel
+according to the arrangement of 1627. It may be noted
+that Hesse-Rotenburg was never completely independent of
+Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated member of this
+family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son of
+the landgrave Constantine, who was called &ldquo;citoyen Hesse,&rdquo;
+and who took part in the French Revolution.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSIAN,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth,
+in various degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common,
+or standard, hessian is 40 in. wide, weighs 10½ oz. per yd.,
+and in the finished state contains about 12 threads and 12½
+picks per in. The name is probably of German origin, and the
+fabric was originally made from flax and tow. Small quantities
+of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but the jute
+fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost
+supplanted all others.</p>
+
+<p>This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for
+packing all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different
+qualities, are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain,
+ore, manure, sand, potatoes, onions, &amp;c. Indeed, bags made
+from one or other quality of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging
+or tarpaulin, form the most convenient, and at the same time
+the cheapest covering for any kind of goods which are not
+damaged by being crushed.</p>
+
+<p>Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other
+colour, or left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for
+paddings and linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags
+and other articles. When dyed in art shades the cloth forms
+an attractive decoration for stages and platforms, and generally
+for any temporary erection, and in many cases it is stencilled
+and then used for wall decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this
+fabric for the foundation of its products, while large quantities
+are used for the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the
+upholstery of furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are
+Dundee and Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all
+kinds of hand- and machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are
+made in the former city. The American name for hessian is
+burlap; this particular kind is 40 in. wide, and is now largely
+made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other places.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1488-1540), German Latin
+poet, was born at Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of
+January 1488. His family name is said to have been Koch;
+Eoban was the name of a local saint; Hessus indicates the land of
+his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on Sunday. In 1504
+he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his graduation
+was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post he
+soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop
+of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great
+straits owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length
+(in 1517) he was appointed professor of Latin in the university.
+He was prominently associated with the distinguished men of the
+time (Johann Reuchlin, Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten,
+Conrad Mutianus), and took part in the political, religious and
+literary quarrels of the period, finally declaring in favour of
+Luther and the Reformation, although his subsequent conduct
+showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The university
+was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new
+university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without
+success) to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through
+the influence of Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post
+at Nuremberg (1526), but, finding a regular life distasteful, he
+again went back to Erfurt (1533). But It was not the Erfurt he
+had known; his old friends were dead or had left the place; the
+university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him the favour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span>
+of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536 as
+professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the
+5th of October 1540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost
+Latin poet of his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true
+poet. He wrote what he thought was likely to pay or secure him
+the favour of some important person. He wrote local, historical
+and military poems, idylls, epigrams and occasional pieces,
+collected under the title of <i>Sylvae</i>. His most popular works were
+translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which reached
+forty editions) and of the <i>Iliad</i> into hexameters. His most
+original poem was the <i>Heroïdes</i> in imitation of Ovid, consisting
+of letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to
+Kunigunde, wife of the emperor Henry II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Epistolae</i> were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote
+his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860),
+G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss,
+<i>Ulrich von Hutten</i> (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg
+and other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-century
+illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and
+S. Szamatolski&rsquo;s <i>Lateinische Literaturdenkmäler des XV. u. XVI.
+Jahrhunderts</i> (Berlin, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESTIA,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the &ldquo;fire-goddess,&rdquo; daughter
+of Cronus and Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is
+not mentioned in Homer, although the hearth is recognized as
+a place of refuge for suppliants; this seems to show that her
+worship was not universally acknowledged at the time of the
+Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of the
+twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the
+household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and
+Poseidon became suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a
+maiden for ever; whereupon Zeus bestowed upon her the
+honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To her the opening
+sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal the first and
+last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always kept
+burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred
+fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from
+the sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of
+the family union, the personification of the idea of home; and as
+the city union is only the family union on a large scale, she was
+regarded as the goddess of the state. In this character her special
+sanctuary was in the prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire
+round which the magistrates meet is ever burning, and where the
+sacred rites that sanctify the concord of city life are performed.
+From this fire, as the representative of the life of the city, intending
+colonists took the fire which was to be kindled on the hearth
+of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected with Zeus, the
+god of the family both in its external relation of hospitality and
+its internal unity round its own hearth; in the <i>Odyssey</i> a form
+of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again, Hestia is
+often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and
+domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on
+the other; or, according to others, the association is local&mdash;that
+of the god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In
+later philosophy Hestia became the hearth of the universe&mdash;the
+personification of the earth as the centre of the universe, identified
+with Cybele and Demeter. As Hestia had her home in the
+prytaneum, special temples dedicated to her are of rare occurrence.
+She is seldom represented in works of art, and plays no important
+part in legend. It is not certain that any really Greek statues of
+Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta in the
+Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is
+represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her
+head, the left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman
+deity corresponding to the Greek Hestia is Vesta (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Preuner, <i>Hestia-Vesta</i> (1864), the standard treatise on the
+subject, and his article in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; J. G.
+Frazer, &ldquo;The Prytaneum,&rdquo; &amp;c., in <i>Journal of Philology</i>, xiv. (1885);
+G. Hagemann, <i>De Graecorum prytaneis</i> (1881), with bibliography
+and notes; <i>Homeric Hymns</i>, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes
+(1904); Farnell, <i>Cults, the Greek States</i>, v. (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESYCHASTS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="hêsychastai">&#7969;&#963;&#965;&#967;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span> or <span class="grk" title="hêsychazontes">&#7969;&#963;&#965;&#967;&#940;&#950;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="hêsychos">&#7973;&#963;&#965;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+quiet, also called <span class="grk" title="omphalopsychoi">&#8000;&#956;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#968;&#965;&#967;&#959;&#953;</span>, Umbilicanimi, and sometimes
+referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a quietistic
+sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine
+empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at
+Mount Athos, then at the height of its fame and influence under
+the reign of Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon.
+Owing to various adventitious circumstances the sect came into
+great prominence politically and ecclesiastically for a few years
+about the middle of the 14th century. Their opinion and practice
+will be best represented in the words of one of their early teachers
+(quoted by Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, c. 63): &ldquo;When thou art
+alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat thyself in a corner;
+raise thy mind above all things vain and transitory; recline thy
+beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes and thy thought
+towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel (<span class="grk" title="omphalos">&#8000;&#956;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>);
+and search the place of the heart, the seat of the soul. At first
+all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere day and
+night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the soul
+discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic
+and ethereal light.&rdquo; About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which
+is obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental
+mysticism, attracted the attention of the learned and versatile
+Barlaam, a Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of
+abbot in the Basilian monastery of St Saviour&rsquo;s in Constantinople,
+and who had visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of
+inspection. Amid much that he disapproved, what he specially
+took exception to as heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine
+entertained as to the nature of this divine light, the fruition of
+which was the supposed reward of hesychastic contemplation.
+It was maintained to be the pure and perfect essence of God
+Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to the
+disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam
+held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal
+substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic
+side the controversy was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards
+archbishop of Thessalonica, who laboured to establish
+a distinction between eternal <span class="grk" title="ousia">&#959;&#8016;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span> and eternal <span class="grk" title="energeia">&#7952;&#957;&#941;&#961;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>. In
+1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople
+and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the assembly,
+influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius
+were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam,
+who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming
+bishop of Hierace in the Latin communion. One of his friends,
+Gregory Acindynus, continued the controversy, and three other
+synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the
+Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351 under the
+presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated
+light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for
+the Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an
+additional ground of separation from the Roman Church. The
+contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras
+deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and
+Barlaamite sides respectively. It may be mentioned that in the
+time of Justinian the word hesychast was applied to monks in
+general simply as descriptive of the quiet and contemplative
+character of their pursuits.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See article &ldquo;Hesychasten&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(3rd ed., 1900), where further references are given.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESYCHIUS,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished
+in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was probably a pagan; and the
+explanations of words from Gregory of Nazianzus and other
+Christian writers (<i>glossae sacrae</i>) are interpolations of a later
+time. He has left a Greek dictionary, containing a copious
+list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an explanation
+of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author
+who used them or to the district of Greece where they were
+current. Hence the book is of great value to the student
+of the Greek dialects; while in the restoration of the text
+of the classical authors generally, and particularly of such
+writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used many unusual
+words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The explanations
+of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts
+about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory
+letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of
+Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+but that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion,
+Heliodorus and others.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been
+disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the
+Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to
+us from a single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the
+editio princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt
+(1858-1868); in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish
+the additions made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> Greek chronicler and biographer,
+surnamed <i>Illustrius</i>, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople
+in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> during the reign of Justinian.
+According to Photius (cod. 69) he was the author of three
+important works, (1) <i>A Compendium of Universal History</i>
+in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian
+empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment
+has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled <span class="grk" title="Patria
+Kônstantinoupoleôs">&#928;&#940;&#964;&#961;&#953;&#945; &#922;&#969;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>, a history of Byzantium from its earliest
+beginnings till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) <i>A
+Biographical Dictionary</i> (<span class="grk" title="Onomatologos">&#8008;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="Pinax">&#928;&#943;&#957;&#945;&#958;</span>) <i>of Learned
+Men</i>, arranged according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief
+sources of which were the <span class="grk" title="Mousikê historia">&#924;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span> of Aelius Dionysius
+and the works of Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated
+in the lexicon of Suidas, as we learn from that
+author. It is disputed, however, whether the words in Suidas
+(&ldquo;of which this book is an epitome&rdquo;) mean that Suidas himself
+epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are part
+of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas.
+The second view is more generally held. The epitome referred
+to, in which alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement
+in classes and some articles on Christian writers added as a
+concession to the times, is assigned from internal indications
+to the years 829-837. Both it and the original work are lost,
+with the exception of the excerpts in Photius and Suidas. A
+smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laërtius and Suidas,
+with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the
+11th or 12th century. (3) A <i>History</i> of the Reign of Justin
+I. (518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost.
+Photius praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with
+being a veracious historian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in
+C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. hist. Graec.</i> iv. 143 and in T. Preger&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores
+originis Constantinopolitanae</i>, i. (1901); <i>Pseudo-Hesychius</i>, by J.
+Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen
+Literatur</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HETAERISM<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hetaira">&#7957;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#945;</span> mistress), the term employed
+by anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man
+in his sexual relations. The earliest social organization of
+the human race was characterized by the absence of the institution
+of marriage in any form. Women were the common
+property of their tribe, and the children never knew their fathers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HETEROKARYOTA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a zoological name proposed by S. J.
+Hickson for the Infusoria (<i>q.v.</i>) on the ground of the differentiation
+of their nuclear apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus
+(or nuclei).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise of Zoology</i>, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HETERONOMY<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="heteros">&#7957;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="nomos">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, the rule of
+another), the state of being under the rule of another person.
+In ethics the term is specially used as the antithesis of
+&ldquo;autonomy,&rdquo; which, especially in Kantian terminology, treats
+of the true self as will, determining itself by its own law, the
+moral law. &ldquo;Heteronomy&rdquo; is therefore applied by Kant to
+all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they place the individual
+in subjection to external laws of conduct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HETMAN<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger.
+<i>Hauptmann</i>, head-man or captain; the Russian form is <i>ataman</i>),
+a military title formerly in use in Poland; the <i>Hetman Wielki</i>,
+or Great Hetman, was the chief of the armed forces of the
+nation, and commanded in the field, except when the king
+was present in person. The office was abolished in 1792. From
+Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form <i>ataman</i>,
+and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head,
+who was practically an independent prince, when under the
+suzerainty of Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule
+by the Cossacks in 1654, the post was shorn of its power. The
+title of &ldquo;ataman&rdquo; or &ldquo;hetman of all the Cossacks&rdquo; is held
+by the Cesarevitch. &ldquo;Ataman&rdquo; or &ldquo;hetman&rdquo; is also the
+name of the elected elder of the <i>stanitsa</i>, the unit of Cossack
+administration. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cossacks</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1821-1882), German
+literary historian and writer on the history of art, was born at
+Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in Silesia, on the 12th of March
+1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle and Heidelberg he
+devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but in 1843
+turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a
+view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy,
+and, on his return, published a <i>Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst
+der Alten</i> (1848) and an essay on <i>Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen</i>.
+He became <i>Privatdozent</i> for aesthetics and the history
+of art at Heidelberg and, after the publication of his suggestive
+volume on <i>Die romantische Schule in ihrem Zusammenhang
+mit Goethe und Schiller</i> (1850), accepted a call as professor to
+Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and literature.
+In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of
+antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which
+posts were subsequently added that of director of the historical
+museum and a professorship at the royal <i>Polytechnikum</i>. He
+died in Dresden on the 29th of May 1882. Hettner&rsquo;s chief work
+is his <i>Literaturgeschichte des 18ten Jahrhunderts</i>, which appeared
+in three parts, devoted respectively to English, French and
+German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed. of I. and II.,
+revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III., revised by
+O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the
+political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which,
+since Hettner&rsquo;s day have fallen into discredit, and at times
+losing sight of the main issues of literary development over
+questions of social evolution, this work belongs to the best
+histories that the 19th century produced. Hettner&rsquo;s judgment
+is sound and his point of view always original and stimulating.
+His other works include <i>Griechische Reiseskizzen</i> (1853), <i>Das
+moderne Drama</i> (1852)&mdash;a book that arose from a correspondence
+with Gottfried Keller&mdash;<i>Italienische Studien</i> (1879), and several
+works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His <i>Kleine
+Schriften</i> were collected and published in 1884.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Stern, <i>Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild</i> (1885); H. Spitzer,
+<i>H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfänge und Literaturästhetik</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HETTSTEDT,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the
+Wipper, and at the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim
+and Hettstedt-Halle, 23 m. N.W. of the last town. Pop.
+(1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and four Evangelical
+churches, and has manufactures of machinery, pianofortes and
+artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of argentiferous
+copper, and the surrounding district and villages are
+occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric
+acid are the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found
+in small quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the
+first steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August
+1785. Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it
+possessed a castle; and in 1380 it received civic privileges.
+When the countship of Mansfeld was sequestrated, Hettstedt
+came into the possession of Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1815.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1824-1876), German traveller
+in north-east Africa, was born on the 20th of March 1824 at
+Hirschlanden near Leonberg in Württemberg. His father was
+a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to be a mining engineer.
+He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific investigator
+of unknown regions, and with that object studied the natural
+sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where
+he learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852
+he accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a
+journey to Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed
+Dr Reitz&rsquo;s successor in the consulate. While he held this
+post he travelled in Abyssinia and Kordofan, making a
+valuable collection of natural history specimens. In 1857
+he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the
+Red Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span>
+leader of an expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions
+including Werner Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach,
+and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the party landed at
+Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and thence
+to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin,
+accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide
+detour through Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence
+the leadership of the expedition was taken from him.
+He and Steudner reached Khartum in 1862 and there joined the
+party organized by Miss Tinné. With her or on their own
+account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and
+explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner
+died of fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to
+Europe at the end of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable
+series of explorations in Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but
+1875 found him again in north-east Africa, in the country of
+the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was preparing
+for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at
+Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by
+his zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours
+that Heuglin has taken rank as an independent authority.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His chief works are <i>Systematische Übersicht der Vögel Nordost-Afrikas</i>
+(1855); <i>Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853</i> (Gotha,
+1857); <i>Syst. Übersicht der Säugetiere Nordost-Afrikas</i> (Vienna,
+1867); <i>Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Ländern</i>, &amp;c., <i>1861-1862</i>
+(Jena, 1868); <i>Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil</i>, &amp;c. <i>1862-1864</i>
+(Leipzig, 1869); <i>Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871</i> (Brunswick,
+1872-1874); <i>Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika</i> (Cassel, 1869-1875);
+<i>Reise in Nordost-Afrika</i> (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A list
+of the more important of his numerous contributions to <i>Petermann&rsquo;s
+Mitteilungen</i> will be found in that serial for 1877 at the close of the
+necrological notice.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:114px; height:183px" src="images/img416.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HEULANDITE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting
+of hydrous calcium and aluminium silicate,
+H<span class="su">4</span>CaAl<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">6</span> + 3H<span class="su">2</span>0.
+Small amounts of sodium and potassium are usually
+present replacing part of the calcium. Crystals are monoclinic,
+and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit. They have a
+perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (<i>M</i> in the
+figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces
+the lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is
+usually colourless or white, sometimes brick-red,
+and varies from transparent to translucent. The
+hardness is 3½-4, and the specific gravity 2.2.</p>
+
+<p>Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (<i>q.v.</i>) in
+appearance, and differs from it chemically only
+in containing rather less water of crystallization.
+The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished
+by the fact that in heulandite the
+acute positive bisectrix of the optic axes emerges
+perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was
+first separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and
+named by him euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently,
+in 1822, H. J. Brooke arrived at the same result, giving
+the name heulandite, after the mineral collector, Henry Heuland.</p>
+
+<p>Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the
+amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally
+in gneiss and metalliferous veins. The best specimens are
+from the basalts of Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and
+the Faroe Islands, and the Deccan traps of the Sahyadri
+mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a brick-red colour are
+from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the Fassathal in Tirol.
+A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small yellow crystals
+on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.</p>
+
+<p>Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and
+barium zeolite brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster.
+The greyish monoclinic crystals have the composition
+H<span class="su">4</span>(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">6</span> + 3H<span class="su">2</span>O, and are found in the basalt
+of the Giant&rsquo;s Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with harmotome
+in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEUSCH, WILLEM,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guilliam de</span>, a Dutch landscape
+painter in the 17th century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist&rsquo;s
+birth and death are unknown. Nothing certain is recorded
+of him except that he presided over the gild of Utrecht, whilst
+Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix formed the
+council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of
+historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan
+Both. But each of these statements seems open to doubt;
+and although it is obvious that the style of Heusch is identical
+with that of Both, it may be that the two masters during their
+travels in Italy fell under the influence of Claude Lorraine,
+whose &ldquo;Arcadian&rdquo; art they imitated. Heusch certainly painted
+the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied
+by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both.
+There is little to distinguish one master from the other, except
+that of the two Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist.
+The gild of Utrecht in the middle of the 17th century was composed
+of artists who clung faithfully to each other. Poelemburg,
+who painted figures for Jan Both, did the same duty for Heusch.
+Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the battlepieces of
+Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in the
+galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at
+Vienna, the Städel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures
+are signed with the full name, beginning with a monogram
+combining a G (for Guilliam), D and H. Heusch&rsquo;s etchings, of
+which thirteen are known, are also in the character of those of
+Both.</p>
+
+<p>After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew,
+Jacob de Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an
+initial J for the initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657,
+learnt drawing from his uncle, and travelled early to Rome,
+where he acquired friends and patrons for whom he executed
+pictures after his return. He settled for a time at Berlin, but
+finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701. Jacob was an
+&ldquo;Arcadian,&rdquo; like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and he
+chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now
+scarce. Two of his canvases, the &ldquo;Ponte Rotto&rdquo; at Rome, in the
+Brunswick Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the
+Lichtenstein collection at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour
+with a tower and distant mountains, in the Belvedere at Vienna,
+was executed in 1699. Other examples may be found in English
+private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg and the
+museums of Rouen and Montpellier.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEVELIUS<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Hevel</span> or <span class="sc">Höwelcke</span>], <b>JOHANN</b> (1611-1687),
+German astronomer, was born at Danzig on the 28th of January
+1611. He studied jurisprudence at Leiden in 1630; travelled
+in England and France; and in 1634 settled in his native town
+as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief interest
+became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his
+life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an
+observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental
+outfit, including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal
+length, constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th
+of January 1660, by John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and
+queen of Poland. Hevelius made observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645,
+devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered
+the moon&rsquo;s libration in longitude, and published his results in
+<i>Selenographia</i> (1647), a work which entitles him to be called
+the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four comets
+in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested
+the revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun.
+On the 26th of September 1679, his observatory, instruments
+and books were maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe
+being described in the preface to his <i>Annus climactericus</i> (1685).
+He promptly repaired the damage, so far as to enable him to
+observe the great comet of December 1680; but his health
+suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of January 1687.
+Among his works were: <i>Prodromus cometicus</i> (1665); <i>Cometographia</i>
+(1668); <i>Machina coelestis</i> (first part, 1673), containing
+a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is
+extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the
+conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius
+on the variable star named by him &ldquo;Mira&rdquo; are included in
+<i>Annus climactericus</i>. His catalogue of 1564 stars appeared
+posthumously in <i>Prodromus astronomiae</i> (1690). Its value
+was much impaired by his preference of the antique &ldquo;pinnules&rdquo;
+to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an acrimonious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+controversy with Robert Hooke. In an <i>Atlas</i> of 56 sheets,
+corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled <i>Firmamentum
+Sobiescianum</i> (1690), he delineated seven new constellations,
+still in use. Hevelius had his book printed in his own house,
+at lavish expense, and himself not only designed but engraved
+many of the plates.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. H. Westphal, <i>Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen
+Johann Hevelius</i> (1820); C. B. Lengnich, <i>Anekdoten und Nachrichten</i>
+(1780); <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (C. Bruhns); J. B. J.
+Delambre, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;astronomie moderne</i>, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler,
+<i>Historia astronomiae</i>, p. 486; F. Baily&rsquo;s edition of the Catalogue
+of Hevelius, <i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf,
+<i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog.-lit.
+Handwörterbuch</i>. For an account of the epistolary remains of
+Hevelius, see C. G. Hecker, <i>Monatl. Correspondenz</i>, viii. 30; also
+<i>Astr. Nachrichten</i>, vols. xxiii., xxiv.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> Bart. (1812-1891),
+British surgeon, was born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son
+of a Yorkshire country gentleman. He lived for some years
+in early life in Paris, and started on a career as an artist, but
+abandoned it for surgery. He entered St George&rsquo;s Hospital,
+London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett, was
+physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy
+and curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate
+friend of Sir B. C. Brodie, and helped him in much of his work.
+Eventually he rose to be anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon
+and surgeon to the hospital. In 1876 he was president of the
+College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made serjeant-surgeon
+extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884 serjeant-surgeon, and
+in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very good lecturer,
+but shrank from authorship; his lectures on <i>Surgical Affections
+of the Head</i> were, however, embodied in his treatise on the subject
+in Holmes&rsquo;s <i>System of Surgery</i>. As a surgeon he was always
+extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however
+severe, when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect
+operator, and one of the most trustworthy of counsellors. He
+died on the 19th of June 1891.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1822-1903), American manufacturer
+and political leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York,
+on the 31st of July 1822. His father, John, a Staffordshire man,
+was one of a party of four mechanics who were sent by Boulton
+and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a steam engine
+for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at Belleville,
+N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America;
+he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it
+by the burning of his factories. The boy&rsquo;s mother was of Huguenot
+descent. He graduated with high rank from Columbia College
+in 1842, having supported himself through his course. He
+taught mathematics at Columbia, and in 1845 was admitted
+to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never practised.
+With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt
+greatly assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter
+he married) he went into the manufacture of iron girders and
+beams under the firm name of Cooper, Hewitt &amp; Co. His study
+of the making of gun-barrel iron in England enabled him to be
+of great assistance to the United States government during the
+Civil War, when he refused any profit on such orders. The men
+in his works never struck&mdash;indeed in 1873-1878 his plant was
+run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat.
+In 1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany
+after the fall of the &ldquo;Tweed Ring&rdquo;; from 1875 until the end
+of 1886 (except in 1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress;
+in 1876 he left Tammany for the County Democracy; in the
+Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he was chairman of the Democratic
+National Committee, and in Congress he was one of the
+House members of the joint committee which drew up the famous
+Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission.
+In 1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination
+having been forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength
+of the other nominees, Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt;
+his administration (1887-1888) was thoroughly efficient and
+creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not renominated,
+ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In 1896
+and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself
+with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of
+January 1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of
+sound money and civil service reform; in municipal politics
+he was in favour of business administrations and opposed to
+partisan nominations. He was a leader of those who contended
+for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous for his
+public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only in
+New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous
+speech was that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in
+1883. He was a terse, able and lucid speaker, master of wit and
+sarcasm, and a fearless critic. He gave liberally to Cooper
+Union, of which he was trustee and secretary, and which owes
+much of its success to him; was a trustee of Columbia University
+from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of trustees of
+Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first
+chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive
+committee of the Carnegie Institution.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), English novelist,
+was born on the 22nd of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry
+Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall, Addington, Kent. He was educated
+at the London International College, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
+and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to 1900 he was
+keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He published
+in 1895 two books on Italy, <i>Earthwork out of Tuscany</i>,
+and (in verse) <i>The Masque of Dead Florentines</i>. <i>Songs and
+Meditations</i> followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate
+reputation by his <i>Forest Lovers</i>, a romance of medieval England,
+full of rapid movement and passion. In the same year he printed
+the pastoral and pagan drama of <i>Pan and the Young Shepherd</i>,
+shortened for purposes of representation and produced at the
+Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by the
+<i>Youngest of the Angels</i>, dramatized from a chapter in his <i>Fool
+Errant</i>. In <i>Little Novels of Italy</i> (1899), a collection of brilliant
+short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression
+together with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and
+vivid portraits of Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion in his <i>Richard Yea-and-Nay</i>
+(1900), and of Mary, queen of Scots, in <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Quair</i>
+(1904) showed the combination of fiction with real history
+at its best. <i>The New Canterbury Tales</i> (1901) was another
+volume of stories of English life, but he returned to Italian
+subjects with <i>The Road in Tuscany</i> (1904); in <i>Fond Adventures,
+Tales of the Youth of the World</i> (1905), two are Italian tales, and
+<i>The Fool Errant</i> (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis
+Antony Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel
+<i>The Stooping Lady</i> (1907), and a volume of poems, <i>Artemision</i>
+(1909).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEXAMETER,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> the name of the earliest and most important
+form of classical verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due
+to each line containing six feet or measures (<span class="grk" title="metra">&#956;&#941;&#964;&#961;&#945;</span>), the last of
+which must be a spondee and the penultimate a dactyl, though
+occasionally, for some special effect, a spondee may be allowed
+in the fifth foot, when the line is said to be spondaic. The four
+other feet may be either spondees or dactyls. All the great
+heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman poets is in this
+metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in Homer
+and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential
+to this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the
+ear. The most usual places for the caesura are at the middle
+of the third, or the middle of the fourth foot: the former is
+known as the penthemimeral and the latter as hepthemimeral
+caesura. There are several more or less successful examples
+of English poems in this metre, for example Longfellow&rsquo;s <i>Evangeline</i>,
+Kingsley&rsquo;s <i>Andromeda</i> and Clough&rsquo;s <i>Bothie of Tober-na-Vuoilich</i>,
+but it does not really suit the genius of the English
+language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely
+felt, even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek
+and Latin, on the distinction between long and short syllables,
+but on that between accented and unaccented syllables. The
+accent must always (or it sounds very ugly) fall on the first
+syllable, whatever may have been the case in Greek and Latin&mdash;Voss,
+Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter poems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span>
+of varying merit and the metre suits the German language
+distinctly better than the English. The customary form of
+hexameter in English verse is exemplified by Coleridge&rsquo;s descriptive
+line:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain&rsquo;s | silvery | column.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning,
+and Lord Bowen (1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated
+hexameter consisting of the usual verse deprived of its last
+syllable. Thus Browning:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek
+poets introduced considerable variations into their treatment
+of the hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in
+G. Hermann&rsquo;s <i>De aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum</i>. The differences
+in the hexameters of the Latin poets were not so remarkable,
+but even these varied, in various epochs, their treatment of
+the separate feet, and the position of the caesura. The satirists
+in particular allowed themselves an extraordinary licence:
+these hexameters, from Persius, are as far removed from the
+rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if they are to
+remain hexameters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Mane piger stertis. &lsquo;Surge!&rsquo; inquit Avaritia, &lsquo;heia</p>
+<p class="i05">Surge!&rsquo; negas; instat &lsquo;Surge!&rsquo; inquit &lsquo;Non queo.&rsquo; &lsquo;Surge!&rsquo;</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Et quid agam?&rsquo; &lsquo;Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally
+to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed
+and repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived
+in later ages, by writers who slavishly copied the most antique
+examples of the art of verse.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wilhelm Christ, <i>Metrik der Griechen und Römer</i>, 2te Aufl.
+(1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEXAPLA<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Gr. for &ldquo;sixfold&rdquo;), the term for an edition of
+the Bible in six versions, and especially the edition of the Old
+Testament compiled by Origen, which placed side by side
+(1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek character, (3) Aquila, (4)
+Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>:
+<i>Old Testament, Texts and Versions</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEXAPODA<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hex">&#7957;&#958;</span>, six, and <span class="grk" title="pous">&#960;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span>, foot), a term used in
+systematic zoology for that class of the <span class="sc">Arthropoda</span>, popularly
+known as insects. Linnaeus in his <i>Systema naturae</i> (1735)
+grouped under the class Insecta all segmented animals with
+firm exoskeleton and jointed limbs&mdash;that is to say, the insects,
+centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions and their
+allies. This assemblage is now generally regarded as a great
+division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal kingdom and
+known by K. T. E. von Siebold&rsquo;s (1848) name of Arthropoda.
+For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus&rsquo;s
+old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J.
+Brisson (1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others
+prefer the name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its
+modern sense by P. A. Latreille in 1825 (<i>Familles naturelles
+du règne animal</i>), since it has the advantage of expressing, in
+a single word, an important characteristic of the group. The
+terms &ldquo;Hexapoda&rdquo; and &ldquo;hexapod&rdquo; had already been used
+by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th century
+to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice,
+fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Characters.</i></p>
+
+<p>A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be
+known by the grouping of its body-segments in three distinct
+regions&mdash;a head, a thorax and an abdomen&mdash;each of which
+consists of a definite number of segments. In the terminology
+proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement is &ldquo;nomomeristic&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;nomotagmic.&rdquo; The head of an insect carries usually
+four pairs of conspicuous appendages&mdash;feelers, mandibles
+and two pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive
+somites is immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects
+resemble so closely the similar organs in Crustaceans that
+there can hardly be reasonable doubt of their homology, and
+the primitively appendicular nature of the eyes in the latter
+class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they represent the
+appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind
+the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an &ldquo;intercalary&rdquo;
+or tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M.
+Wheeler (1893) and others in various insect embryos, while
+in the lowest insect order&mdash;the Aptera&mdash;a pair of minute jaws&mdash;the
+maxillulae&mdash;in close association with the tongue are present,
+as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J. W. Folsom
+(1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the
+earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Börner
+(1904), and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The
+number of limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus
+seen to be seven. All of these are to be regarded as primitively
+post-oral, but in the course of development the mouth moves
+back to the mandibular segment, so that the first three somites&mdash;ocular,
+antennal and intercalary&mdash;lie in front of it. In Lankester&rsquo;s
+terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is &ldquo;triprosthomerous.&rdquo;
+The maxillae of the hinder pair become more
+or less fused together to form a &ldquo;lower lip&rdquo; or labium, and the
+segment of these appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly
+united with the head-capsule.</p>
+
+<p>The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair
+of jointed legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost
+bear each a pair of wings. From these three pairs of
+thoracic legs comes the name&mdash;Hexapoda&mdash;which distinguishes
+the class. And the wings, though not always present, are highly
+characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no other group of the
+Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the more
+generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments,
+the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers,
+(cerci or cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases,
+however, it can be shown that the cerci really belong to an
+eleventh abdominal segment which usually becomes fused with the
+tenth. With very few exceptions the abdomen is without locomotor
+limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and ninth abdominal
+segments may be specialized as external organs of reproduction,
+but these are probably not appendages. The female genital
+opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the
+male duct opens on the ninth.</p>
+
+<p>In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda
+agree with other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the
+class, however, is the presence of a complex system of air-tubes
+(tracheae) for respiration, usually opening to the exterior by a
+series of paired spiracles on certain of the body segments. The
+possession of a variable number of excretory tubes (Malpighian
+tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of the hind-gut and
+pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a distinctive character
+of the Hexapoda.</p>
+
+<p>The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching,
+the younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in
+other respects. In such cases the development of wings and the
+attainment of the adult form depend upon a more or less profound
+transformation or metamorphosis.</p>
+
+<p>With this brief summary of the essential characters of the
+Hexapoda, we may pass to a more detailed account of their
+structure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Exoskeleton</p>
+
+<p>The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or &ldquo;hypodermis&rdquo;) of insects
+as of other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be
+periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal.
+The regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement,
+and the definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are
+in close contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united
+by regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membranous,
+so as to permit freedom of movement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Head.</i>&mdash;The head-capsule of an insect (figs. 1, 2) is composed of a
+number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive
+segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (<i>vertex</i> or <i>epicranium</i>),
+on which or on the &ldquo;front&rdquo; may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli).
+Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a
+very distinct upper lip (<i>labrum</i>) is usually jointed. Behind the labrum
+arises a process&mdash;the <i>epipharynx</i>&mdash;which in some blood-sucking
+insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a
+variable amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye;
+in many insects of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are very
+large and sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+head. Below each eye is a cheek area (<i>gena</i>), often divided into an
+anterior and a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (<i>gula</i>) is
+often developed behind the mouth.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:732px; height:370px" src="images/img419a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Head and Jaws of Cockroach (<i>Blatta</i>). Magnified 10 times. A, Front; B, side;
+C, back; <i>v</i>, vertex; <i>f</i>, frons; <i>cl</i>, clypeus; <i>lbr</i>, labrum; <i>oc</i>, compound eye; <i>ge</i>, gena; <i>mn</i>,
+mandible; <i>ca</i>, <i>st</i>, <i>pa</i>, <i>ga</i>, <i>la</i>, cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; <i>sm</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>pa</i>&Prime;, <i>pg</i>,
+sub-mentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Feelers.</i>&mdash;Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are
+the feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers
+(antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are
+long and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory
+and tactile nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers,
+often a secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from
+a distal broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes
+serrate, or from the development of processes bearing sensory
+organs, so that the structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other
+hand, the number of segments may be reduced, certain of them
+often becoming highly modified in form.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:335px; height:370px" src="images/img419b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Marlatt, <i>Entom. Bull.</i> 14, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agric.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Head of Cicad, front view. I<i>a</i>,
+frons; <i>b</i>, clypeus (the pointed labrum
+beneath it); II, mandible; III, first
+maxilla; (<i>a</i>, base; <i>b</i>, sheath; <i>c</i>, piercer),
+III&prime;, inner view of sheath; IV, second
+maxillae forming rostrum (<i>b</i>, mentum; <i>c</i>,
+ligula).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Jaws.</i>&mdash;The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws
+with one or more teeth at the apex (fig. 1, A, B, <i>mn</i>), articulating
+at their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles,
+and provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which
+they can be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or
+seize objects which have to be carried about. They never bear segmented
+limbs (palps)
+and only exceptionally
+(as in the chafers)
+is the skeleton composed
+of more than one
+sclerite. The mandibles
+often furnish a good
+example of &ldquo;secondary
+sexual characters,&rdquo;
+being more strongly
+developed in the male
+than in the female of
+the same species. In
+most insects that feed
+by suction the mandibles
+are modified. In
+bugs (Heteroptera) and
+many flies, for example,
+they are changed into
+needle-like piercers (fig.
+2, II), while in moths
+and caddis-flies they
+are reduced to mere
+vestiges or altogether
+suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>As previously mentioned,
+a pair of minute
+jaws&mdash;the <i>maxillulae</i>&mdash;are
+present in the
+lowest order of insects,
+between the mandibles
+and the first maxillae.
+They usually consist of
+an inner and an outer
+lobe arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a
+small palp (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptera</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In their typical state of development, the <i>first maxillae</i> offer a
+striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented
+basal piece (<i>cardo</i> and <i>stipes</i>, fig. 1, C, <i>ca</i>, <i>st</i>) bearing a distinct inner
+and outer lobe (<i>lacinia</i> and <i>galea</i>, fig. 1, C, <i>la</i>, <i>ga</i>) and externally a
+jointed limb or palp (fig. 1, C, <i>pa</i>). Such maxillae are found in most
+biting insects. In insects whose mouths are adapted for sucking and
+piercing, remarkable modifications may occur. In many blood-sucking
+flies, for example, the galea is absent, while the lacinia
+becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well developed.
+In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a
+slender needle-like piercer (fig. 2, III),
+while the palp is wanting. In butterflies
+and moths the lacinia is absent while
+the galea becomes a flexible process,
+grooved on its inner face, so as to make
+with its fellow a hollow sucking-trunk,
+and the palp is usually very small.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>second pair of maxillae</i> are more
+or less completely fused together to
+form what is known as the <i>labium</i> or
+&ldquo;lower lip.&rdquo; In generalized biting
+insects, such as cockroaches and locusts
+(Orthoptera), the parts of a typical
+maxilla can be easily recognized in the
+labium. The fused cardines form a
+broad basal plate (<i>sub-mentum</i>) and the
+stipites a smaller plate (<i>mentum</i>)&mdash;see
+fig. 1, C, <i>sm</i>, <i>m</i>&mdash;jointed on to the sub-mentum,
+while the galeae, laciniae and
+palps remain distinct. In specialized
+biting insects, such as beetles (Coleoptera),
+the labium tends to become a
+hard transverse plate bearing the pair of
+palps, a median structure&mdash;known as
+the <i>ligula</i>&mdash;formed of the conjoined
+laciniae, and a pair of small rounded
+processes&mdash;the reduced galeae&mdash;often
+called the &ldquo;paraglossae,&rdquo; a term better
+avoided since it has been applied also
+to the maxillulae of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long
+sucking &ldquo;tongue&rdquo; of bees is probably a modification of the ligula.
+In bugs and aphids (Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form
+a jointed grooved beak or rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender
+piercers (mandibles and first maxillae) work to and fro.</p>
+
+<p>This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder
+or lower boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth
+is bounded by the labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae
+lie on either side of it. A median process, known as the <i>hypopharynx</i>
+or tongue, arises from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium,
+and becomes most variously developed or specialized in different
+insects. The salivary duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not
+appear to represent a pair of appendages, but the maxillulae of
+the Aptera become closely associated with it. According to the view
+of R. Heymons, the hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the
+jaw-bearing somites, but other students consider that it belongs
+to the mandibular and first maxillary segments, or entirely to the
+segment of the first maxillae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neck.</i>&mdash;The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct
+membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with
+small chitinous plates (<i>cervical sclerites</i>). These have been interpreted
+as indicating one or more primitive segments between the
+head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H.
+Huxley (<i>Anat. Invert. Animals</i>, 1877), they really belong to the labial
+segment which has not become completely fused with the head-capsule.
+It has been shown by C. Janet (1889), from careful studies
+of the musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built
+up of the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has
+the mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main
+supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock
+and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904).</p>
+
+<p><i>Thorax.</i>&mdash;The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-trunk
+are known as the <i>prothorax</i>, <i>mesothorax</i> and <i>metathorax</i> (see
+fig. 3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single
+sclerite, the <i>pronotum</i> (fig. 3, <i>d</i>), which is large and conspicuous in
+those insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles,
+which have the prothorax free&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> readily movable on the segment
+(mesothorax) immediately behind&mdash;smaller and of less importance
+where the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies.
+The dorsal area of the mesothorax, and also of the metathorax,
+may be made up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the other&mdash;<i>prescutum</i>,
+<i>scutum</i>, <i>scutellum</i> and <i>post-scutellum</i> (fig. 3, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>),
+the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially conspicuous.
+Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a <i>sternum</i> with which a
+median <i>pre-sternum</i> and paired <i>episterna</i> and <i>epimera</i> are often
+associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W. Verhoeff
+(1904) that the hexapodan thorax in reality contains six primitive
+segments is entirely without embryological support.</p>
+
+<p><i>Legs.</i>&mdash;Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In
+most insects the leg is built up of nine segments: (1) a broad
+triangular, sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (<i>coxa</i>); (2)
+a small <i>trochanter</i>; (3) an elongate stout thigh (<i>femur</i>); (4) a more
+slender shin (<i>tibia</i>); and (5-9) a foot consisting of five <i>tarsal segments</i>.
+The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive pad&mdash;the
+<i>pulvillus</i>&mdash;on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the leg,
+while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles are
+usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of them
+so delicate as to be termed &ldquo;hairs,&rdquo; others so stout and hard that
+they are named &ldquo;spines&rdquo; or &ldquo;spurs.&rdquo; In the relative development
+and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless
+variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and
+the special function&mdash;walking, running, climbing, digging or
+swimming&mdash;for which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects
+has been carefully studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890),
+who find that the legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first
+and third legs of one side moving with the second leg of the other.
+One tripod thus affords a firm base of support while the legs of the
+other tripod are brought forward to their new positions.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:413px; height:347px" src="images/img420a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Marlat, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 3, n.s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Thorax of Saw-Fly (<i>Pachynematus</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>  I, Dorsal view.</p>
+<p> II, Ventral view.</p>
+<p>III, Lateral view.</p>
+<p> IV, Lateral view with segments separated.</p>
+<p>&emsp; <i>Prothorax</i>:</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Episternum.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Sternum.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Coxa of fore-leg.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Pronotum.</p>
+<p>&emsp; <i>Mesothorax</i>:</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Prescutum.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Scutum.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>g</i>, Scutellum.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Post-scutellum.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Mesophragma.</p>
+<p><i>j</i>, <i>Epimeron</i>.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, <i>Episternum</i>.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Coxa of middle leg.</p>
+<p>&emsp; <i>Metathorax</i>:</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Scutum.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Epimeron.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Coxa of hind leg.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, <i>First Abdominal Segment</i>.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Tegula at base of fore-wing.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:435px; height:664px" src="images/img420b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach
+ (<i>Blatta</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the
+    ventral cervical sclerites (<i>c</i>).</p>
+<p> &emsp; <i>cx</i>, Coxa. &emsp; <i>tr</i>, Trochanter.</p>
+<p> &emsp; <i>fe</i>, Thigh. &emsp; <i>tb</i>, Shin.</p>
+<p> &emsp; <i>ta</i>, Tarsal segments.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p> II, Middle leg and mesosternum.</p>
+<p>  III, Hind-leg and metasternum.</p>
+<p>  In III<span class="sc">a</span>, the episternum (<i>a</i>) and
+     epimeron (<i>b</i>) are slightly separated.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Wings.</i>&mdash;Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of
+insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax.
+At the base of the wing, <i>i.e.</i> its attachment to the trunk, we find a
+highly complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied
+movements necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata)
+have been described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long
+axis of the wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this
+position the outer margin of the wing is the <i>costa</i>, the inner the
+<i>dorsum</i>, and the hind-margin the <i>termen</i>. The angle between the
+costa and termen is the <i>apex</i>. When the wing is spread, its long axis
+is more or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth
+from the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment
+that bears it, and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a
+double layer of cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact
+except where they are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular
+nervures, which serve as a supporting framework for the wing
+membrane, enclose air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures
+consist of a series of trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually
+branching as they approach the wing-margins, the branches being
+often connected by short transverse nervures, so that the wing-area
+is marked off into a number of &ldquo;cells&rdquo; or areolets.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:272px; height:261px" src="images/img420c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"> After Quail, <i>Natural Science</i>, vol. xiii.,
+J. M. Dent &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Wing-Neuration in a
+Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3,
+radial; 4, median; 5, cubital;
+6, 7, 8, anal nervures.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders,
+but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899)
+shown that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal
+or radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see
+fig. 5). Along the costa runs a
+costal nervure. This is followed
+by a sub-costal which sometimes
+shows two main branches.
+Then comes the radial&mdash;usually
+the most important nervure of
+the wing&mdash;typically with five
+branches, and the median with
+four. These sets arise from a
+main trunk towards the front
+region of the wing-base. From
+another hinder trunk arise the
+two-branched cubital nervure
+and three separate anal
+nervures. In the hind-wing of
+many insects the number of
+radial branches becomes reduced,
+while the anal area is
+especially well developed and
+undergoes a fan-like folding
+when the wings are closed.
+Great diversity exists in the
+texture and functions of fore
+and hind-wings in different insects;
+these differences are discussed in the descriptions of the
+various orders. The wings often afford secondary sexual characters,
+being not infrequently absent or reduced in the female when well
+developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the male is the wingless
+sex.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the
+thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on
+the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and
+other insects there are small plates (tegulae)&mdash;see Fig. 3, <i>t</i>&mdash;on the
+mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abdomen.</i>&mdash;In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure
+is very clearly marked, a series of sclerites&mdash;dorsal terga and
+abdominal sterna&mdash;being connected by pale, feebly chitinized
+cuticle, so that considerable freedom of movement between the
+segments is possible. The first and second abdominal sterna are often
+suppressed or reduced, on account of the strong development of the
+hind-legs. In many insects ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal
+segments can be clearly distinguished in addition to a small terminal
+anal segment. The female genital opening usually lies between the
+seventh and eighth segments, the male on the ninth. Prominent
+paired limbs are often borne on the tenth segment, the elongate
+tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and may-flies, or the forceps of
+earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a family of Isoptera, it has
+been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that these cerci clearly belong
+to a partially suppressed eleventh segment, and R. Heymons (1895-1896)
+has proved by embryological study that in all cases they
+really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the course of
+development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages
+(such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth
+segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments
+often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see
+fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification
+of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span>
+the sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those
+of the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments
+may be altogether suppressed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:401px; height:243px" src="images/img421a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Outline of Male (&#9794;) and Female (&#9792;) Cockroaches (<i>Blatta</i>)
+from the side, showing Abdominal Segments (numbered 1-10).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Internal Organs</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:307px; height:440px" src="images/img421b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Miall and Denny (after Newton), <i>The Cockroach</i>,
+Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Brain of Cockroach from
+side. <i>oe</i>, Gullet; <i>op</i>, optic nerve; <i>sb</i>,
+sub-oesophageal ganglion; <i>mn</i>, <i>mx</i>,
+<i>mx</i>&prime;, nerves to jaws; <i>t</i>, tentorium.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;The nervous system in the Hexapoda is built
+up on the typical arthropodan plan of a double ventral nerve-cord
+with a pair of ganglia in each segment, the cords passing on either
+side of the gullet and connecting with an anterior nerve-centre or
+brain (fig. 7) in the head. The brain innervates the eyes and feelers,
+and must be regarded as
+a &ldquo;syncerebrum&rdquo; representing
+the ganglia of the
+three foremost limb-bearing
+somites united with
+the primitive cephalic
+lobes. Behind the gullet
+lies the sub-oesophageal
+nerve-centre (fig. 7, <i>sb</i>),
+composed of the ganglia
+of the four hinder head-somites
+and sending
+nerves to the jaws. A
+pair of ganglia in each
+thoracic segment is usual
+(fig. 8), and as many as
+eight distinct pairs of
+abdominal ganglia may
+often be distinguished, the
+hindmost of which represents
+the fused ganglia of
+the last four segments.
+But in many
+highly organized
+insects a remarkable
+concentration
+of the trunk-ganglia
+takes place, all the
+nerve-centres of the
+thorax and abdomen
+in the chafers
+and in the Hemiptera,
+for instance,
+being represented
+by a single mass
+situated in the
+thorax. The legs, wings and other organs of the trunk receive
+their nerves from the thoracic and abdominal ganglia, and the
+fusion of several pairs of these ganglia may be regarded as
+corresponding to a centralization of individuality. A special
+&ldquo;sympathetic&rdquo; system arises by paired nerves from the
+oesophageal connectives; these nerves unite, and send back
+a median recurrent nerve associated with ganglia on the
+gullet and crop, whence proceed cords to various parts of the
+digestive system.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the central nervous system there are
+usually numerous organs of special sense. Most insects
+possess a pair of compound eyes, and many have, in addition,
+three simple eyes or ocelli on the vertex. The nature
+of these organs is described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>. The
+surface of a compound eye is seen to be covered with a
+large number of hexagonal corneal facets, each of which overlies
+an ommatidium or series of cell elements (fig. 9, A, B).
+There are over 25,000 ommatidia in the eye of a hawk moth.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:355px; height:543px" src="images/img421c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Ventral Muscles and Nerve Cord of
+Cockroach.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Auditory organs of a simple type are present in most
+insects. These consist of fine rods suspended between two
+points of the cuticle, and connected with nerve-fibres; they
+are known as chordotonal organs. In many cases a more
+complex ear is developed, which may be situated in strangely
+diverse regions of the insect&rsquo;s body. In locusts (<i>Acridiidae</i>) a
+large ovate, tympanic membrane (fig. 9, G) is conspicuous on
+either side of the first abdominal segment; on the inner surface
+of this membrane are two horn-like processes in contact with a
+delicate sac containing
+fluid, connected
+with which
+are the actual
+nerve-endings. In
+the nearly-related
+crickets and long-horned
+grasshoppers
+(<i>Locustidae</i>)
+the ears are situated
+in the shins
+of the fore-legs (see
+fig. 9, F). Just
+below the knee-joint
+there is a
+swelling, along
+which two narrow
+slits run lengthwise.
+They lead into
+chambers, formed
+by inpushing of
+the cuticle, whose
+delicate inner walls
+are in contact with
+air-tubes; on the
+outer surface of
+these latter are
+ridges, along which
+the special nerve-endings
+are arranged.
+An ear of
+another type is
+found in the swollen
+second segment of
+the feeler in many
+male gnats and
+midges, the cuticle
+between this segment
+and the third
+forming an annular drum which is connected with numerous
+nerve-endings,
+while the fine bristles on the more distal segments vibrate
+in response to the note produced by the humming of the female.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:567px; height:441px" src="images/img421d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Ridley, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Single Ommatidium of Cockroach&rsquo;s Eye (after Grenacher). B,
+Section through compound eye (after Miall and Denny); C, organs of smell
+in cockchafer (after Kraepelin); D, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, sensory pits on cercopods of
+golden-eye fly; <i>c</i>, sensory pit on palp of stone-fly (after Packard); E,
+sensory hair (after Miall and Denny); F, ear of long-horned grasshopper;
+<i>a</i>, Front shin showing outer opening and air-tube; <i>b</i>, section (after
+Graber); G, ear of locust from within (after Graber). All highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Many of the numerous hairs (fig. 9, E) that cover the body of an
+insect have a tactile function. The sense of smell resides chiefly in
+the feelers, on whose segments occur tiny pits, often guarded by
+peg-like or tooth-like structures and containing rod-like cells (fig.
+9, C) in connexion with large nerve-cells. It is said that 13,000 such
+olfactory organs are present on the feeler of a wasp, and 40,000 on
+the complex antennae of a male cockchafer. Organs of similar type on
+the maxillae and epipharynx appear to exercise the function of taste.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:309px; height:645px" src="images/img422a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell
+Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Dorsal Muscles, Heart and
+Pericardial Tendons of Cockroach.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Muscular System.</i>&mdash;The muscles in the Hexapoda are striated,
+as in Arthropods generally, the large fibres being associated in
+bundles which are attached
+from point to
+point of the cuticle, so
+as to move adjacent sclerites
+with respect to one
+another (see figs. 8, 10).
+For example, the contraction
+of the tergo-sternal
+muscles, connecting
+the dorsal with the
+ventral sclerites of the
+abdomen, lessens the
+capacity of the abdominal
+region, while the
+contraction of the powerful
+muscles arising from
+the thoracic walls, and
+inserted into the proximal
+ends of the thighs,
+flexes or extends the legs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circulatory System.</i>&mdash;Insects
+afford an excellent
+illustration of the
+remarkable type of blood-system
+characterizing the
+Arthropoda. The dorsal
+vessel is an elongate tube,
+whose abdominal portion
+is usually chambered,
+forming a contractile
+heart (fig. 10). At the
+constrictions between the
+chambers are paired slits,
+through which the blood
+passes from the surrounding
+pericardial sinus. The
+dorsal vessel is prolonged
+anteriorly into an aorta,
+through which the blood
+is propelled into the great
+body-cavity or haemocoel.
+After bathing the
+various tissues and
+organs, the blood returns
+dorsalwards into the pericardial
+sinus through fine perforations of its floor, and so makes its
+way into the heart again. Some
+water-bugs, <i>e.g.</i> of the families <i>Belostomatidae</i>,
+<i>Nepidae</i>, <i>Corixidae</i> and
+<i>Hydrometridae</i> have a pulsating sac
+at each knee-joint to assist the flow
+of blood through the legs, while in
+dragon-flies and locusts (<i>Acridiidae</i>)
+there is a ventral pulsating diaphragm,
+which forms the roof of a
+sinus enclosing the nerve-cords.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:226px; height:559px" src="images/img422b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>,
+Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Ventral Portion
+of Air-Tubes in Cockroach.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Respiratory System.</i>&mdash;As mentioned
+above, respiration by means of air-tubes
+(tracheae) is a most characteristic
+feature of the Hexapoda. An
+air-tube consists of an epithelium of
+large polygonal cells with a thin
+basement-membrane externally and
+a chitinous layer internally, the last-named
+being continuous with the
+outer cuticle. The chitinous layer
+is usually strengthened by thread-like
+thickenings which, in the region close
+to the outer opening of the tube,
+form a network enclosing polygonal
+areas, but which, through most of
+the tracheal system, are arranged
+spirally, the strengthening thread not
+forming a continuous spiral, but
+being interrupted after a few turns
+around the tube. The tracheal
+system in Hexapods is very complex,
+forming a series of longitudinal trunks
+with transverse anastomosing connexions
+(fig. 11), and extending by
+the finest sub-division and by repeated
+branching into all parts of
+the body. In insects of active flight
+the tubes swell out into numerous
+air-sacs, by which the breathing
+capacity is much increased.</p>
+
+<p>Atmospheric air gains access to the air-tubes through paired
+<i>spiracles</i> or <i>stigmata</i>, which usually occur laterally on most of the
+body-segments. These spiracles have firm chitinous edges, and can
+be closed by valves moved by special muscles. When the spiracles
+are open and the body contracts, air is expired. The subsequent
+expansion of the body causes fresh air to enter the tracheal system,
+and if the spiracles be then closed and the body again contracted,
+this air is driven to the finest branches of the air-tubes, where a direct
+oxygenation of the tissues takes place. The physiology of respiration
+has been carefully studied by F. Plateau (1884). In aquatic insects
+various devices for obtaining or entangling air are found; these
+modifications are described in the special articles on the various
+orders of insects (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hemiptera</a></span>, &amp;c.). Many insects have
+aquatic larvae, some of which take in atmospheric air at intervals,
+while others breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills. These
+modifications are mentioned below in the section on metamorphosis.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:315px; height:627px" src="images/img422c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell
+Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Food Canal of Cockroach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>s</i>,   Salivary glands and reservoir.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,   Crop (the gizzard below it).</p>
+<p><i>coe</i>, Caecal tubes (below them the stomach).</p>
+<p><i>k</i>,   Kidney tubes.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>,   Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>,   Rectum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Digestive System.</i>&mdash;A striking feature in the food-canal of the
+Hexapoda, as in other Arthropods, is the great extent of the
+&ldquo;fore-gut&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;hind-gut,&rdquo;
+lined with a chitinous
+cuticle, continuous with
+the exoskeleton. The
+fore-gut is composed of
+a tubular gullet, a large
+sac-like crop (fig. 12, <i>c</i>)
+and a proventriculus or
+&ldquo;gizzard,&rdquo; whose function
+is to strain the food-substances
+before they
+pass on into the tubular
+stomach, which has no
+chitinous lining. This
+organ, usually regarded as
+a &ldquo;mid-gut,&rdquo; gives off a
+number of secretory caecal
+tubes (fig. 12, <i>coe</i>). At
+its hinder end it is continuous
+with the hind-gut,
+which is usually differentiated
+into a tubular coiled
+intestine (fig. 12, <i>i</i>) and a
+swollen rectum (fig. 12, <i>r</i>).
+From the fore-end of the
+hind-gut arise the slender
+Malpighian tubes (fig. 12,
+<i>k</i>), which have a renal
+function.</p>
+
+<p>On either side of the
+gullet are from one to
+ten pairs of salivary
+glands (fig. 12, <i>s</i>) whose
+ducts open into the
+mouth. Some of these
+glands may be modified
+for special purposes&mdash;as
+silk-producing glands in
+caterpillars or as poison-glands
+in blood-sucking
+flies and bugs. The food
+passing into the crop is
+there acted on by the
+saliva and also by an
+acid gastric juice which
+passes forwards from the
+stomach through the proventriculus.
+As the
+various portions of the
+food undergo digestion,
+they are allowed to pass through the proventriculus into the
+stomach, where the nutrient substances are absorbed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Excretory System.</i>&mdash;Nitrogenous waste-matter is removed from
+the body by the Malpighian tubes which open into the food-canal,
+usually where the hind-gut joins the stomach. These tubes vary
+in number from four to over a hundred in different orders of insects.
+The cells which line them and also the cavities of the tubes contain
+urates, which are excreted from the blood in the surrounding body-cavity.
+This cavity contains an irregular mass of whitish tissue,
+the fat-body, consisting of fat-cells which undergo degradation
+and become more or less filled with urates. When the worn-out
+cells are broken down, the urates are carried dissolved in the blood
+to the Malpighian tubes for excretion. The fat-body is therefore the
+seat of important metabolic processes in the hexapod body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>&mdash;All the Hexapoda are of separate sexes.
+The ovaries (fig. 13) in the female are paired, each ovary consisting
+of a variable number of tubes (one in the bristle-tail <i>Campodea</i> and
+fifteen hundred in a queen termite) in which the eggs are developed.
+From each ovary an oviduct (fig. 13, <i>od</i>) leads, and in some of the
+more primitive insects (bristle-tails, earwigs, may-flies) the two
+oviducts open separately direct to the exterior. Usually they open
+into a median vagina, formed by an ectodermal inpushing and
+lined with chitin. The vagina usually opens in front of the eighth
+abdominal sternite. Behind it is situated a spermatheca (fig. 14, <i>sp</i>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+and the ovipositor previously mentioned, with its three pairs of
+processes (Fig. 14, G, <i>g</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:518px" src="images/img423a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Ovaries of Cockroach, with Oviducts <i>Od</i> and Colleterial
+Glands <i>CG</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:372px; height:625px" src="images/img423b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Hinder Abdominal Segment and Ovipositor of Female
+Cockroach. Magnified.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>T<span class="sp">8</span> &amp;c. Tergites.</p>
+<p>S<span class="sp">7</span>, 7th Sternite.</p>
+<p>S<span class="sp">8</span>, Sclerite between 7th and 8th sterna.</p>
+<p>S<span class="sp">9</span>, 8th Sclerite.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Od</i>, Vagina.</p>
+<p><i>sp</i>, Spermatheca.</p>
+<p>G, Anterior, and <i>g</i>, posterior gonapophyses.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The paired testes of the male consist of a variable number of seminal
+tubes, those of each testis opening into a <i>vas deferens</i>. In some
+bristle-tails and may-flies, the two <i>vasa deferentia</i> open separately,
+but usually they lead into a sperm-reservoir, whence issues a median
+ejaculatory duet. The male opening is on the ninth abdominal
+segment, to which belong the processes that form the claspers or
+genital armature. Accessory glands are commonly present in connexion
+both with the male and the female reproductive organs.
+The poison-glands of the sting in wasps and bees are well-known
+examples of these.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Embryology</p>
+
+<p><i>The Egg.</i>&mdash;Among the Hexapoda, as in Arthropods generally,
+the egg is large, containing an accumulation of yolk for the nourishment
+of the growing embryo. Most insect eggs are of an elongate
+oval shape; some are globular, others flattened, while others again
+are flask-shaped, and the outer envelope (<i>chorion</i>) is often beautifully
+sculptured (figs. 20, <i>d</i>; 21, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). Various devices are adopted for
+the protection of the eggs from mechanical injury or from the attacks
+of enemies, and for fixing them in appropriate situations. For
+example, the egg may be raised above the surface on which it is laid
+by an elongate stalk; the eggs may be protected by a secretion, which
+in some cases forms a hard protective capsule or &ldquo;purse&rdquo;; or they
+may be covered with shed hairs of the mother, while among water-insects
+a gelatinous envelope, often of rope-like form, is common.
+In various groups of the Hexapoda&mdash;aphids and some flesh-flies
+(<i>Sarcophaga</i>), for example&mdash;the egg undergoes development within
+the body of the mother, and the young insect is born in an active
+state; such insects are said to be &ldquo;viviparous.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Parthenogenesis.</i>&mdash;A number of cases are known among the
+Hexapoda of the development of young from the eggs of virgin
+females. In insects so widely separated as bristle-tails and moths
+this occurs occasionally. In certain gall-flies (<i>Cynipidae</i>) no males
+are known to exist at all, and the species seems to be preserved
+entirely by successive parthenogenetic generations. In other gall-flies
+and in aphids we find that a sexual generation alternates with
+one or with many virgin generations. The offspring of the virgin
+females are in most of these instances females; but among the bees
+and wasps parthenogenesis occurs normally and always results in
+the development of males, the &ldquo;queen&rdquo; insect laying either a
+fertilized or unfertilized egg at will.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maturation, Fertilization and Segmentation.</i>&mdash;Polar bodies were
+first observed in the eggs of Hexapoda by F. Blochmann in 1887.
+The two nuclei are successively divided from the egg nucleus in the
+usual way, but they frequently become absorbed in the peripheral
+protoplasm instead of being extruded from the egg-cell altogether.
+It appears that in parthenogenetic eggs two polar nuclei are formed.
+According to A. Petrunkevich (1901-1903), the second polar nucleus
+uniting with one daughter-nucleus of the first polar body gives rise
+to the germ-cells of the parthenogenetically-produced male. There
+is no reunion of the second polar nucleus with the female pronucleus,
+but, according to the recent work of L. Doncaster (1906-1907) on
+the eggs of sawflies, the number of chromosomes is not reduced in
+parthenogenetic egg-nuclei, while, in eggs capable of fertilization,
+the usual reduction-divisions occur. Fertilization takes place as
+the egg is laid, the spermatozoa being ejected from the spermatheca
+of the female and making their way to the protoplasm of the egg
+through openings (micropyles) in its firm envelope. The segmentation
+of the fertilized nucleus results in the formation of a number
+of nuclei which arrange themselves around the periphery of the egg
+and, the protoplasm surrounding them becoming constricted, a
+blastoderm or layer of cells, enclosing the central yolk, is formed.
+Within the yolk the nuclei of some &ldquo;yolk cells&rdquo; can be distinguished.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:340px; height:244px" src="images/img423c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny&rsquo;s, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell, Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing Formation of
+Germinal Layers.  E, ectoderm;  M, inner
+layer. Magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Germinal Layers and Food-Canal.</i>&mdash;The embryo begins to develop
+as an elongate, thickened, ventral region of the blastoderm which is
+known as the ventral
+plate or germ band.
+Along this band a
+median furrow appears,
+and a mass of
+cells sinks within, the
+one-layered germ
+band thus becoming
+transformed into a
+band of two cell-layers
+(fig. 15). In some
+cases the inner layer
+is formed not by invagination
+but by
+proliferation or by delamination.
+The
+outer of these two
+layers (fig. 15, E) is
+the ectoderm. With
+regard to the inner
+layer (<i>endoblast</i> of
+some authors, fig. 15, M) much difference of opinion has prevailed.
+It has usually been regarded as representing both endoderm
+and mesoderm, and the groove which usually leads to its formation
+has been compared to the abnormally elongated blastopore
+of a typical gastrula. No doubt can be entertained that the greater
+part of the inner layer corresponds to the mesoderm of more ordinary
+embryos, for the coelomic pouches, the germ-cells, the musculature
+and the vascular system all arise from it. Further, there is general
+agreement that the chitin-lined fore-gut and hind-gut, which form
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span>
+the greater part of the digestive tract, arise from ectodermal invaginations
+(stomodaeum and proctodaeum respectively) at the positions
+of the future mouth and anus. The origin of the mid-gut (mesenteron),
+that has no chitinous lining in the developed insect, is the disputed
+point. According to the classical researches of A. Kowalevsky
+(1871 and 1887) on the embryology of the water-beetle <i>Hydrophilus</i>
+and of the muscid flies, an anterior and a posterior endoderm-rudiment
+both derived from the &ldquo;endoblast&rdquo; become apparent
+at an early stage, in close association with the stomodaeum and
+the proctodaeum respectively. These two endoderm-rudiments
+ultimately grow together and give rise to the epithelium of the mid-gut.
+These results were confirmed by the observations of K. Heider
+and W. M. Wheeler (1889) on the embryos of two beetles&mdash;<i>Hydrophilus</i>
+and <i>Doryphora</i> respectively. V. Graber, however (1889),
+stated that in the <i>Muscidae</i>, while the anterior endoderm-rudiment
+arises as Kowalevsky had observed, the posterior part of the &ldquo;mid-gut&rdquo;
+has its origin as a direct outgrowth from the proctodaeum.
+The recent researches of R. Heymons (1895) on the Orthoptera, and
+of A. Lécaillon (1898) on various leaf beetles, tend to show that the
+whole of the &ldquo;mid-gut&rdquo; arises from the proliferation of cells at the
+extremity of the stomodaeum and of the proctodaeum. On this view
+the entire food-canal in most Hexapoda must be regarded as of
+ectodermal origin, the &ldquo;endoblast&rdquo; represents mesoderm only,
+and the median furrow whence it arises can be no longer compared
+with the blastopore. According to Heymons, the yolk-cells must be
+regarded as the true endoderm in the hexapod embryo, for he states
+(1897) that in the bristle-tail <i>Lepisma</i> and in dragon-flies they give
+rise to the mid-gut. These views are not, however, supported
+by other recent observers. J. Carrière&rsquo;s researches (1897) on the
+embryology of the mason bee (<i>Chalicodoma</i>) agree entirely with the
+interpretations of Kowalevsky and Heider, and so on the whole do
+those of F. Schwangart, who has studied (1904) the embryonic
+development of Lepidoptera. He finds that the endoderm arises
+from an anterior and a posterior rudiment derived from the &ldquo;endoblast,&rdquo;
+that many of the cells of these rudiments wander into the
+yolk, and that the mesenteric epithelium becomes reinforced by
+cells that migrate from the yolk. K. Escherich (1901), after a new
+research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera, claims that the
+fore and hind endodermal rudiments arise from the blastoderm by
+invagination, and are from their origin distinct from the mesoderm.
+On the whole it seems likely that the endoderm is represented in
+part by the yolk, and in part by those anterior and posterior rudiments
+which usually form the mesenteron, but that in some Hexapoda
+the whole digestive tract may be ectodermal. It must be admitted
+that some or the later work on insect embryology has justified the
+growing scepticism in the universal applicability of the &ldquo;germ-layer
+theory.&rdquo; Heider has suggested, however, that the apparent origin
+of the mid-gut from the stomodaeum and proctodaeum may be
+explained by the presence of a &ldquo;latent endoderm-group&rdquo; in those
+invaginations.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:551px; height:488px" src="images/img424.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Cross section of Embryo of German Cockroach (<i>Phyllodromia</i>).
+S, serosa; A, amnion; E, ectoderm; N, rudiment of nerve-cord;
+M, mesodermal pouches.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Embryonic Membranes.</i>&mdash;A remarkable feature in the embryonic
+development of most Hexapoda is the formation of a protective
+membrane analogous to the amnion of higher Vertebrates and
+known by the same term. Usually there arises around the edge
+of the germ band a double fold in the undifferentiated blastoderm,
+which grows over the surface of the embryo, so that its inner and
+outer layers become continuous, forming respectively the <i>amnion</i>
+and the <i>serosa</i> (fig. 16, A, S). The embryo of a moth, a dragon-fly
+or a bug is invaginated into the yolk at the head end, the portion of
+the blastoderm necessarily pushed in with it forming the amnion.
+The embryo thus becomes transferred to the dorsal face of the egg,
+but at a later stage it undergoes reversion to its original ventral
+position. In some parasitic Hymenoptera there is only a single
+embryonic membrane formed by delamination from the blastoderm,
+while in a few insects, including the wingless spring-tails, the embryonic
+membranes are vestigial or entirely wanting. In the bristle-tails
+<i>Lepisma</i> and <i>Machilis</i>, an interesting transitional condition
+of the embryonic membranes has lately been shown by Heymons.
+The embryo is invaginated into the yolk, but the surface edges of
+the blastoderm do not close over, so that a groove or pore puts
+the insunken space that represents the amniotic cavity into communication
+with the outside. Heymons believes that the &ldquo;dorsal
+organ&rdquo; in the embryos of the lower Arthropoda corresponds with
+the region invaginated to form the serosa of the hexapod embryo.
+Wheeler, however, compares with the &ldquo;dorsal organ&rdquo; the peculiar
+extra embryonic membrane or indusium which he has observed
+between serosa and amnion in the embryo of the grasshopper
+<i>Xiphidium</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Metameric Segmentation.</i>&mdash;The segments are perceptible at a very
+early stage of the development as a number of transverse bands
+arranged in a linear sequence. The first segmentation of the ventral
+plate is not, however, very definite, and the segmentation does not
+make its appearance simultaneously throughout the whole length of
+the plate; the anterior parts are segmented before the posterior. In
+Orthoptera and Thysanura, as well as some others of the lower
+insects, twenty-one of these divisions&mdash;not, however, all similar&mdash;may
+be readily distinguished, six of which subsequently enter into
+the formation of the head, three going to the thorax and twelve to
+the abdomen. In Hemiptera only eleven and in Collembola only
+six abdominal segments have been detected. The first and last
+of these twenty-one divisions are so different from the others that
+they can scarcely be considered true segments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Head Segments.</i>&mdash;In the adult insect the head is insignificant in
+size compared with the thorax or abdomen, but in the embryo it
+forms a much larger portion of the body than it does in the adult.
+Its composition has been the subject of prolonged difference of
+opinion. Formerly it was said that the head consisted of four
+divisions, viz. three segments and the procephalic or prae-oral lobes.
+It is now ascertained that the procephalic lobes consist of three
+divisions, so that the head must certainly be formed from at least
+six segments. The first of these, according to the nomenclature
+of Heymons (see fig. 17), is the mouth or oral piece; the second,
+the antennal segment; the third, the intercalary or prae-mandibular
+segment; while the fourth, fifth, and sixth are respectively the
+segments of the mandibles and of the first and second maxillae.
+These six divisions of the head are diverse in kind, and subsequently
+undergo so much change that the part each of them takes in
+the formation of the head-capsule is not finally determined. The
+labrum and clypeus are developed as a single prolongation of the
+oral piece, not as a pair of appendages. The antennal segment
+apparently entirely disappears, with the exception of a pair of
+appendages it bears; these become the antennae; it is possible
+that the original segment, or some part of it, may even become a
+portion of the actual antennae. The intercalary segment has no
+appendages, nor rudiments thereof, except, according to H. Uzel
+(1897), in the thysanuran <i>Campodea</i>, and probably entirely disappears,
+though J. H. Comstock and C. Kochi believe that the
+labrum belongs to it. The appendages of the posterior three or
+trophal segments become the parts of the mouth. The appendages
+of the two maxillary segments arise as treble instead
+of single projections, thus differing from other appendages.
+From these facts it appears that the anterior three divisions of
+the head differ strongly from the posterior three, which greatly
+resemble thoracic segments; hence it has been thought possible
+that the anterior divisions may represent a primitive head, to
+which three segments and their leg-like appendages were subsequently
+added to form the head as it now exists. This is, however,
+very doubtful, and an entirely different inference is possible.
+Besides the five limb-bearing somites just enumerated, two others
+must now be recognized in the head. One of these is the ocular
+segment, in front of the antennal, and behind the primitive pre-oral
+segment. The other is the segment of the maxillulae (see
+above, under <i>Jaws</i>), behind the mandibular somite; the presence
+of this in the embryo of the collembolan <i>Anurida</i> has been lately
+shown (1900) by J. W. Folsom (fig. 18, v. 5), who terms the
+maxillulae &ldquo;superlinguae&rdquo; on account of their close association
+with the hypopharynx or lingua. In reference to the structure
+of the head-capsule in the imago, it appears that the clypeus and
+labrum represent, as already said, an unpaired median outgrowth
+of the oral piece. According to W. A. Riley (1904) the epicranium
+or &ldquo;vertex,&rdquo; the compound eyes and the front divisions of the
+genae are formed by the cephalic lobes of the embryo (belonging
+to the ocular segment), while the mandibular and maxillary segments
+form the hinder parts of the genae and the hypopharynx.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:784px" src="images/img425a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Heymons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Morphology of an Insect:
+the embryo of <i>Gryllotalpa</i>, somewhat
+diagrammatic. The longitudinal segmented
+band along the middle line represents
+the early segmentation of the
+nervous system and the subsequent
+median field of each sternite; the lateral
+transverse unshaded bands are the
+lateral fields of each segment; the
+shaded areas indicate the more internally
+placed mesoderm layer. The segments
+are numbered 1-21; 1-6 will form
+the head, 7-9 the thorax, 10-21 the abdomen.
+<i>A</i>, anus; <i>Abx</i><span class="su">1</span> <i>Abx</i><span class="su">11</span>, appendage
+of 1st and of 11th abdominal segments;
+<i>Ans</i>, anal piece = telson or 12th abdominal
+segment; <i>Ant</i>, antenna; <i>De</i>,
+deuterencephalon; <i>Md</i>, mandible;
+<i>Mx</i><span class="su">1</span>, first maxilla; <i>Mx</i><span class="su">2</span>, second
+maxilla or labium; <i>O</i>, mouth; <i>Obcl</i>,
+rudimentary labrum and clypeus;
+<i>Pre</i>, protencephalon; <i>St</i><span class="su">1</span> <i>St</i><span class="su">10</span>, stigmata
+1 and 10; <i>Terg</i>, tergite;  <i>Thx</i><span class="su">1</span>,
+appendage of first thoracic segment;
+<i>Tre</i>, tritencephalon; <i>Ul</i>, a thickening
+at hinder margin of the mouth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Great difference of opinion exists as to the hypopharynx, which
+has even been thought to represent a distinct segment, or the pair
+of appendages of a distinct segment. Heymons considers that it
+represents the sternites of the three trophal segments, and that the
+gula is merely a secondary development. Folsom looks on the
+hypopharynx as a secondary
+development. Riley holds
+that the hypopharynx belongs
+to the mandibular
+and maxillary segments,
+while the cervical sclerites
+or gula represent the sternum
+of the labial segment.
+The ganglia of the nervous
+system offer some important
+evidence as to the morphology
+of the head, and
+are alluded to below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thoracic Segments.</i>&mdash;These
+are always three in
+number. The three pairs
+of legs appear very early
+as rudiments. Though the
+thoracic segments bear the
+wings, no trace of these
+appendages exists till the
+close of the embryonic life,
+nor even, in many cases, till
+much later. The thoracic
+segments, as seen in an early
+stage of the ventral plate,
+display in a well-marked
+manner the essential elements
+of the insect segment.
+These elements are
+a central piece or sternite,
+and a lateral field on each
+side bearing the leg-rudiment.
+The external part of
+the lateral field subsequently
+grows up, and by coalescence
+with its fellow forms the
+tergite or dorsal part of the
+segment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abdominal Segments and
+Appendages.</i>&mdash;We have already
+seen that in numerous
+lower insects the abdomen
+is formed from twelve divisions
+placed in linear fashion.
+Eleven of these may perhaps
+be considered as true segments,
+but the twelfth or
+terminal one is different, and
+is called by Heymons a
+telson; in it is placed the
+anal orifice, and the mass
+subsequently becomes the
+upper and lower laminae
+anales. In Hemiptera this
+telson is absent, and the
+anal orifice is placed quite
+at the termination of the
+eleventh segment.  Moreover,
+in this order the abdomen
+shows at first a
+division into only nine segments
+and a terminal mass,
+which last subsequently becomes
+divided into two.
+The appendages of the
+abdomen are called cerci,
+stylets and gonapophyses.
+They differ much according
+to the kind of insect, and
+in the adult according to
+sex. Difference of opinion
+as to the nature of the
+abdominal appendages prevails.
+The cerci, when
+present, appear in the
+mature insect to be attached
+to the tenth segment, but
+according to Heymons they are really appendages of the eleventh segment,
+their connexion with the tenth being secondary and the result
+of considerable changes that take place in the terminal segments.
+It has been disputed whether any true cerci exist in the higher insects,
+but they are probably represented in the Diptera and in the scorpion-flies
+(Mecaptera). In those insects in which a median terminal
+appendage exists between the two cerci this is considered to be a
+prolongation of the eleventh tergite. The stylets, when present,
+are placed on the ninth segment, and in some Thysanura exist also
+on the eighth segment; their development takes place later in life
+than that of the cerci. The gonapophyses are the projections near
+the extremity of the body that surround the sexual orifices, and
+vary extremely according to the kind of insect. They have chiefly
+been studied in the female, and form the sting and ovipositor,
+organs peculiar to this sex. They are developed on the ventral
+surface of the body and are six in number, one pair arising from the
+eighth ventral plate and two pairs from the ninth. This has been
+found to be the case in insects so widely different as Orthoptera and
+Aculeate Hymenoptera. The genital armature of the male is formed
+to a considerable extent by modifications of the segments themselves.
+The development of the armature has been little studied,
+and the question whether there may be present gonapophyses homologous
+with those of the female is open.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:192px; height:305px" src="images/img425b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><p>A. After Wheeler, <i>Journ.
+Morph.</i> vol. viii., and Folsom,
+<i>Bull. Mus. Harvard</i>, xxxvi.</p>
+
+<p>B. After Folsom.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Embryos of
+Springtail (<i>Anuridamaritima</i>).
+Magnified. A,
+Head-region of germ
+band. B, Section through
+head and thorax. The
+neuromeres are shown in
+Arabic, the appendages
+in Roman numerals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1, Ocular segment.</p>
+<p>2, Antennal.</p>
+<p>3, Trito-cerebral.</p>
+<p>4, Mandibular.</p>
+<p>5, Maxillular.</p>
+<p>6, Maxillary.</p>
+<p>7, Labial.</p>
+<p>8, Prothoracic.</p>
+<p>9, Mesothoracic.</p>
+<p>10, Metathoracic.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the adult state no insect possesses more than six legs, and
+they are always attached to the thorax; in many Thysanura there
+are, however, processes on the abdomen that, as to their position,
+are similar to legs. In the embryos of many insects there are projections
+from the segments of the abdomen similar, to a considerable
+extent, to the rudimentary thoracic legs.
+The question whether these projections
+can be considered an indication of former
+polypody in insects has been raised.
+They do not long persist in the embryo,
+but disappear, and the area each one
+occupied becomes part of the sternite.
+In some embryos there is but a single
+pair of these rudiments (or vestiges)
+situate on the first abdominal segment,
+and in some cases they become invaginations
+of a glandular nature. Whether
+cerci, stylets and gonapophyses are
+developed from these rudiments has been
+much debated. It appears that it is
+possible to accept cerci and stylets as
+modifications of the temporary pseudopods,
+but it is more difficult to believe
+that this is the case with the gonapophyses,
+for they apparently commence
+their development considerably later
+than cerci and stylets and only after the
+apparently complete disappearance of the
+embryonic pseudopods. The fact that
+there are two pairs of gonapophyses on
+the ninth abdominal segment would be
+fatal to the view that they are in any way
+homologous with legs, were it not that
+there is some evidence that the division
+into two pairs is secondary and incomplete.
+But another and apparently insuperable
+objection may be raised&mdash;that
+the appendages of the ninth segment are
+the stylets, and that the gonapophyses
+cannot therefore be appendicular. The
+pseudopods that exist on the abdomen of
+numerous caterpillars may possibly arise
+from the embryonic pseudopods, but this
+also is far from being established.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;The nervous system is
+ectodermal in origin, and is developed and
+segmented to a large extent in connexion
+with the outer part of the body, so that it affords important evidence
+as to the segmentation thereof. The continuous layer of cells from
+which the nervous system is developed undergoes a segmentation
+analogous with that we have described as occurring in the ventral
+plate; there is thus formed a pair of contiguous ganglia for each
+segment of the body, but there is no ganglion for the telson. The
+ganglia become greatly changed in position during the later life,
+and it is usually said that there are only ten pairs of abdominal
+ganglia even in the embryo. In Orthoptera, Heymons has demonstrated
+the existence of eleven pairs, the terminal pair becoming,
+however, soon united with the tenth. The nervous system of the
+embryonic head exhibits three ganglionic masses, anterior to the
+thoracic ganglionic masses; these three masses subsequently amalgamate
+and form the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which supplies the
+trophal segments. In front of the three masses that will form
+the sub-oesophageal ganglion the mass of cells that is to form the
+nervous system is very large, and projects on each side; this anterior
+or &ldquo;brain&rdquo; mass consists of three lobes (the prot-, deut-, and tritencephalon
+of Viallanes and others), each of which might be thought
+to represent a segmental ganglion. But the protocerebrum contains
+the ganglia of the ocular segment in addition to those of
+the procephalic lobes. These three divisions subsequently form
+the supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain proper. There are other
+ganglia in addition to those of the ventral chain, and Janet supposes
+that the ganglia of the sympathetic system indicate the existence
+of three anterior head-segments; the remains of the segments
+themselves are, in accordance with this view, to be sought in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+stomodaeum. Folsom has detected in the embryo of <i>Anurida</i> a
+pair of ganglia (fig. 18, 5) belonging to the maxillular (or superlingual)
+segment, thus establishing seven sets of cephalic ganglia, and supporting
+his view as to the composition of the head.</p>
+
+<p><i>Air-tubes.</i>&mdash;The air-tubes, like the food-canal, are formed by invaginations
+of the ectoderm, which arise close to the developing
+appendages, the rudimentary spiracles appearing soon after the
+budding limbs. The pits leading from these lengthen into tubes,
+and undergo repeated branching as development proceeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dorsal Closure.</i>&mdash;The germ band evidently marks the ventral
+aspect of the developing insect, whose body must be completed
+by the extension of the embryo so as to enclose the yolk dorsally.
+The method of this dorsal closure varies in different insects. In the
+Colorado beetle (<i>Doryphora</i>), whose development has been studied
+by W. M. Wheeler, the amnion is ruptured and turned back from
+covering the germ band, enclosing the yolk dorsally and becoming
+finally absorbed, as the ectoderm of the germ band itself spreads
+to form the dorsal wall. In some midges and in caddis-flies the
+serosa becomes ruptured and absorbed, while the germ band, still
+clothed with the amnion, grows around the yolk. In moths and
+certain saw-flies there is no rupture of the membranes; the Russian
+zoologists Tichomirov and Kovalevsky have described the growth
+of both amnion and embryonic ectoderm around the yolk, the
+embryo being thus completely enclosed until hatching time by both
+amnion and serosa. V. Graber has described a similar method of
+dorsal closure in the saw-fly <i>Hylotoma</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:335px; height:278px" src="images/img426a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Heymons, <i>Zeit. Wiss. Zoolog.</i> vol. 53.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Cross sections through Abdomen
+of German Cockroach Embryo. A
+(later than fig. 16) magnified. B (still
+more advanced, dorsal closure complete)
+magnified.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>ec</i>, Ectoderm.</p>
+<p><i>en</i>, Endoderm.</p>
+<p><i>sp</i>, Splanchnic layer of mesoderm.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>,  Yolk.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>,  Heart.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>,  Pericardial septum.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,  Coelom.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>,  Germ-cells surrounded by rudiment-cells of ovarian tubes.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>,  Muscle-rudiment.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>,  Nerve-chain.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>,  Fat body.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>,  Inpushing of ectoderm to form air-tubes.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>,  Secondary body-cavity.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Mesoderm, Coelom and Blood-System.</i>&mdash;From the mesoderm
+most of the organs of the body&mdash;muscular, circulatory,
+reproductive&mdash;take
+their origin. The
+mass of cells undergoes
+segmentation corresponding
+with the outer
+segmentation of the
+embryo, and a pair of
+cavities&mdash;the coelomic
+pouches (fig. 16, M)&mdash;are
+formed in each segment.
+Each coelomic
+pouch&mdash;as traced by
+Heymons in his study
+on the development of
+the cockroach (<i>Phyllodromia</i>)&mdash;divides
+into
+three parts, of which
+the most dorsal contains
+the primitive
+germ-cells, the median
+disappears, and the
+ventral loses its boundaries
+as it becomes
+filled up with the growing
+fat body (fig. 19).
+This latter, as well as the
+heart and the walls of
+the blood spaces, arises
+by the modification of
+mesodermal cells, and
+the body cavity is
+formed by the enlargement
+and coalescence
+of the blood channels
+and by the splitting of
+the fat body. It is
+therefore a haemocoel,
+the coelom of the developed
+insect being
+represented only by
+the cavities of the genital glands and their ducts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproductive Organs.</i>&mdash;In the cockroach embryo, before the segmentation
+of the germ-band has begun, the primitive germ-cells
+can be recognized at the hinder end of the mesoderm, from whose
+ordinary cells they can be distinguished by their larger size. At a
+later stage further germ-cells arise from the epithelium of the coelomic
+pouches from the second to the seventh abdominal segments, and
+become surrounded by other mesoderm cells which form the ovarian
+or testicular tubes and ducts (fig. 19, <i>g</i>). In the male of <i>Phyllodromia</i>
+the rudiment of a vestigial ovary becomes separated from the
+developing testis, indicating perhaps an originally hermaphrodite
+condition. An exceedingly early differentiation of the primitive
+germ-cells occurs in certain Diptera. E. Metchnikoff observed
+(1866) in the development of the parthenogenetic eggs produced by
+the precocious larva of the gall-midge <i>Cecidomyia</i> that a large
+&ldquo;polar-cell&rdquo; appeared at one extremity during the primitive cell-segmentation.
+This by successive divisions forms a group of four to
+eight cells, which subsequently pass through the blastoderm, and
+dividing into two groups become symmetrically arranged and
+surrounded by the rudiments of the ovarian tubes. E. G. Balbiani
+and R. Ritter (1890) have since observed a similar early origin for
+the germ-cells in the midge <i>Chironomus</i> and in the <i>Aphidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The paired oviducts and vasa deferentia are, as we have seen,
+mesodermal in origin. The median vagina, spermatheca and
+ejaculatory duct are, on the other hand, formed by ectodermal
+inpushings. The classical researches of J. A. Palmén (1884) on these
+ducts have shown that in may-flies and in female earwigs the paired
+mesodermal ducts open directly to the exterior, while in male earwigs
+there is a single mesodermal duct, due either to the coalescence of the
+two or to the suppression of one. In the absence of the external
+ectodermal ducts usual in winged insects, these two groups resemble
+therefore the primitive Aptera. The presence of rudiments of the
+genital ducts of both sexes in the embryo of either sex is interesting
+and suggestive. The ejaculatory duct which opens on the ninth
+abdominal sternum in the adult male arises in the tenth abdominal
+embryonic segment and subsequently moves forward.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Growth and Metamorphosis</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:279px" src="images/img426b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Marlatt, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 4, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i>, Bed-bug (<i>Cimex lectularis</i>, Linn.); newly hatched
+young from beneath; <i>b</i>, from above; <i>d</i>, egg, magnified; <i>c</i>, foot
+with claws; <i>e</i>, serrate spine, more highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:384px" src="images/img426c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Mally, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 24 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Owl moth (<i>Heliothis armigera</i>); <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, egg, highly
+magnified; <i>c</i>, larva or caterpillar; <i>d</i>, pupa in earthen cell.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>After hatching or birth an insect undergoes a process of growth
+and change until the adult condition is reached. The varied
+details of this post-embryonic development furnish some of the
+most interesting facts and problems to the students of the
+Hexapoda. Wingless insects, such as spring-tails and lice, make
+their appearance in the form of miniature adults. Some winged
+insects&mdash;cockroaches, bugs (fig. 20) and earwigs, for example&mdash;when
+young closely resemble their parents, except for the absence
+of wings. On the other hand, we find in the vast majority of the
+Hexapoda a very marked difference between the perfect insect
+(imago) and the young animal when newly hatched and for some
+time after hatching. From the moth&rsquo;s egg comes a crawling
+caterpillar (fig. 21, <i>c</i>), from the fly&rsquo;s a legless maggot (fig. 25, <i>a</i>).
+Such a young insect is a <i>larva</i>&mdash;a term used by zoologists for
+young animals generally that are decidedly unlike their parents.
+It is obvious that the hatching of the young as a larva necessitates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+a more or less profound transformation or metamorphosis before
+the perfect state is attained. Usually this transformation comes
+with apparent suddenness, at the penultimate stage of the
+insect&rsquo;s life-history, when the passive pupa (fig. 21, <i>d</i>) is revealed,
+exhibiting the wings and other imaginal structures, which have
+been developed unseen beneath the cuticle of the larva. Hexapoda
+with this resting pupal stage in their life-history are said to
+undergo &ldquo;a complete transformation,&rdquo; to be metabolic, or
+holometabolic, whereas those insects in which the young form
+resembles the parent are said to be ametabolic. Such insects as
+dragon-flies and may-flies, whose young, though unlike the parent,
+develop into the adult form without a resting pupal stage are
+said to undergo an &ldquo;incomplete transformation&rdquo; or to be
+hemimetabolic. The absence of the pupal stage depends upon
+the fact that in the ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda the
+wing-rudiments appear as lateral outgrowths (fig. 22) of the two
+hinder thoracic segments and are visible externally throughout
+the life-history, becoming larger after each moult or casting of the
+cuticle. Hence, as has been pointed out by D. Sharp (1898), the
+marked divergence among the Hexapoda, as regards life-history,
+is between insects whose wings develop outside the cuticle
+(Exopterygota) and those whose wings develop inside the cuticle
+(Endopterygota), becoming visible only when the casting of the
+last larval cuticle reveals the pupa. Metamorphosis among the
+Hexapoda depends upon the universal acquisition of wings
+during post-embryonic development&mdash;no insect being hatched
+with the smallest external rudiments of those organs&mdash;and on the
+necessity for successive castings or &ldquo;moults&rdquo; (ecdyses) of the
+cuticle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:202px" src="images/img427a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol. vii.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Nymph of Locust (<i>Schistocera americana</i>), showing
+wing-rudiments.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Ecdysis.</i>&mdash;The embryonic ectoderm of an insect consists of a
+layer of cells forming a continuous structure, the orifices in it&mdash;mouth,
+spiracles, anus and terminal portions of the genital
+ducts&mdash;being invaginations of the outer wall. This cellular layer
+is called the hypodermis; it is protected externally by a cuticle,
+a layer of matter it itself excretes, or in the excretion of which it
+plays, at any rate, an important part. The cuticle is a dead
+substance, and is composed in large part of chitin. The cuticle
+contrasts strongly in its nature with the hypodermis it protects.
+It is different in its details in different insects and in different stages
+of the life of the same insect. The &ldquo;sclerites&rdquo; that make up the
+skeleton of the insect (which skeleton, it should be remembered,
+is entirely external) are composed of this chitinous excretion. The
+growth of an insect is usually rapid, and as the cuticle does not
+share therein, it is from time to time cast off by moulting or
+ecdysis. Before a moult actually occurs the cuticle becomes
+separated from its connexion with the underlying hypodermis.
+Concomitant with this separation there is commencement of the
+formation of a new cuticle within the old one, so that when the
+latter is cast off the insect appears with a partly completed new
+cuticle. The new instar&mdash;or temporary form&mdash;is often very
+different from the old one, and this is the essential fact of metamorphosis.
+Metamorphosis is, from this point of view, the sum
+of the changes that take place under the cuticle of an insect
+between the ecdyses, which changes only become externally
+displayed when the cuticle is cast off. The hypodermis is the
+immediate agent in effecting the external changes.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:117px" src="images/img427b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Adapted from Koerschelt and
+Herder and Lowne.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing
+position of imaginal buds
+in larva of fly. I., II., III.,
+the three thoracic segments
+of the larva; 1, 2, 3, buds
+of the legs of the imago; <i>h</i>,
+bud of head-lobes; <i>f</i>, of
+feeler; <i>e</i> of eye; <i>b</i>, brain.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The study of the physiology of ecdysis in its simpler forms has unfortunately
+been somewhat neglected, investigators having directed
+their attention chiefly to the cases that are most striking, such as
+the transformation of a maggot into a fly, or of a caterpillar into a
+butterfly. The changes have been found to be made up of two sets
+of processes: histolysis, by which the whole or part of a structure
+disappears: and histogenesis, or the formation of the new structure.
+By histolysis certain parts of the hypodermis are destroyed, while
+other portions of it develop into the new structures. The hypodermis
+is composed of parts of two different kinds, viz. (1) the larger
+part of the hypodermis that exists in
+the maggot or caterpillar and is dissolved
+at the metamorphosis; (2) parts
+that remain comparatively quiescent
+previously, and that grow and develop
+when the other parts degenerate. These
+centres of renovation are called imaginal
+disks or folds. The adult caterpillar
+may be described as a creature the
+hypodermis of which is studded with
+buds that expand and form the butterfly,
+while the parts around them degenerate.
+In some insects (<i>e.g.</i> the
+maggots of the blowfly, <i>Calliphora
+vomitoria</i>) the imaginal disks are to all
+appearance completely separated from
+the hypodermis, with which they are,
+however, really organically connected
+by strings or pedicels. This connexion
+was not at first recognized and the true nature of imaginal disks was
+not at first perceived, even by Weismann, to whom their discovery in
+Diptera is due. In other insects the imaginal disks are less completely
+disconnected from the superficies of the larval hypodermis, and may
+indeed be merely patches thereof. The number of imaginal disks
+in an individual is large, upwards of sixty having been discovered
+to take part in the formation of the outer body of a fly. With regard
+to the internal organs, we need only say that transformation occurs
+in an essentially similar manner, by means of a development from
+centres distributed in the various organs. The imaginal disks for
+the outer wall of the body, some of them, at any rate, include mesodermal
+rudiments (from which the muscles are developed) as well as
+hypodermis. The imaginal disks make their appearance (that is,
+have been first detected) at very different epochs in the life; their
+absolute origin has been but little investigated. Pratt has traced
+them in the sheep-tick (<i>Melophagus</i>) to an early stage of the embryonic
+life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histolysis and Histogenesis.</i>&mdash;The process of destruction of the larval
+tissues was first studied in the forms where metamorphosis is greatest
+and most abrupt, viz. in the Muscid Diptera. It was found that
+the tissues were attacked by phagocytic cells that became enlarged
+and carried away fragments of the tissue; the cells were subsequently
+identified as leucocytes or blood-cells. Hence the opinion arose that
+histolysis is a process of phagocytosis. It has, however, since been
+found that in other kinds of insects the tissues degenerate and break
+down without the intervention of phagocytes. It has, moreover,
+been noticed that even in cases where phagocytosis exists a greater or
+less extent of degeneration of the tissue may be observed before
+phagocytosis occurs. This process can therefore only be looked
+on as a secondary one that hastens and perfects the destruction
+necessary to permit of the accompanying histogenesis. This view
+is confirmed by the fate of the phagocytic cells. These do not take a
+direct part in the formation of the new tissue, but it is believed merely
+yield their surplus acquisitions, becoming ordinary blood-cells or
+disappearing altogether. As to the nature of histogenesis, nothing
+more can be said than that it appears to be a phenomenon similar
+to embryonic growth, though limited to certain spots. Hence we
+are inclined to look on the imaginal disks as cellular areas that possess
+in a latent condition the powers of growth and development that
+exist in the embryo, powers that only become evident in certain
+special conditions of the organism. What the more essential of these
+conditions may be is a question on which very little light has been
+thrown, though it has been widely discussed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Much consideration has been given to the nature of metamorphosis
+in insects, to its value to the creatures and to the
+mode of its origin. Insect metamorphosis may be briefly
+described as phenomena of development characterized by abrupt
+changes of appearance and of structure, occurring during the
+period subsequent to embryonic development and antecedent to
+the reproductive state. It is, in short, a peculiar mode of growth
+and adolescence. The differences in appearance between the
+caterpillar and the butterfly, striking as they are to the eye, do
+not sufficiently represent the phenomena of metamorphosis to the
+intelligence. The changes that take place involve a revolution in
+the being, and may be summarized under three headings: (1)
+The food-relations of the individual are profoundly changed, an
+entirely different set of mouth-organs appears and the kind and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+quantity of the food taken is often radically different. (2) A
+wingless, sedentary creature is turned into a winged one with
+superlative powers of aerial movement. (3) An individual in
+which the reproductive organs and powers are functionally
+absent becomes one in which these structures and powers are the
+only reason for existence, for the great majority of insects die
+after a brief period of reproduction. These changes are in the
+higher insects so extreme that it is difficult to imagine how they
+could be increased. In the case of the common drone-fly,
+<i>Eristalis tenax</i>, the individual, from a sedentary maggot living in
+filth, without any relations of sex, and with only unimportant
+organs for the ingestion of its foul nutriment, changes to a
+creature of extreme alertness, with magnificent powers of flight,
+living on the products of the flowers it frequents, and endowed
+with highly complex sexual structures.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:501px; height:219px" src="images/img428b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 4, n. s. (<i>U.S. Dept. Agr.</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Vermiform Larva (maggot) of House-fly (<i>Musca domestica</i>).
+Magnified. <i>b</i>, spiracle on prothorax; <i>c</i>, protruded head region;
+<i>d</i>, tail-end with functional spiracles; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, head region with
+mouth hooks protruded; <i>g</i>, hooks retracted; <i>h</i>, eggs. All magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:87px; height:338px" src="images/img428a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Westwood,
+<i>Modern Classification</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Campodeiform
+Larva of
+a Ground-Beetle
+(<i>Aepus marinus</i>).
+Magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Forms of Larva.</i>&mdash;The unlikeness of the young insect to its
+parent is one of the factors that necessitates metamorphosis.
+It is instructive, further, to trace among
+metabolic insects an increase in the degree
+of this dissimilarity. An adult Hexapod
+is provided with a firm, well-chitinized
+cuticle and six conspicuous jointed legs.
+Many larval Hexapods might be defined
+in similar general terms, unlike as they are
+to their parents in most points of detail.
+Examples of such are to be seen in the
+grubs of may-flies, dragon-flies, lacewing-flies
+and ground-beetles (fig. 24).
+This type of active, armoured larva&mdash;often
+bearing conspicuous feelers on the
+head and long jointed cercopods on the
+tenth abdominal segment&mdash;was styled campodeiform
+by F. Brauer (1869), on account
+of its likeness in shape to the bristle-tail
+<i>Campodea</i>. As an extreme contrast to this
+campodeiform type, we take the maggot
+of the house-fly (fig. 25)&mdash;a vermiform
+larva, with soft, white, feebly-chitinized
+cuticle and without either head-capsule
+or legs. Between these two extremes,
+numerous intermediate forms can be traced:
+the grub (wireworm) of a click-beetle, with narrow elongate
+well-armoured body, but with the legs very short; the grub
+of a chafer, with the legs fairly developed, but with the cuticle
+of all the trunk-segments soft and feebly chitinized; the well-known
+caterpillar of a moth (fig. 21, <i>e</i>) or saw-fly, with its
+long cylindrical body, bearing the six shortened thoracic legs
+and a variable number of pairs of &ldquo;pro-legs&rdquo; on the abdomen
+(this being the eruciform type of larva); the soft, white, wood-boring
+grub of a longhorn-beetle or of the saw-fly <i>Sirex</i>, with
+its stumpy vestiges of thoracic legs; the large-headed but
+entirely legless, fleshy grub of a weevil; and the legless larva,
+with greatly reduced head, of a bee. The various larvae of
+the above series, however, have all a distinct head-capsule,
+which is altogether wanting in the degraded fly maggot. These
+differences in larval form depend in part on the surroundings
+among which the larva finds itself after hatching; the active,
+armoured grub has to seek food for itself and to fight its own
+battles, while the soft, defenceless maggot is provided with
+abundant nourishment. But in general we find that elaboration
+of imaginal structure is associated with degradation in the nature
+of the larva, eruciform and vermiform larvae being characteristic
+of the highest orders of the Hexapoda, so that unlikeness
+between parent and offspring has increased with the evolution
+of the class.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypermetamorphosis.</i>&mdash;Among a few of the beetles or Coleoptera
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and also in the neuropterous genus <i>Mantispa</i>, are
+found life-histories in which the earliest instar is campodeiform
+and the succeeding larval stages eruciform. These later stages,
+comprising the greater part of the larval history, are adapted
+for an inquiline or a parasitic life, where shelter is assured
+and food abundant, while the short-lived, active condition
+enables the newly-hatched insect to make its way to the spot
+favourable for its future development, clinging, for example,
+in the case of an oil-beetle&rsquo;s larva, to the hairs of a bee as she
+flies towards her nest. The presence of the two successive
+larval forms in the life-history constitutes what is called hypermetamorphosis.
+Most significant is the precedence of the
+eruciform by the campodeiform type. In conjunction with
+the association mentioned above of the most highly developed
+imaginal with the most degraded larval structure, it indicates
+clearly that the active, armoured grub preceded the sluggish
+soft-skinned caterpillar or maggot in the evolution of the Hexapoda.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nymph.</i>&mdash;The term nymph is applied by many writers on the
+Hexapoda to all young forms of insects that are not sufficiently
+unlike their parents to be called larvae. Other writers apply
+the term to a &ldquo;free&rdquo; pupa (see <i>infra</i>). It is in wellnigh universal
+use for those instars of ametabolous and hemimetabolous
+insects in which the external wing-rudiments have become
+conspicuous (fig. 27). The mature dragon-fly nymph, for
+example, makes its way out of the water in which the early
+stages have been passed and, clinging to some water-plant,
+undergoes the final ecdysis that the imago may emerge into
+the air. Like most ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda,
+such nymphs continue to move and feed throughout their
+lives. But examples are not wanting of a more or less complete
+resting habit during the latest nymphal instar. In some cicads
+the mature nymph ceases to feed and remains quiescent within
+a pillar-shaped earthen chamber. The nymph of a thrips-insect
+(Thysanoptera) is sluggish, its legs and wings being sheathed
+by a delicate membrane, while the nymph of the male scale-insect
+rests enclosed beneath a waxy covering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sub-imago.</i>&mdash;Among the Hexapoda generally there is no
+subsequent ecdysis nor any further growth after the assumption
+of the winged state. The may-flies, however, offer a remarkable
+exception to this rule. After a prolonged aquatic larval and
+nymphal life-history, the winged insect appears as a sub-imago,
+whence, after the casting of a delicate cuticle, the true imago
+emerges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupa.</i>&mdash;In the metabolic Hexapoda the resting pupal instar
+shows externally the wings and other characteristic imaginal
+organs which have been gradually elaborated beneath the
+larval cuticle. It is usual to distinguish between the free
+pupae (fig. 26, <i>b</i>)&mdash;of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, for example&mdash;in
+which the wings, legs and other appendages are not fixed
+to the trunk, and the obtect pupae (fig. 21, <i>d</i>)&mdash;such as may
+be noticed in the majority of the Lepidoptera&mdash;whose appendages
+are closely and immovably pressed to the body by a general
+hardening and fusion of the cuticle. In the degree of mobility
+there is great diversity among pupae. A gnat pupa swims
+through the water by powerful strokes of its abdomen, while
+the caddis-fly pupa, in preparation for its final ecdysis, bites
+its way out of its subaqueous protective case and rises through
+the water, so that the fly may emerge into the air. Some
+pupae are thus more active than some nymphs; the essential
+character of a pupa is not therefore its passivity, but that it
+is the instar in which the wings first become evident externally.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span>
+The division of the winged Hexapoda into Exopteryga and
+Endopteryga is thus again justified.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:390px; height:292px" src="images/img429a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Chittenden, <i>Bull.</i> 4 (n.s.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i>, Saw-toothed Grain-Beetle (<i>Silvanus surinamensis</i>);
+<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, larva, magnified&mdash;; <i>d</i>, feeler of larva.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>If we admit that the larva has, in the phylogeny of insects, gradually
+diverged from the imago, and if we recollect that in the ontogeny the
+larva has always to become the imago (and of course still does so)
+notwithstanding the increased difficulty of the transformation, we
+cannot but recognize that a period of helplessness in which the
+transformation may take place is to be expected. It is generally
+considered that this is sufficient as an explanation of the existence
+of the pupa. This, however, is not the case, because the greater
+part of the transformation precedes the disclosure of the pupa,
+which, as L. C. Miall remarks, is structurally little other &ldquo;than the
+fly enclosed in a temporary skin.&rdquo; Moreover, in many insects with
+imperfect metamorphosis the change from larva or (as the later stage
+of the larva is called in these cases) nymph to imago is about as great
+as the corresponding change in the Holometabola, as the student
+will recognize if he recalls the histories of <i>Ephemeridae</i>, Odonata and
+male <i>Coccidae</i>. But in none of these latter cases have the wings to
+be changed from a position inside the body to become external and
+actively functional organs. The difference between the nymph or
+false pupa and the true pupa is that in the latter a whole stage is
+devoted to the perfecting of the wings and body-wall after the wings
+have become external organs; the stage is one in which no food is or
+can be taken, however prolonged may be its existence. Amongst
+insects with imperfect metamorphosis the nearest approximations
+to the true pupa of the Holometabola are to be found in the sub-imago
+of <i>Ephemeridae</i> and in the quiescent or resting stages of Thysanoptera,
+<i>Aleurodidae</i> and <i>Coccidae</i>. A much more thorough appreciation
+than we yet possess of the phenomena in these cases is necessary in
+order completely to demonstrate the special characteristics of the
+holometabolous transformation. But even at present we can correctly
+state that the true pupa is invariably connected with the
+transference of the wings from the interior to the exterior of the body.
+It cannot but suggest itself that this transference was induced by
+some peculiarity as to formation of cuticle, causing the growth of the
+wings to be directed inwards instead of outwards. We may remark
+that fleas possess no wings, but are understood to possess a true pupa.
+This is a most remarkable case, but unfortunately very little information
+exists as to the details of metamorphosis in this group.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Life-Relations.</i>&mdash;Only a brief reference can be made here
+to the fascinating subject of the life-relations of the larva,
+nymph and pupa, as compared with those of the imago. For
+details, the reader may consult the special articles on the various
+orders and groups of insects. A common result of metamorphosis
+is that the larva and imago differ markedly in their
+habitat and mode of feeding. The larva may be aquatic, or
+subterranean, or a burrower in wood, while the imago is aerial.
+It may bite and devour solid food, while the imago sucks liquids.
+It may eat roots or refuse, while the imago lives on leaves and
+flowers. The aquatic habit of many larvae is associated with
+endless beautiful adaptations for respiration. The series of
+paired spiracles on most of the trunk-segments is well displayed,
+as a rule, in terrestrial larvae&mdash;caterpillars and the grubs of most
+beetles, for example. In many aquatic larvae we find that all
+the spiracles are closed up, or become functionless, except a
+pair at the hinder end which are associated with some arrangement&mdash;such
+as the valvular flaps of the gnat larva or the telescopic
+&ldquo;tail&rdquo; of the drone-fly larva&mdash;for piercing the surface
+film and drawing periodical supplies of atmospheric air. A
+similar restriction of the functional spiracles to the tail-end
+(fig. 25, <i>d</i>) is seen in many larvae of flies (Diptera) that live and
+feed buried in carrion or excrement. Other aquatic larvae
+have the tracheal system entirely closed, and are able to breathe
+dissolved air by means of tubular or leaf-like gills. Such are
+the grubs of stone-flies, may-flies (fig. 27) and some dragon-flies
+and midges. An interesting feature is the difference often to
+be observed between an aquatic larva
+and pupa of the same insect in the
+matter of breathing. The gnat larva, for
+example, breathes at the tail-end, hanging
+head-downwards from the surface-film.
+But the pupa hangs from the surface by
+means of paired respiratory trumpets on
+the prothorax, the dorsal thoracic surface,
+where the cuticle splits to allow the
+emergence of the fly, being thus directed
+towards the upper air.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:464px" src="images/img429b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Miall and Denny
+(after Vayssière), <i>The Cockroach</i>,
+Lovell Reeve &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Nymph of
+May-fly (<i>Chloeon dipterum</i>),
+with wing rudiments
+(<i>a</i>) and tracheal
+gill-plates (<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>).
+Magnified&mdash;.  (The feelers
+and legs are cut short.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A marked disproportion between the
+life-term of larva and imago is common;
+the former often lives for months or
+years, while the latter only survives for
+weeks or days or hours. Generally the
+larval is the feeding, the imaginal the
+breeding, stage of the life-cycle. The
+extreme of this &ldquo;division of labour&rdquo; is
+seen in those insects whose jaws are
+vestigial in the winged state, when, the
+need for feeding all behind them, they
+have but to pair, to lay eggs and to die.
+The acquisition of wings is the sign of
+developed reproductive power.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paedogenesis.</i>&mdash;Nevertheless, the function
+of reproduction is occasionally exercised
+by larvae. In 1865 N. Wagner
+made his classical observations on the
+production of larvae from unfertilized
+eggs developed in the precociously-formed
+ovaries of a larval gall-midge
+(Cecidomyid), and subsequent observers
+have confirmed his results by studies on insects of the same
+family and of the related <i>Chironomidae</i>. The larvae produced
+by this remarkable method (paedogenesis) of virgin-reproduction
+are hatched within the parent larva, and in some cases escape
+by the rupture of its body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyembryony.</i>&mdash;Occasionally the power of reproduction is
+thrown still farther back in the life-history, and it is found
+that from a single egg a large number of embryos may be formed.
+P. Marchal has (1904) described this power in two small parasitic
+Hymenoptera&mdash;a Chalcid (<i>Encyrtus</i>) which lays eggs in the
+developing eggs of the small moth <i>Hyponomeuta</i>, and a Proctotrypid
+(<i>Polygnotus</i>) which infests a gall-midge (Cecidomyid)
+larva. In the egg of these insects a small number of nuclei
+are formed by the division of the nucleus, and each of these
+nuclei originates by division the cell-layers of a separate embryo.
+Thus a mass or chain of embryos is produced, lying in a common
+cyst, and developing as their larval host develops. In this
+way over a hundred embryos may result from a single egg.
+Marchal points out the analogy of this phenomenon to the
+artificial polyembryony that has been induced in Echinoderm
+and other eggs by separating the blastomeres, and suggests
+that the abundant food-supply afforded by the host-larva is
+favourable for this multiplication of embryos, which may be,
+in the first instance, incited by the abnormal osmotic pressure
+on the egg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Duration of Life.</i>&mdash;The flour-moth (<i>Ephestia kuhniella</i>)
+sometimes passes through five or six generations in a single
+year. Although one of the characteristics of insects is the
+brevity of their adult lives, a considerable number of exceptions
+to the general rule have been discovered. These exceptions
+may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) Certain larvae,
+provided with food that may be adequate in quantity but
+deficient in nutriment, may live and go on feeding for many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+years; (2) certain stages of the life that are naturally
+&ldquo;resting stages&rdquo; may be in exceptional cases prolonged, and
+that to a very great extent; in this case no food is taken,
+and the activity of the individual is almost <i>nil</i>; (3) the
+life of certain insects in the adult state may be much
+prolonged if celibacy be maintained; a female of <i>Cybister
+roeselii</i> (a large water-beetle) has lived five and a half
+years in the adult state in captivity. In addition to these
+abnormal cases, the life of certain insects is naturally
+more prolonged than usual. The females of some social
+insects have been known to live for many years. In <i>Tibicen
+septemdecim</i> the life of the larva extends over from thirteen
+to seventeen years. The eggs of locusts may remain for years
+in the ground before hatching; and there may thus arise the
+peculiar phenomenon of some species of insect appearing in
+vast numbers in a locality where it has not been seen for
+several years.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Classification</p>
+
+<p><i>Number of Species.</i>&mdash;It is now
+considered that 2,000,000 is a moderate estimate of the
+species of insects actually existing. Some authorities
+consider this total to be too small, and extend the number
+to 10,000,000. Upwards of 300,000 species have been
+collected and described, and at present the number of named
+forms increases at the rate of about 8000 species per annum.
+The greater part by far of the insects existing in the world
+is still quite unknown to science. Many of the species are
+in process of extinction, owing to the extensive changes
+that are taking place in the natural conditions of the
+world by the extension of human population and of
+cultivation, and by the destruction of forests; hence it is
+probable that a considerable proportion of the species at
+present existing will disappear from the face of the earth
+before we have discovered or preserved any specimens of
+them. Nevertheless, the constant increase of our knowledge
+of insect forms renders classification increasingly
+difficult, for gaps in the series become filled, and while
+the number of genera and families increases, the
+distinctions between these groups become dependent on
+characters that must seem trivial to the naturalist who is
+not a specialist.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orders of Hexapoda.</i>&mdash;In the present article it is only possible to treat of the
+division of the Hexapoda into orders and sub-orders and of
+the relations of these orders to each other. For further
+classificatory details, reference must be made to the
+special articles on the various orders. As regards the vast
+majority of insects, the orders proposed by Linnaeus are
+acknowledged by modern zoologists. His classification was
+founded mainly on the nature of the wings, and five of his
+orders&mdash;the Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps, &amp;c.),
+Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (two-winged flies),
+Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), and Hemiptera (bugs,
+cicads, &amp;c.)&mdash;are recognized to-day with nearly the same
+limits as he laid down. His order of wingless insects
+(Aptera) included Crustacea, spiders, centipedes and other
+creatures that now form classes of the Arthropoda distinct
+from the Hexapoda; it also included Hexapoda of parasitic
+and evidently degraded structure, that are now regarded as
+allied more or less closely to various winged insects.
+Consequently the modern order Aptera comprises only a very
+small proportion of Linnaeus&rsquo;s &ldquo;Aptera&rdquo;&mdash;the spring-tails
+and bristle-tails, wingless Hexapoda that stand evidently at
+a lower grade of development than the bulk of the class. The
+earwigs, cockroaches and locusts, which Linnaeus included
+among the Coleoptera, were early grouped into a distinct
+order, the Orthoptera. The great advance in modern zoology
+as regards the classification of the Hexapoda lies in the
+treatment of a heterogeneous assembly which formed
+Linnaeus&rsquo;s order Neuroptera. The characters of the wings are
+doubtless important as indications of relationship, but the
+nature of the jaws and the course of the life-history must
+be considered of greater value. Linnaeus&rsquo;s Neuroptera
+exhibit great diversity in these respects, and the insects
+included in it are now therefore distributed into a number
+of distinct orders. The many different arrangements that
+have been proposed can hardly be referred to in this
+article. Of special importance in the history of systematic
+entomology was the scheme of F. Brauer (1885), who separated
+the spring tails and bristle-tails as a sub-class
+Apterygogenea from all the other Hexapoda, these forming the
+sub-class Pterygogenea distributed into sixteen orders.
+Brauer in his arrangement of these orders laid special
+stress on the nature of the metamorphosis, and was the first
+to draw attention to the number of Malpighian tubes as of
+importance in classification. Subsequent writers have, for
+the most part, increased the number of recognized orders;
+and during the last few years several schemes of
+classification have been published, in the most
+revolutionary of which&mdash;that of A. Handlirsch (1903-1904)&mdash;the
+Hexapoda are divided into four classes and thirty-four
+orders! Such excessive multiplication of the larger
+taxonomic divisions shows an imperfect sense of proportion,
+for if the term &ldquo;class&rdquo; be allowed its usual zoological
+value, no student can fail to recognize that the Hexapoda
+form a single well-defined class, from which few
+entomologists would wish to exclude even the Apterygogenea.
+In several recent attempts to group the orders into
+sub-classes, stress has been laid upon a few characters in
+the imago. C. Börner (1904), for example, considers the
+presence or absence of cerci of great importance, while F.
+Klapalek (1904) lays stress on a supposed distinction
+between appendicular and non-appendicular genital processes.
+A natural system must take into account the nature of the
+larva and of the metamorphosis in conjunction with the
+general characters of the imago. Hence the grouping of the
+orders of winged Hexapoda into the divisions Exopterygota
+and Endopterygota, as suggested by D. Sharp, is unlikely to
+be superseded by the result of any researches into minute
+imaginal structure. Sharp&rsquo;s proposed association of the
+parasitic wingless insects in a group Anapterygota cannot,
+however, be defended as natural; and recent researches into
+the structure of these forms enables us to associate them
+confidently with related winged orders. The classification
+here adopted is based on Sharp&rsquo;s scheme, with the addition
+of suggestions from some of the most recent authors&mdash;especially
+Börner and Enderlein.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center">Class: <b>HEXAPODA.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center pt1">Sub-class: <span class="sc">Apterygota.</span></p>
+
+<p>Primitively (?) wingless Hexapods with cumacean mandibles,
+distinct maxillulae, and locomotor abdominal appendages.
+Without ectodermal genital ducts. Young closely resemble
+adults.</p>
+
+<p>The sub-class contains a single</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Aptera</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">which is divided into two sub-orders:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Thysanura</i> (Bristle-tails): with ten abdominal segments; number of
+abdominal appendages variable. Cerci prominent. Developed
+tracheal system.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Collembola</i> (Spring-tails): with six
+abdominal segments; appendages of the first forming an
+adherent ventral tube, those of the third a minute &ldquo;catch,&rdquo;
+those of the fourth (fused basally) a &ldquo;spring.&rdquo; Tracheal
+system reduced or absent.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Sub-class: <span class="sc">Exopterygota.</span></p>
+
+<p>Hexapoda mostly with wings, the wingless forms clearly
+degraded. Maxillulae rarely distinct. No locomotor abdominal
+appendages. The wing-rudiments develop visibly outside the
+cuticle. Young like or unlike parents.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Dermaptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; minute but distinct-maxillulae; second
+maxillae incompletely fused. When wings are present, the
+fore-wings are small firm elytra, beneath which the delicate
+hind-wings are complexly folded. Many forms wingless.
+Genital ducts entirely mesodermal. Cerci always present;
+usually modified into unjointed forceps. Numerous (30 or
+more) Malpighian tubes. Young resembling parents.</p>
+
+<p>Includes two families&mdash;the <i>Forficulidae</i> or <i>earwigs</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)
+and the <i>Hemimeridae</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Orthoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; vestigial maxillulae; second maxillae
+incompletely fused. Wings usually well developed,
+net-veined; the fore-wings of firmer texture than the
+hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise beneath them.
+Jointed cerci always present; ovipositor well developed.
+Malpighian tubes numerous (100-150). Young resemble parents.</p>
+
+<p>Includes stick and leaf insects, cockroaches, mantids,
+grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orthoptera</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Plecoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused.
+Fore-wings similar in texture to hind-wings, whose anal area
+folds fanwise. Jointed, often elongate, cerci. Numerous
+(50-60) Malpighian tubes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+Young resembling parents, but aquatic in habit, breathing dissolved
+air by thoracic tracheal gills.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the single family of the <i>Perlidae</i> (Stone-flies), formerly
+grouped with the Neuroptera.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Isoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings
+similar in shape and texture to hind-wings, which do not fold.
+In most species the majority of individuals are wingless. Short,
+jointed cerci. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Young resembling
+adults; terrestrial throughout life.</p>
+
+<p>Includes two families, formerly reckoned among the Neuroptera&mdash;the
+<i>Embiidae</i> and the <i>Termitidae</i> or &ldquo;White Ants&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Termite</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Corrodentia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused; maxillulae
+often distinct. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes.</p>
+
+<p>Includes two sub-orders, formerly regarded as Neuroptera:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Copeognatha</i>: Corrodentia with delicate cuticle. Wings usually
+developed; the fore-wings much larger than the hind-wings. One
+family, the <i>Psocidae</i> (Book-lice). These minute insects are found
+amongst old books and furniture.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Mallophaga</i>: Parasitic wingless Corrodentia (Bird-lice).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Ephemeroptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Jaws vestigial. Fore-wings much larger than hind-wings. Elongate,
+jointed cerci. Genital ducts paired and entirely mesodermal.
+Malpighian tubes numerous (40). Aquatic larvae with distinct
+maxillulae, breathing dissolved air by abdominal tracheal gills.
+Penultimate instar a flying sub-imago. [Includes the single family
+of the <i>Ephemeridae</i> or may-flies. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuroptera</a></span>, in which
+this order was formerly comprised.]</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Odonata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles. Wings of both pairs closely alike; firm and
+glassy in texture. Prominent, unjointed cerci, male with genital
+armature on second abdominal segment. Malpighian tubes numerous
+(50-60). Aquatic larvae with caudal leaf-gills or with rectal
+tracheal system.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the three families of dragon-flies. Formerly comprised
+among the Neuroptera.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Thysanoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Piercing mandibles, retracted within the head-capsule. First
+maxillae also modified as piercers; maxillae of both pairs with
+distinct palps. Both pairs of wings similar, narrow and fringed.
+Four Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor usually present.
+Young resembling parents, but penultimate instar passive and
+enclosed in a filmy pellicle.</p>
+
+<p>Includes three families of Thrips (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thysanoptera</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Hemiptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mandibles and first maxillae modified as piercers; second maxillae
+fused to form a jointed, grooved rostrum. Wings usually present.
+Four Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor developed.</p>
+
+<p>Includes two sub-orders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Heteroptera</i>: Rostrum not in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
+Fore-wings partly coriaceous. Young resembling adults.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the bugs, terrestrial and aquatic.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Homoptera</i>: Rostrum in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
+Fore-wings uniform in texture. Young often larvae. Penultimate
+instar passive in some cases.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the cicads, aphides and scale-insects (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hemiptera</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Anoplura</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Piercing jaws modified and reduced, a tubular, protrusible sucking-trunk
+being developed; mouth with hooks. Wingless, parasitic
+forms. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. Young resembling
+adults.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the family of the Lice (<i>Pediculidae</i>), often reckoned as
+Hemiptera (<i>q.v.</i>). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louse</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Sub-class: <span class="sc">Endopterygota</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Hexapoda mostly with wings; the wingless forms clearly degraded
+or modified. Maxillulae vestigial or absent. No locomotor abdominal
+appendages (except in certain larvae). Young animals always unlike
+parents, the wing-rudiments developing beneath the larval cuticle
+and only appearing in a penultimate pupal instar, which takes no
+food and is usually passive.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Neuroptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae completely fused. Prothorax
+large and free. Membranous, net-veined wings, those of the two
+pairs closely alike. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.
+Larva campodeiform, usually feeding by suction (exceptionally
+hypermetamorphic with subsequent eruciform instars). Pupa free.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the alder-flies, ant-lions and lacewing-flies. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuroptera</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Coleoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae very intimately fused. Prothorax
+large and free. Fore-wings modified into firm elytra,
+beneath which the membranous hind-wings (when present) can be
+folded. Cerci absent. Four or six Malpighian tubes. Larva campodeiform
+or eruciform. Pupa free.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the beetles and the parasitic <i>Stylopidae</i>, often regarded
+as a distinct order (<i>Strepsiptera</i>). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Mecaptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; first maxillae elongate; second maxillae completely
+fused. Prothorax small. Two pairs of similar, membranous
+wings, with predominantly longitudinal neuration. Six Malpighian
+tubes. Larva eruciform. Pupa free. Cerci present.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the single family of <i>Panorpidae</i> (scorpion-flies), often comprised
+among the Neuroptera.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Trichoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mandibles present in pupa, vestigial in imago; maxillae suctorial
+without specialization; first maxillae with lacinia, galea and palp.
+Prothorax small. Two pairs of membranous, hair-covered wings,
+with predominantly longitudinal neuration. Larvae aquatic and
+eruciform. Pupa free. Six Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the caddis-flies. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuroptera</a></span>, among which these
+insects were formerly comprised.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Lepidoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mandibles absent in imago, very exceptionally present in pupa;
+first maxillae nearly always without laciniae and often without palps,
+or only with vestigial palps, their galeae elongated and grooved
+inwardly so as to form a sucking trunk. Prothorax small. Wings
+with predominantly longitudinal neuration, covered with flattened
+scales. Fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Cerci absent. Four
+(rarely 6 or 8) Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform, with rarely
+more than five pairs of abdominal prolegs. Pupa free in the lowest
+families, in most cases incompletely or completely obtect.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the moths and butterflies. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lepidoptera</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Diptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mandibles rarely present, adapted for piercing; first maxillae
+with palps; second maxillae forming with hypopharynx a suctorial
+proboscis. Prothorax small, intimately united to mesothorax.
+Fore-wings well developed; hind-wings reduced to stalked knobs
+(&ldquo;halteres&rdquo;). Cerci present but usually reduced. Four Malpighian
+tubes. Larvae eruciform without thoracic legs, or vermiform
+without head-capsule. Pupa incompletely obtect or free, and
+enclosed in the hardened cuticle of the last larval instar (puparium).</p>
+
+<p>Includes the two-winged flies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diptera</a></span>), which may be divided
+into two sub-orders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Orthorrhapha</i>: Larva eruciform. Cuticle of pupa or puparium
+splitting longitudinally down the back, to allow escape of imago.</p>
+
+<p>Comprises the midges, gnats, crane-flies, gad-flies, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Cyclorrhapha</i>: Larva vermiform (no head-capsule). Puparium
+opening by an anterior &ldquo;lid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Comprises the hover-flies, flesh-flies, bot-flies, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Siphonaptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mandibles fused into a piercer; first maxillae developed as piercers;
+palps of both pairs of maxillae present; hypopharynx wanting.
+Prothorax large. Wings absent or vestigial. Larva eruciform,
+limbless.</p>
+
+<p>Includes the fleas.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Hymenoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely or completely
+fused; often forming a suctorial proboscis. Prothorax small, and
+united to mesothorax. First abdominal segment united to metathorax.
+Wings membranous, fore-wings larger than hind-wings.
+Ovipositor always well developed, and often modified into a sting.
+Numerous (20-150) Malpighian tubes (in rare cases, 6-12 only).
+Larva eruciform, with seven or eight pairs of abdominal prolegs,
+or entirely legless. Pupa free.</p>
+
+<p>Includes two sub-orders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Symphyta</i>: Abdomen not basally constricted. Larvae caterpillars
+with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs.</p>
+
+<p>Comprises the saw-flies.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Apocrita</i>: Abdomen markedly constricted at second segment.
+Larvae legless grubs.</p>
+
+<p>Comprises gall-flies, ichneumon-flies, ants, wasps, bees. See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hymenoptera</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Geological History</p>
+
+<p>The classification just given has been drawn up with reference
+to existing insects, but the great majority of the extinct forms
+that have been discovered can be referred with some confidence
+to the same orders, and in many cases to recent families. The
+Hexapoda, being aerial, terrestrial and fresh-water animals,
+are but occasionally preserved in stratified rocks, and our knowledge
+of extinct members of the class is therefore fragmentary,
+while the description, as insects, of various obscure fossils,
+which are perhaps not even Arthropods, has not tended to the
+advancement of this branch of zoology. Nevertheless, much
+progress has been made. Several Silurian fossils have been
+identified as insects, including a Thysanuran from North America,
+but upon these considerable doubt has been cast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span></p>
+
+<p>The Devonian rocks of Canada (New Brunswick) have yielded
+several fossils which are undoubtedly wings of Hexapods.
+These have been described by S. H. Scudder, and include gigantic
+forms related to the Ephemeroptera.</p>
+
+<p>In the Carboniferous strata (Coal measures) remains of
+Hexapods become numerous and quite indisputable. Many
+European forms of this age have been described by C. Brongniart,
+and American by S. H. Scudder. The latter has established,
+for all the Palaeozoic insects, an order Palaeodictyoptera,
+there being a closer similarity between the fore-wings and the
+hind-wings than is to be seen in most living orders of Hexapoda,
+while affinities are shown to several of these orders&mdash;notably
+the Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Hemiptera. It
+is probable that many of these Carboniferous insects might
+be referred to the Isoptera, while others would fall into the
+existing orders to which they are allied, with some modification
+of our present diagnoses. Of special interest are cockroach-like
+forms, with two pairs of similar membranous wings and
+a long ovipositor, and gigantic insects allied to the Odonata,
+that measured 2 ft. across the outspread wings. A remarkable
+fossil from the Scottish Coal-measures (<i>Lithomantis</i>) had
+apparently small wing-like structures on the prothorax, and
+in allied genera small veined outgrowths&mdash;like tracheal gills&mdash;occurred
+on the abdominal segments. To the Permian period
+belongs a remarkable genus <i>Eugereon</i>, that combines hemipteroid
+jaws with orthopteroid wing-neuration. With the dawn of the
+Mesozoic epoch we reach Hexapods that can be unhesitatingly
+referred to existing orders. From the Trias of Colorado, Scudder
+has described cockroaches intermediate between their Carboniferous
+precursors and their present-day descendants, while
+the existence of endopterygotous Hexapods is shown by the
+remains of Coleoptera of several families. In the Jurassic rocks
+are found Ephemeroptera and Odonata, as well as Hemiptera,
+referable to existing families, some representatives of which
+had already appeared in the oldest of the Jurassic ages&mdash;the
+Lias. To the Lias also can be traced back the Neuroptera,
+the Trichoptera, the orthorrhaphous Diptera and, according
+to the determination of certain obscure fossils, also the Hymenoptera
+(ants). The Lithographic stone of Kimmeridgian age,
+at Solenhofen in Bavaria, is especially rich in insect remains,
+cyclorrhaphous Diptera appearing here for the first time. In
+Tertiary times the higher Diptera, besides Lepidoptera and
+Hymenoptera, referable to existing families, become fairly
+abundant. Numerous fossil insects preserved in the amber
+of the Baltic Oligocene have been described by G. L. Mayr
+and others, while Scudder has studied the rich Oligocene faunas
+of Colorado (Florissant) and Wyoming (Green River). The
+Oeningen beds of Baden, of Miocene age, have also yielded
+an extensive insect fauna, described fifty years ago by O. Heer.
+Further details of the geological history of the Hexapoda will
+be found in the special articles on the various orders. Fragmentary
+as the records are, they show that the Exopterygota
+preceded the Endopterygota in the evolution of the class,
+and that among the Endopterygota those orders in which
+the greatest difference exists between imago and larva&mdash;the
+Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera&mdash;were the latest
+to take their rise.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Geographical Distribution</p>
+
+<p>The class Hexapoda has a world-wide range, and so have most
+of its component orders. The Aptera have perhaps the most
+extensive distribution of all animals, being found in Franz Josef
+Land and South Victoria Land, on the snows of Alpine glaciers,
+and in the depths of the most extensive caves. Most of the
+families and a large proportion of the genera of insects are
+exceedingly widespread, but a study of the genera and species in
+any of the more important families shows that faunas can be
+distinguished whose headquarters agree fairly with the regions
+that have been proposed to express the distribution of the higher
+vertebrates. Many insects, however, can readily extend their
+range, and a careful study of their distribution leads us to discriminate
+between faunas rather than definitely to map regions.
+A large and dominant Holoarctic fauna, with numerous subdivisions,
+ranges over the great northern continents, and is
+characterized by the abundance of certain families like the
+<i>Carabidae</i> and <i>Staphylinidae</i> among the Coleoptera and the
+<i>Tenthredinidae</i> among the Hymenoptera. The southern territory
+held by this fauna is invaded by genera and species distinctly
+tropical. Oriental types range far northwards into China and
+Japan. Ethiopian forms invade the Mediterranean area.
+Neotropical and distinctively Sonoran insects mingle with
+members of the Holoarctic fauna across a wide &ldquo;transition zone&rdquo;
+in North America. &ldquo;Wallace&rsquo;s line&rdquo; dividing the Indo-Malayan
+and Austro-Malayan sub-regions is frequently transgressed in the
+range of Malayan insects. The Australian fauna is rich in
+characteristic and peculiar genera, and New Zealand, while
+possessing some remarkable insects of its own, lacks entirely
+several families with an almost world-wide range&mdash;for example, the
+<i>Notodontidae</i>, <i>Lasiocampidae</i>, and other families of Lepidoptera.
+Interesting relationships between the Ethiopian and Oriental, the
+Neotropical and West African, the Patagonian and New Zealand
+faunas suggest great changes in the distribution of land and
+water, and throw doubt on the doctrine of the permanence of
+continental areas and oceanic basins. Holoarctic types reappear
+on the Andes and in South Africa, and even in New Zealand.
+The study of the Hexapoda of oceanic islands is full of interest.
+After the determination of a number of cosmopolitan insects
+that may well have been artificially introduced, there remains a
+large proportion of endemic species&mdash;sometimes referable to
+distinct genera&mdash;which suggest a high antiquity for the truly
+insular faunas.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Relationships and Phylogeny</p>
+
+<p>The Hexapoda form a very clearly defined class of the Arthropoda,
+and many recent writers have suggested that they must
+have arisen independently of other Arthropods from annelid
+worms, and that the Arthropoda must, therefore, be regarded
+as an &ldquo;unnatural,&rdquo; polyphyletic assemblage. The cogent arguments
+against this view are set forth in the article on Arthropoda.
+A near relationship between the Apterygota and the Crustacea
+has been ably advocated by H. J. Hansen (1893). It is admitted
+on all hands that the Hexapoda are akin to the Chilopoda.
+Verhoeff has lately (1904) put forward the view that there are
+really six segments in the hexapodan thorax and twenty in the
+abdomen&mdash;the cerci belonging to the seventeenth abdominal
+segment thus showing a close agreement with the centipede
+<i>Scolopendra</i>. On the other hand, G. H. Carpenter (1899, 1902-1904)
+has lately endeavoured to show an exact numerical
+correspondence in segmentation between the Hexapoda, the
+Crustacea, the Arachnida, and the most primitive of the Diplopoda.
+On either view it may be believed that the Hexapoda arose with
+the allied classes from a primitive arthropod stock, while the
+relationships of the class are with the Crustacea, the Chilopoda
+and the Diplopoda, rather than with the Arachnida.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nature of Primitive Hexapoda.</i>&mdash;Two divergent views have
+been held as to the nature of the original hexapod stock. Some
+of those zoologists who look to <i>Peripatus</i>, or a similar worm-like
+form, as representing the direct ancestors of the Hexapoda have
+laid stress on a larva like the caterpillar of a moth or saw-fly as
+representing a primitive stage. On the other hand, the view of
+F. Müller and F. Brauer, that the Thysanura represent more
+nearly than any other existing insects the ancestors of the class,
+has been accepted by the great majority of students. And there
+can be little doubt that this belief is justified. The caterpillar,
+or the maggot, is a specialized larval form characteristic of the
+most highly developed orders, while the campodeiform larva is
+the starting-point for the more primitive insects. The occurrence
+in the hypermetamorphic Coleoptera (see <i>supra</i>) of a campodeiform
+preceding an eruciform stage in the life-history is most
+suggestive. Taken in connexion with the likeness of the young
+among the more generalized orders to the adults, it indicates
+clearly a thysanuroid starting-point for the evolution of the
+hexapod orders. And we must infer further that the specialization
+of the higher orders has been accompanied by an increase in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span>
+the extent of the metamorphosis&mdash;a very exceptional condition
+among animals generally, as has been ably pointed out by
+L. C. Miall (1895).</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin of Wings.</i>&mdash;The post-embryonic growth of Hexapods
+with or without metamorphosis is accompanied in most cases by
+the acquisition of wings. These organs, thus acquired during the
+lifetime of the individual, must have been in some way acquired
+during the evolution of the class. Many students of the group,
+following Brauer, have regarded the Apterygota as representing
+the original wingless progenitors of the Pterygota, and the many
+primitive characters shown by the former group lend support to
+this view. On the other hand, it has been argued that the
+presence of wings in a vast majority of the Hexapoda suggests
+their presence in the ancestors of the whole class. It is most
+unlikely that wings have been acquired independently by various
+orders of Hexapoda, and if we regard the Thysanura as the
+slightly modified representatives of a primitively wingless stock,
+we must postulate the acquisition of wings by some early offshoot
+of that stock, an offshoot whence the whole group of the Pterygota
+took its rise. How wings were acquired by these primitive
+Pterygota must remain for the present a subject for speculation.
+Insect wings are specialized outgrowths of certain thoracic
+segments, and are quite unrepresented in any other class of
+Arthropods. They are not, therefore, like the wings of birds,
+modified from some pre-existing structures (the fore-limbs)
+common to their phylum; they are new and peculiar structures.
+Comparison of the tracheated wings with the paired tracheated
+outgrowths on the abdominal segments of the aquatic campodeiform
+larva of may-flies (see fig. 27) led C. Gegenbaur to the
+brilliant suggestion that wings might be regarded as specialized
+and transformed gills. But a survey of the Hexapoda as a
+whole, and especially a comparative study of the tracheal system,
+can hardly leave room for doubt that this system is primitively
+adapted for atmospheric breathing, and that the presence of
+tracheal gills in larvae must be regarded as a special adaptation
+for temporary aquatic life. The origin of insect wings remains,
+therefore, a mystery, deepened by the difficulty of imagining any
+probable use for thoracic outgrowths, comparable to the wing-rudiments
+of the Exopterygota, in the early stages of their
+evolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin of Metamorphosis.</i>&mdash;In connexion with the question
+whether metamorphosis has been gradually acquired, we have to
+consider two aspects, viz. the bionomic nature of metamorphosis,
+and to what extent it existed in primitive insects. Bionomically,
+metamorphosis may be defined as the sum of adaptations that
+have gradually fitted the larva (caterpillar or maggot) for one
+kind of life, the fly for another. So that we may conclude that
+the factors of evolution would favour its development. With
+regard to its occurrence in primitive insects, our knowledge of the
+geological record is most imperfect, but so far as it goes it supports
+the conclusion that holometabolism (<i>i.e.</i> extreme metamorphosis)
+is a comparatively recent phenomenon of insect life. None of
+the groups of existing Endopterygota have been traced with
+certainty farther back than the Mesozoic epoch, and all the
+numerous Palaeozoic insect-fossils seem to belong to forms that
+possessed only imperfect metamorphosis. The only doubt arises
+from the existence of insect remains, referred to the order
+Coleoptera, in the Silesian Culm of Steinkunzendorf near
+Reichenbach. The oldest larva known, <i>Mormolucoides articulatus</i>,
+is from the New Red Sandstone of Connecticut; it
+belongs to the <i>Sialidae</i>, one of the lowest forms of Holometabola.
+It is now, in fact, generally admitted that metamorphosis has
+been acquired comparatively recently, and Scudder in his
+review of the earliest fossil insects states that &ldquo;their metamorphoses
+were simple and incomplete, the young leaving the
+egg with the form of the parent, but without wings, the assumption
+of which required no quiescent stage before maturity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It has been previously remarked that the phenomena of
+holometabolism are connected with the development of wings
+inside the body (except in the case of the fleas, where there
+are no wings in the perfect insect). Of existing insects 90%
+belong to the Endopterygota. At the same time we have no
+evidence that any Endopterygota existed amongst Palaeozoic
+insects, so that the phenomena of endopterygotism are comparatively
+recent, and we are led to infer that the Endopterygota owe
+their origin to the older Exopterygota. In Endopterygota the
+wings commence their development as invaginations of the
+hypodermis, while in Exopterygota the wings begin&mdash;and always
+remain&mdash;as external folds or evaginations. The two modes
+of growth are directly opposed, and at first sight it appears that
+this fact negatives the view that Endopterygota have been
+derived from Exopterygota.</p>
+
+<p>Only three hypotheses as to the origin of Endopterygota
+can be suggested as possible, viz.:&mdash;(1) That some of the Palaeozoic
+insects, though we infer them to have been exopterygotous,
+were really endopterygotous, and were the actual ancestors
+of the existing Endopterygota; (2) that Endopterygota are
+not descended from Exopterygota, but were derived directly
+from ancestors that were never winged; (3) that the predominant
+division&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> Endopterygota&mdash;of insects of the present epoch
+are descended from the predominant&mdash;if not the sole&mdash;group
+that existed in the Palaeozoic epoch, viz. the Exopterygota.
+The first hypothesis is not negatived by direct evidence, for
+we do not actually know the ontogeny of any of the Palaeozoic
+insects; it is, however, rendered highly improbable by the
+modern views as to the nature and origin of wings in insects,
+and by the fact that the Endopterygota include none of the
+lower existing forms of insects. The second hypothesis&mdash;to
+the effect that Endopterygota are the descendants of apterous
+insects that had never possessed wings (<i>i.e.</i> the Apterygogenea
+of Brauer and others, though we prefer the shorter term Apterygota)&mdash;is
+rendered improbable from the fact that existing
+Apterygota are related to Exopterygota, not to Endopterygota,
+and by the knowledge that has been gained as to the morphology
+and development of wings, which suggest that&mdash;if we may so
+phrase it&mdash;were an apterygotous insect gradually to develop
+wings, it would be on the exopterygotous system. From all
+points of view it appears, therefore, probable that Endopterygota
+are descended from Exopterygota, and we are brought to the
+question as to the way in which this has occurred.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost impossible to believe that any species of insect
+that has for a long period developed the wings outside the body
+could change this mode of growth suddenly for an internal
+mode of development of the organs in question, for, as we have
+already explained, the two modes of growth are directly opposed.
+The explanation has to be sought in another direction. Now
+there are many forms of Exopterygota in which the creatures
+are almost or quite destitute of wings. This phenomenon
+occurs among species found at high elevations, among others
+found in arid or desert regions, and in some cases in the female
+sex only, the male being winged and the female wingless. This
+last state is very frequent in <i>Blattidae</i>, which were amongst
+the most abundant of Palaeozoic insects. The wingless forms
+in question are always allied to winged forms, and there is every
+reason to believe that they have been really derived from
+winged forms. There are also insects (fleas, &amp;c.) in which
+metamorphosis of a &ldquo;complete&rdquo; character exists, though the
+insects never develop wings. These cases render it highly
+probable that insects may in some circumstances become wingless,
+though their ancestors were winged. Such insects have been
+styled anapterygotous. In these facts we have one possible
+clue to the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism,
+namely, by an intermediate period of anapterygotism.</p>
+
+<p>Although we cannot yet define the conditions under which
+exopterygotous wings are suppressed or unusually developed,
+yet we know that such fluctuations occur. There are, in fact,
+existing forms of Exopterygota that are usually wingless, and
+that nevertheless appear in certain seasons or localities with
+wings. We are therefore entitled to assume that the suppressed
+wings of Exopterygota tend to reappear; and, speaking of the
+past, we may say that if after a period of suppression the wings
+began to reappear as hypodermal buds while a more rigid pressure
+was exerted by the cuticle, the growth of the buds would necessarily
+be inwards, and we should have incipient endopterygotism.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span>
+The change that is required to transform Exopterygota into
+Endopterygota is merely that a cell of hypodermis should
+proliferate inwards instead of outwards, or that a minute hypodermal
+evaginated bud should be forced to the interior of the
+body by the pressure of a contracted cuticle.</p>
+
+<p>If it should be objected that the wings so developed would
+be rudimentary, and that there would be nothing to encourage
+their development into perfect functional organs, we may
+remind the reader that we have already pointed out that imperfect
+wings of Exopterygota do, even at the present time under
+certain conditions, become perfect organs; and we may also
+add that there are, even among existing Endopterygota, species
+in which the wings are usually vestiges and yet sometimes
+become perfectly developed. In fact, almost every condition
+that is required for the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism
+exists among the insects that surround us.</p>
+
+<p>But it may perhaps be considered improbable that organs
+like the wings, having once been lost, should have been reacquired
+on the large scale suggested by the theory just put
+forward. If so, there is an alternative method by which the
+endopterygotous may have arisen from the exopterygotous
+condition. The sub-imago of the Ephemeroptera suggests that
+a moult, after the wings had become functional, was at one time
+general among the Hexapoda, and that the resting nymph of
+the Thysanoptera or the pupa of the Endopterygota represents
+a formerly active stage in the life-history. Further, although
+the wing-rudiments appear externally in an early instar of an
+exopterygotous insect, the earliest instars are wingless and
+wing-rudiments have been previously developing beneath
+the cuticle, growing however outwards, not inwards as in the
+larva of an endopterygote. The change from an exopterygote
+to an endopterygote development could, therefore, be brought
+about by the gradual postponement to a later and later instar
+of the appearance of the wing-rudiments outside the body,
+and their correlated growth inwards as imaginal disks. For
+in the post-embryonic development of the ancestors of the
+Endopterygota we may imagine two or three instars with
+wing-rudiments to have existed, the last represented by the
+sub-imago of the may-flies. As the life-conditions and feeding-habits
+of the larva and imago become constantly more divergent,
+the appearance of the wing-rudiments would be postponed to
+the pre-imaginal instar, and that instar would become predominantly
+passive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relationships of the Orders.</i>&mdash;Reasons have been given for
+regarding the Thysanura as representing, more nearly than
+any other living group, the primitive stock of the Hexapoda.
+It is believed that insects of this group are represented among
+Silurian fossils. We may conclude, therefore, that they were preceded,
+in Cambrian times or earlier, by Arthropods possessing well
+developed appendages on all the trunk-segments. Of such Arthropods
+the living Symphyla&mdash;of which the delicate little <i>Scutigerella</i>
+is a fairly well-known example&mdash;give us some representation.</p>
+
+<p>No indications beyond those furnished by comparative
+anatomy help us to unravel the phylogeny of the Collembola.
+In most respects, the shortened abdomen, for example, they
+are more specialized than the Thysanura, and most of the
+features in which they appear to be simple, such as the absence
+of a tracheal system and of compound eyes, can be explained
+as the result of degradation. In their insunken mouth and their
+jaws retracted within the head-capsule, the Collembola resemble
+the entotrophous division of the Thysanura (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptera</a></span>), from
+which they are probably descended.</p>
+
+<p>From the thysanuroid stock of the Apterygota, the Exopterygota
+took their rise. We have undoubted fossil evidence that
+winged insects lived in the Devonian and became numerous
+in the Carboniferous period. These ancient Exopterygota
+were synthetic in type, and included insects that may, with
+probability, be regarded as ancestral to most of the existing
+orders. It is hard to arrange the Exopterygota in a linear
+series, for some of the orders that are remarkably primitive
+in some respects are rather highly specialized in others. As
+regards wing-structure, the Isoptera with the two pairs closely
+similar are the most primitive of all winged insects; while
+in the paired mesodermal genital ducts, the elongate cerci and
+the conspicuous maxillulae of their larvae the Ephemeroptera
+retain notable ancestral characters. But the vestigial jaws,
+numerous Malpighian tubes, and specialized wings of may-flies
+forbid us to consider the order as on the whole primitive. So
+the Dermaptera, which retain distinct maxillulae and have no
+ectodermal genital ducts, have either specialized or aborted
+wings and a large number of Malpighian tubes. The Corrodentia
+retain vestigial maxillulae and two pairs of Malpighian tubes,
+but the wings are somewhat specialized in the Copeognatha and
+absent in the degraded and parasitic Mallophaga. The Plecoptera
+and Orthoptera agree in their numerous Malpighian tubes
+and in the development of a folding anal area in the hind-wing.
+As shown by the number and variety of species, the Orthoptera
+are the most dominant order of this group. Eminently terrestrial
+in habit, the differentiation of their fore-wings and hind-wings
+can be traced from Carboniferous, isopteroid ancestors
+through intermediate Mesozoic forms. The Plecoptera resemble
+the Ephemeroptera and Odonata in the aquatic habits of their
+larvae, and by the occasional presence of tufted thoracic gills
+in the imago exhibit an aquatic character unknown in any other
+winged insects. The Odonata are in many imaginal and larval
+characters highly specialized; yet they probably arose with the
+Ephemeroptera as a divergent offshoot of the same primitive
+isopteroid stock which developed more directly into the living
+Isoptera, Plecoptera, Dermaptera and Orthoptera.</p>
+
+<p>All these orders agree in the possession of biting mandibles,
+while their second maxillae have the inner and outer lobes
+usually distinct. The Hemiptera, with their piercing mandibles
+and first maxillae and with their second maxillae fused to form
+a jointed beak, stand far apart from them. This order can be
+traced with certainty back to the early Jurassic epoch, while
+the Permian fossil <i>Eugereon</i>, and the living order&mdash;specially
+modified in many respects&mdash;of the Thysanoptera indicate steps
+by which the aberrant suctorial and piercing mouth of the Hemiptera
+may have been developed from the biting mouth of primitive
+Isopteroids, by the elongation of some parts and the suppression
+of others. The Anoplura may probably be regarded as a degraded
+offshoot of the Hemiptera.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of great cardinal features of the life-history
+as indicative of relationship leads us to consider the Endopterygota
+as a natural assemblage of orders. The occurrence of
+weevils&mdash;among the most specialized of the Coleoptera&mdash;in
+Triassic rocks shows us that this great order of metabolous
+insects had become differentiated into its leading families at
+the dawn of the Mesozoic era, and that we must go far back
+into the Palaeozoic for the origin of the Endopterygota. In
+this view we are confirmed by the impossibility of deriving the
+Endopterygota from any living order of Exopterygota. We
+conclude, therefore, that the primitive stock of the former sub-class
+became early differentiated from that of the latter. So
+widely have most of the higher orders of the Hexapoda now
+diverged from each other, that it is exceedingly difficult in most
+cases to trace their relationships with any confidence. The
+Neuroptera, with their similar fore- and hind-wings and their
+campodeiform larvae, seem to stand nearest to the presumed
+isopteroid ancestry, but the imago and larva are often specialized.
+The campodeiform larvae of many Coleoptera are indeed far
+more primitive than the neuropteran larvae, and suggest to us
+that the Coleoptera&mdash;modified as their wing-structure has
+become&mdash;arose very early from the primitive metabolous
+stock. The antiquity of the Coleoptera is further shown by
+the great diversity of larval form and habit that has arisen in
+the order, and the proof afforded by the hypermetamorphic
+beetles that the campodeiform preceded the eruciform larva
+has already been emphasized.</p>
+
+<p>In all the remaining orders of the Endopterygota the larva
+is eruciform or vermiform. The Mecaptera, with their predominantly
+longitudinal wing-nervuration, serve as a link
+between the Neuroptera and the Trichoptera, their retention
+of small cerci being an archaic character which stamps them as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+synthetic in type, but does not necessarily remove them from
+orders which agree with them in most points of structure but
+which have lost the cerci. The standing of the Trichoptera in
+a position almost ancestral to the Lepidoptera is one of the
+assured results of recent morphological study, the mobile mandibulate
+pupa and the imperfectly suctorial maxillae of the
+Trichoptera reappearing in the lowest families of the Lepidoptera.
+This latter order, which is not certainly known to
+have existed before Tertiary times, has become the most highly
+specialized of all insects in the structure of the pupa. Diptera
+of the sub-order Orthorrhapha occur in the Lias and Cyclorrhapha
+in the Kimmeridgian. The order must therefore be
+ancient, and as no evidence is forthcoming as to the mode of
+reduction of the hind-wings, nor as to the stages by which the
+suctorial mouth-organs became specialized, it is difficult to trace
+the exact relationship of the group, but the presence of cerci
+and a degree of correspondence in the nervuration of the fore-wings
+suggest the Mecaptera as possible allies. There seems
+no doubt that the suctorial mouth-organs of the Diptera have
+arisen quite independently from those of the Lepidoptera,
+for in the former order the sucker is formed from the second
+maxillae, in the latter from the first. The eruciform larva of
+the Orthorrhapha leads on to the headless vermiform maggot
+of the Cyclorrhapha, and in the latter sub-order we find metamorphosis
+carried to its extreme point, the muscid flies being
+the most highly specialized of all the Hexapoda as regards
+structure, while their maggots are the most degraded of all
+insect larvae. The Siphonaptera appear by the form of the
+larva and the nature of the metamorphosis to be akin to the
+Orthorrhapha&mdash;in which division they have indeed been included
+by many students. They differ from the Diptera, however,
+in the general presence of palps to both pairs of maxillae, and
+in the absence of a hypopharynx, so it is possible that their
+relationship to the Diptera is less close than has been supposed.
+The affinities of the Hymenoptera afford another problem of
+much difficulty. They differ from other Endopterygota in the
+multiplication of their Malpighian tubes, and from all other
+Hexapoda in the union of the first abdominal segment with
+the thorax. Specialized as they are in form, development
+and habit, they retain mandibles for biting, and in their lower
+sub-order&mdash;the Symphyta&mdash;the maxillae are hardly more
+modified than those of the Orthoptera. From the evidence of
+fossils it seems that the higher sub-order&mdash;Apocrita&mdash;can be
+traced back to the Lias, so that we believe the Hymenoptera
+to be more ancient than the Diptera, and far more ancient
+than the Lepidoptera. They afford an example&mdash;paralleled
+in other classes of the animal kingdom&mdash;of an order which,
+though specialized in some respects, retains many primitive
+characters, and has won its way to dominance rather by perfection
+of behaviour, and specially by the development of family
+life and helpful socialism, than by excessive elaboration of
+structure. We would trace the Hymenoptera back therefore
+to the primitive endopterygote stock. The specialization of
+form in the constricted abdomen and in the suctorial &ldquo;tongue&rdquo;
+that characterizes the higher families of the order is correlated
+with the habit of careful egg-laying and provision of food for
+the young. In some way it is assured among the highest of the
+Hexapoda&mdash;the Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera&mdash;that
+the larva finds itself amid a rich food-supply. And thus perfection
+of structure and instinct in the imago has been accompanied
+by degradation in the larva, and by an increase in the
+extent of transformation and in the degree of reconstruction
+before and during the pupal stage. The fascinating difficulties
+presented to the student by the metamorphosis of the Hexapoda
+are to some extent explained, as he ponders over the evolution
+of the class.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;References to the older classical writings on the
+Hexapoda are given in the article on Entomology. At present about
+a thousand works and papers are published annually, and in this
+place it is possible to enumerate only a few of the most important
+among (mostly) recent memoirs that bear upon the Hexapoda
+generally. Further references will be found appended to the special
+articles on the orders (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptera</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p><b>General Works.</b>&mdash;A. S. Packard, <i>Text-book of Entomology</i> (London,
+1898); V. Graber, <i>Die Insekten</i> (Munich, 1877-1879); D. Sharp,
+<i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vols. v., vi. (London, 1895-1899); L. C.
+Miall and A. Denny, <i>Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach</i>
+(London, 1886); B. T. Lowne, <i>The Anatomy, Physiology, Morphology
+and Development of the Blow-fly</i> (2 vols., London, 1890-1895);
+G. H. Carpenter, <i>Insects: their Structure and Life</i> (London, 1899);
+L. F. Henneguy, <i>Les Insectes</i> (Paris, 1904); J. W. Folsom, <i>Entomology</i>
+(New York and London, 1906); A. Berlese, <i>Gli Insetti</i> (Milan, 1906),
+&amp;c. (Extensive bibliographies will be found in several of the
+above.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Head and Appendages.</b>&mdash;J. C. Savigny, <i>Mémoires sur les animaux
+sans vertèbres</i> (Paris, 1816); C. Janet, <i>Essai sur la constitution
+morphologique de la tête de l&rsquo;insecte</i> (Paris, 1899); J. H. Comstock and
+C. Kochi (<i>American Naturalist</i>, xxxvi., 1902); V. L. Kellogg (<i>ibid.</i>);
+W. A. Riley (<i>American Naturalist</i>, xxxviii., 1904); F. Meinert
+(<i>Entom. Tidsskr.</i> i., 1880); H. J. Hansen (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xvi., 1893);
+J. B. Smith (<i>Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> xix., 1896); H. Holmgren
+(<i>Zeitsch. wiss. Zoolog.</i> lxxvi., 1904); K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Abhandl. K.
+Leop.-Carol. Akad.</i> lxxxiv., 1905).</p>
+
+<p><b>Thorax, Legs and Wings.</b>&mdash;K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol.
+Akad.</i> lxxxii., 1903); F. Voss (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> lxxviii.,
+1905); F. Dahl (<i>Arch. f. Naturgesch.</i> 1, 1884); J. Demoor (<i>Arch.
+de biol.</i> x., 1890); J. Redtenbacher (<i>Ann. Kais. naturhist. Museum,
+Wien</i>, i., 1886); R. von Lendenfeld (<i>S. B. Akad. Wissens., Wien</i>,
+lxxxiii., 1881); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham (<i>Amer. Nat.</i>,
+xxxii., xxxiii., 1898-1899); C. W. Woodworth (<i>Univ. California
+Entom. Bull.</i> i., 1906).</p>
+
+<p><b>Abdomen and Appendages.</b>&mdash;E. Haase (<i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> xv.,
+1889); R. Heymons (<i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> xxiv., 1896; <i>Abhandl. K.
+Leop.-Carol. Akad.</i> lxxiv., 1899); K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xix.,
+xx., 1896-1897); S. A. Peytoureau, <i>Contribution à l&rsquo;étude de la
+morphologie de l&rsquo;armure génitale des insectes</i> (Bordeaux, 1895); H.
+Dewitz (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xxv., xxviii., 1874, 1877); E. Zander (<i>ibid.</i>
+lxvi., lxvii., 1899-1900).</p>
+
+<p><b>Nervous System.</b>&mdash;H. Viallanes (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.</i> [6], xvii.,
+xviii., xix., [7] ii., iv., 1884-1887); S. J. Hickson (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr.
+Sci.</i> xxv., 1885); W. Patten (<i>Journ. Morph.</i> i., ii., 1887-1888);
+F. Plateau (<i>Mém. Acad. Belg.</i> xliii., 1888); V. Graber (<i>Arch. mikr.
+Anat.</i> xx., xxi., 1882).</p>
+
+<p><b>Respiratory System.</b>&mdash;J. A. Palmén, <i>Zur Morphologie des
+Tracheensystems</i> (Leipzig, 1877); F. Plateau (<i>Mém. Acad. Belg.</i>
+xiv., 1884); L. C. Miall, <i>Natural History of Aquatic Insects</i> (London,
+1895).</p>
+
+<p><b>Digestive System, &amp;c.</b>&mdash;L. Dufour (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>, 1824-1860);
+V. Faussek (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xlv., 1887).</p>
+
+<p><b>Malpighian Tubes.</b>&mdash;E. Schindler (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xxx., 1878);
+W. M. Wheeler (<i>Psyche</i> vi., 1893); L. Cuénot (<i>Arch. de biol.</i> xiv.,
+1895).</p>
+
+<p><b>Reproductive Organs.</b>&mdash;H. V. Wielowiejski (Zool. Anz. ix., 1886);
+J. A. Palmén, <i>Über paarige Ausführungsgänge der Geschlechtsorgane
+bei Insekten</i> (Helsingfors, 1884); H. Henking (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i>
+xlix., li., liv., 1890-1892); F. Leydig (<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> iii., 1889).</p>
+
+<p><b>Embryology.</b>&mdash;F. Blochmann (<i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> xii., 1887); A.
+Kovalevsky (<i>Mém. Acad. St-Pétersbourg</i>, xvi., 1871; <i>Zeits. wiss.
+Zool.</i> xlv., 1887); V. Graber (<i>Denksch. Akad. Wissens., Wien</i>, lvi.,
+1889); K. Heider, <i>Die Embryonalentwicklung von Hydrophilus
+piceus</i> (Jena, 1889); W. M. Wheeler (<i>Journ. Morph.</i> iii., viii., 1889-1893);
+E. Korschelt and K. Heider, <i>Handbook of the Comparative
+Embryology of Invertebrates</i> (trans. M. Bernard), (vol. iii., London,
+1899); R. Heymons, <i>Die Embryonalentwicklung von Dermapteren
+und Orthopteren</i> (Jena, 1895) (also <i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> liii., 1891, lxii.,
+1897; <i>Anhang zu den Abhandl. K. Akad. d. Wissens., Berlin</i>, 1896);
+A. Lécaillon (<i>Arch. d&rsquo;anat. micr.</i> ii., 1898); J. Carrière and O.
+Burger (<i>Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad.</i> lxix., 1897); K. Escherich
+(<i>ibid.</i> lxxvii., 1901); F. Schwangart (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> lxxvi.,
+1904); R. Ritter (<i>ib.</i> li., 1890); E. Metchnikoff (<i>ib.</i> xvi., 1866);
+H. Uzel (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xx., 1897); J. W. Folsom (<i>Bull. Mus. Comp.
+Zool. Harvard</i>., xxxvi., 1900).</p>
+
+<p><b>Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis.</b>&mdash;T. H. Huxley (<i>Trans. Linn.
+Soc.</i> xxii., 1858); R. Leuckart, <i>Zur Kenntnis des Generationswechsels
+und der Parthogenesis bei den Insekten</i> (Frankfurt, 1858);
+N. Wagner (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xv., 1865); L. F. Henneguy (<i>Bull. Soc.
+Philomath.</i> [9], i. 1899); A. Petrunkevich (<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> xiv.,
+xvii., 1901-1903); P. Marchal (<i>Arch. zool. exp. et gén.</i> [4], ii., 1904);
+L. Doncaster (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlix., li., 1906-1907).</p>
+
+<p><b>Growth and Metamorphosis.</b>&mdash;A. Weismann (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xiii.,
+xiv., 1863-1864); F. Brauer (<i>Verh. zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Wien</i>, xix.,
+1869); Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), <i>Origin and Metamorphosis
+of Insects</i> (London, 1874); L. C. Miall (<i>Nature</i>, liii., 1895); L. C.
+Miall and A. R. Hammond, <i>Structure and Life-history of the Harlequin-fly</i>
+(Oxford, 1900); J. Gonin (<i>Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat.</i> xxx., 1894);
+C. de Bruyne (<i>Arch. de biol.</i> xv. (1898); D. Sharp (<i>Proc. Inter. Zool.
+Congress</i>, 1898); E. B. Poulton (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> v., 1891); T. A.
+Chapman (<i>Trans. Ent. Soc.</i>, 1893).</p>
+
+<p><b>Classification.</b>&mdash;F. Brauer (<i>S. B. Akad. Wiss., Wien</i>, xci., 1885); A.
+S. Packard (<i>Amer. Nat.</i> xx.; 1886); C. Börner, A. Handlirsch, F.
+Klapalek (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxvii., 1904); G. Enderlein (<i>Zool. Anz.</i>
+xxvi., 1903).</p>
+
+<p><b>Palaeontology.</b>&mdash;S. H. Scudder, in Zittel&rsquo;s <i>Palaeontology</i> (French
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+trans., vol. ii., Paris, 1887, and Eng. trans., vol. i., London, 1900);
+C. Brongniart, <i>Insectes fossiles des temps primaires</i> (St-Étienne, 1894);
+A. Handlirsch, <i>Die fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der rezenten
+Formen</i> (Leipzig, 1906).</p>
+
+<p><b>Phylogeny.</b>&mdash;Brauer, Lubbock, Sharp, Börner, &amp;c. (<i>opp. cit.</i>);
+P. Mayer (<i>Jena, Zeits. Naturw.</i> x., 1876); B. Grassi (<i>Atti R. Accad.
+dei Lincei, Roma</i> [4], iv., 1888, and <i>Archiv ital. biol.</i> xi., 1889);
+F. Müller, <i>Facts and Arguments for Darwin</i> (trans. W. S. Dallas,
+London, 1869); N. Zograf (<i>Congr. Zool. Int.</i>, 1892); E. R. Lankester
+(<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlvii., 1904); G. H. Carpenter (<i>Proc. R.
+Irish Acad.</i> xxiv., 1903; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlix., 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. S.*; G. H. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEXASTYLE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hex">&#7957;&#958;</span>, six, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">&#963;&#964;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, column), an architectural
+term given to a temple in the portico of which there
+are six columns in front.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEXATEUCH,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> the name given to the first six books of the
+Old Testament (the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact
+that these form one literary whole, describing the early traditional
+history of the Israelites from the creation of the world to the
+conquest of Palestine and the origin of their national institutions.
+These books are the result of an intricate literary process,
+on which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span> (Old Testament: <i>Canon</i>), and the articles
+on the separate books (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leviticus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numbers</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deuteronomy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joshua</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEXHAM,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a market town in the Hexham parliamentary
+division of Northumberland, England, 21 m. W. from Newcastle
+by the Carlisle branch of the North-Eastern railway, served also
+from Scotland by a branch of the North British railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 7107. It is pleasantly situated beneath
+the hills on the S. bank of the Tyne, and its market square and
+narrow streets bear many marks of antiquity. It is famous for
+its great abbey church of St Andrew. This building, as renovated
+in the 12th century, was to consist of nave and transepts, choir
+and aisles, and massive central tower. The Scots are believed to
+have destroyed the nave in 1296, but it may be doubted if it was
+ever completed. In 1536 the last prior was hanged for being
+concerned in the insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace.
+The church as it stands is a fine monument of Early English
+work, with Transitional details. Within, although it suffered
+much loss during a restoration <i>c.</i> 1858, there are several objects of
+interest. Among these are a Roman slab, carved with figures of
+a horseman trampling upon an enemy, several fine tombs and
+stones of the 13th and 14th centuries, the frith or fridstool of
+stone, believed to be the original bishop&rsquo;s throne, and the fine
+Perpendicular roodscreen of oak, retaining its loft. The crypt,
+discovered in 1726, is part of the Saxon church, and a noteworthy
+example of architecture of the period. Its material is
+Roman, some of the stones having Roman inscriptions. These
+were brought from the Roman settlement at Corbridge, 4 m. E. of
+Hexham on the N. bank of the Tyne; for Hexham itself was not
+a Roman station. In 1832 a vessel containing about 8000 Saxon
+coins was discovered in the churchyard. Fragments of the
+monastic buildings remain, and west of the churchyard is the
+monks&rsquo; park, known as the Seal, and now a promenade, commanding
+beautiful views. In the town are two strong castellated
+towers of the 14th century, known as the Moot Hall and the
+Manor Office. Their names explain their use, but they were
+doubtless also intended as defensive works. In the interesting
+and beautiful neighbourhood of Hexham there should be noticed
+Aydon castle near Corbridge, a fortified house of the late 13th
+century; and Dilston or Dyvilston, a typical border fortress
+dating from Norman times, of which only a tower and small
+chapel remain. It is replete with memories of the last earl of
+Derwentwater, who was beheaded in 1716 for his part in the
+Stuart rising of the previous year, and was buried in the chapel.
+There is an Elizabethan grammar school. Hexham and Newcastle
+form a Roman Catholic bishopric, with the cathedral at Newcastle.
+There are manufactures of leather gloves and other goods,
+and in the neighbourhood barytes and coal mines and extensive
+market gardens.</p>
+
+<p>The church and monastery at Hexham (Hextoldesham) were
+founded about 673 by Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who is said to
+have received a grant of the whole of Hexhamshire from Æthelhryth,
+queen of Northumbria, and a grant of sanctuary in his
+church from the king. The church in 678 became the head of the
+new see of Bernicia, which was united to that of Lindisfarne
+about 821, when the bishop of Lindisfarne appears to have taken
+possession of the lordship which he and his successors held until
+it was restored to the archbishop of York by Henry II. The
+archbishops appear to have had almost royal power throughout
+the liberty, including the rights of trying all pleas of the crown
+in their court, of taking inquisitions and of taxation. In 1545 the
+archbishop exchanged Hexhamshire with the king for other
+property, and in 1572 all the separate privileges which had
+belonged to him were taken away, and the liberty was annexed
+to the county of Northumberland. Hexham was a borough by
+prescription, and governed by a bailiff at least as early as 1276,
+and the same form of government continued until 1853. In 1343
+the men of Hexham were accused of pretending to be Scots and
+imprisoning many people of Northumberland and Cumberland,
+killing some and extorting ransoms for others. The Lancastrians
+were defeated in 1464 near Hexham, and legend says that it was
+in the woods round the town that Queen Margaret and her son
+hid until their escape to Flanders. In 1522 the bishop of Carlisle
+complained to Cardinal Wolsey, then archbishop of York, that
+the English thieves committed more thefts than &ldquo;all the Scots of
+Scotland,&rdquo; the men of Hexham being worst of all, and appearing
+100 strong at the markets held in Hexham, so that the men whom
+they had robbed dared not complain or &ldquo;say one word to them.&rdquo;
+This state of affairs appears to have continued until the accession
+of James I., and in 1595 the bailiff and constables of Hexham
+were removed as being &ldquo;infected with combination and toleration
+of thieves.&rdquo; Hexham was at one time the market town of a large
+agricultural district. In 1227 a market on Monday and a fair on
+the vigil and day of St Luke the Evangelist were granted to the
+archbishop, and in 1320 Archbishop Melton obtained the right of
+holding two new fairs on the feasts of St James the Apostle
+lasting five days and of SS. Simon and Jude lasting six days. The
+market day was altered to Tuesday in 1662, and Sir William
+Fenwick, then lord of the manor, received a grant of a cattle
+market on the Tuesday after the feast of St Cuthbert in March
+and every Tuesday fortnight until the feast of St Martin. The
+market rights were purchased from Wentworth B. Beaumont,
+lord of the manor, in 1886. During the 17th and 18th centuries
+Hexham was noted for the leather trade, especially for the
+manufacture of gloves, but in the 19th century the trade began
+to decline. Coal mines which had belonged to the archbishop,
+were sold to Sir John Fenwick, Kt., in 1628. Hexham has never
+been represented in parliament, but gives its name to one of the
+four parliamentary divisions of the county.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Edward Bateson and A. B. Hinds, <i>A History of Northumberland</i>
+vol. iii. (1893-1896); A. B. Wright, <i>An Essay towards the History of
+Hexham</i> (1823); James Hewitt, <i>A Handbook to Hexham and its
+Antiquities</i> (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1637-1712), Dutch painter, was
+born at Gorcum in 1637, and died at Amsterdam on the 12th of
+September 1712. He was an architectural landscape painter, a contemporary
+of Hobbema and Jacob Ruysdael, with the advantage,
+which they lacked, of a certain professional versatility; for,
+whilst they painted admirable pictures and starved, he varied the
+practice of art with the study of mechanics, improved the fire
+engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and director of the
+firemen&rsquo;s company at Amsterdam. Till 1672 he painted in partnership
+with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian&rsquo;s death, and
+probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him,
+he accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At
+no period of artistic activity had the system of division of labour
+been more fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in
+Holland towards the close of the 17th century. Van der Heyden,
+who was perfect as an architectural draughtsman in so far as he
+painted the outside of buildings and thoroughly mastered linear
+perspective, seldom turned his hand to the delineation of anything
+but brick houses and churches in streets and squares, or
+rows along canals, or &ldquo;moated granges,&rdquo; common in his native
+country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent
+and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span>
+Cologne, where he copied over and over again the tower and
+crane of the great cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or
+vale, or stream or wood. He could reproduce the rows of bricks
+in a square of Dutch houses sparkling in the sun, or stunted trees
+and lines of dwellings varied by steeples, all in light or thrown
+into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the art of
+painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping.
+But he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts;
+and this was his disadvantage. His good genius under these
+circumstances was Adrian van der Velde, who enlivened his
+compositions with spirited figures; and the joint labour of both
+is a delicate, minute, transparent work, radiant with glow and
+atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYLYN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Heylin</span>), <b>PETER</b> (1600-1662), English historian
+and controversialist, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire.
+Having made great progress in his studies, he entered Hart
+Hall, Oxford, in 1613, afterwards joining Magdalen College;
+and in 1618 he began to lecture on cosmography, being made
+fellow of Magdalen in the same year. His lectures, under the
+title of <span class="grk" title="Mikrokosmos">&#924;&#953;&#954;&#961;&#972;&#954;&#959;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, were published in 1621, and many editions
+of this useful book, each somewhat enlarged, subsequently
+appeared. Having been ordained in 1624 Heylyn attracted
+the notice of William Laud, then bishop of Bath and Wells;
+and in 1628 he married Laetitia, daughter of Thomas Highgate,
+or Heygate, of Hayes, Middlesex; but he appears to have
+kept his marriage secret and did not resign his fellowship.
+After serving as chaplain to Danby in the Channel Islands,
+he became chaplain to Charles I. in 1630, and was appointed by
+the king to the rectory of Hemingford, Huntingdonshire.
+John Williams, bishop of Lincoln, however, refused to institute
+Heylyn to this living, owing to his friendship with Laud; and
+in return Charles appointed him a prebendary of Westminster,
+where he made himself very objectionable to Williams, who
+held the deanery <i>in commendam</i>. In 1633 he became rector
+of Alresford, soon afterwards vicar of South Warnborough, and
+he became treasurer of Westminster Abbey in 1637; but before
+this date he was widely known as one of the most prominent
+and able controversialists among the high-church party. Entering
+with great ardour into the religious controversies of the
+time he disputed with John Prideaux, regius professor of divinity
+at Oxford, replied to the arguments of Williams in his pamphlets,
+&ldquo;A Coal from the Altar&rdquo; and &ldquo;Antidotum Lincolnense,&rdquo; and
+was hostile to the Puritan element both within and without
+the Church of England. He assisted William Noy to prepare
+the case against Prynne for the publication of his <i>Histriomastix</i>,
+and made himself useful to the Royalist party in other ways.
+However, when the Long Parliament met he was allowed to
+retire to Alresford, where he remained until he was disturbed
+by Sir William Waller&rsquo;s army in 1642, when he joined the
+king at Oxford. At Oxford Heylyn edited <i>Mercurius Aulicus</i>,
+a vivacious but virulent news-sheet, which greatly annoyed
+the Parliamentarians; and consequently his house at Alresford
+was plundered and his library dispersed. Subsequently he led
+for some years a wandering life of poverty, afterwards settling
+at Winchester and then at Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire; and
+he refers to his hardships in his pamphlet &ldquo;Extraneus Vapulans,&rdquo;
+the cleverest of his controversial writings, which was written
+in answer to Hamon l&rsquo;Estrange. In 1653 he settled at Lacy&rsquo;s
+Court, Abingdon, where he resided undisturbed by the government
+of the Commonwealth, and where he wrote several books
+and pamphlets, both against those of his own communion,
+like Thomas Fuller, whose opinions were less unyielding than
+his own, and against the Presbyterians and others, like Richard
+Baxter.</p>
+
+<p>His works, all of which are marred by political or theological
+rancour, number over fifty. Among the most important
+are: a legendary and learned <i>History of St. George of Cappadocia</i>,
+written in 1631; <i>Cyprianus Anglicus, or the history of the Life
+and Death of William Laud</i>, a defence of Laud and a valuable
+authority for his life; <i>Ecclesia restaurata, or the History of the
+Reformation of the Church of England</i> (1661; ed. J. C. Robertson,
+Cambridge, 1849); <i>Ecclesia vindicata, or the Church of England
+justified</i>; <i>Aërius redivivus, or History of the Presbyterians</i>;
+and <i>Help to English History</i>, an edition of which, with additions
+by P. Wright, was published in 1773. In 1636 he wrote a
+<i>History of the Sabbath</i>, by order of Charles I. to answer the
+Puritans; and in consequence of a journey through France in
+1625 he wrote <i>A Survey of France</i>, a work, frequently reprinted,
+which was termed by Southey &ldquo;one of the liveliest books of
+travel in its lighter parts, and one of the wisest and most replete
+with information that was ever written by a young man.&rdquo; Some
+verses of merit also came from his active pen, and his poetical
+memorial of William of Waynflete was published by the Caxton
+Society in 1851.</p>
+
+<p>Heylyn was a diligent writer and investigator, a good ecclesiastical
+lawyer, and had always learning at his command. His
+principles, to which he was honestly attached, were defended
+with ability; but his efforts to uphold the church passed unrecognized
+at the Restoration, probably owing to his physical
+infirmities. His sight had been very bad for several years;
+yet he rejoiced that his &ldquo;bad old eyes&rdquo; had seen the king&rsquo;s
+return, and upon this event he preached before a large audience
+in Westminster Abbey on the 29th of May 1661. He died on
+the 8th of May 1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey,
+where he had been sub-dean for some years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lives of Heylyn were written by his son-in-law Dr John Barnard
+or Bernard, and by George Vernon (1682). Bernard&rsquo;s work was
+reprinted with Robertson&rsquo;s edition of Heylyn&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Reformation</i> in 1849.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> [commonly abbreviated
+to <span class="sc">Piet</span>] (1578-1629), Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven
+in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein, who was engaged in the herring
+fishery. The son went early to sea. In his youth he was taken
+prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row in the galleys
+during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an exchange
+of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant
+skipper with success. The then dangerous state of the seas
+at all times, and the continuous war with Spain, gave him
+ample opportunity to gain a reputation as a resolute fighting
+man. Wills which he made before 1623 show that he had
+been able to acquire considerable property. When the Dutch
+West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotterdam
+Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of
+the fleet which took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos
+in Brazil. Till 1628 he continued to serve the Company, both
+on the coast of Brazil, and in the West Indies. In the month
+of September of that year he made himself famous, gained
+immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous
+loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was
+bringing the bullion from the American mines home to Spain.
+The Spanish ships were outnumbered chiefly because the
+convoy had become scattered by bad management and bad
+seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting of the
+four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king&rsquo;s
+share of the treasure was being carried, became separated
+from the rest, and on being chased by the superior force of
+Heyn endeavoured to take refuge at Matanzas in the island
+of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion in the bush
+before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de
+Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision,
+was overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before
+the silver could be discharged. The total loss was estimated
+by the Spaniards at four millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now
+returned home, and bought himself a house at Delft with the
+intention of retiring from the sea. In the following year, however,
+he was chosen at a crisis to take command of the naval force of
+the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of Holland,
+in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers,
+who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Netherlands.
+In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action,
+and they were severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live
+to enjoy his victory. He was struck early in the battle by a
+cannon shot on the shoulder and fell dead on the spot. His
+memory has been preserved by his capture of the Treasure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also
+the traditional representative of the Dutch &ldquo;sea dogs&rdquo; of the
+17th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See de Jonge, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen</i>; I.
+Duro, <i>Armada espanola</i>, iv.; der Aa, <i>Biograph. Woordenboek der
+Nederlanden</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1729-1812), German classical
+scholar and archaeologist, was born on the 25th of September
+1729, at Chemnitz in Saxony. His father was a poor weaver,
+and the expenses of his early education were paid by one of his
+godfathers. In 1748 he entered the university of Leipzig,
+where he was frequently in want of the necessaries of life. His
+distress had almost amounted to despair, when he procured
+the situation of tutor in the family of a French merchant in
+Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. After he
+had completed his university course, he was for many years
+in very straitened circumstances. An elegy written by him
+in Latin on the death of a friend attracted the attention of
+Count von Brühl, the prime minister, who expressed a desire
+to see the author. Accordingly, in April 1752, Heyne journeyed
+to Dresden, believing that his fortune was made. He was well
+received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary, but nothing
+came of it. Another period of want followed, and it was only
+by persistent solicitation that Heyne was able to obtain the
+post of under-clerk in the count&rsquo;s library, with a salary of somewhat
+less than twenty pounds sterling. He increased his scanty
+pittance by translation; in addition to some French novels,
+he rendered into German the <i>Chaereas and Callirrhoe</i> of Chariton,
+the Greek romance writer. He published his first edition of
+<i>Tibullus</i> in 1755, and in 1756 his <i>Epictetus</i>. In the latter year
+the Seven Years&rsquo; War broke out, and Heyne was once more
+in a state of destitution. In 1757 he was offered a tutorship
+in the household of Frau Von Schönberg, where he met his future
+wife. In January 1759 he accompanied his pupil to the university
+of Wittenberg, from which he was driven in 1760 by the
+Prussian cannon. The bombardment of Dresden (to which
+city he had meanwhile returned) on the 18th of July 1760,
+destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished
+edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden
+Library. In the summer of 1761, although still without any
+fixed income, he married, and for some time he found it necessary
+to devote himself to the duties of land-steward to the Baron
+von Löben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762, however, he was
+enabled to return to Dresden, where he was commissioned
+by P. D. Lippert to prepare the Latin text of the third volume
+of his <i>Dactyliotheca</i> (an account of a collection of gems). On
+the death of Johann Matthias Gesner at Göttingen in 1761,
+the vacant chair was refused first by Ernesti and then by Ruhnken,
+who persuaded Münchhausen, the Hanoverian minister
+and principal curator of the university, to bestow it on Heyne
+(1763). His emoluments were gradually augmented, and his
+growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from
+other German governments, which he persistently refused.
+After a long and useful career, he died on the 14th of July
+1812. Unlike Gottfried Hermann, Heyne regarded the study
+of grammar and language only as the means to an end, not as
+the chief object of philology. But, although not a critical
+scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment of
+Greek mythology, and he gave an undoubted impulse to philological
+studies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of Heyne&rsquo;s numerous writings, the following may be mentioned.
+Editions, with copious commentaries, of Tibullus (ed. E. C. Wunderlich,
+1817), Virgil (ed. G. P. Wagner, 1830-1841), Pindar (3rd ed.
+by G. H. Schäfer, 1817), Apollodorus, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (1803),
+Homer, <i>Iliad</i> (1802); <i>Opuscula academica</i> (1785-1812), containing
+more than a hundred academical dissertations, of which the most
+valuable are those relating to the colonies of Greece and the antiquities
+of Etruscan art and history. His <i>Antiquarische Aufsätze</i>
+(1778-1779) is a valuable collection of essays connected with the
+history of ancient art. His contributions to the <i>Göttingische gelehrte
+Anzeigen</i> are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in number.
+See biography by A. H. Heeren (1813) which forms the basis of the
+interesting essay by Carlyle (<i>Misc. Essays</i>, ii.); H. Sauppe, <i>Göttinger
+Professoren</i> (1872); C. Bursian in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>,
+xii.; J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> iii. 36-44.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1830-&emsp;&emsp;), German
+novelist, dramatist and poet, was born at Berlin on the 15th
+of March 1830, the son of the distinguished philologist Karl
+Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797-1855). After attending the
+Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849, to
+Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in
+1852 took his doctor&rsquo;s degree. He had already given proof
+of great literary ability in the production in 1850 of <i>Der Jungbrunnen,
+Märchen eines fahrenden Schülers</i> and of the tragedy
+<i>Francesca von Rimini</i>, when after a year&rsquo;s stay in Italy, he was
+summoned, early in 1854, by King Maximilian II. to Munich,
+where he subsequently lived. Here he turned his attention to
+novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four short stories
+in one volume, one of which, at least, <i>L&rsquo;Arrabbiata</i>, was a masterpiece
+of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of similar
+volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole constituting
+such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as
+seldom before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer.
+Heyse works in the spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some
+picturesque incident or situation, and chisels and polishes until
+all the effect which it is capable of producing has been extracted
+from it. The success of the story usually depends upon the
+theme, for the artist&rsquo;s skill is generally much the same, and the
+situation usually leaves a deeper impression than the characters.
+Heyse is also the author of several novels on a larger scale,
+all of which have gained success and provoked abundant discussion.
+The more important are <i>Kinder der Welt</i> (1873),
+<i>Im Paradiese</i> (1875)&mdash;the one dealing with the religious and
+social problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich&mdash;<i>Der
+Roman der Stiftsdame</i> (1888), and <i>Merlin</i> (1892), a novel
+directed against the modern realistic movement of which Heyse
+had been the leading opponent in Germany. He has also been
+a prolific dramatist, but his plays are deficient in theatrical
+qualities and are rarely seen on the stage. Among the best
+of them are <i>Die Sabinerinnen</i> (1859); <i>Hans Lange</i> (1866),
+<i>Kolberg</i> (1868), <i>Die Weisheit Salomos</i> (1886), and <i>Maria von
+Magdala</i> (1903). There are masterly translations by him of
+Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (<i>Italienische Dichter
+seit der Mitte des 18ten Jahrhundert</i>) (4 vols., 1889-1890).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Heyse&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> appeared in 29 vols. (1897-1899);
+there is also a popular edition of his <i>Romane</i> (8 vols., 1902-1904)
+and <i>Novellen</i> (10 vols., 1904-1906). See his autobiography,
+<i>Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse</i> (1901); also O. Kraus, <i>Paul
+Heyses Novellen und Romane</i> (1888); E. Petzet, <i>Paul Heyse als
+Dramatiker</i> (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in <i>Studien und
+Studienköpfe</i>, 1877), and G. Brandes (in <i>Moderne Geister</i>, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYSHAM,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division
+of Lancashire, England, on the south shore of Morecambe Bay,
+served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3381. Under
+powers obtained from parliament in 1896, the Midland Railway
+Company constructed, and opened in 1904, a harbour, enclosed
+by breakwaters, for the development of traffic with Belfast
+and other Irish ports, a daily passenger-service of the first
+class being established to Belfast. The harbour has a depth at
+low tide of 17 ft., and extensive accommodation for live-stock
+and goods of all kinds is provided. Heysham is in some favour
+as a watering-place. The church of St Peter is mainly Norman,
+and has fragments of even earlier date. Ruins of a very ancient
+oratory stand near it. This was dedicated to St Patrick, and
+is traditionally said to have been erected as a place of prayer
+for those at sea.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYWOOD, JOHN<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (b. 1497), English dramatist and epigrammatist,
+is generally said to have been a native of North Mimms,
+near St Albans, Hertfordshire, though Bale says he was born in
+London. A letter from a John Heywood, who may fairly be
+identified with him, is dated from Malines in 1575, when he
+called himself an old man of seventy-eight, which would fix his
+birth in 1497. He was a chorister of the Chapel Royal, and is
+said to have been educated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke
+College), Oxford. From 1521 onwards his name appears in the
+king&rsquo;s accounts as the recipient of an annuity of ten marks as
+player of the virginals, and in 1538 he received forty shillings for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+&ldquo;playing an interlude with his children&rdquo; before the Princess
+Mary. He is said to have owed his introduction to her to Sir
+Thomas More, at whose seat at Gobions near St Albans he wrote
+his Epigrams, according to Henry Peacham. More took a keen
+interest in the drama, and is represented by tradition as stepping
+on to the stage and taking an impromptu part in the dialogue.
+William Rastell, the printer of four of Heywood&rsquo;s plays, was the
+son of More&rsquo;s brother-in-law, John Rastell, who organized
+dramatic representations, and possibly wrote plays himself.
+Mr A. W. Pollard sees in Heywood&rsquo;s firm adherence to Catholicism
+and his free satire of legal and social abuses a reflection of the
+ideas of More and his friends, which counts for much in his
+dramatic development. His skill in music and his inexhaustible
+wit made him a favourite both with Henry VIII. and Mary.
+Under Edward VI. he was accused of denying the king&rsquo;s
+supremacy over the church, and had to make a public recantation
+in 1554; but with the accession of Mary his prospects brightened.
+He made a Latin speech to her in St Paul&rsquo;s Churchyard at her
+coronation, and wrote a poem to celebrate her marriage. Shortly
+before her death she granted him the lease of a manor and lands
+in Yorkshire. When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne he fled
+to Malines, and is said to have returned in 1577. In 1587 he is
+spoken of as &ldquo;dead and gone&rdquo; in Thomas Newton&rsquo;s epilogue
+to his works.</p>
+
+<p>John Heywood is important in the history of English drama
+as the first writer to turn the abstract characters of the morality
+plays into real persons. His interludes link the morality plays
+to the modern drama, and were very popular in their day. They
+represent ludicrous incidents of a homely kind in a style of the
+broadest farce, and approximate to the French dramatic renderings
+of the subjects of the <i>fabliaux</i>. The fun in them still
+survives in spite of the long arguments between the characters
+and what one of their editors calls his &ldquo;humour of filth.&rdquo; Heywood&rsquo;s
+name was actually attached to four interludes. <i>The
+Playe called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a
+palmer, a pardoner, a potycary, a pedler</i> (not dated) is a contest
+in lying, easily won by Palmer, who said he had never known
+a woman out of patience. <i>The Play of the Wether, a new and a
+very mery interlude of all maner of Wethers</i> (printed 1533) describes
+the chaotic results of Jupiter&rsquo;s attempts to suit the weather to
+the desires of a number of different people. <i>The Play of Love</i>
+(printed 1533) is an extreme instance of the author&rsquo;s love of
+wire-drawn argument. It is a double dispute between &ldquo;Loving
+not Loved&rdquo; and &ldquo;Loved not Loving&rdquo; as to which is the more
+wretched, and between &ldquo;Both Loved and Loving&rdquo; and &ldquo;Neither
+Loving nor Loved&rdquo; to decide which is the happier. The only
+action in this piece is indicated by the stage direction marking
+the entrance of &ldquo;Neither loved nor loving,&rdquo; who is to run about
+the audience with a huge copper tank on his head full of lighted
+squibs, and is to cry &ldquo;Water, water! Fire, fire!&rdquo; <i>The Dialogue
+of Wit and Folly</i> is more of an academic dispute than a play.
+But two pieces universally assigned to Heywood, although they
+were printed by Rastell without any author&rsquo;s name, combine
+action with dialogue, and are much more dramatic. In <i>The
+Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and
+Neybour Pratte</i> (printed 1533, but probably written much
+earlier) the Pardoner and the Friar both try to preach at the
+same time, and, coming at last to blows, are separated by the
+other two personages of the piece. The <i>Mery Play betwene
+Johan Johan the Husbande, Tyb the Wyfe, and Syr Jhan the
+Preest</i> (printed 1533) is the best constructed of all his pieces.
+Tyb and Syr Jhan eat the &ldquo;Pye&rdquo; which is the central &ldquo;property&rdquo;
+of the piece, while Johan Johan is made to chafe wax at the fire
+to stop a hole in a pail. This incident occurs in a French <i>Farce
+nouvelle très bonne et fort joyeuse de Pernet qui va au vin</i>. Heywood
+has sometimes been credited with the authorship of the
+dialogue of <i>Gentylnes and Nobylyte</i> printed by Rastell without
+date, and Mr Pollard adduces some ground for attributing to
+him the anonymous <i>New Enterlude called Thersytes</i> (played 1538).
+Heywood&rsquo;s other works are a collection of proverbs and epigrams,
+the earliest extant edition of which is dated 1562; some ballads,
+one of them being the &ldquo;Willow Garland,&rdquo; known to Desdemona;
+and a long verse allegory of over 7000 lines entitled <i>The Spider
+and the Flie</i> (1556). A contemporary writer in Holinshed&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronicle</i> said that neither its author nor any one else could
+&ldquo;reach unto the meaning thereof.&rdquo; But the flies are generally
+taken to represent the Roman Catholics and the spiders the
+Protestants, while Queen Mary is represented by the housemaid
+who with her broom (the sword) executes the commands of
+her master (Christ) and her mistress (the church). Dr A. W.
+Ward speaks of its &ldquo;general lucidity and relative variety
+of treatment.&rdquo; Heywood says that he laid it aside for twenty
+years before he finished it, and, whatever may be the final
+interpretation put upon it, it contains a very energetic statement
+of the social evils of the time, and especially of the deficiencies
+of English law.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The proverbs and epigrams were reprinted by the Spenser Society
+in 1867, the <i>Dialogue on Wit and Folly</i> by the Percy Society from
+an MS. in the British Museum in 1846, with an account of Heywood
+by F. W. Fairholt, and there are modern reprints of <i>Johan Johan</i>
+(Chiswick Press, 1819), <i>The Foure PP</i>. (Dodsley&rsquo;s <i>Old Plays</i>, 1825,
+1874), and <i>The Pardoner and the Frere</i> (Dodsley&rsquo;s <i>Old Plays</i>, 1874).
+<i>The Spider and the Flie</i> was edited by A. W. Ward for the Spenser
+Society in 1894. For notes and strictures on that edition see J.
+Haber in <i>Litterärhistorische Forschungen</i>, vol. xv. (1900). See also
+A. W. Pollard&rsquo;s introduction to the reprint of the <i>Play of the Wether</i>
+and <i>Johan Johan in Representative English Comedies</i> (1903), and
+<i>The Dramatic Writings of John Heywood</i>, edited by John S. Farmer
+for the Early English Drama Society (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Jasper Heywood</span> (1535-1598), who translated into
+English three plays of Seneca, the <i>Troas</i> (1559), the <i>Thyestes</i>
+(1560) and <i>Hercules Furens</i> (1561), was a fellow of Merton
+College, Oxford, but was compelled to resign from that society
+in 1558. In the same year he was elected a fellow of All Souls
+College, but, refusing to conform to the changes in religion at
+the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, he gave up his fellowship
+and went to Rome, where he was received into the Society of
+Jesus. For seventeen years he was professor of moral theology
+and controversy in the Jesuit College at Dillingen, Bavaria.
+In 1581 he was sent to England as superior of the Jesuit mission,
+but his leniency in that position led to his recall. He was on
+his way back to the Continent when a violent storm drove him
+back to the English coast. He was arrested on the charge of
+being a priest, but, although extraordinary efforts were made
+to induce him to abjure his opinions, he remained firm. He
+was condemned to perpetual exile on pain of death, and died
+at Naples on the 9th of January 1598. His translations of
+Seneca were supplemented by other plays contributed by
+Alexander Neville, Thomas Nuce, John Studley and Thomas
+Newton. Newton collected these translations in one volume,
+<i>Seneca, his tenne tragedies translated into Englysh</i> (1581). The
+importance of this work in the development of English drama
+can hardly be over-estimated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dr J. W. Cunliffe, <i>On the Influence of Seneca upon Elizabethan
+Tragedy</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1650), English dramatist and
+miscellaneous author, was a native of Lincolnshire, born about
+1575, and said to have been educated at Cambridge and to have
+become a fellow of Peterhouse. Heywood is mentioned by
+Philip Henslowe as having written a book or play for the Lord
+Admiral&rsquo;s company of actors in October 1596; and in 1598 he
+was regularly engaged as a player in the company, in which he
+presumably had a share, as no wages are mentioned. He was
+also a member of other companies, of Lord Southampton&rsquo;s,
+of the earl of Derby&rsquo;s and of the earl of Worcester&rsquo;s players,
+afterwards known as the Queen&rsquo;s Servants. In his preface to
+the <i>English Traveller</i> (1633) he describes himself as having had
+&ldquo;an entire hand or at least a main finger in two hundred and
+twenty plays.&rdquo; Of this number, probably considerably increased
+before the close of his dramatic career, only twenty-three
+survive. He wrote for the stage, not for the press, and protested
+against the printing of his works, which he said he had no time
+to revise. He was, said Tieck, the &ldquo;model of a light and rapid
+talent,&rdquo; and his plays, as might be expected from his rate of
+production, bear little trace of artistic elaboration. Charles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+Lamb called him a &ldquo;prose Shakespeare&rdquo;; Professor Ward, one
+of Heywood&rsquo;s most sympathetic editors, points out that this
+epigrammatic statement can only be accepted with reservations.
+Heywood had a keen eye for dramatic situations and great
+constructive skill, but his powers of characterization were not
+on a par with his stagecraft. He delighted in what he called
+&ldquo;merry accidents,&rdquo; that is, in coarse, broad farce; his fancy
+and invention were inexhaustible. It was in the domestic drama
+of sentiment that he won his most distinctive success. For this
+he was especially fitted by his genuine tenderness and his freedom
+from affectation, by the sweetness and gentleness for which
+Lamb praised him. His masterpiece, <i>A Woman kilde with
+kindnesse</i> (acted 1603; printed 1607), is a type of the <i>comédie
+larmoyante</i>, and <i>The English Traveller</i> (1633) is a domestic
+tragedy scarcely inferior to it in pathos and in the elevation of
+its moral tone. His first play was probably <i>The Foure Prentises
+of London: With the Conquest of Jerusalem</i> (printed 1615, but
+acted some fifteen years earlier). This may have been intended
+as a burlesque of the old romances, but it is more likely that it
+was meant seriously to attract the apprentice public to whom
+it was dedicated, and its popularity was no doubt aimed at in
+Beaumont and Fletcher&rsquo;s travesty of the City taste in drama
+in their <i>Knight of the Burning Pestle</i>. The two parts of <i>King
+Edward the Fourth</i> (printed 1600), and of <i>If you know not me,
+you know no bodie; Or, The Troubles of Queene Elizabeth</i> (1605
+and 1606) are chronicle histories. His other comedies include:
+<i>The Royall King, and the Loyall subject</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1600; printed
+1637); the two parts of <i>The Fair Maid of the West; Or, A Girle
+worth Gold</i> (two parts, printed 1631); <i>The Fayre Maid of the
+Exchange</i> (printed anonymously 1607); <i>The Late Lancashire
+Witches</i> (1634), written with Richard Brome, and prompted by
+an actual trial in the preceding year; <i>A Pleasant Comedy, called
+A Mayden-Head well lost</i> (1634); <i>A Challenge for Beautie</i> (1636);
+<i>The Wise-Woman of Hogsdon</i> (printed 1638), the witchcraft
+in this case being matter for comedy, not seriously treated as
+in the Lancashire play; and <i>Fortune by Land and Sea</i> (printed
+1655), with William Rowley. The five plays called respectively
+<i>The Golden</i>, <i>The Silver</i>, <i>The Brazen</i> and <i>The Iron Age</i> (the last
+in two parts), dated 1611, 1613, 1613, 1632, are series of classical
+stories strung together with no particular connexion except that
+&ldquo;old Homer&rdquo; introduces the performers of each act in turn.
+<i>Loves Maistresse; Or, The Queens Masque</i> (printed 1636) is on
+the story of Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius; and the
+tragedy of the <i>Rape of Lucrece</i> (1608) is varied by a &ldquo;merry
+lord,&rdquo; Valerius, who lightens the gloom of the situation by
+singing comic songs. A series of pageants, most of them devised
+for the City of London, or its guilds, by Heywood, were printed
+in 1637. In vol. iv. of his <i>Collection of Old English Plays</i> (1885),
+Mr A. H. Bullen printed for the first time a comedy by Heywood,
+<i>The Captives, or The Lost Recovered</i> (licensed 1624), and in vol. ii.
+of the same series, <i>Dicke of Devonshire</i>, which he tentatively
+assigns to the same hand.</p>
+
+<p>Besides his dramatic works, twelve of which were reprinted
+by the &ldquo;Shakespeare Society,&rdquo; and were published by Mr John
+Pearson in a complete edition of six vols. with notes and illustrations
+in 1874, he was the author of <i>Troia Britannica, or Great
+Britain&rsquo;s Troy</i> (1609), a poem in seventeen cantos &ldquo;intermixed
+with many pleasant poetical tales&rdquo; and &ldquo;concluding with an
+universal chronicle from the creation until the present time&rdquo;;
+<i>An Apology for Actors, containing three brief treatises</i> (1612)
+edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1841; <span class="grk" title="Gynaikeion">&#915;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span> <i>or nine
+books of various history concerning women</i> (1624); <i>England&rsquo;s
+Elizabeth, her Life and Troubles during her minority from the
+Cradle to the Crown</i> (1631); <i>The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels</i>
+(1635), a didactic poem in nine books; <i>Pleasant Dialogue,
+and Dramas selected out of Lucian</i>, &amp;c. (1637; ed. W. Bang,
+Louvain, 1903); and <i>The Life of Merlin surnamed Ambrosius</i>
+(1641).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. W. Ward, <i>History of English Dram. Lit.</i> ii. 550 seq.
+(1899); the same author&rsquo;s Introduction to <i>A woman killed with
+kindness</i> (&ldquo;Temple Dramatists,&rdquo; 1897); J. A. Symonds in the
+Introduction to <i>Thomas Heywood</i> in the &ldquo;Mermaid&rdquo; series (new
+issue, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEYWOOD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Heywood parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 9 m. N. of Manchester
+on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,458.
+It is of modern growth and possesses several handsome churches,
+chapels and public buildings. The Queen&rsquo;s Park, purchased and
+laid out at a cost of £11,000 with money which devolved to
+Queen Victoria in right of her duchy and county palatine of
+Lancaster, was opened in 1879. Heywood Hall in the neighbourhood
+of the town was the residence of Peter Heywood, who
+contributed to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. Heywood
+owes its rise to the enterprise of the Peels, its first manufactures
+having been introduced by the father of the first Sir Robert
+Peel. It is an important seat of the cotton manufacture, and
+there are power-loom factories, iron foundries, chemical works,
+boiler-works and railway wagon works. Coal is worked extensively
+in the neighbourhood. Heywood was incorporated in
+1881, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and
+18 councillors. Area, 3660 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEZEKIAH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (Heb. for &ldquo;[my] strength is [of] Yah&rdquo;), in the
+Bible son of Ahaz, one of the greatest of the kings of Judah.
+He flourished at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 7th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when Palestine passed through one of the most
+eventful periods of its history. There is much that is uncertain
+in his reign, and with the exception of the great crisis of 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+its chronology has not been unanimously fixed. Whether he
+came to the throne before or after the fall of Samaria (722-721
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is disputed,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> nor is it clear what share Judah took in
+the Assyrian conflicts down to 701.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Shortly before this date
+the whole of western Asia was in a ferment; Sargon had died
+and Sennacherib had come to the throne (in 705); vassal kings
+plotted to recover their independence and Assyrian puppets
+were removed by their opponents. Judah was in touch with a
+general rising in S.W. Palestine, in which Ekron, Lachish, Ascalon
+(Ashkelon) and other towns of the Philistines were supported
+by the kings of Mu&#7779;ri and Melu&#7717;&#7717;a.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Sennacherib completely
+routed them at Eltekeh (a Danite city), and thence turned against
+Hezekiah, who had been in league with Ekron and had imprisoned
+its king Padi, an Assyrian vassal. In this invasion of Judah the
+Assyrian claims entire success; 46 towns of Judah were captured,
+200,150 men and many herds of cattle were carried off among
+the spoil, and Jerusalem itself was closely invested. Hezekiah
+was imprisoned &ldquo;like a bird in a cage&rdquo;<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a>&mdash;to quote Sennacherib,
+and the Urbi (Arabian?) troops in Jerusalem laid down their
+arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred of silver, precious
+stones, couches and seats of ivory&mdash;&ldquo;all kinds of valuable
+treasure&rdquo;,&mdash;the ladies of the court, male and female attendants
+(perhaps &ldquo;singers&rdquo;) were carried away to Nineveh. Here the
+Assyrian record ends somewhat abruptly, for, in the meanwhile,
+Babylonia had again revolted (700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Sennacherib&rsquo;s
+presence was urgently needed nearer home.</p>
+
+<p>At what precise period the Babylonian Merodach (<i>i.e.</i> Marduk)-Baladan
+sent his embassy to Hezekiah is disputed. Although
+ostensibly to congratulate the king upon his recovery from a
+sickness, it was really sent in the hope of enlisting his support,
+and the excessive courtesy and complaisance with which it was
+received suggest that it found a ready ally in Judah (2 Kings xx.
+12 sqq.; Isa. xxxix.). Merodach-Baladan was overthrown
+by Sargon in 710 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but succeeded in making a fresh revolt
+some years later (704-703 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and opinion is much divided
+whether his embassy was to secure the friendship of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+youthful Hezekiah at his succession or is to be associated with
+the later widespread attempt to remove the Assyrian yoke.<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The brief account of the Assyrian invasion, Hezekiah&rsquo;s submission,
+and the payment of tribute in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16,
+supplements the Assyrian record by the statement that Sennacherib
+besieged Lachish, a fact which is confirmed by a bas-relief
+(now in the British Museum) depicting the king in the act
+of besieging that town.<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> This thoroughly historical fragment
+is followed by two narratives which tell how the king sent an
+official from Lachish to demand the submission of Hezekiah
+and conclude with the unexpected deliverance of Jerusalem.
+Both these stories appear to belong to a biography of Isaiah,
+and, like the similar biographies of Elijah and Elisha, are open
+to the suspicion that historical facts have been subordinated to
+idealize the work of the prophet. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings, Books of</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The narratives are (<i>a</i>) 2 Kings xviii. 13, 17-xix. 8; cf. Isa. xxxvi.
+1-xxxvii. 8, and (<i>b</i>) xix. 9b-35; cp. Isa. xxxvii. 9-36 (2 Chron. xxxii.
+9 sqq. is based on both), and Jerusalem&rsquo;s deliverance is attributed
+to a certain rumour (xix. 7), to the advance of Tirhakah, king of
+Ethiopia (<i>v.</i> 9), and to a remarkable pestilence (<i>v.</i> 35) which finds
+an echo in a famous story related, not without some confusion of
+essential facts, by Herodotus (ii. 141; cf. Josephus <i>Antiq.</i> x. i. 5).<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+It is difficult to decide whether xix. 9<i>a</i> belongs to the first or second of
+these narratives; and whether the &ldquo;rumour&rdquo; refers to the approach
+of Tirhakah, or rather to the serious troubles which had arisen in
+Babylonia. It is equally difficult to determine whether Tirhakah
+actually appeared on the scene in 701, and the precise application
+of the term Mu&#7779;ri (Mizraim) is much debated. Unless the two narratives
+are duplicates of the same event, it may be urged that
+Sennacherib&rsquo;s attack upon Arabia (apparently about 689) involved
+an invasion of Judah, by which time Egypt was in a position to be
+of material assistance (cf. Isa. xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-3?). This theory of
+a second campaign (first suggested by Sir Henry Rawlinson) has
+been contested, although it is pointed out that Sennacherib at all
+events did not invade Egypt, and that 2 Kings xix. 24 (Isa. xxxvii.
+25) can only refer to his successor. The allusion to the murder of
+Sennacherib (xix. 36 sq.)<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> points to the year 681, but it is uncertain
+to which of the above narratives it belongs. On the whole, the
+question must be left open, and with it both the problem of the
+extension of the name Mu&#7779;ri and Mizraim outside Egypt in the
+Assyrian and Hebrew records of this period and the true historical
+background of a number of the Isaianic prophecies. It is quite possible
+that later events which belong to the time of the Egyptian supremacy
+and the wars of Esarhaddon have been confused with the history
+of Sennacherib&rsquo;s invasion.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not certain whether Hezekiah&rsquo;s conflict with the Philistines
+as far as Gaza or his preparations to secure for Jerusalem
+a good water supply (xviii. 8, xx. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 30; Ecclus.
+xlviii. 17 sq.)<a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> should precede or follow the events which have
+been discussed. On the other hand, the reforms which the
+compiler of the book has attributed to the early part of the
+reign were doubtless much later (2 Kings xviii. 1-8). Not the
+fall of Samaria, but the crisis of 701, is the earliest date that
+could safely be chosen, and the extent of these reforms must
+not be overestimated. They are related in terms that imply
+an acquaintance with the great &ldquo;Deuteronomic&rdquo; movement
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deuteronomy</a></span>), and are magnified further with characteristic
+detail by the chronicler (2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi.). The most
+remarkable was the destruction of a brazen serpent, the cult
+of which was traditionally traced back to the time of Moses
+(Num. xxi. 9).<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> This persistence of serpent-cult, and the
+idolatry (necromancy, tree-worship) which the contemporary
+prophets denounce, do not support the view that the
+apparently radical reforms of Hezekiah were extensive or
+permanent, and Jer. xxvi. 17-19 (which suggests that Micah
+had a greater influence than Isaiah) throws another light upon
+the conditions during his reign. Hezekiah was succeeded by
+his son <span class="sc">Manasseh</span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further W. R. Smith, <i>Prophets</i>, 359-364, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>.
+According to <span class="sc">Prov</span>. xxv. 1, Hezekiah was a patron of
+literature (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Proverbs</a></span>). The hymn which is ascribed to the king
+(Isa. xxxviii. 9-20, wanting in 2 Kings) is of post-exilic origin (see
+Cheyne, <i>Introd. to Isaiah</i>, 222 sq.), but is further proof of the manner
+in which the Judaean king was idealized in subsequent ages, partly,
+perhaps, in the belief that the deliverance of Jerusalem was the
+reward for his piety. For special discussions, see Stade, <i>Zeits. d.
+alttest. Wissenschaft</i>, 1886, pp. 173 sqq.; Winckler, <i>Alttest. Untersuch</i>.,
+26 sqq.; Schrader, <i>Cuneiform Inscr. and Old Test</i>. (on
+2 Kings, <i>l.c</i>.); Driver, <i>Isaiah, his Life and Times</i>, pp. 43-83; A.
+Jeremias, <i>Alte Test</i>. 304-310; Nagel, <i>Zug d. Sanherib gegen Jerus</i>.
+(Leipzig, 1903, conservative); and especially Prá&#353;ek, Sanherib&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Feldzüge gegen Juda&rdquo; (<i>Mitteil. d. Vorderasiat. Gesell</i>., 1903, pp.
+113-158), K. Fullerton, <i>Bibliotheca sacra</i>, 1906, pp. 577-634, A.
+Alt, <i>Israel u. Ägypten</i> (Leipzig, 1909); also the bibliography to
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaiah</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel,[2] 415 sqq.; O. C. Whitehouse,
+<i>Isaiah</i>, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, <i>Kings</i>, p. 43 seq.; T. K.
+Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 2058, n. 1, and references.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza
+and Mu&#7779;ri) at &#7730;ar&#7731;ar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine);
+715, a rising of Mu&#7779;ri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture
+of Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter
+occasion is not improbable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Melu&#7717;&#7717;a is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia; the identification
+of Mu&#7779;ri is uncertain, see below.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal
+(Byblus), in the 15th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; <i>Tell-el-Amarna Letters</i> (ed.
+Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &amp;c.  Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a
+different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib&rsquo;s record, see Wilke,
+<i>Jesaja u. Assur</i> (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, <i>Alttest. Unt.</i>
+139 sqq., Burney, <i>Kings</i>, 350 sq.; Driver; Küchler, &amp;c.; for the
+later, Whitehouse, <i>Isaiah</i>, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader, Wellhausen,
+W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M&rsquo;Curdy, Paton, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to
+the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii.
+12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18,
+xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii. 9-11.
+But see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaiah (Book)</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth&rsquo;s <i>Authority and
+Archaeology</i>, p. 167, n. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The house of <i>Nisroch</i> should probably be that of the god <i>Nusku</i>;
+see also Driver in Hogarth, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 109; Winckler, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 84.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit
+of Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerusalem</a></span>). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool
+was already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see <i>Pal.
+Explor. Fund, Quart. Stat.</i> (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. <i>n&#257;h&#257;sh</i>, &ldquo;serpent&rdquo;)
+is obscure: see the commentaries.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIATUS<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity,
+whether in speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy
+the term is used for an opening or foramen, as the <i>hiatus Fallopii</i>,
+a foramen of the temporal bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when
+a step or link in reasoning is wanting; and in grammar it is the
+pause made for the sake of euphony in pronouncing two successive
+vowels, which are not separated by a consonant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIAWATHA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (&ldquo;he makes rivers&rdquo;), a legendary chief (<i>c</i>. 1450)
+of the Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The formation
+of the League of Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is
+attributed to him by Indian tradition. In his miraculous
+character Hiawatha is the incarnation of human progress and
+civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation, medicine and
+the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature which
+war against man.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. N. B. Hewitt, in <i>Amer. Anthrop</i>. for April 1892.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIBBING<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
+75 m. N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census)
+6566, of whom 3537 were foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes,
+498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and 314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832.
+Hibbing is served by the Great Northern and the Duluth,
+Missabe &amp; Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the great
+Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines
+were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and
+farming are also important industries. The village owns and
+operates the water-works and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing
+was settled in 1892 and was incorporated in 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIBERNACULUM<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a
+term for a winter bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters
+for plants; in zoology, the winter bud of a polyzoan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIBERNATION<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (winter sleep), the dormant condition in
+which certain animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestivation
+(summer sleep) is the similar condition in which other
+species pass periods of heat or drought in warm latitudes. The
+origins of these kindred phenomena are probably to be sought
+in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply or of other
+factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of cold
+in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other.
+They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are
+enabled to live through unfavourable climatic conditions which
+would end fatally in starvation or desiccation were the animals
+to maintain their normal state of activity.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestivation</i>.&mdash;The
+physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mammalia,
+has been worked out in detail by several observers in
+the case of some European species, notably bats, hedgehogs,
+dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of aestivation nothing
+definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems probable,
+however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the
+physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are
+to all intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span>
+for example, in the European hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>)
+is not distinguished by external signs from the state of aestivation
+of the allied Mascarene genus, the tenrec (<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>).
+The lethargy in both cases appears to be directly due to
+fall in the temperature of the organisms; and the fall in
+temperature proceeds <i>pari passu</i> with the slowing down and
+weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the circulation
+of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hibernation
+and aestivation is shown not only in their physiological
+accompaniments but also in the species of animals which become
+seasonally dormant. Birds neither hibernate nor aestivate.
+The tenrec (<i>Centetes</i>) of Madagascar, which aestivates, closely
+resembles the hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus</i>) in habits and belongs to
+the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and
+batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep
+the winter through in cold countries; and some species of
+these groups habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud
+in tropical latitudes where drought is of periodical occurrence.
+Terrestrial molluscs lie dormant in the winter in cold and
+temperate latitudes and their tropical allies aestivate in districts
+where conditions enforce the habit. Some fresh-water molluscs
+bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds when the
+surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way
+when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season
+in the tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries
+insects and arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters
+during the cold weather, and in the tropics they similarly disappear
+during times of drought.</p>
+
+<p><i>Predisposing Causes of Hibernation.</i>&mdash;The likeness between
+hibernation and aestivation and the coincidence of the one
+with cold and of the other with heat arrest the conclusion that
+the temperature of the surrounding medium, whether atmospheric
+or aquatic, is the prime, much less the sole, cause of either.
+The effect of extreme cold is to rouse the hibernating animal
+from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter brings about
+a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears to
+be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues
+is followed by death because the gases are expelled from the
+fluids as bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals.
+Some cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to 0° C.
+Fish have been resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice,
+and frogs have been known to recover when ice has been formed
+in the blood and in the lymph of the peritoneal cavity (Landois).</p>
+
+<p>For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take precautions
+against exposure to extreme cold. They either bury
+themselves in the soil or under the snow or seek the shelter of
+hollow trees or of caves, not infrequently congregating in the
+same spot so that the temperature is kept up by corporeal
+contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be suspended
+unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon
+winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not
+hibernate unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during
+the summer and autumn to fatten them for their winter fast;
+and hedgehogs and dormice in captivity have been known to
+remain active in the cold until warm sleeping-quarters were
+insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their cages. Finally
+the wood-chucks (<i>Arctomys monax</i>) in the Adirondacks retire
+to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox,
+when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the
+vernal equinox before the snows of winter have vanished from
+the ground. These and other facts justify Marshall Hall&rsquo;s
+conclusion that cold is merely a predisposing cause of hibernation
+in the sense that it is a predisposing cause of ordinary sleep.
+It has also been shown that the state of hibernation cannot be
+forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to artificial cold
+even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper season
+they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37°
+to 77° Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters in
+the autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than
+that of preceding days during which they retain their activity.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer
+sleep depend to a considerable extent upon conditions of existence
+other than those of temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign
+of a living thing on his arrival at Bahia Blanca, Argentina,
+on the 7th of Sept., although by digging several insects, large
+spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid state. During
+the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean temperature
+was 51°, the thermometer seldom rising above 55° at
+mid-day. But during the succeeding days when the mean
+temperature was 58° and that of the middle of the day between
+60° and 70° both insect and reptilian life was in a state of activity.
+Nevertheless at Montevideo, lying only four degrees further
+north, between the 26th of July and the 19th of August when the
+mean temperature was 58.4° and the mean highest temperature
+of mid-day 65.5° almost every beetle, several genera of spiders,
+land molluscs, toads and lizards were all lying dormant beneath
+stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo remained dormant
+at a temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from its
+torpidity. Darwin unfortunately does not record whether the
+species observed were identical in the two localities.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation
+is approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium
+or at most a degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature
+of the chosen hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as
+freezing point, life is endangered at least in the case of mammals.</p>
+
+<p>In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature
+is normally only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two
+rising and falling together. But, setting aside the young,
+especially of those species in which the offspring are born or
+hatched at a comparatively early stage of development, the
+majority of warm-blooded animals are able to maintain a high
+and approximately level temperature irrespective of decline
+in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty
+of temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or
+weakened in most if not in all hibernating mammals both in
+their normal nocturnal or diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep.
+In the case of European bats it has been shown that the ordinary
+day sleep in summer differs only in the matter of duration from
+the prolonged slumber of the same animals in winter. The
+temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration
+practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven
+minutes has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate
+temperatures ranging from 45° to 50° F., dormice (<i>Muscardinus
+avellanarius</i>) and hedgehogs (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>) alternately
+wake to feed and sink into slumber. Dormice awake once in
+every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the hedgehogs may last
+for two or three days. The temperature of the hedgehog, when
+awake and active, rises to about 87° F., that of the dormouse
+to 92° or 94° F.; but during sleep the temperature of both species
+falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all the
+phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these
+animals during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods
+of wakeful activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term
+&ldquo;diurnation&rdquo; has been proposed, because it has only been
+observed in nocturnal animals, lies phenomenally midway
+between the normal sleep of non-hibernating mammals and the
+dormant condition in winter of hibernating species. The
+stimulus of hunger appears to be the prime cause of its periodic
+cessation. Since then the faculty of temperature adjustment
+is in abeyance during the ordinary diurnal summer sleep in
+hibernating mammals, which in this physiological particular
+resemble reptiles, it seems probable that hibernation can only
+be practised by those species in which the power to maintain,
+when sleeping, a permanent average high temperature has been
+lost or perhaps never acquired. That there is no broad line
+of demarcation between the ordinary sleep of these hibernating
+mammals in which the temperature is known to drop considerably
+and that of non-hibernating species is indicated by the fact that
+the temperature of human beings and possibly of all non-hibernating
+species falls to a certain, though to a limited, extent
+in ordinary sleep.</p>
+
+<p>The relation between the internal body-temperature and the
+respiratory movements has been worked out in hibernating
+dormice, hedgehogs, marmots and bats. When the temperature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+is below 12° C., the torpid animal exhibits long periods of apnoea
+of several minutes&rsquo; duration and interrupted by a few respirations.
+With the temperature rising above 13° C., the periods of apnoea
+in the still inactive animal become shorter, the respiration
+suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot&rsquo;s type), or gradually
+waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes&rsquo; type). When the temperature
+is at about 16° C., the periods of apnoea in the gradually
+awaking animal are very short and infrequent. When the
+temperature is about 20° and rising apace, respiration becomes
+continuous and rapid and the animal is awake. These stages
+have been especially recorded in the case of dormice. In the
+last stage the respiration of hedgehogs and marmots is somewhat
+different, there being a series of rapid respirations, often followed
+by a single deep sighing respiration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Respiration</i> appears to be totally suspended in animals in a
+complete state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may
+however, be readily re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and
+to this fact may perhaps be attributed the belief that breathing
+does not actually cease. If a hibernating hedgehog be lightly
+touched it draws a deep breath, and breathing is maintained for a
+longer or shorter time before again ceasing; but if at the same
+time the temperature of the atmosphere be raised, respiration
+becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by activity
+(Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally suspended
+is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and
+bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon
+dioxide, a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals
+in a state of normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which
+may be drowned in about three minutes when awake and active,
+has been removed from water uninjured when in deep winter
+sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes&rsquo; submergence. A
+hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived
+sixteen minutes&rsquo; immersion. Further proof of the suspension
+of respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat
+which while in a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was
+kept in a pneumatometer for ten hours without appreciably
+affecting the percentage of oxygen in the air. The same animal,
+when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in the space of
+one hour from the instrument.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of respiration, <i>alimentation</i> and <i>excretion</i> are
+suspended during hibernation.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>circulation of the blood</i>, on the other hand, continues without
+interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact
+may be observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats
+in a state of winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog
+lethargic from hibernation, it was experimentally shown that
+when the spinal cord was severed behind the occipital foramen,
+the brain removed and the entire spinal cord gently destroyed,
+the heart continued to beat strongly and regularly for several
+hours, the contraction of the auricles and ventricles being quite
+perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse of ten hours.
+After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed its
+activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve
+hours both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the
+ventricles remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles
+gave no response. On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a
+hedgehog in a normal state of activity was severed at the occiput,
+the left ventricle ceased to beat almost at once, and the left
+auricle in less than fifteen minutes; the right auricle was the
+next to cease, whereas the right ventricle continued its contraction
+for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots have yielded
+very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in a
+state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The
+pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16
+to 18 per minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent,
+until at the end of the third hour only 3 were recorded in the
+same length of time. Excised pieces of voluntary muscular
+tissue contracted vigorously three hours after death under
+electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did they cease
+to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same
+way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the
+number of pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen
+minutes, to 8 at the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing
+altogether at the end of fifty minutes. Similarly the response of
+the muscles to galvanic shock failed at a correspondingly rapid
+rate. It is evident, therefore, that during hibernation the
+irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked degree, and
+that the irritability of the left side of the organ is scarcely less
+pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction in the
+rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain hibernating
+mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that
+the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens
+with a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52° F. the
+number was 22 in the common garden snail (<i>Helix hortensis</i>),
+and 21 in the cellar slug (<i>Hyalinia cellaria</i>). At a temperature
+of 30° F. the pulsation fell to 4 in the former and to 3 in the
+latter animal.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation,
+and the principal physiological phenomena connected with them,
+may be briefly summarized as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the
+tissues is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the
+case of mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes
+in definite parts of the body, during the weeks of activity immediately
+preceding the period of winter sleep.</p>
+
+<p>2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and
+hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or
+nocturnal sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their prolonged
+and lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of
+degree, differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration.</p>
+
+<p>3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (<i>a</i>)
+Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and excretion;
+(<i>b</i>) lowering of the body temperature to that of the surrounding
+medium or to within a few degrees of it; (<i>c</i>) total or almost total
+cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive immersion
+for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases, which
+prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active;
+(<i>d</i>) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially of
+those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that
+organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (<i>e</i>) a
+slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the
+cardio-pneumatic
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate,
+devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the phenomenon
+of hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence wherever
+the conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought
+are inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the contrary,
+the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned;
+aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation
+is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in
+these the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily
+at all events in abeyance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>II. <i>The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation.</i>&mdash;Owing to the
+extreme difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in
+their natural haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost impossible
+to get accurate knowledge of the details of this state of
+existence. In a general way it is known, or assumed from their
+disappearance, that certain species retire to winter quarters in
+particular districts, but on such important points as whether the
+winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light or profound,
+assured information is for the most part not forthcoming. This
+is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North
+America, which have been objects of study for many years. It
+is still more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited
+and rarely visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested
+in such questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration
+of this truth. It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep
+of these animals in north and temperate Europe was complete
+and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for example, remarked
+that &ldquo;perhaps the bat may be the only animal which sleeps
+profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food.&rdquo; It
+was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other
+winged insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats
+which feed upon them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees,
+caves, sheds or other places likely to afford them sufficient
+shelter. Here they hang suspended, solitary or in companies
+according to the species. But a mild spell of weather in mid-winter
+will sometimes entice a few to take wing while it lasts,
+although they never appear in any numbers until crepuscular and
+nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats
+(<i>Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum</i> and <i>R. hipposiderus</i>), that during
+the early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hibernation,
+in the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that
+even later in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted,
+especially when the temperature of the air rises above 46° F.,
+and that during their wakeful intervals they crawl about and feed
+apparently upon the insects which live throughout the year in the
+caves. This is also true of the long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>),
+and probably of other species of this group. At Mussoorie in the
+Himalayas, and in other parts of northern India, insectivorous
+bats, such as <i>Rhinolophus luctus</i> and <i>Rh. affinis</i>, pass the winter
+in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely seen abroad during the cold
+season. The fruit-eating bats, on the contrary (<i>Pteropidae</i>),
+which are more southern in their distribution and are restricted
+in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower slopes of the
+mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times of the
+year (Blanford).</p>
+
+<p>Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles
+and shrews do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction
+between two groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends
+upon the difference in their habitats and in those of the creatures
+they live upon. By tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer,
+moles are still able to find worms and various insects buried
+in the earth beyond the reach of frost; and shrews hunt out
+spiders, centipedes and insects which in their larval, pupal or
+sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in holes and
+crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or
+under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially
+active life of the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular
+fact that the common hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>)&mdash;the
+only member of this order besides genera referable to the moles
+(<i>Talpidae</i>) and shrews (<i>Soricidae</i>) that inhabits temperate and
+north-temperate latitudes in Europe and Asia&mdash;passes the
+winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in profundity by that
+of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly the
+explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the
+bionomial differences between the three animals. The subterranean
+feeding habits of the mole render hibernation unnecessary
+on his part. Therefore the shrew and the hedgehog,
+both surface feeders for the most part, need only be considered
+in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst the
+smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable
+size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult
+to find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike.
+Hence in winter when insects are scarce and demand active
+and diligent search, it is quite intelligible that the shrews,
+in virtue of their smallness and rapidity of movement, are able
+to procure sufficient food for their needs; whereas the hedgehogs,
+requiring a far larger quantity and handicapped by lack of
+activity, would probably starve under the same conditions.
+Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedgehog
+(<i>Erinaceus megalotis</i>) hibernates in Afghanistan from
+November till February. The tenrec (<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>), a
+large insectivore from Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest
+weeks of the year; and specimens exhibited in the Zoological
+Gardens in London preserved the habit although
+kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with
+food.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha
+(hares, rabbits and picas) are known to hibernate, although
+some of the species, like the mountain hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>),
+extend far to the north in the palaearctic region, and the picas
+(<i>Ochotona</i>) live at high altitudes in the Himalayas and Central
+Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive, and where the snow
+lies deep for many months. It is probable that the picas live
+in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores
+of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The
+Hystrico-morpha also are non-hibernators. It is true that the
+common porcupine (<i>Hystrix cristata</i>) of south Europe and
+north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the statement cannot,
+however, be accepted without confirmation, because the cold is
+seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens
+exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active
+throughout the year, although kept in enclosures without
+artificial heat of any kind. Even the most northerly representative
+of this group, the Canadian porcupine (<i>Erethizon
+dorsatus</i>), which inhabits forest-covered tracts in the United
+States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter.
+Some members of this group, like capybaras (<i>Hydrochaerus
+capybara</i>) and coypus (<i>Myocastors coypus</i>) which live in tropical
+America, are unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries,
+and live in the open all the year round in parks and zoological
+gardens in England. Several of the genera of Myomorpha
+contain species inhabiting the northern hemisphere, which
+habitually hibernate. The three European genera of dormice
+(<i>Myoxidae</i>), namely <i>Muscardinus</i>, <i>Eliomys</i> and <i>Glis</i>, sleep soundly
+practically throughout the winter; and examples of the South
+African genus <i>Graphiurus</i> practise the same habit when imported
+to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from
+their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated
+during the autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed
+for shelter during the winter. According to the weather, the
+sleep lasts from about five to seven months. In the family
+<i>Muridae</i>, the true mice and rats (<i>Murinae</i>) and the voles
+and lemmings (<i>Arvicolinae</i>) seem to remain active through the
+winter, although some species, like the lemmings, range far to
+the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice
+(<i>Hesperomys</i>) of North America, belonging to the <i>Cricetinae</i>,
+spend the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food
+is laid up for consumption in the early spring. The Canadian
+jumping mouse (<i>Zapus hudsonianus</i>), one of the Jaculidae,
+also hibernates, although the sleep is frequently interrupted
+by milder days. Some of the most northerly species of jerboas
+(Jaculidae), namely <i>Alactaga decumana</i> of the Kirghiz Steppes
+and <i>A. indica</i> of Afghanistan, sleep from September or October
+till April; and the Egyptian species (<i>Jaculus jaculus</i>) and the
+Cape jumping hare (<i>Pedetes caffer</i>), one of the Hystrico-morpha,
+remain in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous
+to winter sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains
+many hibernating species. None of the true squirrels, however,
+appear to sleep throughout the winter. Even the red squirrel
+(<i>Sciurus hudsonianus</i>) of North America retains its activity
+in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that prevail. The same is
+true of its European ally <i>Sc. vulgaris</i>. The North American
+grey squirrel (<i>Sc. cinereus</i>), although more southerly in its
+distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hibernates
+partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological
+Gardens in London disappear for a day or two when the cold
+is exceptionally keen, but for the most part they may be seen
+abroad throughout the season. On the other hand, ground
+squirrels like the chipmunks (<i>Tamias</i>) and the susliks or gophers
+(<i>Spermophilus</i>) of North America and Central Asia, at all events
+in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from the
+late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where
+they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of
+warmer weather in the winter which may rouse them from their
+slumbers. The North American flying squirrel (<i>Sciuropterus
+volucella</i>) and its ally <i>Pteromys inornatus</i> are believed to hibernate
+in hollow trees. All the true marmots (<i>Arctomys</i>), a genus of
+which the species live at tolerably high altitudes in Central
+Europe, Asia and North America, appear to spend the winter
+in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their burrows. They
+apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a quantity of
+fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in
+the case of the woodchuck (<i>A. monax</i>) of the Adirondacks,
+retire to winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset
+of the winter cold. The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (<i>Cynomys
+ludovicianus</i>) of North America, which live in the plains, do
+not hibernate to the same extent as the true marmots, although
+they appear to remain in their burrows during the coldest
+portions of the winter. Beavers (<i>Castor</i>), although formerly at
+all events extending in North America from the tropic of Cancer
+up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span>
+is deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able
+to feed on aquatic plants beneath the ice.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be
+practised, with one possible exception, only by species belonging
+to the group Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in
+Europe and Asia, as well as in the Himalayas, brown bears
+(<i>Ursus arctos</i>) hibernate, so also does the North American
+grizzly bear (<i>U. horribilis</i>), at least in the more northern districts
+of its range. The smaller black bear of the Himalayas (<i>U.
+tibetanus</i>) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor during the
+winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when
+occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the
+American black bear (<i>U. americanus</i>) the female seeks winter
+quarters comparatively early in the season in preparation for the
+birth of her progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the
+males remain active so long as plenty of food is to be found. In
+the case of all bears, except the Polar bear (<i>U. maritimus</i>), the
+site chosen as the hibernaculum is either a cave or hole or some
+sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or the roots of large trees,
+more or less overgrown with brushwood which holds the snow
+until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where the sleeping
+animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the
+intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called &ldquo;tappen&rdquo; and
+composed principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated
+until the spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the
+subject of the hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during
+the winter from particular spots in the Arctic regions where icebound
+ships have spent the winter, and the occasional discovery
+of specimens buried beneath the snow, have led to the belief that
+these animals habitually retire to winter quarters through the
+cold sunless months of the year. This may possibly be the true
+explanation at least for certain districts. But it has been alleged
+that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen throughout
+the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury themselves
+in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without
+feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the
+following year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from
+the neighbourhood of icebound ships may be explained on the
+supposition that the adult females alone hibernate for breeding
+purposes, while the full-grown males and half-grown specimens of
+both sexes migrate in the winter to the edges of the ice-floes and
+to coast lines, where the water is open. Before retiring to winter
+quarters the pregnant females store up sufficient quantity of fat in
+their tissues not only to sustain themselves but also to supply milk
+for their cubs. In the Adirondack region and probably in other
+districts of the same or more northern latitudes in North America,
+raccoons (<i>Procyon lotor</i>) retire in the winter to some sheltered
+place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass the severest part of
+the season in sleep, emerging in February or March when the
+snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks
+(<i>Mephitis mephitica</i>), a member of the weasel family, also seek
+shelter during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam
+believes that the hibernation of this animal is determined by cold,
+and not by failure of food-supply, for he observes that skunks
+may frequently be seen in numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a
+time of the year when they feed almost entirely upon mice and
+shrews which do not hibernate even when the thermometer
+registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North America
+the badger (<i>Taxidea americana</i>) is said to hibernate from October
+till April; but the duration of the period probably depends, as in
+the case of its European ally (<i>Meles meles</i>), upon the length and
+severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the
+winter repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a
+break in the weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth
+in search of food. This interrupted hibernation takes place at
+least in England and even in Scandinavia; but in countries
+where frost is continuous throughout the winter it is probable
+that the badger&rsquo;s sleep is unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the
+Carnivora is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the
+raccoon dog (<i>Nyctereutes procyonoides</i>) of Japan and north-eastern
+Asia, which is said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amurland
+if food has been sufficiently plentiful in late summer and
+autumn to enable the animal to lay on enough fat to resist the
+cold and sustain a long period of fast. If, however, food has been
+scarce, this dog is compelled to remain active all through the
+winter. The Arctic fox (<i>Vulpes lagopus</i>), although considerably
+more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does not hibernate.
+It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in winter,
+but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate
+southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in
+other districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings
+or hares, for food during the winter months. In Australia the
+porcupine ant-eater (<i>Echidna aculeata</i>) hibernates; and the
+habit is retained by specimens imported to Europe if exposed to
+the cold in outdoor cages.</p>
+
+<p>Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case
+of man. For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia,
+where food is scarce throughout the year and in danger of exhaustion
+during the winter, the peasants are said to resort to a
+practice closely akin to hibernation, spending at least one-half of
+the cold weather in sleep. From time immemorial it has been the
+custom when the first snows fall for families to shut themselves
+up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse into slumber,
+each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once a day
+only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little
+dry bread.</p>
+
+<p>Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the
+surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in
+a state of lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into
+northern latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue
+of their inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level
+than that of the atmosphere. The common land tortoise (<i>Testudo
+graeca</i>) of South Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter
+in its natural habitat, and even when imported to England is able,
+in some cases at least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by
+practising the same habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded.
+In Pennsylvania the box-tortoise (<i>Cistudo carolina</i>) passes the
+winter in a burrow; and <i>Testudo elegans</i>, which inhabits dry hilly
+districts in north India, takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or
+bushes as the cold weather approaches and remains in a semi-lethargic
+state until the return of the warmth. The European
+pond tortoise (<i>Emys orbicularis</i>) also hibernates buried in the soil;
+and the North American salt-water terrapin (<i>Malacoclemmys
+concentrica</i>), abundant in the salt-marshes round Charleston,
+S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold
+months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises
+protect themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into
+the soil which afterwards becomes indurated. When drought
+sets in with the dry season and the tanks become exhausted and
+food unobtainable, crocodiles and alligators sometimes wander
+across country in search of water, but more commonly bury
+themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence until
+the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large
+snakes, anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the
+Indians in South America buried in the same lethargic state.
+Snakes and lizards in all countries where there is any considerable
+seasonal variation in temperature become dormant or semi-dormant
+during the colder months.</p>
+
+<p>Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other
+countries situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury themselves
+in the mud at the bottom of tanks and ponds, often
+congregating in numbers in the same spot. Toads retire to
+burrows or other secluded places on the land, and newts either
+bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up
+beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to
+Mr G. A. Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not
+pass the winter in profound torpor, but merely in a state of
+sluggish quiescence. In tropical countries, where wet and dry
+seasons alternate, frogs which, like the rest of the batrachians,
+are for the most part intolerant of great heat, especially when
+accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury themselves deep
+in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from their
+retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span></p>
+
+<p>This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud
+forming the bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised
+by several species of tropical freshwater fishes, belonging principally
+to the family <i>Siluridae</i>. The members of this group are
+able to exist and thrive in moist mud, and can even support
+life for a comparatively long time out of water altogether. The
+instinct is exhibited by species occurring both in the eastern and
+western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the case of
+species of <i>Callicthys</i> and <i>Loricaria</i> in Guiana and by <i>Clarias
+lazera</i> in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to Tennent,
+in a species of climbing perch (<i>Anabas oligolepis</i>) found in Ceylon
+and belonging to the family <i>Anabantidae</i>, all the species of
+which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water,
+and may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of
+fresh pools. The habit is also common to some species of mud
+fishes of the order Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays
+the part of lungs. <i>Protopterus</i>, from tropical Africa, for instance,
+burrows into the mud and remains for nearly half the year
+coiled up at the bottom in a slightly enlarged chamber. The
+walls of this are lined with a layer of slime secreted from the
+fish&rsquo;s skin, and the orifice is closed with a lid the centre of which
+is perforated and forms an inturned tube by means of which
+air is conducted to the fish&rsquo;s mouth. The aestivating burrow
+of the Brazilian mudfish (<i>Lepidosiren</i>) is similar, except that
+the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian
+mudfish (<i>Ceratodus</i>) is not known to hibernate or aestivate.</p>
+
+<p>In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegetation
+terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or
+fallen tree trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of
+dead leaves, in moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent
+until the coming of spring. Amongst pulmonate gastropods,
+most species of snails (<i>Helix</i>, <i>Clausilia</i>) close the mouth of the
+shell at this period with a membranous or calcified plate, the
+epiphragm. Slugs (<i>Limax</i>, <i>Arion</i>), on the contrary, lie buried
+in the earth encysted in a coating of slime. Similarly in the
+tropics members of this group, such as <i>Achatina</i> in tropical
+Africa and <i>Orthalicus</i> in Brazil, aestivate during the dry season,
+the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and
+examples of two species of <i>Achatina</i> from east and west Africa
+exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remained concealed
+in their shells during the winter, although kept in an
+artificially warmed house, and resumed their activity in the
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such
+forms as <i>Limnaea</i> and <i>Planorbis</i> having been frequently seen
+crawling about beneath the ice of frozen ponds. During periods
+of drought in England, however, they commonly bury themselves
+in the mud, a habit which is also practised during the
+dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate Gastropods
+belonging to the genera <i>Ampullaria</i>, <i>Melania</i> and others, which
+lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy.
+Freshwater Pelecypoda (<i>Anodonta</i>, <i>Unio</i>) spend the European
+winter buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams.</p>
+
+<p>In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects
+pass the winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal
+or imaginal (reproductive) stages. In some the state of hibernation
+is complete in the sense that although the insects may be
+roused from their lethargy to the extent of movement by spells
+of warm weather, they do not leave their hibernacula to feed;
+in others it is incomplete in the sense that the insects emerge
+to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of <i>Euprepia fuliginosa</i>,
+or to take the wing as in the case of the midge <i>Trichocera hiemalis</i>.
+Others again, like <i>Podura nivalis</i> and <i>Boreus hiemalis</i>, never
+appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects which
+hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more
+than one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (<i>Cossus
+ligniperda</i>), cockchafers (<i>Melolontha</i>), stagbeetles (<i>Lucanus</i>)
+and dragon-flies (<i>Libellula</i>), &amp;c.; and to some species which,
+although they only live a few months in this immature state,
+are hatched in the autumn or summer and only reach the final
+stage of growth in the following spring, like the butterflies of
+the genus <i>Argynnis</i> (<i>paphia</i>, <i>aglaia</i>, &amp;c.) in England. As an
+instance of species which survive the winter in the pupal or
+chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of
+Europe (<i>Papilio machaon</i>); while to the category of species
+which hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera
+(Rhyncophora, <i>Coccinellidae</i>), &amp;c., as well as some Hemiptera,
+Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera (<i>Vanessa io</i>, <i>urticae</i>,
+&amp;c.). In the case of the social Hymenoptera it is only the
+fertilized queen wasp out of the nest that survives the frost
+of winter, all the workers dying with the onset of cold in the
+autumn; the common hive bees (<i>Apis mellifica</i>), although they
+retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity
+of the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the
+temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively
+at work underground unless the temperature falls several
+degrees below zero.</p>
+
+<p>Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate
+latitudes. Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the
+family <i>Ctenizidae</i> and some species of <i>Lycosidae</i> seal the doors
+of their burrows with silk or close up the orifice with a sheet
+of that material. Other non-burrowing species, like some species
+of <i>Clubionidae</i> and <i>Drassidae</i>, lie up in silken cases attached
+to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose bark, or buried
+under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls. Other
+species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state
+protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother
+for her eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the &ldquo;garden
+spider&rdquo; (<i>Aranea diadema</i>). Commonly, however, when the
+cocoons are later in the making, or the cold weather sets in early,
+the eggs of this and of allied species do not hatch until the spring;
+but in either case the young emerge in the warm weather, become
+adult during the summer and die in the autumn after pairing
+and oviposition. Some members of this family, nevertheless,
+like <i>Zilla x-notata</i>, which live in the corners of windows, or in
+outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree of protection
+from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage
+and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and
+tempted by the warmth to spin new webs. Typical members
+of the Opiliones or harvest spiders, belonging to the family
+<i>Phalangiidae</i>, do not hibernate in temperate and more northern
+latitudes in Europe and America, but perish in the autumn,
+leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the succeeding
+spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature
+individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging
+to the family <i>Trogulidae</i>, spend the winter in a dormant state
+under stones or buried in the soil. False scorpions (<i>Pseudo-scorpiones</i>)
+also hibernate in temperate latitudes, passing the
+cold months, like many spiders, enclosed in silken cases attached
+to the underside of stones or loosened pieces of bark. Centipedes
+and millipedes bury themselves in the earth, or lie up in
+some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks afford
+during the winter; and in the tropics millipedes lie dormant
+during seasons of drought.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in
+the winter of the northern hemisphere is also true in a general
+way of that of the southern hemisphere at the same season
+of the year. This is proved&mdash;to mention no other cases&mdash;by the
+observations of Darwin on the hibernation of insects and spiders
+at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America, and by
+Distant&rsquo;s account of the paucity of insect life in the winter
+in South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating
+semi-torpid Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in
+the Transvaal, and of the gradual increase in the numbers of
+individuals and species of insects in that country as the spring
+advanced and the dry season came to an end.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;T. Bell, <i>A History of British Reptiles</i> (<i>and
+Amphibians</i>) (1849); W. T. Blanford, <i>Fauna of British India:
+Mammalia</i> (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, <i>Monograph of the
+Tailless Batrachians of Europe</i>, edited by the Ray Society;
+&ldquo;Teleostei&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vii. 541-727 (1904);
+T. W. Bridge, &ldquo;Dipneustei&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vii.
+505-520 (1904); A. H. Cooke, &ldquo;Molluscs&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Natural
+History</i>, iii. 25-27 (1895); T. A. Coward, <i>P.Z.S.</i> pp. 849-855
+(1906), and pp. 312-324 (1907); C. Darwin, <i>A Naturalist&rsquo;s</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span>
+<i>Voyage Round the World</i>, pp. 97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant,
+<i>A Naturalist in the Transvaal</i>, ch. iii. (1892); Marshall Hall,
+&ldquo;Hibernation,&rdquo; in <i>Todd&rsquo;s Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology</i>,
+pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); <i>Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.</i>
+(1832); John Hunter, <i>Observations on parts of the Animal Economy</i>
+(1837); <i>Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General&rsquo;s
+Office of the U.S. Army</i>, vii. (1902), Bibliography relating to physiology
+of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, <i>An Introduction
+to Entomology</i>, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois, <i>A Text-book
+of Human Physiology</i>, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410 (1904);
+V. Laporte, &ldquo;Suspension of Vitality in Animals,&rdquo; <i>Pop. Sci. Monthly</i>,
+xxxvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, &ldquo;Essai sur la
+léthargie périodique,&rdquo; <i>Annales du Muséum</i>, x. 453-456 (1807);
+C. Hart Merriam, <i>North American Pocket Mice</i> (Washington,
+1889); W. Miller, &ldquo;Hibernation and Allied States in Animals,&rdquo;
+<i>Trans. Pan-Amer. Med. Congr.</i> (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285
+(Washington, 1895); M. S. Pembrey and A. G. Pitts, &ldquo;The Relation
+between the Internal Temperature and the Respiratory Movements
+of Hibernating Animals,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Physiol.</i> (London, 1899), pp. 305-316;
+Prunelle, &ldquo;Recherches sur les phénomènes et sur les causes du
+sommeil hivernal,&rdquo; <i>Annales du Muséum</i>, xviii.; J. A. Saissy,
+<i>Recherches sur les animaux hivernans</i> (1808); L. Spallanzani,
+<i>Mémoires sur la respiration</i> (1803); J. Emerson Tennent, <i>Sketches
+of the Natural History of Ceylon</i>, pp. 351-358 (1861); Volkov, &ldquo;Le
+Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol.</i>
+(Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> (1900), i.
+1554.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. I. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIBERNIA,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> in ancient geography, one of the names by which
+Ireland was known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names
+were Ierne, Iuverna, Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem
+from which also Erin is descended. The island was well known
+to the Romans through the reports of traders, so far at least as
+its coasts. But it never became part of the Roman empire.
+Agricola (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 80) planned its conquest, which he judged
+an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise.
+During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to
+have been an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may
+have settled occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration
+is that of the Scots into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman
+days that Roman civilization, brought perhaps by Christian
+missionaries like Patrick, entered the island.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKERINGILL<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Hickhorngill</span>), <b>EDMUND</b> (1631-1708),
+English divine, lived an eventful life in the days of the Commonwealth
+and the Restoration. After graduating at Caius College,
+Cambridge, where he was junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined
+Lilburne&rsquo;s regiment as chaplain, and afterwards served in the
+ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish service, ultimately becoming
+a captain in Fleetwood&rsquo;s regiment. He then lived for a time in
+Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661. In the same
+year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln,
+having already passed through such shades of belief as are
+connoted by the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662
+until his death in 1708 he was vicar of All Saints&rsquo;, Colchester.
+He was a vigorous pamphleteer, and came into collision with
+Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he had to pay heavy
+damages for slander in 1682. He made a public recantation in
+1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and ended his
+career by being convicted for forgery in 1707.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKES, GEORGE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1642-1715), English divine and scholar,
+was born at Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 20th of
+June 1642. In 1659 he entered St John&rsquo;s College, Oxford,
+whence after the Restoration he removed to Magdalen College
+and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was elected
+fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded
+M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was
+appointed rector of St Ebbe&rsquo;s, Oxford. In 1676, as private
+chaplain, he accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal
+commissioner, to Scotland, and shortly afterwards received the
+degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In 1680 he became vicar of
+All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having been made
+chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the
+deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II.&rsquo;s declaration
+of indulgence and Monmouth&rsquo;s rising, and he tried in vain to save
+from death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685),
+one of the Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the
+revolution of 1688, having declined to take the oath of allegiance,
+Hickes was first suspended and afterwards deprived of his
+deanery. When he heard of the appointment of a successor
+he affixed to the cathedral doors a &ldquo;protestation and claim of
+right.&rdquo; After remaining some time in concealment in London,
+he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors to James II. in
+France on matters connected with the continuance of their
+episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself
+consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were
+largely occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he
+persuaded two Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald
+Campbell, to assist him in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel
+Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as bishops among the nonjurors.
+He died on the 15th of December 1715.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief writings of Hickes are the <i>Institutiones Grammaticae
+Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae</i> (1689), and <i>Linguarum veterum
+Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus</i>
+(1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious
+author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested
+by contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great
+satisfaction&mdash;the execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having
+attempted to murder Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and
+John King, Presbyterian ministers, &ldquo;for high treason and rebellion&rdquo;
+(<i>Ravillac Redivivus</i>, 1678; <i>The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the
+Mouths of Phanatical Protestant</i>s, 1680). In his <i>Jovian</i> (an answer
+to S. Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Julian the Apostate</i>, 1683), he endeavoured to show
+that the Roman empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians
+under Julian had recognized the duty of passive obedience. His
+two treatises, one <i>Of the Christian Priesthood</i> and the other <i>Of the
+Dignity of the Episcopal Order</i>, originally published in 1707, have
+been more than once reprinted, and form three volumes of the
+<i>Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology</i> (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were
+published <i>Collections of Controversial Letters</i>, in 1711 a collection of
+<i>Sermons</i>, and in 1726 a volume of <i>Posthumous Discourses</i>. Other
+treatises, such as the <i>Apologetical Vindication of the Church of
+England</i>, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson&rsquo;s <i>Preservative against
+Popery</i>. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which
+sketches his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant
+in various collections. A posthumous publication of his <i>The Constitution
+of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of
+Schism</i> (1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.</p>
+
+<p>See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the <i>Dictionary of
+National Biography</i>, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, <i>The
+Nonjurors</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1798-1888), American philosopher
+and divine, was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the
+29th of December 1798. He took his degree at Union College in
+1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in active pastoral work, and
+was then appointed professor of theology at the Western Reserve
+College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn (N.Y.) Theological
+Seminary. From this post he was elected vice-president of
+Union College and professor of mental and moral science. In
+1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868
+retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to
+writing and study. A collected edition of his principal works was
+published at Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th
+of May 1888. He wrote <i>Rational Psychology</i> (1848), <i>System of
+Moral Science</i> (1853), <i>Empirical Psychology</i> (1854), <i>Rational
+Cosmology</i> (1858), <i>Creator and Creation, or the Knowledge in the
+Reason of God and His Work</i> (1872), <i>Humanity Immortal</i> (1872),
+<i>Logic of Reason</i> (1874).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKORY,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a shortened form of the American Indian name
+<i>pohickery</i>. Hickory trees are natives of North America, and
+belong to the genus <i>Carya</i>. They are closely allied to the walnuts
+(<i>Juglans</i>), the chief or at least one very obvious difference being
+that, whilst in <i>Carya</i> the husk which covers the shell of the nut
+separates into four valves, in <i>Juglans</i> it consists of but one piece,
+which bursts irregularly. The timber is both strong and heavy,
+and remarkable for its extreme elasticity, but it decays rapidly
+when exposed to heat and moisture, and is peculiarly subject to
+the attacks of worms. It is very extensively employed in
+manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth, the
+bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels,
+chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes
+requiring great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in
+America is for hoop-making; and it is the only American wood
+found perfectly fit for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of
+the brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+gives out, the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived.
+The species which furnish the best wood are <i>Carya alba</i> (shell-bark
+hickory), <i>C. tomentosa</i> (mockernut), <i>C. olivaeformis</i> (pecan
+or pacane nut), and <i>C. porcina</i> (pig-nut), that of the last named,
+on account of its extreme tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees
+and axle-handles. The wood of <i>C. alba</i> splits very easily and is
+very elastic, so that it is much used for making whip-handles and
+baskets. The wood of this species is also used in the neighbourhood
+of New York and Philadelphia for making the back bows
+of Windsor chairs. The timber of <i>C. amara</i> and <i>C. aquatica</i> is
+considered of inferior quality.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:393px" src="images/img448a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Shell-bark Hickory (<i>Carya alba</i>) in flower.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to
+90 ft. in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced
+ample heads, and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When
+confined in the forest they shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches,
+but when standing alone they expand into a fine head, and
+produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of foliage. They have all
+the qualities necessary to constitute fine graceful park trees.
+The most ornamental of the species are <i>C. olivaeformis</i>, <i>C. alba</i>
+and <i>C. porcina</i>, the last two also producing delicious nuts, and
+being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:325px" src="images/img448b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;1, Fruit of <i>Carya alba</i>; 2, Hickory Nut; 3, Cross Section
+of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into
+four equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the
+upper part, while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface,
+but has four or more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The
+hickory nuts of the American markets are the produce of <i>C. alba</i>,
+called the shell-bark hickory because of the roughness of its bark,
+which becomes loosened from the trunk in long scales bending
+outwards at the extremities and adhering only by the middle.
+The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of the States, and are
+exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The pecan-nuts,
+which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to 1½ in. long,
+smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and thin-shelled, with
+the kernels full, not like those of most of the hickories divided by
+partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour. The thick-shelled
+fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground for
+swine, squirrels, &amp;c., to devour. In <i>C. amara</i> the kernel is so
+bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKS, ELIAS<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in
+Hempstead township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748.
+His parents were Friends, but he took little interest in religion
+until he was about twenty; soon after that time he gave up
+the carpenter&rsquo;s trade, to which he had been apprenticed when
+seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he had &ldquo;openings
+leading to the ministry&rdquo; and was &ldquo;deeply engaged for the
+right administration of discipline and order in the church,&rdquo;
+and in 1779 he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours
+between Vermont and Maryland. He attacked slavery, even
+when preaching in Maryland; wrote <i>Observations on the Slavery
+of the Africans and their Descendants</i> (1811); and was influential
+in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the act declaring free after
+1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed by the Act of
+1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of February
+1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he
+was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition
+at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed
+which would make the Society in America approach the position
+of the English Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His
+<i>Doctrinal Epistle</i> (1824) stated his position, and a break ensued
+in 1827-1828, Hicks&rsquo;s followers, who call themselves the &ldquo;Liberal
+Branch,&rdquo; being called &ldquo;Hicksites&rdquo; by the &ldquo;Orthodox&rdquo; party,
+which they for a time outnumbered. The village of Hicksville,
+in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the
+centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named
+in honour of Elias Hicks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks</i>
+(Philadelphia, 1825); <i>The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias
+Hicks</i> (Philadelphia, 1828), and his <i>Letters</i> (Philadelphia, 1834).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKS, HENRY<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1837-1899), British physician and geologist,
+was born on the 26th of May 1837 at St David&rsquo;s, in Pembrokeshire,
+where his father, Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He
+studied medicine at Guy&rsquo;s Hospital, London, qualifying as
+M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he commenced
+a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to
+Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases,
+took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued
+his medical work until the close of his life. In Wales he had
+been attracted to geology by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist
+to the Geological Survey), and his leisure time was given to the
+study of the older rocks and fossils of South Wales. In conjunction
+with Salter, he established in 1865 the Menevian group
+(Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite <i>Paradoxides</i>.
+Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important papers
+on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and
+described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the
+Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David&rsquo;s, describing the Dimetian
+(granitoid rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his
+views, though contested, have been generally accepted. At
+Hendon Dr Hicks gave much attention to the local geology
+and also to the Pleistocene deposits of the Denbighshire caves.
+For a few years before his death he had laboured at the
+Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected
+organic remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as
+unfossiliferous, and these he regarded as including representatives
+of Lower Devonian and Silurian. His papers were mostly
+published in the <i>Geol. Mag.</i> and <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> He
+was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president of the Geological
+Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the 18th
+of November 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HICKS, WILLIAM<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the
+Bombay army in 1849, and served through the Indian mutiny,
+being mentioned in despatches for good conduct at the action
+of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In 1861 he became captain, and in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span>
+Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was a brigade major, being
+again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet majority.
+He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After
+the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive&rsquo;s
+service and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum
+as chief of the staff of the army there, then commanded
+by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was formed at Omdurman
+and a new force of some 8000 fighting men collected&mdash;mostly
+recruited from the fellahin of Arabi&rsquo;s disbanded troops, sent
+in chains from Egypt. After a month&rsquo;s vigorous drilling Hicks
+led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar,
+whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns
+of Sennar and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an
+immediate attack by the mahdists the Egyptian officials at
+Khartum intrigued against Hicks, who in July tendered his
+resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of Suliman Niazi
+and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an
+expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi,
+who in January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that
+province. Hicks, aware of the worthlessness of his force for the
+purpose contemplated, stated his opinion that it would be best
+to &ldquo;wait for Kordofan to settle itself&rdquo; (telegram of the 5th of
+August). The Egyptian ministry, however, did not then
+believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition started
+from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of
+7000 infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and
+included thirteen Europeans. On the 20th the force left the
+Nile at Duem and struck inland across the almost waterless
+wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of November the
+army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was
+ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid.
+With the exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed.
+According to the story of Hicks&rsquo;s cook, one of the survivors,
+the general was the last officer to fall, pierced by the spear of
+the khalifa Mahommed Sherif. After emptying his revolver,
+the pasha kept his assailants at bay for some time with his sword,
+a body of Baggara who fled before him being known afterwards
+as &ldquo;Baggar Hicks&rdquo; (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on the
+words <i>baggara</i> and <i>baggar</i>, the former being the herdsmen and
+the latter the cows. Hicks&rsquo;s head was cut off and taken to
+the mahdi.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan</i>, book iv., by Sir
+F. R. Wingate (London, 1891), and <i>With Hicks Pasha in the
+Soudan</i>, by J. Colborne (London, 1884), Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Military
+Operations</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIDALGO,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San
+Luis Potosi and Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala
+and Mexico (state), and W. by Querétaro. Pop. (1895)
+551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area, 8917 sq. m. The northern
+and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous, culminating
+in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of
+this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren,
+being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where
+the <i>maguey</i> (American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The
+southern and western parts of the state consist of rolling plains,
+in the midst of which is the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo
+produces cereals in the more elevated districts, sugar, maguey,
+coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco. Maguey is cultivated for
+the production of <i>pulque</i>, the national drink. The chief industry,
+however, is mining, the mineral districts of Pachuca, El Chico,
+Real del Monte, San José del Oro, and Zimapán being among
+the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver,
+gold, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese
+and plumbago. Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway
+facilities are afforded by a branch of the Vera Cruz and
+Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco to Pachuca, the capital
+of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among the principal
+towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24 m.
+E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpán (about 9000) with silver mines
+80 m. N. by W. of the Federal Capital, and Actópan (2666),
+the chief town of the district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited
+principally by Indians of the Othomies nation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIDALGO<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (a Spanish word, contracted from <i>hijo d&rsquo;algo</i>
+or <i>hijo de algo</i>, son of something, or somewhat), originally
+a Spanish title of the lower nobility; the hidalgo being the
+lowest grade of nobility which was entitled to use the prefix
+&ldquo;don.&rdquo; The term is now used generally to denote one of
+gentle birth. The Portuguese <i>fidalgo</i> has a similar history and
+meaning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1753-1811), Mexican
+patriot, was born on the 8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos,
+near Guanajuato. His mother&rsquo;s maiden name was Gallaga,
+but contrary to the usual custom of the Spaniards he used only
+the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y Costilla. He
+was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained priest
+in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life
+who exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry,
+including the cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at
+Dolores. But Napoleon&rsquo;s invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a
+widespread commotion. The colonists were indisposed to
+accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in proclaiming
+Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for
+their professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however,
+by the Spanish authorities with suspicion as being designed
+to prepare the independence of Mexico. Hidalgo and several
+of his friends, among whom was Miguel Dominguez, mayor of
+Querétaro, engaged in consultation and preparations which the
+authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested,
+but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred
+of his parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized
+the prison at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a
+revolt against the Spanish and Creole elements of the population.
+With what is known as the &ldquo;<i>grito</i>&rdquo; or cry of Dolores as their
+rallying shout, a multitude gathered round Hidalgo, who took for
+his banner a wonder-working picture of the Virgin belonging to a
+popular shrine. At first he met with some success. A regiment
+of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some small posts were
+stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of
+Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated.
+Hidalgo lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted,
+and on the march to Querétaro he was attacked at Aculco
+by General Felix Calleja on the 7th of November 1810, and routed.
+He endeavoured to continue the struggle, and did succeed in
+collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about Guadalajara.
+With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a
+position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On
+the 17th of January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja
+and a small force of soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other
+leaders, and soon afterwards all of them were betrayed to the
+Spaniards. They were tried at Chihuahua, and condemned.
+Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood and then
+shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August
+1811.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. H. Bancroft, <i>The Pacific States</i>, vol. vii., which contains a
+copious bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIDDENITE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a green transparent variety of spodumene, (<i>q.v.</i>)
+used as a gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b.
+1853) about 1879 at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina,
+and was at first taken for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence
+Smith proved it to be spodumene, and named it. Hiddenite
+occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of prismatic habit,
+often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic cleavage
+renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes
+from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly
+distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a
+marked degree, and shows much &ldquo;fire&rdquo; when properly cut.
+The composition of the mineral is represented by the formula
+LiAl(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, the green colour being probably due to the presence
+of a small proportion of chromium. The presence of lithia
+in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate name of
+lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite
+was originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards
+worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association
+with beryl, quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIDE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Lat. <i>hida</i>, A.-S. <i>higíd</i>, <i>híd</i> or <i>hiwisc</i>, members of a
+household), a measure of land. The word was in general use
+in England in Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although
+its meaning seems to have varied somewhat from time to time.
+Among its Latin equivalents are <i>terra unius familiae</i>, <i>terra
+unius cassati</i> and <i>mansio</i>; the first of these forms is used by
+Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no definite area.
+In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of the typical
+family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded
+as containing 120 &ldquo;acres&rdquo; (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each,
+but 120 times the amount of land which a ploughteam of
+eight oxen could plough in a single day). This definition appears
+to have been very general in England before the Norman
+Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and 80 acres are
+repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some historians,
+however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres
+or thereabouts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The question about the hide,&rdquo; says Professor Maitland in <i>Domesday
+Book and Beyond</i>, &ldquo;is &lsquo;pre-judicial&rsquo; to all the great questions of
+early English history.&rdquo; The main argument employed by J. M.
+Kemble (<i>The Saxons in England</i>) in favour of the &ldquo;small&rdquo; hide is
+that the number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts
+of England gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these
+parts, making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an
+allowance necessary because the hide was only that part of the land
+which came under the plough, and each hide must have carried
+with it a certain amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support
+of Kemble&rsquo;s theory must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight
+contained 1200 hides. Now 1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a
+total acreage of 144,000 acres, while the total acreage of the island
+to-day is only 93,000 acres. Again a document called <i>The Tribal
+Hidage</i> puts the number of hides in the whole of England at nearly
+a quarter of a million. This gives in acres a figure about equal to
+the total acreage of England at the present time, but it leaves no
+room for pasture and for the great proportion of land which was
+still woodland. On these grounds Kemble regarded the hide as
+containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40 acres, and thought
+that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., <i>i.e.</i> that it was roughly
+equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought forward is that
+30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the average family,
+in other words that it was the <i>terra unius familiae</i> of Bede. Another
+Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at 48 acres.</p>
+
+<p>But formidable arguments have been advanced against the
+&ldquo;small&rdquo; hide. There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday
+the hide was equated with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking
+the word <i>familia</i> in its proper sense, a household with many dependent
+members, and making an allowance for primitive methods
+of agriculture, it is questionable whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient
+for its support; and again if the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected
+there is no serious evidence in favour of any other. A possible
+explanation is that, although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide
+consisted of 30 acres or thereabouts, it had come before the time
+of Domesday to contain 120 acres. But no trace of such change
+can be found; there is no break in the continuity of the land-charters
+which refer to hides and manses. Reviewing the whole
+question Professor Maitland accepts the view that the hide contained
+120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they are not insuperable.
+Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for the most part of
+lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a vague and
+general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean 120 times
+4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of Domesday
+the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for purposes
+of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick
+(<i>Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions</i>) says there is no evidence that
+the hide contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests
+that possibly the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at
+40 acres, while in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres.
+Dr Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i> i.) suggests that the confusion may
+have arisen because the word was used &ldquo;to express the whole share
+of one man in all the fields of the village.&rdquo; Thus it might refer to
+30 acres, his share in one field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four
+fields. He adds, however, that this explanation is not adequate for
+all cases. But these differences about the size of the hide are not
+peculiar to modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, <i>Hida Anglice
+vocatur terra unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum</i>, while the
+<i>Dialogus de scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be
+the long hundred, or</i> 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when
+he says, &ldquo;hides were of an incertain quantity.&rdquo; Certainly he gives
+a very good description of the early hide when he says (<i>Titles of
+Honour</i>): &ldquo;Now a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as
+much land as might be well manured with one plough, together
+with pasture, meadow and wood competent for the maintenance of
+that plough, and the servants of the family.&rdquo; The view that the
+size of the hide varied from district to district is borne out by
+Professor Vinogradoff&rsquo;s more recent researches. In his <i>English
+Society in the Eleventh Century</i> he mentions that there was a hide
+of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40 acres in Dorset. In addition
+some authorities distinguish between English hides and Welsh
+hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained 8 virgates. Sometimes
+again in the 11th century hides were not merely fiscal units;
+they were shares in the land itself.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been
+established by Mr J. H. Round in his <i>Feudal England</i>, and is
+regarded as throwing a most valuable light upon the many
+problems which present themselves to the student of Domesday.
+The process which converted the hide from a unit of measurement
+to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as follows.
+Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such
+pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide
+was a useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates
+doubtless from the time of the Danegeld. For some time the
+two meanings were used side by side, but before the Norman
+Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation, had quite supplanted
+the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state of affairs
+when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made.
+The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county,
+but a single illustration may be given. <i>Huntedun Burg defendebat
+se ad geldum regis pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred
+pro L. hidis</i>. This does not mean that the town of Huntingdon
+contained a certain fixed number of square yards multiplied
+by 50, but that for purposes of taxation Huntingdon was
+regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton
+in <i>A Key to Domesday</i> and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof
+rests primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By
+collating various documents which formed part of the Domesday
+inquest Mr Round has brought together for certain parts of England,
+especially for Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the
+various lords in the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total
+of 5 hides or 10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A
+similar result is shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are
+almost universal, and the total hidage for the county of Worcester
+is very near the round figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously
+artificial; it must have been imposed upon the counties or the
+hundreds by the central authority and then divided among the
+vills. Another proof is found in what is called &ldquo;beneficial hidation.&rdquo;
+It is shown that in certain cases the number of hides in a hundred
+has been reduced since the time of Edward the Confessor, and that
+this reduction had been transferred <i>pro rata</i> to the vills in the
+hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that the hide was fixed
+&ldquo;independently of area or value.&rdquo; Some slight criticism has been
+directed against the idea of &ldquo;artificial hidation,&rdquo; but the most that
+can be said against it is that its proof rests upon isolated cases, a
+reproach which further research will doubtless remove. However,
+Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a fiscal unit
+&ldquo;which corresponds only in a very rough way to the agrarian
+reality,&rdquo; and Maitland says the fiscal hide is &ldquo;at its best a lame
+compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures
+have been hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than
+the Danegeld. Rejecting the idea that it is of Roman or of
+British origin, and pointing to the serious difference in the rates
+at which the various counties were assessed, Mr Round thinks
+that it dates from the time when the various Anglo-Saxon
+kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of assessment
+for military service, possibly it was the recognized endowment
+of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man&rsquo;s standing
+in society was dependent to a great extent upon the number
+of hides which he possessed; this statement is fully proved
+from the laws. Moreover, in the laws of the Wessex king, Ine,
+the value of a man&rsquo;s oath is expressed in hides, the oath for a
+king&rsquo;s thegn being probably worth 60 hides and that of a ceorl
+5 hides.</p>
+
+<p>The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate
+being, after the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+villein with two oxen. Mr Round holds that in Domesday
+at all events the hide always consisted of four virgates; Mr F.
+Seebohm in <i>The English Village Community</i>, although thinking
+that the normal hide &ldquo;consisted as a rule of four virgates of
+30 acres each,&rdquo; says that the Hundred Rolls for Huntingdonshire
+show that &ldquo;the hide did not always contain the same
+number of virgates.&rdquo; The virgate, it may be noted, consisted
+of a strip of land in <i>each</i> acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly
+a strong case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions
+are rooted in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between
+the methods of taxation of land in Rome and in England; he
+sees some connexion between the Roman <i>centuria</i> and the
+hide, and between the Roman system of taxation called <i>jugatio</i>
+and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff (<i>Villainage in
+England</i>) summarizes the views of those who hold a contrary
+opinion thus: &ldquo;The curious fact that the normal holding,
+the hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by
+its origin; it came full-formed from Germany and remained
+unchanged in spite of all diversities of geographical and
+economical conditions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the
+&ldquo;Five Boroughs,&rdquo; the carucate takes the place of the hide as the
+unit of value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of
+assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide
+is quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According
+to Mr Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates;
+Mr W. H. Stevenson (<i>English Historical Review</i>, vol. v.) argues that
+it contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide.
+Mr Seebohm thinks there was a <i>solanda</i> or double hide of 240 acres
+in Essex and other southern counties, but Mr Round does not
+think that this word refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all.
+For Kent, however, the word <i>sullung</i> or solin, is used in <i>Domesday
+Book</i> and in the charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere,
+and Vinogradoff thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two
+or more shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized
+method of raising money, royal and some other estates, however,
+as is seen from Domesday, not being hidated and not paying
+the tax. This geld, or tax, received several names, one of the
+most general being <i>hidage</i> (Lat. <i>hidagium</i>). &ldquo;Hidage,&rdquo; says
+Vinogradoff, &ldquo;is historically connected with the old English
+Danegeld system,&rdquo; and as Danegeld and then hidage it was
+levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was
+during the 11th century &ldquo;the most sweeping and the heaviest
+of all the taxes.&rdquo; Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was
+2s. on each hide of land, and this was evidently the rate at the
+time of the famous dispute between Henry II. and Becket at
+Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always kept at this figure,
+as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on each hide, an
+unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the hide.
+Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide
+for the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor
+Henry V., and in 1194, when money was collected for the ransom
+of Richard I., some of the taxation for this purpose seems to
+have been assessed according to the hidage given in Domesday
+Book.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax
+was disappearing, its place being taken by the word <i>carucage</i>.
+The carucate (Lat. <i>caruca</i>, a plough) was a measure of land
+which prevailed in the north of England, the district inhabited
+by people of Danish descent. Some authorities regard it as
+equivalent to the hide, others deny this identity. In 1198,
+however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each <i>carucata
+terrae sive hyda</i>, the two words were obviously interchangeable,
+and about the same time the size of the carucate was fixed at
+100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time
+longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes
+on land.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain
+unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and
+a hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres
+to make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage,
+a simple process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound,
+makes calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from
+the German <i>hufe</i> or <i>huba</i>?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The homonym &ldquo;hide,&rdquo; meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng.
+<i>hýdan</i>; the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages.
+The root is probably seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="keuthein">&#954;&#949;&#973;&#952;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> to hide, or may be the
+same as in &ldquo;hide,&rdquo; skin, O. Eng. <i>hýd</i>, which is also seen in
+Ger. <i>Haut</i>, Dutch <i>huid</i>; the root appears in Lat. <i>cutis</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kytos">&#954;&#973;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>.
+The Indo-European root <i>ku</i>-, weakened form of <i>sku</i>-, seen in &ldquo;sky,&rdquo;
+and meaning &ldquo;to cover,&rdquo; may be the ultimate source of both
+words. The slang use of &ldquo;to hide,&rdquo; to flog or whip, means &ldquo;to
+take the skin off, to flay.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIEL, EMMANUEL<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and
+prose writer, was born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May
+1834. He acted in various functions, from teacher and government
+official to journalist and bookseller, busily writing all
+the time both for the theatre and the magazines of North and
+South Netherlands. His last posts were those of librarian at
+the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the
+Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic
+works may be cited <i>Looverkens</i> (&ldquo;Leaflets,&rdquo; 1857); <i>Nieuwe
+Liedekens</i> (&ldquo;New Poesies,&rdquo; 1861); <i>Gedichten</i> (&ldquo;Poems,&rdquo; 1863);
+<i>Psalmen, Zangen, en Oratorios</i> (&ldquo;Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios,&rdquo;
+1869); <i>De Wind</i> (1869), an inspiriting cantata, which had a large
+measure of success and was crowned; <i>De Liefde in &rsquo;t Leven</i>
+(&ldquo;Love in Life,&rdquo; 1870); <i>Elle</i> and <i>Isa</i> (two musical dramas,
+1874); <i>Liederen voor Groote en Kleine Kinderen</i> (&ldquo;Songs for
+Big and Small Folk,&rdquo; 1879); <i>Jakoba van Beieren</i> (&ldquo;<span class="correction" title="amended from Jacquelein">Jacqueline</span>
+of Bavaria,&rdquo; a poetic drama, 1880); <i>Mathilda van Denemarken</i>
+(a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were published
+in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an
+active and prominent part in the so-called &ldquo;Flemish movement&rdquo;
+in Belgium, and his name is constantly associated with those
+of Jan van Beers, the Willems and Peter Benoit. The last
+wrote some of his compositions to Hiel&rsquo;s verses, notably to his
+oratorios <i>Lucifer</i> (performed in London at the Royal Albert
+Hall and elsewhere) and <i>De Schelde</i> (&ldquo;The Scheldt&rdquo;); whilst
+the Dutch composer, Richard Hol (of Utrecht), composed the
+music to Hiel&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ode to Liberty,&rdquo; and van Gheluwe to the
+poet&rsquo;s &ldquo;Songs for Big and Small Folk&rdquo; (second edition, much
+enlarged, 1879), which has greatly contributed to their popularity
+in schools and among Belgian choral societies. Hiel also translated
+several foreign lyrics. His rendering of Tennyson&rsquo;s
+<i>Dora</i> appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the national festival
+of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary
+of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas, <i>Belgenland</i>
+(&ldquo;The Land of the Belgians&rdquo;) and <i>Eer Belgenland</i> (&ldquo;Honour
+to Belgium&rdquo;), which, set to music, were much appreciated.
+He died at Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August
+1899. Hiel&rsquo;s efforts to counteract Walloon influences and bring
+about a <i>rapprochement</i> between the Netherlanders in the north
+and the Teutonic racial sympathizers across the Rhine made
+him very popular with both, and a volume of his best poems
+was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors published
+at Leipzig.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIEMPSAL,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> the name of the two kings of Numidia. For
+Hiempsal I. see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jugurtha</a></span>. Hiempsal II. was the son of
+Gauda, the half-brother of Jugurtha. In 88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after the
+triumph of Sulla, when the younger Marius fled from Rome to
+Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent friendliness, his
+real intention being to detain him as a prisoner. Marius discovered
+this intention in time and made good his escape with
+the assistance of the king&rsquo;s daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was
+driven from his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by
+Hiarbas, ruler of part of the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius
+Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa. Soon
+afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by Sulla to reinstate
+Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased by the
+addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty
+concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius
+Rullus introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had
+been originally assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Africanus,
+were expressly exempted from sale, which roused the indignation
+of Cicero (<i>De lege agraria</i>, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (<i>Caesar</i>,
+71) it is evident that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to
+Sallust (<i>Jugurtha</i>, 17), he was the author of an historical work in
+the Punic language.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Plutarch, <i>Marius</i>, 40, <i>Pompey</i>, 12; Appian, <i>Bell. civ.</i>, i. 62. 80;
+Dio Cassius xli. 41.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERAPOLIS.<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> 1. (Arabic <i>Manbij</i> or <i>Mumbij</i>) an ancient
+Syrian town occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria,
+in a fertile district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the
+Sajur and Euphrates. There is abundant water supply from
+large springs. In 1879, after the Russo-Turkish war, a colony of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span>
+Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was planted in the ruins, and the
+result has been the constant discovery of antiquities, which find
+their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab. The place first
+appears in Greek as <i>Bambyce</i>, but Pliny (v. 23) tells us its Syrian
+name was <i>Mabog</i>. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian
+sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who
+made it the chief station on their main road between Antioch and
+Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian
+Nature Goddess, Atargatis (<i>q.v.</i>), it became known to the Greeks as
+the city of the sanctuary <span class="grk" title="Hieropolis">&#7993;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>, and finally as the Holy City
+<span class="grk" title="Hierapolis">&#7993;&#949;&#961;&#940;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous
+writer) has immortalized this worship in the tract <i>De Dea Syria</i>,
+wherein are described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the
+tank of sacred fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. According
+to the <i>De Dea Syria</i>, the worship was of a phallic character,
+votaries offering little male figures of wood and bronze. There
+were also huge <i>phalli</i> set up like obelisks before the temple,
+which were climbed once a year with certain ceremonies, and
+decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic character with
+golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration. Inside
+was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter.
+Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first
+seems to have been the more richly decorated with gems and
+other ornaments. Between them stood a gilt <i>xoanon</i>, which
+seems to have been carried outside in sacred processions. Other
+rich furniture is described, and a mode of divination by movements
+of a <i>xoanon</i> of Apollo. A great bronze altar stood in front,
+set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived numerous
+sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice. Some
+three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous
+minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities
+and it was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an
+altar standing in the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and
+other orgies went on in the temple precinct, and there was an
+elaborate ritual on entering the city and first visiting the shrine
+under the conduct of local guides, which reminds one of the
+Meccan Pilgrimage.</p>
+
+<p>The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the
+Parthians (53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but in the 3rd century of the empire the
+city was the capital of the Euphratensian province and one of
+the great cities of Syria. Procopius called it the greatest in that
+part of the world. It was, however, ruinous when Julian collected
+his troops there ere marching to his defeat and death in Mesopotamia,
+and Chosroes I. held it to ransom after Justinian had
+failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun restored it at the end
+of the 8th century and it became a bone of contention between
+Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured it from
+the Seljuks in the 12th century, but Saladin retook it (1175),
+and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols,
+who completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost
+wholly of late date, as is to be expected in the case of a city
+which survived into Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no
+ruins of the great temple survive. The most noteworthy relic of
+antiquity is the sacred lake, on two sides of which can still be
+seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The first modern account
+of the site is in a short narrative appended by H. Maundrell to his
+<i>Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem</i>. He was at Mumbij in 1699.</p>
+
+<p>The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with an
+Aramaic series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural
+crown or as riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief
+type even during imperial times, being generally shown seated
+with the <i>tympanum</i> in her hand. Other coins substitute the
+legend <span class="grk" title="Theas Surias Hieropolitôn">&#920;&#949;&#8118;&#962; &#931;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#7993;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#8182;&#957;</span>, within a wreath. It is interesting
+to note that from <i>Bambyce</i> (near which much silk was produced)
+were derived the <i>bombycina vestis</i> of the Romans and, through the
+crusaders, the bombazine of modern commerce.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. R. Chesney, <i>Euphrates Expedition</i> (1850); W. F. Ainsworth,
+<i>Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition</i> (1888); E. Sachau,
+<i>Reise in Syrien</i>, &amp;c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in <i>Journal of Hellenic
+Studies</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the
+Churuk Su (Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the
+Menderes (Maeander), situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above
+the valley and 6 m. N. of Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous
+springs, that have deposited vast incrustations of snowy whiteness.
+To these springs, which are warm and slightly sulphureous,
+and to the &ldquo;Plutonium&rdquo;&mdash;a hole reaching deep into the earth,
+from which issued a mephitic vapour&mdash;the place owed its celebrity
+and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious establishment
+(<i>hieron</i>) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian Kydrara, a
+settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew
+round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native
+life but of non-political importance. The chief religious festival
+was the Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of
+the Mother Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic
+rites in which elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate
+and Nature-cult survived: there was also a worship of Apollo
+Lairbenos. Hierapolis was the seat of an early church (Col. iv.
+13), with which tradition closely connects the apostle Philip.
+Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a disciple of St John and
+author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus, were born there.
+Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a station on the
+Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks has
+gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is
+apparently <i>Pambuk Kale</i> (though doubt has been thrown on the
+statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-like
+appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted,
+however, that this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by
+the Syrians to the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), <i>Bambyce</i>,
+the origin of which it has been suggested was a native name of the
+goddess Pamb&#275; or Mamb&#275; (whence Mabog). Considering that
+cotton is a comparatively modern phenomenon in Anatolia, it is
+worth suggesting that <i>Pambuk</i> in this case may be a survival of a
+primitive name, derived from the same goddess, Pamb&#275;. The
+goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case closely akin.
+If an old native name has reappeared here after the decline of
+Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish,
+it affords another instance of a very common feature of west
+Asian nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the
+ruins of Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily
+accessible spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the
+long avenue of tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by
+which the city is approached from the W., and for a very perfect
+theatre partly excavated in the hill at the N. side of the site.
+Stage buildings as well as auditorium are well preserved. On the
+S., just above the white terraces and largely blocked with petrified
+deposit, stand large baths, into which the natural warm spring
+was once conducted. Behind these is a fine triumphal arch,
+whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches survive, and
+also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which may
+represent the &ldquo;Plutonium,&rdquo; but it has no such deadly power as
+was ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the &ldquo;Plutonium&rdquo;
+was obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over
+300 inscriptions have been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence
+Ramsay has deduced interesting facts about the very early
+Christian community which existed here. The site has been often
+visited and described, and was systematically examined in 1887
+by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann respectively.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See K. Humann, <i>Altertümer v. Hierapolis</i> (1888); Sir W. M.
+Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>, vol. i. (1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERARCHY<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hieros">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, holy, and <span class="grk" title="archein">&#7940;&#961;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to rule), the office
+of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a &ldquo;ruler of priests&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;priestly ruler&rdquo; (see Boeckh, <i>Corp. inscr. Gr.</i> No. 1570),
+a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote
+the aggregate of those persons who exercise authority within
+the Christian Church, the patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-fold
+order of the clergy. The word <span class="grk" title="hierarchia">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>, which does not
+occur in any classical Greek writer, owes its present extensive
+currency to the celebrated writings of Dionysius Areopagiticus.
+Of these the most important are the two which treat of the
+celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy respectively. Defining
+hierarchy as the &ldquo;function which comprises all sacred
+things,&rdquo; or, more fully, as &ldquo;a sacred order and science and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and
+elevated to the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine
+illuminations conceded to it,&rdquo; the author proceeds to enumerate
+the nine orders of the heavenly host, which are subdivided
+again into hierarchies or triads, in descending order, thus:
+Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers;
+Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for the
+common object of raising men through ascending stages of
+purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical
+or earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the
+first or highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and
+chrism. The second triad consists of the three orders of the
+ministry, bishop or hierarch, priest and minister or deacon
+(<span class="grk" title="hierarchês, hiereus, leitourgos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#940;&#961;&#967;&#951;&#962;, &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#949;&#973;&#962;, &#955;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>); this is the earliest known instance
+in which the title hierarch is applied to a bishop. The
+third or lowest triad is made up of monks, &ldquo;initiated&rdquo; and
+catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through Thomas
+Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period,
+the definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic
+writers&mdash;&ldquo;coëtus seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum
+ad regendam ecclesiam gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem
+divinitus institutus&rdquo;<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;although it immediately rests upon
+the authority of the sixth canon of the twenty-third session
+of the council of Trent, in which anathema is pronounced upon
+all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of a
+hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of
+bishops, priests and ministers.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holy</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Perrone, <i>De locis theologicis</i>, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina
+ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et
+ministris: anathema sit.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERATIC,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> priestly or sacred (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hieratikos, hieros">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8000;&#962;, &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8000;&#962;</span>, sacred),
+a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing,
+which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name
+was first given by Champollion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>, § <i>Language</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERAX,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hieracas</span>, a learned ascetic who flourished
+about the end of the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt,
+where he lived to the age of ninety, supporting himself by
+calligraphy and devoting his leisure to scientific and literary
+pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible. He was the author
+of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and is
+said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of
+the so-called sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from
+which married persons were excluded, and of which one of
+the leading tenets was that only the celibate could enter the
+kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the suppression of the sexual
+impulse was emphatically the new revelation brought by the
+Logos, and appealed to 1 Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and Matt.
+xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link
+between Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning
+and prodigious memory, he seems to have developed Origen&rsquo;s
+Christology in the direction of Athanasius. He held that
+the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of the Father, that
+Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the ideas
+of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the
+ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized
+infants, &ldquo;for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict
+no reward.&rdquo; In his insistence on virginity as the specifically
+Christian virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the
+4th and 5th centuries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERO<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (strictly <span class="sc">Hieron</span>), the name of two rulers of
+Syracuse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hiero I.</span> was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse
+from 478 to 467/6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> During his reign he greatly increased the
+power of Syracuse. He removed the inhabitants of Naxos
+and Catana to Leontini, peopled Catana (which he renamed
+Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with Acragas
+(Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against
+Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achievement
+was the defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which
+he saved the Greeks of Campania. A bronze helmet (now in
+the British Museum), with an inscription commemorating
+the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though despotic in
+his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died at
+Catana in 467.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, <i>Hiero</i>, 6. 2; E. Lübbert,
+<i>Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron</i> (1875); for his coins see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span> (section <i>Sicily</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERO II.<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was the
+illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed
+descent from Gelo. On the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275)
+the Syracusan army and citizens appointed him commander
+of the troops. He materially strengthened his position by
+marrying the daughter of Leptines, the leading citizen. In the
+meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian mercenaries
+who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the stronghold
+of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They
+were finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero,
+who was only prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian
+interference. His grateful countrymen then chose him king
+(270). In 264 he again returned to the attack, and the Mamertines
+called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at once joined the
+Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily; but
+being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew
+to Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was
+compelled to conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was
+to rule over the south-east of Sicily and the eastern coast as
+far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16; Zonaras viii. 9). From
+this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal to the Romans,
+and frequently assisted them with men and provisions during
+the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept
+up a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his
+famous kinsman Archimedes in the construction of those engines
+that, at a later date, played so important a part during the
+siege of Syracuse by the Romans.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in
+the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic.
+xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIEROCLES,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> proconsul of Bithynia and Alexandria, lived
+during the reign of Diocletian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 284-305). He is said to
+have been the instigator of the fierce persecution of the Christians
+under Galerius in 303. He was the author of a work (not
+extant) entitled <span class="grk" title="logoi philalêtheis pros tous Christianous">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#953; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#945;&#955;&#942;&#952;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span> in two
+books, in which he endeavoured to persuade the Christians
+that their sacred books were full of contradictions, and that
+in moral influence and miraculous power Christ was inferior to
+Apollonius of Tyana. Our knowledge of this treatise is derived
+from Lactantius (<i>Instit. div.</i> v. 2) and Eusebius, who wrote a
+refutation entitled <span class="grk" title="Antirrhêtikos pros ta Hierokleous">&#7944;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#8164;&#8165;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#964;&#8048; &#7993;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#955;&#941;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> Neoplatonist writer,
+flourished <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 430. He studied under the celebrated Neoplatonist
+Plutarch at Athens, and taught for some years in his
+native city. He seems to have been banished from Alexandria
+and to have taken up his abode in Constantinople, where he
+gave such offence by his religious opinions that he was thrown
+into prison and cruelly flogged. The only complete work of his
+which has been preserved is the commentary on the <i>Carmina
+Aurea</i> of Pythagoras. It enjoyed a great reputation in middle
+age and Renaissance times, and there are numerous translations
+in various European languages. Several other writings, especially
+one on providence and fate, a consolatory treatise dedicated
+to his patron Olympiodorus of Thebes, author of <span class="grk" title="historikoi
+logoi">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#953;</span>, are quoted or referred to by Photius and Stobaeus.
+The collection of some 260 witticisms (<span class="grk" title="asteia">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>) called <span class="grk" title="Philogelôs">&#934;&#953;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#949;&#955;&#969;&#962;</span>
+(ed. A. Eberhard, Berlin, 1869), attributed to Hierocles and
+Philagrius, has no connexion with Hierocles of Alexandria, but
+is probably a compilation of later date, founded on two older
+collections. It is now agreed that the fragments of the <i>Elements
+of Ethics</i> (<span class="grk" title="Êthikê stoicheiôsis">&#7976;&#952;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#963;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#967;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>) preserved in Stobaeus are from
+a work by a Stoic named Hierocles, contemporary of Epictetus,
+who has been identified with the &ldquo;Hierocles Stoicus vir sanctus
+et gravis&rdquo; in Aulus Gellius (ix. 5. 8). This theory is confirmed
+by the discovery of a papyrus (ed. H. von Arnim in <i>Berliner
+Klassikertexte</i>, iv. 1906; see also C. Prächter, <i>Hierokles der
+Stoiker</i>, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is an edition of the commentary by F. W. Mullach in
+<i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i> (1860), i. 408, including full
+information concerning Hierocles, the poem and the commentary;
+see also E. Zeller, <i>Philosophie der Griechen</i> (2nd ed.), iii. 2, pp.
+681-687; W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur</i> (1898),
+pp. 834, 849.</p>
+
+<p>Another Hierocles, who flourished during the reign of Justinian,
+was the author of a list of provinces and towns in the Eastern
+Empire, called <span class="grk" title="Synekdêmos">&#931;&#965;&#957;&#941;&#954;&#948;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;fellow-traveller&rdquo;; ed. A. Burckhardt,
+1893); it was one of the chief authorities used by Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus in his work on the &ldquo;themes&rdquo; of the Roman
+Empire (see C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur</i>,
+1897, p. 417). In Fabricius&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. Harles), i.
+791, sixteen persons named Hierocles, chiefly literary, are mentioned.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIEROGLYPHICS<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hieros">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, sacred, and <span class="grk" title="glyphê">&#947;&#955;&#965;&#966;&#942;</span>, carving), the
+term used by Greek and Latin writers to describe the sacred
+characters of the ancient Egyptian language in its classical
+phase. It is now also used for various systems of writing in
+which figures of objects take the place of conventional signs.
+Such characters which symbolize the idea of a thing without
+expressing the name of it are generally styled &ldquo;ideographs&rdquo;
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="idea">&#7984;&#948;&#941;&#945;</span>, idea, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write), <i>e.g.</i> the Chinese characters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>, <i>Language</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cuneiform</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERONYMITES,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a common name for three or four congregations
+of hermits living according to the rule of St Augustine
+with supplementary regulations taken from St Jerome&rsquo;s writings.
+Their habit was white, with a black cloak. (1) The Spanish
+Hieronymites, established near Toledo in 1374. The order
+soon became popular in Spain and Portugal, and in 1415 it
+numbered 25 houses. It possessed some of the most famous
+monasteries in the Peninsula, including the royal monastery
+of Belem near Lisbon, and the magnificent monastery built
+by Philip II. at the Escurial. Though the manner of life was
+very austere the Hieronymites devoted themselves to studies
+and to the active work of the ministry, and they possessed
+great influence both at the Spanish and the Portuguese courts.
+They went to Spanish and Portuguese America and played a
+considerable part in Christianizing and civilizing the Indians.
+There were Hieronymite nuns founded in 1375, who became
+very numerous. The order decayed during the 18th century
+and was completely suppressed in 1835. (2) Hieronymites
+of the Observance, or of Lombardy: a reform of (1) effected
+by the third general in 1424; it embraced seven houses in
+Spain and seventeen in Italy, mostly in Lombardy. It is now
+extinct. (3) Poor Hermits of St Jerome, established near Pisa
+in 1377: it came to embrace nearly fifty houses whereof only
+one in Rome and one in Viterbo survive. (4) Hermits of St
+Jerome of the congregation of Fiesole, established in 1406:
+they had forty houses but in 1668 they were united to (3).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Helyot, <i>Histoire des ordres religieux</i> (1714), iii. cc. 57-60,
+iv. cc. 1-3; Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i.
+§ 70; and art. &ldquo;Hieronymiten&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(ed. 3), and in Welte and Wetzer, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (ed. 2).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> Greek general and historian,
+contemporary of Alexander the Great. After the death of the
+king he followed the fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman
+Eumenes. He was wounded and taken prisoner by Antigonus,
+who pardoned him and appointed him superintendent of the
+asphalt beds in the Dead Sea. He was treated with equal
+friendliness by Antigonus&rsquo;s son Demetrius, who made him polemarch
+of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court
+he died at the age of 104. He wrote a history of the Diadochi
+and their descendants, embracing the period from the death of
+Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus (323-272 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which is one
+of the chief authorities used by Diodorus Siculus (xviii.-xx.)
+and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus. He made use of
+official papers and was careful in his investigation of facts.
+The simplicity of his style rendered his work unpopular, but it
+is probable that it was on a high level as compared with that
+of his contemporaries. In the last part of his work he made a
+praiseworthy attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character
+and early history of the Romans. He is reproached by Pausanias
+(i. 9. 8) with unfairness towards all rulers with the exception
+of Antigonus Gonatas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lucian, <i>Macrobii</i>, 22; Plutarch, <i>Demetrius</i>, 39; Diod. Sic.
+xviii. 42. 44. 50, xix. 100; Dion. Halic. <i>Antiq. Rom.</i> i. 6; F.
+Brückner, &ldquo;De vita et scriptis Hieronymi Cardii&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift für
+die Alterthumswissenschaft</i> (1842); F. Reuss, <i>Hieronymus von Kardia</i>
+(Berlin, 1876); C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten
+Geschichte</i> (1895); fragments in C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. hist. Graec.</i>
+ii. 450-461.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIERRO,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ferro</span>, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
+part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Pop. (1900) 6508; area 107 sq. m. Hierro, the most westerly
+and the smallest island of the group, is somewhat crescent-shaped.
+Its length is about 18 m., its greatest breadth about
+15 m., and its circumference 50 m. It lies 92 m. W.S.W. of
+Teneriffe. Its coast is bound by high, steep rocks, which only
+admit of one harbour, but the interior is tolerably level. Its
+hill-tops in winter are sometimes wrapped in snow. Better
+and more abundant grass grows here than on any of the other
+islands. Hierro is exposed to westerly gales which frequently
+inflict great damage. Fresh water is scarce, but there is a
+sulphurous spring, with a temperature of 102° Fahr. The once
+celebrated and almost sacred Til tree, which was reputed to be
+always distilling water in great abundance from its leaves, no
+longer exists. Only a small part of the cultivable land is under
+tillage, the inhabitants being principally employed in pasturage.
+Valverde (pop. about 3000) is the principal town. Geographers
+were formerly in the habit of measuring all longitudes from
+Ferro, the most westerly land known to them. The longitude
+assigned at first has, however, turned out to be erroneous;
+and the so-called &ldquo;Longitude of Ferro&rdquo; does not coincide
+with the actual longitude of the island.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGDON<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Higden</span>), <b>RANULF</b> (<i>c.</i> 1299-<i>c.</i> 1363), English
+chronicler, was a Benedictine monk of the monastery of St
+Werburg in Chester, in which he lived, it is said, for sixty-four
+years, and died &ldquo;in a good old age,&rdquo; probably in 1363. Higdon
+was the author of a long chronicle, one of several such works
+based on a plan taken from Scripture, and written for the
+amusement and instruction of his society. It closes the long
+series of general chronicles, which were soon superseded by the
+invention of printing. It is commonly styled the <i>Polychronicon</i>,
+from the longer title <i>Ranulphi Castrensis, cognomine Higdon,
+Polychronicon</i> (<i>sive Historia Polycratica</i>) <i>ab initio mundi usque
+ad mortem regis Edwardi III. in septem libros dispositum</i>. The
+work is divided into seven books, in humble imitation of the
+seven days of Genesis, and, with exception of the last book, is
+a summary of general history, a compilation made with considerable
+style and taste. It seems to have enjoyed no little
+popularity in the 15th century. It was the standard work on
+general history, and more than a hundred MSS. of it are known
+to exist. The Christ Church MS. says that Higdon wrote it
+down to the year 1342; the fine MS. at Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
+states that he wrote to the year 1344, after which date,
+with the omission of two years, John of Malvern, a monk of
+Worcester, carried the history on to 1357, at which date it
+ends. According, however, to its latest editor, Higdon&rsquo;s part
+of the work goes no further than 1326 or 1327 at latest, after
+which time it was carried on by two continuators to the end.
+Thomas Gale, in his <i>Hist. Brit. &amp;c., scriptores</i>, xv. (Oxon., 1691),
+published that portion of it, in the original Latin, which comes
+down to 1066. Three early translations of the <i>Polychronicon</i>
+exist. The first was made by John of Trevisa, chaplain to Lord
+Berkeley, in 1387, and was printed by Caxton in 1482; the second
+by an anonymous writer, was written between 1432 and 1450;
+the third, based on Trevisa&rsquo;s version, with the addition of an
+eighth book, was prepared by Caxton. These versions are
+specially valuable as illustrating the change of the English
+language during the period they cover.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Polychronicon</i>, with the continuations and the English
+versions, was edited for the Rolls Series (No. 41) by Churchill
+Babington (vols. i. and ii.) and Joseph Rawson Lumby (1865-1886).
+This edition was adversely criticized by Mandell Creighton in the
+<i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> for October 1888.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1810-1868), British writer
+over the nom-de-plume &ldquo;Jacob Omnium,&rdquo; which was the title
+of his first magazine article, was born in County Meath, Ireland,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span>
+on the 4th of December 1810. His letters in <i>The Times</i> were
+instrumental in exposing many abuses. He was a frequent contributor
+to the <i>Cornhill</i>, and was a friend of Thackeray, who
+dedicated to him <i>The Adventures of Philip</i>, and one of his ballads,
+&ldquo;Jacob Omnium&rsquo;s Hoss,&rdquo; deals with an incident in Higgins&rsquo;s
+career. He died on the 14th of August 1868. Some of his
+articles were published in 1875 as <i>Essays on Social Subjects</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1823-1911), American
+author and soldier, was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on
+the 22nd of December 1823. He was a descendant of Francis
+Higginson (1588-1630), who emigrated from Leicestershire to
+the colony of Massachusetts Bay and was a minister of the church
+of Salem, Mass., in 1629-1630; and a grandson of Stephen
+Higginson (1743-1828), a Boston merchant, who was a member
+of the Continental Congress in 1783, took an active part in suppressing
+Shay&rsquo;s Rebellion, was the author of the &ldquo;Laco&rdquo; letters
+(1789), and rendered valuable services to the United States
+government as navy agent from the 11th of May to the 22nd of
+June 1798. Graduating from Harvard in 1841, he was a schoolmaster
+for two years, studied theology at the Harvard Divinity
+School, and was pastor in 1847-1850 of the First Religious Society
+(Unitarian) of Newburyport, Massachusetts, and of the Free
+Church at Worcester in 1852-1858. He was a Free Soil candidate
+for Congress (1850), but was defeated; was indicted with
+Wendell Phillips and Theodore Parker for participation in the
+attempt to release the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston
+(1853); was engaged in the effort to make Kansas a free state
+after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854; and during
+the Civil War was captain in the 51st Massachusetts Volunteers,
+and from November 1862 to October 1864, when he was retired
+because of a wound received in the preceding August, was
+colonel of the First South Carolina Volunteers, the first regiment
+recruited from former slaves for the Federal service. He described
+his experiences in <i>Army Life in a Black Regiment</i> (1870).
+In politics Higginson was successively a Republican, an Independent
+and a Democrat. His writings show a deep love of
+nature, art and humanity, and are marked by vigour of thought,
+sincerity of feeling, and grace and finish of style. In his <i>Common
+Sense About Women</i> (1881) and his <i>Women and Men</i> (1888) he
+advocated equality of opportunity and equality of rights for the
+two sexes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his numerous books are <i>Outdoor Papers</i> (1863); <i>Malbone:
+an Oldport Romance</i> (1869); Life of <i>Margaret Fuller Ossoli</i> (in
+&ldquo;American Men of Letters&rdquo; series, 1884); <i>A Larger History of the
+United States of America to the Close of President Jackson&rsquo;s Administration</i>
+(1885); <i>The Monarch of Dreams</i> (1886); <i>Travellers and
+Outlaws</i> (1889); <i>The Afternoon Landscape</i> (1889), poems and
+translations; <i>Life of Francis Higginson</i> (in &ldquo;Makers of America,&rdquo;
+1891); <i>Concerning All of Us</i> (1892); <i>The Procession of the Flowers
+and Kindred Papers</i> (1897); <i>Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</i> (in
+&ldquo;American Men of Letters&rdquo; series, 1902); <i>John Greenleaf Whittier</i>
+(in &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series, 1902); <i>A Reader&rsquo;s History of
+American Literature</i> (1903), the Lowell Institute lectures for 1903,
+edited by Henry W. Boynton; and <i>Life and Times of Stephen
+Higginson</i> (1907). His volumes of reminiscence, <i>Cheerful Yesterdays</i>
+(1898), <i>Old Cambridge</i> (1899), <i>Contemporaries</i> (1899), and <i>Part of a
+Man&rsquo;s Life</i> (1905), are characteristic and charming works. His
+collected works were published in seven vols. (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGHAM FERRERS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough
+in the Eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire,
+England, 63 m. N.N.W. from London, on branches of the London
+&amp; North-Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 2540. It is
+pleasantly situated on high ground above the south bank of the
+river Nene. The church of St Mary is among the most beautiful
+of the many fine churches in Northamptonshire. To the Early
+English chancel a very wide north aisle, resembling a second
+nave, was added in the Decorated period, and the general appearance
+of the chancel, with its north aisle and Lady-chapel, is
+Decorated. The tower with its fine spire and west front was
+partially but carefully rebuilt in the 17th century. Close to the
+church, but detached from it, stands a beautiful Perpendicular
+building, the school-house, founded by Archbishop Chichele in
+1422. The Bede House, a somewhat similar structure by the
+same founder, completes a striking group of buildings. In the
+town are remains of Chichele&rsquo;s college. Higham Ferrers shares
+in the widespread local industry of shoemaking. The town is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,
+1945 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Higham (Hecham, Heccam, Hegham Ferers) was evidently a
+large village before the Domesday Survey. It was then held by
+William Peverel of the king, but on the forfeiture of the lordship
+by his son it was granted in 1199 to William Ferrers, earl of
+Derby. On the outlawry of Robert his grandson it passed to
+Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and, reverting to the crown in 1322,
+was granted to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, but escheated
+to the crown in 1327, and was granted to Henry, earl of Lancaster.
+The castle, which may have been built before Henry III. visited
+Higham in 1229, is mentioned in 1322, but had been destroyed by
+1540. It appears by the confirmation of Henry III. in 1251 that
+the borough originated in the previous year when William de
+Ferrers, earl of Derby, manumitted by charter ninety-two
+persons, granting they should have a free borough. A mayor was
+elected from the beginning of the reign of Richard II., while a
+town hall is mentioned in 1395. The revenues of Chichele&rsquo;s
+college were given to the corporation by the charter of 1566,
+whereby the borough returned one representative to parliament,
+a privilege enjoyed until 1832. James I. in 1604 gave the mayor
+the commission of the peace with other privileges which were
+confirmed by Charles II. in 1664. The old charters were surrendered
+in 1684 and a new grant obtained; a further charter
+was granted in 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGHGATE,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a northern district of London, England, partly
+in the metropolitan borough of St Pancras, but extending
+into Middlesex. It is a high-lying district, the greatest
+elevation being 426 ft. The Great North Road passes through
+Highgate, which is supposed to have received its name from the
+toll-gate erected by the bishop of London when the road was
+formed through his demesne in the 14th century. It is possible,
+however, that &ldquo;gate&rdquo; is used here in its old signification, and
+that the name means simply high road. The road rose so steeply
+here that in 1812 an effort was made to lessen the slope for
+coaches by means of an archway, and a new way was completed
+in 1900. In the time of stage-coaches a custom was introduced of
+making ignorant persons believe that they required to be sworn
+and admitted to the freedom of the Highgate before being
+allowed to pass the gate, the fine of admission being a bottle of
+wine. Not a few famous names occur among the former residents
+of Highgate. Bacon died here in 1626; Coleridge and Andrew
+Marvell, the poets, were residents. Cromwell House, now a
+convalescent home, was presented by Oliver Cromwell to his
+eldest daughter Bridget on her marriage with Henry Ireton
+(January 15, 1646/7). Lauderdale House, now attached to
+the public grounds of Waterlow Park, belonged to the Duke of
+Lauderdale, one of the &ldquo;Cabal&rdquo; of Charles II. Among various
+institutions may be mentioned Whittington&rsquo;s almshouses, near
+Whittington Stone, at the foot of Highgate Hill, on which the
+future mayor of London is reputed to have been resting when he
+heard the peal of Bow bells and &ldquo;turned again.&rdquo; Highgate
+grammar school was founded (1562-1565) by Sir Roger Cholmley,
+chief-justice. St Joseph&rsquo;s Retreat is the mother-house of the
+Passionist Fathers in England. There is an extensive and
+beautiful cemetery on the slope below the church of St Michael.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGHLANDS, THE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> that part of Scotland north-west of a line
+drawn from Dumbarton to Stonehaven, including the Inner and
+Outer Hebrides and the county of Bute, but excluding the
+Orkneys and Shetlands, Caithness, the flat coastal land of the
+shires of Nairn, Elgin and Banff, and all East Aberdeenshire (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>). This area is to be distinguished from the Lowlands
+by language and race, the preservation of the Gaelic speech being
+characteristic. Even in a historical sense the Highlanders were
+a separate people from the Lowlanders, with whom, during
+many centuries, they shared nothing in common. The town of
+Inverness is usually regarded as the capital of the Highlands.
+The Highlands consist of an old dissected plateau, or block,
+of ancient crystalline rocks with incised valleys and lochs
+carved by the action of mountain streams and by ice, the
+resulting topography being a wide area of irregularly distributed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span>
+mountains whose summits have nearly the same height above
+sea-level, but whose bases depend upon the amount of denudation
+to which the plateau has been subjected in various places.
+The term &ldquo;highland&rdquo; is used in physical geography for any
+elevated mountainous plateau.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGHNESS,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> literally the quality of being lofty or high, a
+term used, as are so many abstractions, as a title of dignity and
+honour, to signify exalted rank or station. These abstractions
+arose in great profusion in the Roman empire, both of the
+East and West, and &ldquo;highness&rdquo; is to be directly traced to the
+<i>altitudo</i> and <i>celsitudo</i> of the Latin and the <span class="grk" title="hypsêlotês">&#8017;&#968;&#951;&#955;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> of the
+Greek emperors. Like other &ldquo;exorbitant and swelling attributes&rdquo;
+of the time, they were conferred on ruling princes
+generally. In the early middle ages such titles, couched in
+the second or third person, were &ldquo;uncertain and much more
+arbitrary (according to the fancies of secretaries) than in the
+later times&rdquo; (Selden, <i>Titles of Honour</i>, pt. i. ch. vii. 100). In
+English usage, &ldquo;Highness&rdquo; alternates with &ldquo;Grace&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Majesty,&rdquo; as the honorific title of the king and queen until
+the time of James I. Thus in documents relating to the reign
+of Henry VIII. all three titles are used indiscriminately; an
+example is the king&rsquo;s judgment against Dr Edward Crome
+(d. 1562), quoted, from the lord chamberlain&rsquo;s books, ser. 1,
+p. 791, in <i>Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc.</i> N.S. xix. 299, where article
+15 begins with &ldquo;Also the Kinges Highness&rdquo; hath ordered,
+16 with &ldquo;Kinges Majestie,&rdquo; and 17 with &ldquo;Kinges Grace.&rdquo; In
+the Dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible of 1611
+James I. is still styled &ldquo;Majesty&rdquo; and &ldquo;Highness&rdquo;; thus,
+in the first paragraph, &ldquo;the appearance of Your Majesty, as
+of the Sun in his strength, instantly dispelled those supposed
+and surmised mists ... especially when we beheld the government
+established in Your Highness and Your hopeful Seed,
+by an undoubted title.&rdquo; It was, however, in James I.&rsquo;s
+reign that &ldquo;Majesty&rdquo; became the official title. It may
+be noted that Cromwell, as lord protector, and his wife
+were styled &ldquo;Highness.&rdquo; In present usage the following
+members of the British Royal Family are addressed as &ldquo;Royal
+Highness&rdquo; (H.R.H.): all sons and daughters, brothers and
+sisters, uncles and aunts of the reigning sovereign, grandsons
+and granddaughters if children of sons, and also great grandchildren
+(decree of 31st of May 1898) if children of an eldest
+son of any prince of Wales. Nephews, nieces and cousins and
+grandchildren, offspring of daughters, are styled &ldquo;Highness&rdquo;
+only. A change of sovereign does not entail the forfeiture
+of the title &ldquo;Royal Highness,&rdquo; once acquired, though the
+father of the bearer has become a nephew and not a grandson
+of the sovereign. The principal feudatory princes of the Indian
+empire are also styled &ldquo;Highness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule the members of the blood royal of an Imperial
+or Royal house are addressed as &ldquo;Imperial&rdquo; or &ldquo;Royal Highness&rdquo;
+(<i>Altesse Impériale</i>, <i>Royale</i>, <i>Kaiserliche</i>, <i>Königliche Hoheit</i>)
+respectively. In Germany the reigning heads of the Grand
+Duchies bear the title of Royal or Grand Ducal Highness
+(<i>Königliche</i> or <i>Gross-Herzogliche Hoheit</i>), while the members
+of the family are addressed as <i>Hoheit</i>, Highness, simply. <i>Hoheit</i>
+is borne by the reigning dukes and the princes and princesses
+of their families. The title &ldquo;Serene Highness&rdquo; has also an
+antiquity equal to that of &ldquo;highness,&rdquo; for <span class="grk" title="galênotês">&#947;&#945;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> and
+<span class="grk" title="hêmerotês">&#7969;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> were titles borne by the Byzantine rulers, and serenitas
+and <i>serenissimus</i> by the emperors Honorius and Arcadius.
+The doge of Venice was also styled <i>Serenissimus</i>. Selden
+(<i>op. cit.</i> pt. ii. ch. x. 739) calls this title &ldquo;one of the greatest
+that can be given to any Prince that hath not the superior
+title of King.&rdquo; In modern times &ldquo;Serene Highness&rdquo; (<i>Altesse
+Sérénissime</i>) is used as the equivalent of the German <i>Durchlaucht</i>,
+a stronger form of <i>Erlaucht</i>, illustrious, represented in the
+Latin honorific <i>superillustris</i>. Thackeray&rsquo;s burlesque title
+&ldquo;Transparency&rdquo; in the court at Pumpernickel very accurately
+gives the meaning. The title of <i>Durchlaucht</i> was granted in
+1375 by the emperor Charles IV. to the electoral princes (<i>Kurfürsten</i>).
+In the 17th century it became the general title borne
+by the heads of the reigning princely states of the empire
+(<i>reichsländische Fürsten</i>), as <i>Erlaucht</i> by those of the countly
+houses (<i>reichständische Grafen</i>). In 1825 the German Diet
+agreed to grant the title <i>Durchlaucht</i> to the heads of the mediatized
+princely houses whether domiciled in Germany or Austria,
+and it is now customary to use it of the members of those
+houses. Further, all those who are elevated to the rank of
+prince (<i>Fürst</i>) in the secondary meaning of that title (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prince</a></span>)
+are also styled <i>Durchlaucht</i>. In 1829 the title of <i>Erlaucht</i>,
+which had formerly been borne by the reigning counts of the
+empire, was similarly granted to the mediatized countly families
+(see <i>Almanack de Gotha</i>, 1909, 107).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGH PLACE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> in the English version of the Old Testament,
+the literal translation of the Heb. <i>b&#257;m&#257;h</i>. This rendering is
+etymologically correct, as appears from the poetical use of
+the plural in such expressions as to ride, or stalk, or stand on
+the high places of the earth, the sea, the clouds, and from the
+corresponding usage in Assyrian; but in prose <i>b&#257;m&#257;h</i> is always
+a place of worship. It has been surmised that it was so called
+because the places of worship were originally upon hill-tops,
+or that the <i>b&#257;m&#257;h</i> was an artificial platform or mound, perhaps
+imitating the natural eminence which was the oldest holy
+place, but neither view is historically demonstrable. The
+development of the religious significance of the word took
+place probably not in Israel but among the Canaanites, from
+whom the Israelites, in taking possession of the holy places
+of the land, adopted the name also.</p>
+
+<p>In old Israel every town and village had its own place of
+sacrifice, and the common name for these places was <i>b&#257;m&#257;h</i>,
+which is synonymous with <i>mi&#7731;d&#257;sh</i>, holy place (Amos vii.
+9; Isa. xvi. 12, &amp;c.). From the Old Testament and from
+existing remains a good idea may be formed of the appearance
+of such a place of worship. It was often on the hill above the
+town, as at Ramah (I Sam. ix. 12-14); there was a stelè
+(<i>ma&#7779;&#7779;&#275;b&#257;h</i>), the seat of the deity, and a wooden post or pole
+(<i>ash&#275;r&#257;h</i>), which marked the place as sacred and was itself
+an object of worship; there was a stone altar, often of considerable
+size and hewn out of the solid rock<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or built of unhewn
+stones (Ex. xx. 25; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Altar</a></span>), on which offerings were burnt
+(<i>mizb&#275;&#7717;</i>, lit. &ldquo;slaughter place&rdquo;); a cistern for water, and
+perhaps low stone tables for dressing the victims; sometimes
+also a hall (<i>lishk&#257;h</i>) for the sacrificial feasts.</p>
+
+<p>Around these places the religion of the ancient Israelite
+centred; at festival seasons, or to make or fulfil a vow, he
+might journey to more famous sanctuaries at a distance from
+his home, but ordinarily the offerings which linked every side
+of his life to religion were paid at the <i>b&#257;m&#257;h</i> of his own town.
+The building of royal temples in Jerusalem or in Samaria made
+no change in this respect; they simply took their place beside
+the older sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Dan, Gilgal, Beersheba,
+to which they were, indeed, inferior in repute.</p>
+
+<p>The religious reformers of the 8th century assail the popular
+religion as corrupt and licentious, and as fostering the monstrous
+delusion that immoral men can buy the favour of God by
+worship; but they make no difference in this respect between
+the high places of Israel and the temple in Jerusalem (cf. Amos
+v. 21 sqq.; Hos. iv.; Isa. i. 10 sqq.); Hosea stigmatizes the whole
+cultus as pure heathenism&mdash;Canaanite baal-worship adopted by
+apostate Israel. The fundamental law in Deut. xii. prohibits
+sacrifice at every place except the temple in Jerusalem; in accordance
+with this law Josiah, in 621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, destroyed and desecrated
+the altars (<i>b&#257;m&#333;th</i>) throughout his kingdom, where Yahweh had
+been worshipped from time immemorial, and forcibly removed
+their priests to Jerusalem, where they occupied an inferior rank
+in the temple ministry. In the prophets of the 7th and 6th
+centuries the word <i>b&#257;m&#333;th</i> connotes &ldquo;seat of heathenish or
+idolatrous worship&rdquo;; and the historians of the period apply the
+term in this opprobrious sense not only to places sacred to other
+gods but to the old holy places of Yahweh in the cities and
+villages of Judah, which, in their view, had been illegitimate
+from the building of Solomon&rsquo;s temple, and therefore not really
+seats of the worship of Yahweh; even the most pious kings of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span>
+Judah are censured for tolerating their existence. The reaction
+which followed the death of Josiah (608 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) restored the old
+altars of Yahweh; they survived the destruction of the temple
+in 586, and it is probable that after its restoration (520-516 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+they only slowly disappeared, in consequence partly of the natural
+predominance of Jerusalem in the little territory of Judaea,
+partly of the gradual establishment of the supremacy of the
+written law over custom and tradition in the Persian period.</p>
+
+<p>It may not be superfluous to note that the deuteronomic dogma
+that sacrifice can be offered to Yahweh only at the temple in
+Jerusalem was never fully established either in fact or in legal
+theory. The Jewish military colonists in Elephantine in the
+5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> had their altar of Yahweh beside the high way;
+the Jews in Egypt in the Ptolemaic period had, besides many
+local sanctuaries, one greater temple at Leontopolis, with a
+priesthood whose claim to &ldquo;valid orders&rdquo; was much better
+than that of the High Priests in Jerusalem, and the legitimacy
+of whose worship is admitted even by the Palestinian rabbis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Baudissin, &ldquo;Höhendienst,&rdquo; <i>Protestantische Realencyklopädie</i>³
+(viii. 177-195); Hoonacker, <i>Le Lieu du culte dans la législation
+rituelle des Hébreux</i> (1894); v. Gall, <i>Altisraelitische Kultstädte</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Several altars of this type have been preserved.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGH SEAS,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> an expression in international law meaning all
+those parts of the sea not under the sovereignty of adjacent
+states. Claims have at times been made to exclusive dominion
+over large areas of the sea as well as over wide margins, such as a
+100 m., 60 m., range of vision, &amp;c., from land. The action and
+reaction of the interests of navigation, however, have brought
+states to adopt a limitation first enunciated by Bynkershoek
+in the formula &ldquo;terrae dominium finitur ubi finitur armorum
+vis.&rdquo; Thenceforward cannon-shot range became the determining
+factor in the fixation of the margin of sea afterwards known as
+&ldquo;territorial waters&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). With the exception of these territorial
+waters, bays of certain dimensions and inland waters
+surrounded by territory of the same state, and serving only as
+a means of access to ports of the state by whose territory they
+are surrounded, and some waters allowed by immemorial usage
+to rank as territorial, all seas and oceans form part of the high
+sea. The usage of the high sea is free to all the nations of the
+world, subject only to such restrictions as result from respect
+for the equal rights of others, and to those which nations may
+contract with each other to observe. An interesting case
+affecting land-locked seas was that of the <i>Emperor of Japan</i>
+v. <i>The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company</i>, in
+which a collision had taken place in the inland sea of Japan.
+The British Supreme Court at Shanghai declared this sea to
+form part of the high sea. On appeal to the privy council, the
+appellants were successful. Though the decision of the Shanghai
+court on the point in question was not dealt with by the privy
+council, Japan continues to treat her inland sea as under her
+exclusive jurisdiction.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGHWAY,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a public road over which all persons have full
+right of way&mdash;walking, riding or driving. Such roads in England
+for the most part either are of immemorial antiquity or have been
+created under the authority of an act of parliament. But a
+private owner may create a highway at common law by dedicating
+the soil to the use of the public for that purpose; and the
+using of a road for a number of years, without interruption, will
+support the presumption that the soil has been so dedicated.
+At common law the parish is required to maintain all highways
+within its bounds; but by special custom the obligation may
+attach to a particular township or district, and in certain cases
+the owner of land is bound by the conditions of his holding to
+keep a highway in repair. Breach of the obligation is treated
+as a criminal offence, and is prosecuted by indictment. Bridges,
+on the other hand, and so much of the highway as is immediately
+connected with them, are as a general rule a charge on the
+county; and by 22 Henry VIII. c. 5 the obligation of the county is
+extended to 300 yds. of the highway on either side of the bridge.
+A bridge, like a highway, may be a burden on neighbouring land
+<i>ratione tenurae</i>. Private owners so burdened may sometimes
+claim a special toll from passengers, called a &ldquo;toll traverse.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Extensive changes in the English law of highways have been
+made by various highway acts, viz. the Highway Act 1835, and
+amending acts of 1862, 1864, 1878 and 1891. The leading
+principle of the Highway Act 1835 is to place the highways
+under the direction of parish surveyors, and to provide for
+the necessary expenses by a rate levied on the occupiers of land.
+It is the duty of the surveyor to keep the highways in repair; and
+if a highway is out of repair, the surveyor may be summoned
+before justices and convicted in a penalty not exceeding £5,
+and ordered to complete the repairs within a limited time.
+The surveyor is likewise specially charged with the removal
+of nuisances on the highway. A highway nuisance may be abated
+by any person, and may be made the subject of indictment at
+common law. The amending acts, while not interfering with
+the operation of the principal act, authorize the creation of
+highway districts on a larger scale. The justices of a county
+may convert it or any portion of it into a highway district to
+be governed by a highway board, the powers and responsibilities
+of which will be the same as those of the parish surveyor under
+the former act. The board consists of representatives of the
+various parishes, called &ldquo;way wardens&rdquo; together with the
+justices for the county residing within the district. Salaries
+and similar expenses incurred by the board are charged on a
+district fund to which the several parishes contribute; but each
+parish remains separately responsible for the expenses of maintaining
+its own highways. By the Local Government Act 1888
+the entire maintenance of main roads was thrown upon county
+councils. The Public Health Act 1875 vested the powers and
+duties of surveyors of highways and vestries in urban authorities,
+while the Local Government Act 1894 transferred to the
+district councils of every rural district all the powers of rural
+sanitary authorities and highway authorities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England</a></span>:
+<i>Local Government</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Highway Act of 1835 specified as offences for which the
+driver of a carriage on the public highway might be punished by a
+fine, in addition to any civil action that might be brought against
+him&mdash;riding upon the cart, or upon any horse drawing it, and not
+having some other person to guide it, unless there be some person
+driving it; negligence causing damage to person or goods being
+conveyed on the highway; quitting his cart, or leaving control
+of the horses, or leaving the cart so as to be an obstruction on the
+highway; not having the owner&rsquo;s name painted up; refusing to
+give the same; and not keeping on the left or near side of the
+road, when meeting any other carriage or horse. This rule does
+not apply in the case of a carriage meeting a foot-passenger, but
+a driver is bound to use due care to avoid driving against any
+person crossing the highway on foot. At the same time a
+passenger crossing the highway is also bound to use due care in
+avoiding vehicles, and the mere fact of a driver being on the
+wrong side of the road would not be evidence of negligence in
+such a case.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;rule of the road&rdquo; given above is peculiar to the United
+Kingdom. Cooley&rsquo;s treatise on the <i>American Law of Torts</i>
+states that &ldquo;the custom of the country, in some states enacted
+into statute law, requires that when teams approach and are
+about to pass on the highway, each shall keep to the right of the
+centre of the travelled portion of the road.&rdquo; This also appears
+to be the general rule on the continent of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>By the Lights on Vehicles Act 1907, all vehicles on highways
+in England and Wales must display to the front a white light
+during the period between one hour after sunset and one hour
+before sunrise. Locomotives and motor cars, being dealt with by
+special acts, are excluded from the operation of the act, as are
+bicycles and tricycles (dealt with by the Local Government Act
+1888), and vehicles drawn or propelled by hand, but every
+machine or implement drawn by animals comes within the act.
+There are two exceptions: (1) vehicles carrying inflammable
+goods in the neighbourhood of places where inflammable goods are
+stored, and (2) vehicles engaged in harvesting. The public have
+a right to pass along a highway freely, safely and conveniently,
+and any wrongful act or omission which prevents them doing so
+is a nuisance, for the prevention and abatement of which the
+highways and other acts contain provisions. Generally, nuisance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+to highway may be caused by encroachment, by interfering with
+the soil of the highway, by attracting crowds, by creating
+danger or inconvenience on or near the highway, by placing
+obstacles on the highway, by unreasonable user, by offences
+against decency and good order, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The use of locomotives, motor cars and other vehicles on highways
+is regulated by acts of 1861-1903.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly under the Turnpike Acts many of the more important
+highways were placed under the management of boards of
+commissioners or trustees. The trustees were required and
+empowered to maintain, repair and improve the roads committed
+to their charge, and the expenses of the trust were met by tolls
+levied on persons using the road. The various grounds of exemption
+from toll on turnpike roads were all of a public character,
+<i>e.g.</i> horses and carriages attending the sovereign or royal family,
+or used by soldiers or volunteers in uniform, were free from toll.
+In general horses and carriages used in agricultural work were
+free from toll. By the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878
+disturnpiked roads became &ldquo;main roads.&rdquo; Ordinary highways
+might be declared to be &ldquo;main roads,&rdquo; and &ldquo;main roads&rdquo; be
+reduced to the status of ordinary highways.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland the highway system is regulated by the Roads and
+Bridges Act 1878 and amending acts. The management and
+maintenance of the highways and bridges is vested in county
+road trustees, viz. the commissioners of supply, certain elected
+trustees representing ratepayers in parishes and others. One of
+the consequences of the act was the abolition of tolls, statute-labour,
+causeway mail and other exactions for the maintenance
+of bridges and highways, and all turnpike roads became highways,
+and all highways became open to the public free of tolls
+and other exactions. The county is divided into districts under
+district committees, and county and district officers are appointed.
+The expenses of highway management in each district (or parish),
+together with a proportion of the general expenses of the act, are
+levied by the trustees by an assessment on the lands and heritages
+within the district (or parish).</p>
+
+<p>Highway, in the law of the states of the American Union,
+generally means a lawful public road, over which all citizens are
+allowed to pass and repass on foot, on horseback, in carriages and
+waggons. Sometimes it is held to be restricted to county roads
+as opposed to town-ways. In statutes dealing with offences connected
+with the highway, such as gaming, negligence of carriers,
+&amp;c., &ldquo;highway&rdquo; includes navigable rivers. But in a statute
+punishing with death robbery on the highway, railways were held
+not to be included in the term. In one case it has been held
+that any way is a highway which has been used as such for
+fifty years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Glen, <i>Law Relating to Highways</i>; Pratt, <i>Law of Highways,
+Main Roads and Bridges</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1827-1893), chief-justice of
+Victoria, Australia, sixth son of T. Higinbotham of Dublin, was
+born on the 19th of April 1827, and educated at the Royal School,
+Dungannon, and at Trinity College, Dublin. After entering as a
+law student at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, and being engaged as reporter on
+the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> in 1849, he emigrated to Victoria, where
+he contributed to the <i>Melbourne Herald</i> and practised at the bar
+(having been &ldquo;called&rdquo; in 1853) with much success. In 1850 he
+became editor of the <i>Melbourne Argus</i>, but resigned in 1859 and
+returned to the bar. He was elected to the legislative assembly
+in 1861 for Brighton as an independent Liberal, was rejected at
+the general election of the same year, but was returned nine
+months later. In 1863 he became attorney-general. Under his
+influence measures were passed through the legislative assembly
+of a somewhat extreme character, completely ignoring the
+rights of the legislative council, and the government was
+carried on without any Appropriation Act for more than a year.
+Mr Higinbotham, by his eloquence and earnestness, obtained
+great influence amongst the members of the legislative assembly,
+but his colleagues were not prepared to follow him as far as he
+desired to go. He contended that in a constitutional colony like
+Victoria the secretary of state for the colonies had no right to
+fetter the discretion of the queen&rsquo;s representative. Mr Higinbotham
+did not return to power with his chief, Sir James
+M&rsquo;Culloch, after the defeat of the short-lived Sladen administration;
+and being defeated for Brighton at the next general election
+by a comparatively unknown man, he devoted himself to his
+practice at the bar. Amongst his other labours as attorney-general
+he had codified all the statutes which were in force
+throughout the colony. In 1874 he was returned to the legislative
+assembly for Brunswick, but after a few months he
+resigned his seat. In 1880 he was appointed a puisne judge of the
+supreme court, and in 1886, on the retirement of Sir William
+Stawell, he was promoted to the office of chief justice. Mr
+Higinbotham was appointed president of the International
+Exhibition held at Melbourne in 1888-1889, but did not take any
+active part in its management. One of his latest public acts was
+to subscribe a sum of £10, 10s. a week towards the funds of the
+strikers in the great Australian labour dispute of 1890, an act
+which did not meet with general approval. He died in 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILARION, ST<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 290-371), abbot, the first to introduce the
+monastic system into Palestine. The chief source of information
+is a life written by St Jerome; it was based upon a letter, no
+longer extant, written by St Epiphanius, who had known
+Hilarion. The accounts in Sozomen are mainly based on
+Jerome&rsquo;s <i>Vita</i>; but Otto Zöcker has shown that Sozomen also
+had at his disposal authentic local traditions (see &ldquo;Hilarion von
+Gaza&rdquo; in the <i>Neue Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie</i>, 1894), the
+most important study on Hilarion, which is written against the
+hypercritical school of Weingarten and shows that Hilarion must
+be accepted as an historical personage and the <i>Vita</i> as a substantially
+correct account of his career. He was born of heathen
+parents at Tabatha near Gaza about 290; he was sent to
+Alexandria for his education and there became a convert to
+Christianity; about 306 he visited St Anthony and became his
+disciple, embracing the eremitical life. He returned to his
+native place and for many years lived as a hermit in the desert by
+the marshes on the Egyptian border. Many disciples put themselves
+under his guidance; but his influence must have been
+limited to south Palestine, for there is no mention of him in
+Palladius or Cassian. In 356 he left Palestine and went again to
+Egypt; but the accounts given in the <i>Vita</i> of his travels during
+the last fifteen years of his life must be taken with extreme
+caution. It is there said that he went from Egypt to Sicily,
+and thence to Epidaurus, and finally to Cyprus where he met
+Epiphanius and died in 371.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An abridged story of his life will be found in Alban Butler&rsquo;s <i>Lives
+of the Saints</i>, on the 21st of October, and a critical sketch with full
+references in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hilary</span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), <b>ST</b> (<i>c.</i> 300-367), bishop of Pictavium
+(Poitiers), an eminent &ldquo;doctor&rdquo; of the Western Church, sometimes
+referred to as the &ldquo;malleus Arianorum&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Athanasius
+of the West,&rdquo; was born at Poitiers about the end of the
+3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> His parents were pagans of distinction. He
+received a good education, including what had even then become
+somewhat rare in the West, some knowledge of Greek. He
+studied, later on, the Old and New Testament writings, with
+the result that he abandoned his neo-platonism for Christianity,
+and with his wife and his daughter received the sacrament of
+baptism. So great was the respect in which he was held by the
+citizens of Poitiers that about 353, although still a married man,
+he was unanimously elected bishop. At that time Arianism
+was threatening to overrun the Western Church; to repel the
+irruption was the great task which Hilary undertook. One
+of his first steps was to secure the excommunication, by those
+of the Gallican hierarchy who still remained orthodox, of Saturninus,
+the Arian bishop of Arles and of Ursacius and Valens, two
+of his prominent supporters. About the same time he wrote to
+the emperor Constantius a remonstrance against the persecutions
+by which the Arians had sought to crush their opponents
+(<i>Ad Constantium Augustum liber primus</i>, of which the most
+probable date is 355). His efforts were not at first successful,
+for at the synod of Biterrae (Beziers), summoned in 356 by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+Constantius with the professed purpose of settling the longstanding
+disputes, Hilary was by an imperial rescript banished
+with Rhodanus of Toulouse to Phrygia, in which exile he spent
+nearly four years. Thence, however, he continued to govern
+his diocese; while he found leisure for the preparation of two
+of the most important of his contributions to dogmatic and
+polemical theology, the <i>De synodis</i> or <i>De fide Orientalium</i>,
+an epistle addressed in 358 to the Semi-Arian bishops in Gaul,
+Germany and Britain, expounding the true views (sometimes
+veiled in ambiguous words) of the Oriental bishops on the
+Nicene controversy, and the <i>De trinitate libri xii.</i>,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> composed
+in 359 and 360, in which, for the first time, a successful
+attempt was made to express in Latin the theological subtleties
+elaborated in the original Greek. The former of these works
+was not entirely approved by some members of his own party,
+who thought he had shown too great forbearance towards the
+Arians; to their criticisms he replied in the <i>Apologetica ad
+reprehensores libri de synodis responsa</i>. In 359 Hilary attended
+the convocation of bishops at Seleucia In Isauria, where, with
+the Egyptian Athanasians, he joined the Homoiousian majority
+against the Arianizing party headed by Acacius of Caesarea;
+thence he went to Constantinople, and, in a petition (<i>Ad Constantium
+Augustum liber secundus</i>) personally presented to the
+emperor in 360, repudiated the calumnies of his enemies and sought
+to vindicate his trinitarian principles. His urgent and repeated
+request for a public discussion with his opponents, especially
+with Ursacius and Valens, proved at last so inconvenient that
+he was sent back to his diocese, which he appears to have reached
+about 361, within a very short time of the accession of Julian.
+He was occupied for two or three years in combating Arianism
+within his diocese; but in 364, extending his efforts once more
+beyond Gaul, he impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, and a
+man high in the imperial favour, as heterodox. Summoned to
+appear before the emperor (Valentinian) at Milan and there
+maintain his charges, Hilary had the mortification of hearing
+the supposed heretic give satisfactory answers to all the questions
+proposed; nor did his (doubtless sincere) denunciation of the
+metropolitan as a hypocrite save himself from an ignominious
+expulsion from Milan. In 365 he published the <i>Contra Arianos
+vel Auxentium Mediolanensem liber</i>, in connexion with the
+controversy; and also (but perhaps at a somewhat earlier date)
+the <i>Contra Constantium Augustum liber</i>, in which he pronounced
+that lately deceased emperor to have been Antichrist, a rebel
+against God, &ldquo;a tyrant whose sole object had been to make
+a gift to the devil of that world for which Christ had suffered.&rdquo;
+Hilary is sometimes regarded as the first Latin Christian hymn-writer,
+but none of the compositions assigned to him is indisputable.
+The later years of his life were spent in comparative
+quiet, devoted in part to the preparation of his expositions of
+the Psalms (<i>Tractatus super Psalmos</i>), for which he was largely
+indebted to Origen; of his <i>Commentarius in Evangelium Matthaei</i>,
+a work on allegorical lines of no exegetical value; and of
+his no longer extant translation of Origen&rsquo;s commentary on Job.
+While he thus closely followed the two great Alexandrians,
+Origen and Athanasius, in exegesis and Christology respectively,
+his work shows many traces of vigorous independent thought.
+He died in 367; no more exact date is trustworthy. He holds
+the highest rank among the Latin writers of his century. Designated
+already by Augustine as &ldquo;the illustrious doctor of the
+churches,&rdquo; he by his works exerted an increasing influence in
+later centuries; and by Pius IX. he was formally recognized
+as &ldquo;universae ecclesiae doctor&rdquo; at the synod of Bordeaux
+in 1851. Hilary&rsquo;s day in the Roman calendar is the 13th of
+January.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Editions.</span>&mdash;Erasmus (Basel, 1523, 1526, 1528); P. Coustant
+(Benedictine, Paris, 1693); Migne (<i>Patrol. Lat.</i> ix., x.). The <i>Tractatus
+de mysteriis</i>, ed. J. F. Gamurrini (Rome, 1887), and the <i>Tractatus
+super Psalmos</i>, ed. A. Zingerle in the Vienna <i>Corpus scrip. eccl. Lat.</i>
+xxii. Translation by E. W. Watson in <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene
+Fathers</i>, ix.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The life by (Venantius) Fortunatus <i>c.</i> 550 is almost
+worthless. More trustworthy are the notices in Jerome (<i>De vir.
+illus.</i> 100), Sulpicius Severus (<i>Chron.</i> ii. 39-45) and in Hilary&rsquo;s own
+writings. H. Reinkens, <i>Hilarius von Poictiers</i> (1864); O. Bardenhewer,
+<i>Patrologie</i>; A. Harnack, <i>Hist. of Dogma</i>, esp. vol. iv.; F.
+Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyk.</i> viii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name is derived from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hilaros">&#7985;&#955;&#945;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, gay, cheerful, whence
+hilarious, hilarity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hilary&rsquo;s own title was <i>De fide contra Arianos</i>. It really deals
+less with the doctrine of the Trinity than with that of the Incarnation.
+That it is not an easy work to read is due partly to the nature of
+the subject, partly to the fact that it was issued in detached portions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;Hilary&rdquo; was the name of one of the four terms of the English
+legal year. These terms were abolished by the Judicature Act,
+1873, s. 26, and &ldquo;sittings&rdquo; substituted. It is now the name of the
+sitting of the Supreme Court of Judicature which commences on
+the 11th of January and terminates on the Wednesday before
+Easter. In the Inns of Court, Hilary is one of the four dining
+terms; it begins on the 11th of January and ends on the 1st of
+February. It is also the name of one of the terms at the universities
+of Oxford (more usually &ldquo;Lent term&rdquo;) and Dublin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hilarus</span> (<span class="sc">Hilary</span>), bishop of Rome from
+461 to 468, is known to have been a deacon and to have acted
+as legate of Leo the Great at the &ldquo;robber&rdquo; synod of Ephesus
+in 449. There he so vigorously defended the conduct of Flavian
+in deposing Eutyches that he was thrown into prison, whence
+he had great difficulty in making his escape to Rome. He was
+chosen to succeed Leo on the 19th of November 461. In 465
+he held at Rome a council which put a stop to some abuses,
+particularly to that of bishops appointing their own successors.
+His pontificate was also marked by a successful encroachment
+of the papal authority on the metropolitan rights of the French
+and Spanish hierarchy, and by a resistance to the toleration
+edict of Anthemius, which ultimately caused it to be recalled.
+Hilarius died on the 17th of November 467, and was succeeded
+by Simplicius.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (fl. 1125), a Latin poet who is supposed to have
+been an Englishman. He was one of the pupils of Abelard at his
+oratory of Paraclete, and addressed to him a copy of verses
+with its refrain in the vulgar tongue, &ldquo;<i>Tort avers vos li mestre</i>,&rdquo;
+Abelard having threatened to discontinue his teaching because
+of certain reports made by his servant about the conduct of the
+scholars. Later Hilarius made his way to Angers. His poems
+are contained in MS. supp. lat. 1008 of the Bibliothèque Nationale,
+Paris, purchased in 1837 at the sale of M. de Rosny. Quotations
+from this MS. had appeared before, but in 1838 it was edited by
+Champollion Figeac as <i>Hilarii versus et ludi</i>. His works consist
+chiefly of light verses of the goliardic type. There are verses
+addressed to an English nun named Eva, lines to Rosa, &ldquo;<i>Ave
+splendor puellarum, generosa domina</i>,&rdquo; and another poem
+describes the beauties of the priory of Chaloutre la Petite, in the
+diocese of Sens, of which the writer was then an inmate. One
+copy of satirical verses seems to aim at the pope himself. He
+also wrote three miracle plays in rhymed Latin with an admixture
+of French. Two of them, <i>Suscitatio Lazari</i> and <i>Historia
+de Daniel repraesentanda</i>, are of purely liturgical type. At the
+end of <i>Lazarus</i> is a stage direction to the effect that if the performance
+has been given at matins, Lazarus should proceed with
+the <i>Te Deum</i>, if at vespers, with the <i>Magnificat</i>. The third,
+<i>Ludus super iconia Sancti Nicholai</i>, is founded on a sufficiently
+foolish legend. Petit de Julleville sees in the play a satiric
+intention and a veiled incredulity that put the piece outside
+the category of liturgical drama.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A rhymed Latin account of a dispute in which the nuns of Ronceray
+at Angers were concerned, contained in a cartulary of Ronceray,
+is also ascribed to the poet, who there calls himself Hilarius
+Canonicus. The poem is printed in the <i>Bibliothèque de l&rsquo;École des
+Chartes</i> (vol. xxxvii. 1876), and is dated by P. Marchegay from 1121.
+See also a notice in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i> (xii. 251-254), supplemented
+(in xx. 627-630), <i>s.v.</i> Jean Bodel, by Paulin Paris;
+also Wright, <i>Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period</i>
+(1846); and Petit de Julleville, <i>Les Mystères</i> (vol. i. 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hilary</span>), <b>ST</b> (<i>c.</i> 403-449), bishop of Arles, was
+born about 403. In early youth he entered the abbey of Lérins,
+then presided over by his kinsman Honoratus (St Honoré), and
+succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric of Arles in 429. Following
+the example of St Augustine, he is said to have organized his
+cathedral clergy into a &ldquo;congregation,&rdquo; devoting a great part of
+their time to social exercises of ascetic religion. He held the
+rank of metropolitan of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted
+to realize the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span>
+which seemed implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor
+Patroclus (417). Hilarius deposed the bishop of Besançon
+(Chelidonus), for ignoring this primacy, and for claiming a
+metropolitan dignity for Besançon. An appeal was made to
+Rome, and Leo I. used it to extinguish the Gallican vicariate
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 444). Hilarius was deprived of his rights as metropolitan
+to consecrate bishops, call synods, or exercise ecclesiastical oversight
+in the province, and the pope secured the edict of Valentinian
+III., so important in the history of the Gallican church,
+&ldquo;ut episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid
+apostolicae sedis auctoritas sanxisset.&rdquo; The papal claims were
+made imperial law, and violation of them subject to legal
+penalties (<i>Novellae Valent.</i> iii. tit. 16). Hilarius died in 449, and
+his name was afterwards introduced into the Roman martyrology
+for commemoration on the 5th of May. He enjoyed during
+his lifetime a high reputation for learning and eloquence as well
+as for piety; his extant works (<i>Vita S. Honorati Arelatensis
+episcopi</i> and <i>Metrum in Genesin</i>) compare favourably with any
+similar literary productions of that period.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A poem, <i>De Providentia</i>, usually included among the writings of
+Prosper, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Arles.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDA, ST,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> strictly Hild (614-680), was the daughter of
+Hereric, a nephew of Edwin, king of Northumbria. She was
+converted to Christianity before 633 by the preaching of Paulinus.
+According to Bede she took the veil in 614, when Oswio was king
+of Northumbria and Aidan bishop of Lindisfarne, and spent a
+year in East Anglia, where her sister Hereswith had married
+Æthelhere, who was to succeed his brother Anna, the reigning
+king. In 648 or 649 Hilda was recalled to Northumbria by
+Aidan, and lived for a year in a small monastic community north
+of the Wear. She then succeeded Heiu, the foundress, as abbess
+of Hartlepool, where she remained several years. From Hartlepool
+Hilda moved to Whitby, where in 657 she founded the
+famous double monastery which in the time of the first abbess
+included among its members five future bishops, Bosa, Ætta,
+Oftfor, John and Wilfrid II. as well as the poet Cædmon. Hilda
+exercised great influence in Northumbria, and ecclesiastics from
+all over Christian England and from Strathclyde and Dalriada
+visited her monastery. In 655 after the battle of Winwæd
+Oswio entrusted his daughter Ælfled to Hilda, with whom she
+went to Whitby. At the synod of Whitby in 664 Hilda sided
+with Colman and Cedd against Wilfrid. In spite of the defeat of
+the Celtic party she remained hostile to Wilfrid until 679 at any
+rate. Hilda died in 680 after a painful illness lasting for seven
+years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. eccl.</i> (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1869), iii. 24, 25,
+iv. 23; Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i> (Raine, <i>Historians of Church of York</i>,
+Rolls Series, vol. i., 1879), c. liv.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDBURGHAUSEN,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the duchy of
+Saxe-Meiningen, situated in a wide and fruitful valley on the
+river Werra, 19 m. S.E. of Meiningen, on the railway Eisenach-Lichtenfels.
+Pop. (1905) 7456. The principal buildings are a
+ducal palace, erected 1685-1695, now used as barracks, with a
+park in which there is a monument to Queen Louisa of Prussia,
+the old town hall, two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church
+and a theatre. A technical college occupies the premises in
+which Meyer&rsquo;s Bibliographisches Institut carried on business
+from 1828, when it removed hither from Gotha, until 1874, when
+it was transferred to Leipzig. A monument has been erected to
+those citizens who died in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71.
+The manufactures include linen fabrics, cloth, toys, buttons,
+optical instruments, agricultural machines, knives, mineral
+waters, condensed soups and condensed milk. Hildburghausen
+(in records <i>Hilpershusia</i> and <i>Villa Hilperti</i>) belonged in the 13th
+century to the counts of Henneberg, from whom it passed to the
+landgraves of Thuringia and then to the dukes of Saxony. In
+1683 it became the capital of a principality which in 1826 was
+united to Saxe-Meiningen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. A. Human, <i>Chronik der Stadt Hildburghausen</i> (Hildburghausen,
+1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDEBERT,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hydalbert</span>, <span class="sc">Gildebert</span> or <span class="sc">Aldebert</span> (<i>c.</i>
+1055-1133), French writer and ecclesiastic, was born of poor
+parents at Lavardin, near Vendôme, and was intended for the
+church. He was probably a pupil of Berengarius of Tours, and
+became master (<i>scholasticus</i>) of the school at Le Mans; in 1091
+he was made archdeacon and in 1096 bishop of Le Mans. He
+had to face the hostility of a section of his clergy and also of the
+English king, William II., who captured Le Mans and carried the
+bishop with him to England for about a year. Hildebert then
+travelled to Rome and sought permission to resign his bishopric,
+which Pope Paschal II. refused. In 1116 his diocese was thrown
+into great confusion owing to the preaching of Henry of
+Lausanne, who was denouncing the higher clergy, especially the
+bishop. Hildebert compelled him to leave the neighbourhood of
+Le Mans, but the effects of his preaching remained. In 1125
+Hildebert was translated very unwillingly to the archbishopric of
+Tours, and there he came into conflict with the French king
+Louis VI. about the rights of ecclesiastical patronage and with
+the bishop of Dol about the authority of his see in Brittany. He
+presided over the synod of Nantes, and died at Tours probably on
+the 18th of December 1133. Hildebert, who built part of the
+cathedral at Le Mans, has received from some writers the title of
+saint, but there appears to be no authority for this. He was not
+a man of very strict life; his contemporaries, however, had a
+very high opinion of him and he was called <i>egregius versificator</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The extant writings of Hildebert consist of letters, poems,
+a few sermons, two lives and one or two treatises. An edition
+of his works prepared by the Maurist, Antoine Beaugendre,
+and entitled <i>Venerabilis Hildeberti, primo Cenomannensis
+episcopi, deinde Turonensis archiepiscopi, opera tam edita quam
+inedita</i>, was published in Paris in 1708 and was reprinted with
+additions by J. J. Bourassé in 1854. These editions, however,
+are very faulty. They credit Hildebert with numerous writings
+which are the work of others, while some genuine writings are
+omitted. The revelation of this fact has affected Hildebert&rsquo;s
+position in the history of medieval thought. His standing as
+a philosopher rested upon his supposed authorship of the important
+<i>Tractatus theologicus</i>; but this is now regarded as the
+work of Hugh of St Victor, and consequently Hildebert can
+hardly be counted among the philosophers. His genuine
+writings include many letters. These <i>Epistolae</i> enjoyed great
+popularity in the 12th and 13th centuries, and were frequently
+used as classics in the schools of France and Italy. Those which
+concern the struggle between the emperor Henry V. and Pope
+Paschal II. have been edited by E. Sackur and printed in the
+<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Libelli de lite ii.</i> (1893). His
+poems, which deal with various subjects, are disfigured by many
+defects of style and metre, but they too were very popular.
+Hildebert attained celebrity also as a preacher both in French
+and Latin, but only a few of his sermons are in existence, most
+of the 144 attributed to him by his editors being the work of
+Peter Lombard and others. The <i>Vitae</i> written by Hildebert
+are the lives of Hugo, abbot of Cluny, and of St Radegunda.
+Undoubtedly genuine is also his <i>Liber de querimonia et conflictu
+carnis et spiritus seu animae</i>. Hildebert was an excellent Latin
+scholar, being acquainted with Cicero, Ovid and other authors,
+and his spirit is rather that of a pagan than of a Christian writer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See B. Hauréau, <i>Les Mélanges poétiques d&rsquo;Hildebert de Lavardin</i>
+(Paris, 1882), and <i>Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins de
+la Bibliothèque nationale</i> (Paris, 1890-1893); Comte P. de Déservillers,
+<i>Un Évêque au XII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, Hildebert et son temps</i> (Paris, 1876);
+E. A. Freeman, <i>The Reign of Rufus</i>, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1882); tome xi.
+of the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, and H. Böhmer in Band viii.
+of Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1900). The most important
+work, however, to be consulted is L. Dieudonné&rsquo;s <i>Hildebert de
+Lavardin, évêque du Mans, archévêque de Tours. Sa vie, ses lettres</i>
+(Paris, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDEBRAND, LAY OF<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (<i>Das Hildebrandslied</i>), a unique
+example of Old German alliterative poetry, written about the
+year 800 on the first and last pages of a theological manuscript,
+by two monks of the monastery of Fulda. The fragment, or
+rather fragments, only extend to sixty-eight lines, and the
+conclusion of the poem is wanting. The theory propounded by
+Karl Lachmann, that the poem had been written in its present
+form from memory, has been discredited by later philological
+investigation; it is clearly a transcript of an older original,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+which the copyists&mdash;or more probably the writer to whom we
+owe the older version&mdash;imperfectly understood. The language
+of the poem shows a curious mixture of Low and High German
+forms; as the High German elements point to the dialect of
+Fulda, the inference is that the copyists were reproducing an
+originally Low German lay in the form in which it was sung in
+Franconia.</p>
+
+<p>The fragment is mainly taken up with a dialogue between
+Hildebrand and his son Hadubrand. When Hildebrand followed
+his master, Theodoric the Great, who was fleeing eastwards
+before Odoacer, he left his young wife and an infant child behind
+him. At his return to his old home, after thirty years&rsquo; absence
+among the Huns, he is met by a young warrior and challenged
+to single combat. Before the fight begins, Hildebrand asks
+for the name of his opponent, and discovering his own son in him,
+tries to avert the fight, but in vain; Hadubrand only regards
+the old man&rsquo;s words as the excuse of cowardice. &ldquo;In sharp
+showers the ashen spears fall on the shields, and then the warriors
+seize their swords and hew vigorously at the white shields until
+these are beaten to pieces....&rdquo; With these words the fragment
+breaks off abruptly, giving no clue as to the issue of the
+combat. There is little doubt, however, that, as in the Old
+Norse <i>Asmundar saga</i>, where the tale is alluded to, the fight
+must have been fatal to Hadubrand. But in the later traditions,
+both of the Old Norse <i>Thidreks saga</i> (13th century), and the
+so-called <i>Jüngere Hildebrandslied</i>&mdash;a German popular lay,
+preserved in several versions from the 15th to the 17th century&mdash;Hadubrand
+is simply represented as defeated, and obliged to
+recognize his father. The Old High German <i>Hildebrandslied</i>
+is dramatically conceived, and written in a terse, vigorous
+style; it is the only remnant that has come down from early
+Germanic times of an undoubtedly extensive ballad literature,
+dealing with the national sagas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The MS. of the <i>Hildebrandslied</i>, originally in Fulda, is now preserved
+in the Landesbibliothek at Cassel. The literature on the
+poem will be found most conveniently in K. Müllenhoff and W.
+Scherer, <i>Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem VIII. bis
+XI. Jahrh.</i>, 3rd ed. (1892), and in W. Braune, <i>Althochdeutsches
+Lesebuch</i>, 5th ed. (1902), to which authorities the reader is referred
+for a critical text. The poem was discovered and first printed (as
+prose) by J. G. von Eckhart, <i>Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis</i>
+(1729), i. 864 ff.; the first scholarly edition was that of the
+brothers Grimm (1812). Facsimile reproductions of the MS. have
+been published by W. Grimm (1830), E. Sievers (1872), G. Könnecke
+in his <i>Bilderatlas</i> (1887; 2nd ed., 1895) and M. Enneccerus (1897).
+See also K. Lachmann, <i>Über das Hildebrandslied</i> (1833) in <i>Kleine
+Schriften</i>, i. 407 ff.; C. W. M. Grein, <i>Das Hildebrandslied</i>
+(1858; 2nd ed., 1880); O. Schröder, <i>Bemerkungen zum Hildebrandslied</i>
+(1880); H. Möller, <i>Zur althochdeutschen Alliterationspoesie</i>
+(1888); R. Heinzel, <i>Über die ostgotische Heldensage</i> (1889); B. Busse,
+&ldquo;Sagengeschichtliches zum Hildebrandslied,&rdquo; in Paul und Braune&rsquo;s
+<i>Beiträge</i>, xxvi. (1901), pp. 1 ff.; R. Koegel, <i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters</i>, i. (1894), pp. 210 ff.;
+and R. Koegel and W. Brückner, in Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der germanischen
+Philologie</i>, 2nd ed., ii. (1901), pp. 71 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1818-1868), German painter,
+was born in 1818, and served as apprentice to his father, a
+house-painter at Danzig. He was not twenty when he came
+to Berlin, where he was taken in hand by Wilhelm Krause, a
+painter of sea pieces. Several early pieces exhibited after his
+death&mdash;a breakwater, dated 1838, ships in a breeze off Swinemünde
+(1840), and other canvases of this and the following
+year&mdash;show Hildebrandt to have been a careful student of nature,
+with inborn talents kept down by the conventionalisms of the
+formal school to which Krause belonged. Accident made him
+acquainted with masterpieces of French art displayed at the
+Berlin Academy, and these awakened his curiosity and envy.
+He went to Paris, where, about 1842, he entered the atelier of
+Isabey and became the companion of Lepoittevin. In a short
+time he sent home pictures which might have been taken for
+copies from these artists. Gradually he mastered the mysteries
+of touch and the secrets of effect in which the French at this
+period excelled. He also acquired the necessary skill in painting
+figures, and returned to Germany, skilled in the rendering of
+many kinds of landscape forms. His pictures of French street
+life, done about 1843, while impressed with the stamp of the
+Paris school, reveal a spirit eager for novelty, quick at grasping,
+equally quick at rendering, momentary changes of tone and
+atmosphere. After 1843 Hildebrandt, under the influence of
+Humboldt, extended his travels, and in 1864-1865 he went round
+the world. Whilst his experience became enlarged his powers
+of concentration broke down. He lost the taste for detail in
+seeking for scenic breadth, and a fatal facility of hand diminished
+the value of his works for all those who look for composition
+and harmony of hue as necessary concomitants of tone and
+touch. In oil he gradually produced less, in water colours
+more, than at first, and his fame must rest on the sketches
+which he made in the latter form, many of them represented by
+chromo-lithography. Fantasies in red, yellow and opal, sunset,
+sunrise and moonshine, distances of hundreds of miles like those
+of the Andes and the Himalaya, narrow streets in the bazaars
+of Cairo or Suez, panoramas as seen from mastheads, wide
+cities like Bombay or Pekin, narrow strips of desert with measureless
+expanses of sky&mdash;all alike display his quality of bravura.
+Hildebrandt died at Berlin on the 25th of October 1868.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1804-1874), German painter,
+was born at Stettin. He was a disciple of the painter Schadow,
+and, on Schadow&rsquo;s appointment to the presidency of a new
+academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828, followed that master
+to Düsseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting pictures illustrative
+of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he followed
+the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He
+produced rapidly &ldquo;Faust and Mephistopheles&rdquo; (1824), &ldquo;Faust
+and Margaret&rdquo; (1825), and &ldquo;Lear and Cordelia&rdquo; (1828). He
+visited the Netherlands with Schadow in 1829, and wandered
+alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not alter his style, though
+it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism and realism.
+At Düsseldorf, about 1830, he produced &ldquo;Romeo and Juliet,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Tancred and Clorinda,&rdquo; and other works which deserved
+to be classed with earlier paintings; but during the same period
+he exhibited (1829) the &ldquo;Robber&rdquo; and (1832) the &ldquo;Captain
+and his Infant Son,&rdquo; examples of an affected but kindly realism
+which captivated the public, and marked to a certain extent
+an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made Hildebrandt&rsquo;s
+fame is the &ldquo;Murder of the Children of King Edward&rdquo; (1836),
+of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still belongs
+to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late
+in life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in
+pictures representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed
+again into the romantic in &ldquo;Othello and Desdemona.&rdquo; After
+1847 Hildebrandt gave himself up to portrait-painting, and in
+that branch succeeded in obtaining a large practice. He died
+at Düsseldorf in 1874.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDEGARD, ST<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1098-1179), German abbess and mystic,
+was born of noble parents at Böckelheim, in the countship of
+Sponheim, in 1098, and from her eighth year was educated at
+the Benedictine cloister of Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of
+the count of Sponheim, whom she succeeded as abbess in 1136.
+From earliest childhood she was accustomed to see visions,
+which increased in frequency and vividness as she approached
+the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years
+kept almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-third
+year (1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them.
+Committed to writing by her intimate friend the monk Godefridus,
+they now form the first and most important of her printed
+works, entitled <i>Scivias</i> (probably an abbreviation for &ldquo;sciens
+vias&rdquo; or &ldquo;nosce vias Domini&rdquo;) <i>s. visionum et revelatianum
+libri iii.</i>, and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of
+Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard
+of Hildegard&rsquo;s revelations, and became so convinced of their
+reality that he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknowledging
+her as a prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated
+her recognition as such by his friend and former pupil Pope
+Eugenius III. in the synod of Trèves (1148). In the same
+year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen of her nuns to
+a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which
+she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of
+voluminous correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+in the course of which she was unwearied in the exercise of
+her gift of prophecy, she wielded for many years an increasing
+influence upon her contemporaries&mdash;an influence doubtless
+due to the fact that she was imbued with the most widely
+diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and hopes, of her time.
+Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV. and
+Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and
+also the theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted
+numerous questions in dogmatic theology for her determination.
+She died in 1179, but has never been canonized; her name,
+however, was received into the Roman martyrology in the
+15th century, September 17th being the day fixed for her
+commemoration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Godefridus
+and Theodoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566.
+Hildegard&rsquo;s writings, besides the <i>Scivias</i> already mentioned and
+first printed in Paris in 1513, include the <i>Liber divinorum operum</i>,
+<i>Explanatio regulae S. Benedicti</i>, <i>Physica</i> and <i>the Letters</i>, &amp;c., are
+contained in Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i> t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra&rsquo;s
+<i>Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis
+opera</i> (Paris, 1882).</p>
+
+<p>For a modern study of the saint&rsquo;s writings, see <i>Sainte Hildegarde</i>
+by Pal Franche, &ldquo;<i>Les Saints</i>&rdquo; series (Paris, 1903); and U. Chevalier,
+<i>Répertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl.</i> 2153.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDEN,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town in the Prussian Rhine province on the
+Itter, 9 m. S.E. of Düsseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,946.
+It possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and a
+monument to the emperor William I. Its manufactures include
+silks, velvets, carpets, calico-printing, machinery and brick-making.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDESHEIM,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Germany, in
+the Prussian province of Hanover, beautifully situated at
+the north foot of the Harz Mountains, on the right bank of
+the Innerste, 18 m. S.E. of Hanover by railway, and on the
+main line from Berlin, via Magdeburg to Cologne. Pop. (1885)
+20,386, (1905) 47,060. The town consists of an old and a new
+part, and is surrounded by ramparts which have been converted
+into promenades. Its streets are for the most part narrow
+and irregular, and contain many old houses with overhanging
+upper storeys and richly and curiously adorned wooden façades.
+Its religious edifices are five Roman Catholic and four Evangelical
+churches and a synagogue. The most interesting is the Roman
+Catholic cathedral, which dates from the middle of the 11th
+century and occupies the site of a building founded by the
+emperor Louis the Pious early in the 9th century. It is famous
+for its antiquities and works of art. These include the bronze
+doors executed by Bishop Bernward, with reliefs from the
+history of Adam and of Jesus Christ; a brazen font of the
+13th century; two large candelabra of the 11th century; the
+sarcophagus of St Godehard; and the tomb of St Epiphanius.
+In the cathedral also there is a bronze column 15 ft. high,
+adorned with reliefs from the life of Christ and dating from 1022,
+and another column, at one time thought to be an Irminsäule
+erected in honour of the Saxon idol Irmin, but now regarded
+as belonging to a Roman aqueduct. On the wall of the Romanesque
+crypt, which was restored in 1896, is a rose-bush,
+alleged to be a thousand years old; this sends its branches to
+a height of 24 ft. and a breadth of 30 ft., and they are trained
+to interlace one of the windows. Before the cathedral is the
+pretty cloister garth, with the chapel of St Anne, erected in
+1321 and restored in 1888. The Romanesque church of St
+Godehard was built in the 12th century and restored in the
+19th. The church of St Michael, founded by Bishop Bernward
+early in the 11th century and restored after injury by fire in
+1186, contains a unique painted ceiling of the 12th century,
+the sarcophagus and monument of Bishop Bernward, and a
+bronze font; it is now a Protestant parish church, but the
+crypt is used by the Roman Catholics. The church of the
+Magdalene possesses two candelabra, a gold cross, and various
+other works in metal by Bishop Bernward; and the Lutheran
+church of St Andrew has a choir dating from 1389 and a tower
+385 ft. high. In the suburb of Moritzberg there is an abbey
+church founded in 1040, the only pure columnar basilica in
+north Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The chief secular buildings are the town-hall (Rathaus),
+which dates from the 15th century and was restored in 1883-1892,
+adorned with frescoes illustrating the history of the city;
+the Tempelherrenhaus, in Late Gothic erroneously said to have
+been built by the Knights Templars; the Knochenhaueramthaus,
+formerly the gild-house of the butchers, which was restored
+after being damaged by fire in 1884, and is probably the finest
+specimen of a wooden building in Germany; the Michaelis
+monastery, used as a lunatic asylum; and the old Carthusian
+monastery. The Römer museum of antiquities and natural
+history is housed in the former church of St Martin; the buildings
+of Trinity hospital, partly dating from the 14th century, are
+now a factory; and the Wedekindhaus (1598) is now a savings-bank.
+The educational establishments include a Roman
+Catholic and a Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school
+and college and two technical institutions, the Georgstift for
+daughters of state servants and a conservatoire of music. Hildesheim
+is the seat of considerable industry. Its chief productions
+are sugar, tobacco and cigars, stoves, machines, vehicles,
+agricultural implements and bricks. Other trades are brewing
+and tanning. It is connected with Hanover by an electric tram
+line, 19 m. in length.</p>
+
+<p>Hildesheim owes its rise and prosperity to the fact that in
+822 it was made the seat of the bishopric which Charlemagne
+had founded at Elze a few years before. Its importance was
+greatly increased by St Bernward, who was bishop from 993
+to 1022 and walled the town. By his example and patronage
+the art of working in metals was greatly stimulated. In the
+13th century Hildesheim became a free city of the Empire;
+in 1249 it received municipal rights and about the same time
+it joined the Hanseatic league. Several of its bishops belonged
+to one or other of the great families of Germany; and gradually
+they became practically independent. The citizens were frequently
+quarrelling with the bishops, who also carried on wars
+with neighbouring princes, especially with the house of Brunswick-Lüneburg,
+under whose protection Hildesheim placed
+itself several times. The most celebrated of these struggles
+is the one known as the <i>Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde</i>, which broke out
+early in the 16th century when John, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg,
+was bishop. At first the bishop and his allies were successful,
+but in 1521 the king of Denmark and the duke of Brunswick
+overran his lands and in 1523 he made peace, surrendering
+nearly all his possessions. Much, however, was restored when
+Ferdinand, prince of Bavaria, was bishop (1612-1650), as this
+warlike prelate took advantage of the disturbances caused by
+the Thirty Years&rsquo; War to seize the lost lands, and at the beginning
+of the 19th century the extent of the prince bishopric was
+682 sq. m. In 1801 the bishopric was secularized and in 1803
+was granted to Prussia; in 1807 it was incorporated with the
+kingdom of Westphalia and in 1813 was transferred to Hanover.
+In 1866, along with Hanover, it was annexed by Prussia. In
+1803 a new bishopric of Hildesheim, a spiritual organization only,
+was established, and this has jurisdiction over all the Roman
+Catholic churches in the centre of north Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1868 a unique collection of ancient Augustan
+silver plate was discovered on the Galgenberg near Hildesheim
+by some soldiers who were throwing up earthworks. This
+<i>Hildesheimer Silberfund</i> excited great interest among classical
+archaeologists. Some authorities think that it is the actual
+plate which belonged to Drusus himself. The most noteworthy
+pieces are a crater richly ornamented with arabesques and
+figures of children, a platter with a representation of Minerva,
+another with one of the boy Hercules and another with one of
+Cybele. The collection is in the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim</i>, edited by
+R. Döbner (Hildesheim, 1881-1901); the <i>Urkundenbuch des
+Hochstifts Hildesheim</i>, edited by K. Janicke and H. Hoogeweg
+(Leipzig and Hanover, 1896-1903); C. Bauer, <i>Geschichte von
+Hildesheim</i> (Hildesheim, 1892); A. Bertram, <i>Geschichte des Bistums
+Hildesheim</i> (Hildesheim, 1899 fol.); C. Euling, <i>Hildesheimer Land
+und Leute des 16ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Hildesheim, 1892); O. Fischer, <i>Die
+Stadt Hildesheim während des dreissigjährigen Krieges</i> (Hildesheim,
+1897); A. Grebe, <i>Auf Hildesheimschem Boden</i> (Hildesheim, 1884);
+H. Cuno, <i>Hildesheims Künstler im Mittelalter</i> (Hildesheim, 1886);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+W. Wachsmuth, <i>Geschichte von Hochstift und Stadt Hildesheim</i>
+(Hildesheim, 1863); R. Döbner, <i>Studien zur Hildesheimischen
+Geschichte</i> (Hildesheim, 1901); Lachner, <i>Die Holzarchitektur Hildesheims</i>
+(Hildesheim, 1882); Seifart, <i>Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und
+Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheims</i> (Hildesheim, 1889). For
+the <i>Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde</i>, see H. Delius, <i>Die Hildesheimische
+Stiftsfehde</i> 1519 (Leipzig, 1803). For the <i>Hildesheimer Silberfund</i>,
+see Wieseler, <i>Der Hildesheimer Silberfund</i> (Göttingen, 1869); Holzer,
+Der Hildesheimer antike Silberfund (Hildesheim, 1871); and E.
+Pernice and F. Winter, <i>Der Hildesheimer Silberfund der königlichen
+Museen zu Berlin</i> (Berlin, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILDRETH, RICHARD<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1807-1865), American journalist
+and author, was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th
+of June 1807, the son of Hosea Hildreth (1782-1835), a teacher
+of mathematics and later a Congregational minister. Richard
+graduated at Harvard in 1826, and, after studying law at
+Newburyport, was admitted to the bar at Boston in 1830.
+He had already taken to journalism, and in 1832 he became
+joint founder and editor of a daily newspaper, the Boston
+Atlas. Having in 1834 gone to the South for the benefit of his
+health, he was led by what he witnessed of the evils of slavery
+(chiefly in Florida) to write the anti-slavery novel <i>The Slave:
+or Memoir of Archy Moore</i> (1836; enlarged edition, 1852, <i>The
+White Slave</i>). In 1837 he wrote for the <i>Atlas</i> a series of articles
+vigorously opposing the annexation of Texas. In the same year
+he published <i>Banks, Banking, and Paper Currencies</i>, a work which
+helped to promote the growth of the free banking system in
+America. In 1838 he resumed his editorial duties on the <i>Atlas</i>,
+but in 1840 removed, on account of his health, to British Guiana,
+where he lived for three years and was editor of two weekly newspapers
+in succession at Georgetown. He published in this year
+(1840) a volume in opposition to slavery, <i>Despotism in America</i>
+(2nd ed., 1854). In 1849 he published the first three volumes of
+his <i>History of the United States</i>, two more volumes of which were
+published in 1851 and the sixth and last in 1852. The first
+three volumes of this history, his most important work, deal
+with the period 1492-1789, and the second three with the period
+1789-1821. The history is notable for its painstaking accuracy
+and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist
+bias. Hildreth&rsquo;s <i>Japan as It Was and Is</i> (1855) was at the time
+a valuable digest of the information contained in other works
+on that country (new ed., 1906). He also wrote a campaign
+biography of William Henry Harrison (1839); <i>Theory of Morals</i>
+(1844); and <i>Theory of Politics</i> (1853), as well as <i>Lives of Atrocious
+Judges</i> (1856), compiled from Lord Campbell&rsquo;s two works. In
+1861 he was appointed United States consul at Trieste, but
+ill-health compelled him to resign and remove to Florence,
+where he died on the 11th of July 1865.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1823-1907),
+German Protestant divine, was born at Stappenbeck
+near Salzwedel in Prussian Saxony on the 2nd of June 1823.
+He studied at Berlin and Halle, and in 1890 became professor
+ordinarius of theology at Jena. He belonged to the Tübingen
+school. &ldquo;Fond of emphasizing his independence of Baur, he
+still, in all important points, followed in the footsteps of his
+master; his method, which he is wont to contrast as <i>Literarkritik</i>
+with Baur&rsquo;s <i>Tendenzkritik</i>, is nevertheless essentially the same
+as Baur&rsquo;s&rdquo; (Otto Pfleiderer). On the whole, however, he
+modified the positions of the founder of the Tübingen school,
+going beyond him only in his investigations into the Fourth
+Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the <i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche
+Theologie</i>. He died on the 12th of January 1907.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works include: <i>Die elementarischen Recognitionen und
+Homilien</i> (1848); <i>Die Evangelien und die Briefe des Johannes nach
+ihrem Lehrbegriff</i> (1849); <i>Das Markusevangelium</i> (1850); <i>Die
+Evangelien nach ihrer Entstehung und geschichtlichen Bedeutung</i>
+(1854); <i>Das Unchristentum</i> (1855); <i>Jüd. Apokalyptik</i> (1857);
+<i>Novum Testamentum extra canonem receptum</i> (4 parts, 1866; 2nd
+ed., 1876-1884); <i>Histor.-kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i>
+(1875); <i>Acta Apostolorum graece et latine secundum antiquissimos
+testes</i> (1899); the first complete edition of the <i>Shepherd of Hermas</i>
+(1887); <i>Ignatii et Polycarpi epistolae</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, AARON<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1685-1750), English author, was born in
+London on the 10th of February 1685. He was the son of
+George Hill of Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, who contrived
+to sell an estate entailed on his son. In his fourteenth year he
+left Westminster School to go to Constantinople, where William,
+Lord Paget de Beaudesert (1637-1713), a relative of his mother,
+was ambassador. Paget sent him, under care of a tutor, to travel
+in Palestine and Egypt, and he returned to England in 1703.
+He was estranged from his patron by the &ldquo;envious fears and
+malice of a certain female,&rdquo; and again went abroad as companion
+to Sir William Wentworth. On his return home in 1709 he published
+<i>A Full and Just Account of the Present State of the Ottoman
+Empire</i>, a production of which he was afterwards much ashamed,
+and he addressed his poem of <i>Camillus</i> to Charles Mordaunt,
+earl of Peterborough. In the same year he is said to have been
+manager of Drury Lane theatre and in 1710 of the Haymarket.
+His first play, <i>Elfrid: or The Fair Inconstant</i> (afterwards
+revised as <i>Athelwold</i>), was produced at Drury Lane in 1709.
+His connexion with the theatre was of short duration, and the
+rest of his life was spent in ingenious commercial enterprises,
+none of which were successful, and in literary pursuits. He
+formed a company to extract oil from beechmast, another for
+the colonization of the district to be known later as Georgia,
+a third to supply wood for naval construction from Scotland,
+and a fourth for the manufacture of potash. In 1730 he wrote
+<i>The Progress of Wit, being a caveat for the use of an Eminent
+Writer</i>. The &ldquo;eminent writer&rdquo; was Pope, who had introduced
+him into <i>The Dunciad</i> as one of the competitors for the prize
+offered by the goddess of Dullness, though the satire was qualified
+by an oblique compliment. A note in the edition of 1729 on
+the obnoxious passage, in which, however, the original initial
+was replaced by asterisks, gave Hill great offence. He wrote
+to Pope complaining of his treatment, and received a reply
+in which Pope denied responsibility for the notes. Hill appears
+to have been a persistent correspondent, and inflicted on Pope
+a series of letters, which are printed in Elwin &amp; Courthope&rsquo;s
+edition (x. 1-78). Hill died on the 8th of February 1750,
+and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The best of his plays
+were <i>Zara</i> (acted 1735) and <i>Merope</i> (1749), both adaptations
+from Voltaire. He also published two series of periodical
+essays, <i>The Prompter</i> (1735) and, with William Bond, <i>The
+Plaindealer</i> (1724). He was generous to fellow-men of letters,
+and his letters to Richard Savage, whom he helped considerably,
+show his character in a very amiable light.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Works of the late Aaron Hill, consisting of letters ..., original
+poems.... With an essay on the Art of Acting</i> appeared in 1753,
+and his <i>Dramatic Works</i> in 1760. His <i>Poetical Works</i> are included
+in Anderson&rsquo;s and other editions of the British poets. A full account
+of his life is provided by an anonymous writer in Theophilus Cibber&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of the Poets</i>, vol. v.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, AMBROSE POWELL<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1825-1865), American Confederate
+soldier, was born in Culpeper county, Virginia, on the
+9th of November 1825, and graduated from West Point in 1847,
+being appointed to the 1st U.S. artillery. He served in the
+Mexican and Seminole Wars, was promoted first lieutenant in
+September 1851, and in 1855-1860 was employed on the United
+States&rsquo; coast survey. In March 1861, just before the outbreak
+of the Civil War, he resigned his commission, and when his state
+seceded he was made colonel of a Virginian infantry regiment,
+winning promotion to the rank of brigadier-general on the field
+of Bull Run. In the Peninsular campaign of 1862 he gained
+further promotion, and as a major-general Hill was one of the
+most prominent and successful divisional commanders of Lee&rsquo;s
+army in the Seven Days&rsquo;, Second Bull Run, Antietam and
+Fredericksburg campaigns. His division formed part of &ldquo;Stonewall&rdquo;
+Jackson&rsquo;s corps, and he was severely wounded in the flank
+attack of Chancellorsville in May 1863. After Jackson&rsquo;s death
+Hill was made a lieutenant-general and placed in command of the
+3rd corps of Lee&rsquo;s army, which he led in the Gettysburg campaign
+of 1863, the autumn campaign of the same year, and the Wilderness
+and Petersburg operations of 1864-65. He was killed in
+front of the Petersburg lines on the 2nd of April 1865. His
+reputation as a troop leader in battle was one of the highest
+amongst the generals of both sides, and both Lee and Jackson,
+when on their death-beds their thoughts wandered in delirium
+to the battlefield, called for &ldquo;A. P. Hill&rdquo; to deliver the decisive
+blow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, DANIEL HARVEY<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1821-1889), American Confederate
+soldier, was born in York district, South Carolina, on the 12th of
+July 1821, and graduated at the United States Military Academy
+in 1842, being appointed to the 1st United States artillery. He
+distinguished himself in the Mexican War, being breveted
+captain and major for bravery at Contreras and Churubusco and
+at Chapultepec respectively. In February 1849 he resigned his
+commission and became a professor of mathematics at Washington
+College (now Washington and Lee University), Lexington,
+Virginia. In 1854 he joined the faculty of Davidson College,
+North Carolina, and was in 1859 made superintendent of the
+North Carolina Military Institute of Charlotte. At the outbreak
+of the Civil War, D. H. Hill was made colonel of a Confederate
+infantry regiment, at the head of which he won the action of Big
+Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, Va., on the 10th of June 1861.
+Shortly after this he was made a brigadier-general. He took part
+in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations in the spring of
+1862, and as a major-general led a division with great distinction
+in the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days. He took part in
+the Second Bull Run campaign in August-September 1862, and in
+the Antietam campaign the stubborn resistance of D. H. Hill&rsquo;s
+division in the passes of South Mountain enabled Lee to concentrate
+for battle. The division bore a conspicuous part in
+the battles of the Antietam and Fredericksburg. On the reorganization
+of the army of Northern Virginia after Jackson&rsquo;s death,
+D. H. Hill was not appointed to a corps command, but somewhat
+later in 1863 he was sent to the west as a lieutenant-general
+and commanded one of Bragg&rsquo;s corps in the brilliant victory of
+Chickamauga. D. H. Hill surrendered with Gen. J. E. Johnston
+on the 26th of April 1865. In 1866-1869 he edited a magazine,
+The Land we Love, at Charlotte, N.C., which dealt with
+social and historical subjects and had a great influence in the
+South. In 1877 he became president of the university of
+Arkansas, a post which he held until 1884, and in 1885 president
+of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville,
+Georgia. General Hill died at Charlotte, N.C., on the 24th of
+September 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, DAVID BENNETT<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1843-1910), American politician,
+was born at Havana, New York, on the 29th of August 1843. In
+1862 he removed to Elmira, New York, where in 1864 he was
+admitted to the bar. He at once became active in the affairs of
+the Democratic party, attracting the attention of Samuel J.
+Tilden, one of whose shrewdest and ablest lieutenants he became.
+In 1871 and 1872 he was a member of the New York State
+Assembly, and in 1877 and again in 1881, presided over the
+Democratic State Convention. In 1882 he was elected mayor of
+Elmira, and in the same year was chosen lieutenant-governor of
+the state, having been defeated for nomination as governor by
+Grover Cleveland. In January 1885, however, Cleveland having
+resigned to become president, Hill became governor, and in
+November was elected for a three-year term, and subsequently
+re-elected. In 1891-1897 he was a member of the United States
+Senate. During these years, and in 1892, when he tried to get the
+presidential nomination, he was prominent in working against
+Cleveland. In 1896 he opposed the free silver plank in the
+platform adopted by the Democratic National Convention
+which nominated W. J. Bryan; in the National Convention of
+1900, however, the free-silver issue having been subordinated to
+anti-imperialism, he seconded Bryan&rsquo;s nomination. After 1897
+he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1905 retired from
+politics. He died in Albany on the 30th of October 1910.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1835-1903), English
+author, son of Arthur Hill, head master of Bruce Castle school,
+was born at Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 7th of June 1835.
+Arthur Hill, with his brothers Rowland Hill, the postal reformer,
+and Matthew Davenport Hill, afterwards recorder of Birmingham,
+had worked out a system of education which was to exclude compulsion
+of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle, of which Arthur
+Hill was head master, was founded to carry into execution their
+theories, known as the Hazelwood system. George Birkbeck
+Hill was educated in his father&rsquo;s school and at Pembroke College,
+Oxford. In 1858 he began to teach at Bruce Castle school, and
+from 1868 to 1877 was head master. In 1869 he became a
+regular contributor to the <i>Saturday Review</i>, with which he remained
+in connexion until 1884. On his retirement from teaching
+he devoted himself to the study of English 18th-century literature,
+and established his reputation as the most learned commentator
+on the works of Samuel Johnson. He settled at Oxford in 1887,
+but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad.
+He died at Hampstead, London, on the 27th of February 1903.
+His works include: <i>Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics</i>
+(1878); an edition of Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Correspondence</i> (1879); a
+laborious edition of <i>Boswell&rsquo;s Life of Johnson, including Boswell&rsquo;s
+Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, and Johnson&rsquo;s Diary of a
+Journey into North Wales</i> (Clarendon Press, 6 vols., 1887); <i>Wit and
+Wisdom of Samuel Johnson</i> (1888); <i>Select Essays of Dr Johnson</i>
+(1889); <i>Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland</i> (1890); <i>Letters of
+Johnson</i> (1892); <i>Johnsonian Miscellanies</i> (2 vols., 1897); an
+edition (1900) of Edward Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography</i>; Johnson&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of the Poets</i> (3 vols., 1905), and other works on the 18th-century
+topics. Dr Birkbeck Hill&rsquo;s elaborate edition of Boswell&rsquo;s
+<i>Life</i> is a monumental work, invaluable to the student.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition
+of the <i>Lives of the English Poets</i> (1905), and the <i>Letters</i> edited by his
+daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, JAMES J.<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1838-&emsp;&emsp;), American railway capitalist,
+was born near Guelph, Ontario, Canada, on the 16th of September
+1838, and was educated at Rockwood (Ont.) Academy, a Quaker
+institution. In 1856 he settled in St Paul, Minnesota. Abandoning,
+because of his father&rsquo;s death, his plans to study medicine,
+he became a clerk in the office of a firm of river steamboat
+agents and shippers, and later the agent for a line of river
+packets; he established about 1870 transportation lines on
+the Mississippi and on the Red River (of the North). He effected
+a traffic arrangement between the St Paul Pacific Railroad
+and his steamboat lines; and when the railway failed in 1873
+for $27,000,000, Hill interested Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord
+Strathcona), George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen), and
+other Canadian capitalists, in the road and in the wheat country
+of the Red River Valley; he got control of the bonds (1878),
+foreclosed the mortgage, reorganized the road as the St Paul,
+Minneapolis &amp; Manitoba, and began to extend the line,
+then only 380 m. long, toward the Pacific; and in 1883 he
+became its president. He was president of the Great Northern
+Railway (comprehending all his secondary lines) from 1893
+to April 1907, when he became chairman of its board of directors.
+In the extension (1883-1893) of this railway westward to Puget
+Sound (whence it has direct steamship connexions with China
+and Japan), the line was built by the company itself, none of
+the work being handled by contractors. Subsequently his
+financial interests in American railways caused constant sensations
+in the stock-markets. The Hill interests obtained control
+not only of the Great-Northern system, but of the Northern
+Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, and proposed
+the construction of another northern line to the Pacific coast.
+Hill was the president of the Northern Securities Company, which
+in 1904 was declared by the United States Supreme Court to be
+in conflict with the Sherman Anti-Trust Law. (See Vol. 27, p.
+733.) Among Hill&rsquo;s gifts to public institutions was one of $500,000
+to the St. Paul Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, JOHN<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1716-1775), called from his Swedish honours,
+&ldquo;Sir&rdquo; John Hill, English author, son of the Rev. Theophilus
+Hill, is said to have been born in Peterborough in 1716.
+He was apprenticed to an apothecary and on the completion
+of his apprenticeship he set up in a small shop in St Martin&rsquo;s
+Lane, Westminster. He also travelled over the country in
+search of rare herbs, with a view to publishing a <i>hortus siccus</i>,
+but the plan failed. His first publication was a translation
+of Theophrastus&rsquo;s <i>History of Stones</i> (1746). From this time
+forward he was an indefatigable writer. He edited the <i>British
+Magazine</i> (1746-1750), and for two years (1751-1753) he wrote
+a daily letter, &ldquo;The Inspector,&rdquo; for the <i>London Advertiser and
+Literary Gazette</i>. He also produced novels, plays and scientific
+works, and was a large contributor to the supplement of Ephraim
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+Chambers&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia</i>. His personal and scurrilous writings
+involved him in many quarrels. Henry Fielding attacked
+him in the <i>Covent Garden Journal</i>, Christopher Smart wrote
+a mock-epic, <i>The Hilliad</i>, against him, and David Garrick replied
+to his strictures against him by two epigrams, one of which
+runs:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;For physics and farces, his equal there scarce is;</p>
+<p class="i05">His farces are physic, his physic a farce is.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">He had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who
+accused him of plagiarizing his <i>Orpheus</i>, also with Samuel
+Foote and Henry Woodward. From 1759 to 1775 he was
+engaged on a huge botanical work&mdash;<i>The Vegetable System</i>
+(26 vols. fol.)&mdash;adorned by 1600 copperplate engravings. Hill&rsquo;s
+botanical labours were <span class="correction" title="amended from underaken">undertaken</span> at the request of his patron,
+Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the order of Vasa from
+the king of Sweden in 1774. He had a medical degree from
+Edinburgh, and he now practised as a quack doctor, making
+considerable sums by the preparation of vegetable medicines. He
+died in London on the 21st of November 1775.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the
+<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, the most valuable are those that
+deal with botany. He is said to have been the author of the second
+part of <i>The Oeconomy of Human Life</i> (1751), the first part of which is
+by Lord Chesterfield, and Hannah Glasse&rsquo;s famous manual of cookery
+was generally ascribed to him (see Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 285). Dr
+Johnson said of him that he was &ldquo;an ingenious man, but had no
+veracity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>See a <i>Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late
+Sir John Hill</i> (1779), which is chiefly occupied with a descriptive
+catalogue of his works; also <i>Temple Bar</i> (1872, xxxv. 261-266).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1792-1872), English lawyer
+and penologist, was born on the 6th of August 1792, at Birmingham,
+where his father, T. W. Hill, for long conducted a private
+school. He was a brother of Sir Rowland Hill. He early acted
+as assistant in his father&rsquo;s school, but in 1819 was called to
+the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. He went the midland circuit. In
+1832 he was elected one of the Liberal members for Kingston-upon-Hull,
+but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834.
+On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was chosen
+recorder; and in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in
+bankruptcy for the Bristol district. Having had his interest
+excited in questions relating to the treatment of criminal offenders,
+he ventilated in his charges to the grand juries, as well as in
+special pamphlets, opinions which were the means of introducing
+many important reforms in the methods of dealing with crime.
+One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his brother
+Frederick Hill (1803-1896), whose <i>Amount, Causes and Remedies
+of Crime</i>, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons
+for Scotland, marked an era in the methods of prison discipline.
+Hill was one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion
+of Useful Knowledge, and the originator of the <i>Penny Magazine</i>.
+He died at Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 7th of June 1872.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works are <i>Practical Suggestions to the Founders of
+Reformatory Schools</i> (1855); <i>Suggestions for the Repression of Crime</i>
+(1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of
+Birmingham; <i>Mettray</i> (1855); <i>Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts</i>
+(1864); <i>Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and
+Reformatories of Dublin</i> (1865); <i>Addresses delivered at the Birmingham
+and Midland Institute</i> (1867). See <i>Memoir of Matthew Davenport
+Hill</i>, by his daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport Hill (1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, OCTAVIA<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1838-&emsp;&emsp;) and <b>MIRANDA</b> (1836-1910),
+English philanthropic workers, were born in London, being
+daughters of Mr James Hill and granddaughters of Dr Southwood
+Smith, the pioneer of sanitary reform. Miss Octavia Hill&rsquo;s
+attention was early drawn to the evils of London housing,
+and the habits of indolence and lethargy induced in many
+of the lower classes by their degrading surroundings. She
+conceived the idea of trying to free a few poor people from
+such influences, and Mr Ruskin, who sympathized with her
+plans, supplied the money for starting the work. For £750
+Miss Hill purchased the 56 years&rsquo; lease of three houses in one
+of the poorest courts of Marylebone. Another £78 was spent in
+building a large room at the back of her own house where she
+could meet the tenants. The houses were put in repair, and
+let out in sets of two rooms. At the end of eighteen months
+it was possible to pay 5% interest, to repay £48 of the
+capital, as well as meet all expenses for taxes, ground rent
+and insurance. What specially distinguished this scheme was
+that Miss Hill herself collected the rents, thus coming into
+contact with the tenants and helping to enforce regular and
+self-respecting habits. The success of her first attempt encouraged
+her to continue. Six more houses were bought and treated
+in a similar manner. A yearly sum was set aside for the repairs
+of each house, and whatever remained over was spent on such
+additional appliances as the tenants themselves desired. This
+encouraged them to keep their tenements in good repair. By
+the help of friends Miss Hill was now enabled to enlarge the
+scope of her work. In 1869 eleven more houses were bought.
+The plan was to set a visitor over a small court or block of
+buildings to do whatever work in the way of rent-collecting,
+visiting for the School Board, &amp;c., was required. As years
+went on Miss Octavia Hill&rsquo;s work was largely increased. Numbers
+of her friends bought and placed under her care small groups
+of houses, over which she fulfilled the duties of a conscientious
+landlord. Several large owners of tenement houses, notably
+the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, entrusted to her the management
+of such property, and consulted her about plans of rebuilding;
+and a number of fellow-workers were trained by
+her in the management of houses for the poor. The results
+in Southwark (where Red Cross Hall was established) and
+elsewhere were very beneficial. Both Miss Miranda and Miss
+Octavia Hill took an interest in the movement for bringing
+beauty into the homes of the poor, and the former was practically
+the founder of the Kyrle Society, the first suggestion of which
+was contained in a paper read to a small circle of friends. Both
+sisters worked for the preservation of open spaces, and helped
+to promote the work of the Charity Organization Society, and
+for several years Miss Miranda Hill (who died on the 31st of May
+1910) did admirable work in Marylebone as a member of the
+Board of Guardians.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, ROWLAND<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1744-1833), English preacher, sixth son
+of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart. (d. 1783), was born at Hawkstone,
+Shropshire, on the 23rd of August 1744. He was educated at
+Shrewsbury, Eton and St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. Stimulated
+by George Whitefield&rsquo;s example, he scandalized the university
+authorities and his own friends by preaching and visiting
+the sick before he had taken orders. In 1773 he was appointed
+to the parish of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he soon attracted
+great crowds to his open-air services. Having inherited considerable
+property, he built for his own use Surrey Chapel, in the
+Blackfriars Road, London (1783). Hill conducted his services
+in accordance with the forms of the Church of England, in
+whose communion he always remained. Both at Surrey Chapel
+and in his provincial &ldquo;gospel tours&rdquo; he had great success.
+His oratory was specially adapted for rude and uncultivated
+audiences. He possessed a voice of great power, and according
+to Southey &ldquo;his manner&rdquo; was &ldquo;that of a performer as great
+in his own line as Kean or Kemble.&rdquo; His earnest and pure
+purposes more than made up for his occasional lapses from good
+taste and the eccentricity of his wit. He helped to found the
+Religious Tract Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society,
+and the London Missionary Society, and was a stout advocate
+of vaccination. His best-known work is the <i>Village Dialogues</i>,
+which first appeared in 1810, and reached a 34th edition in
+1839. He died on the 11th of April 1833.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life</i> by E. Sidney (1833); <i>Memoirs</i>, by William Jones (1834);
+and <i>Memorials</i>, by Jas. Sherman (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, SIR ROWLAND<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1795-1879), English administrator,
+author of the penny postal system, a younger brother of Matthew
+Davenport Hill, and third son of T. W. Hill, who named him after
+Rowland Hill the preacher, was born on the 3rd of December
+1795 at Kidderminster. As a young child he had, on account
+of an affection of the spine, to maintain a recumbent position,
+and his principal method of relieving the irksomeness of his
+situation was to repeat figures aloud consecutively until he had
+reached very high totals. A similar bent of mind was manifested
+when he entered school in 1802, his aptitude for mathematics
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span>
+being quite exceptional. But he was indebted for the direction of
+his abilities in no small degree to the guidance of his father,
+a man of advanced political and social views, which were qualified
+and balanced by the strong practical tendency of his mind. At
+the age of twelve Rowland began to assist in teaching mathematics
+in his father&rsquo;s school at Hilltop, Birmingham, and latterly
+he had the chief management of the school. On his suggestion
+the establishment was removed in 1819 to Hazelwood, a more
+commodious building in the Hagley Road, in order to have the
+advantages of a large body of boys, for the purpose of properly
+carrying out an improved system of education. That system,
+which was devised principally by Rowland, was expounded in
+a pamphlet entitled <i>Plans for the Government and Education
+of Boys in Large Numbers</i>, the first edition of which appeared
+in 1822, and a second with additions in 1827. The principal
+feature of the system was &ldquo;to leave as much as possible all
+power in the hands of the boys themselves&rdquo;; and it was so
+successful that, in a circular issued six years after the experiment
+had been in operation, it was announced that &ldquo;the head master
+had never once exercised his right of veto on their proceedings.&rdquo;
+It may be said that Rowland Hill, as an educationist, is entitled
+to a place side by side with Arnold of Rugby, and was equally
+successful with him in making moral influence of the highest
+kind the predominant power in school discipline. After his
+marriage in 1827 Hill removed to a new school at Bruce Castle,
+Tottenham, which he conducted until failing health compelled
+him to retire in 1833. About this time he became secretary
+of Gibbon Wakefield&rsquo;s scheme for colonizing South Australia,
+the objects of which he explained in 1832 in a pamphlet on
+<i>Home Colonies</i>, afterwards partly reprinted during the Irish
+famine under the title <i>Home Colonies for Ireland</i>. It was in 1835
+that his zeal as an administrative reformer was first directed
+to the postal system. The discovery which resulted from these
+investigations is when stated so easy of comprehension that
+there is great danger of losing sight of its originality and thoroughness.
+A fact which enhances its merit was that he was not a
+post-office official, and possessed no practical experience of the
+details of the old system. After a laborious collection of statistics
+he succeeded in demonstrating that the principal expense of
+letter carriage was in receiving and distributing, and that the
+cost of conveyance differed so little with the distance that a
+uniform rate of postage was in reality the fairest to all parties
+that could be adopted. Trusting also that the deficiency in
+the postal rate would be made up by the immense increase of
+correspondence, and by the saving which would be obtained
+from prepayment, from improved methods of keeping accounts,
+and from lessening the expense of distribution, he in his famous
+pamphlet published in 1837 recommended that within the
+United Kingdom the rate for letters not exceeding half an ounce
+in weight should be only one penny. The employment of postage
+stamps is mentioned only as a suggestion, and in the following
+words: &ldquo;Perhaps the difficulties might be obviated by using a
+bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp, and covered
+at the back with a glutinous wash which by applying a little
+moisture might be attached to the back of the letter.&rdquo; Proposals
+so striking and novel in regard to a subject in which every one
+had a personal interest commanded immediate and general
+attention. So great became the pressure of public opinion
+against the opposition offered to the measure by official prepossessions
+and prejudices that in 1838 the House of Commons
+appointed a committee to examine the subject. The committee
+having reported favourably, a bill to carry out Hill&rsquo;s recommendations
+was brought in by the government. The act received
+the royal assent in 1839, and after an intermediate rate of four-pence
+had been in operation from the 5th of December of that
+year, the penny rate commenced on the 10th of January 1840.
+Hill received an appointment in the Treasury in order to superintend
+the introduction of his reforms, but he was compelled
+to retire when the Liberal government resigned office in 1841.
+In consideration of the loss he thus sustained, and to mark the
+public appreciation of his services, he was in 1846 presented
+with the sum of £13,360. On the Liberals returning to office
+in the same year he was appointed secretary to the postmaster-general
+and in 1854 he was made chief secretary. His ability
+as a practical administrator enabled him to supplement his
+original discovery by measures realizing its benefits in a degree
+commensurate with continually improving facilities of communication,
+and in a manner best combining cheapness with
+efficiency. In 1860 his services were rewarded with the honour
+of knighthood; and when failing health compelled him to resign
+his office in 1864, he received from parliament a grant of £20,000
+and was also allowed to retain his full salary of £2000 a year
+as retiring pension. In 1864 the university of Oxford conferred
+on him the degree of D.C.L., and on the 6th of June 1879 he was
+presented with the freedom of the city of London. The presentation,
+on account of his infirm health, took place at his
+residence at Hampstead, and he died on the 27th of August
+following. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He wrote, in conjunction with his brother, Arthur Hill, a <i>History
+of Penny Postage</i>, published in 1880, with an introductory memoir by
+his nephew, G. Birkbeck Hill. See also <i>Sir Rowland Hill, the Story
+of a Great Reform</i>, told by his daughter (1907). To commemorate
+his memory the Rowland Hill Memorial and Benevolent Fund was
+founded shortly after his death for the purpose of relieving distressed
+persons connected with the post office who were outside the scope
+of the Superannuation Act. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Post and Postal Service</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL, ROWLAND HILL,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (1772-1842), British
+general, was the second son of (Sir) John Hill, of Hawkstone,
+Shropshire, and nephew of the Rev. Rowland Hill (1744-1833),
+was born at Prees Hall near Hawkstone on the 11th of August
+1772. He was gazetted to the 38th regiment in 1790, obtaining
+permission at the same time to study in a military academy at
+Strassburg, where he continued after removing into the 53rd
+regiment with the rank of lieutenant in 1791. In the beginning
+of 1793 he raised a company, and was promoted to the rank of
+captain. The same year he acted as assistant secretary to the
+British minister at Genoa, and served with distinction as a staff
+officer in the siege of Toulon. Hill took part in many minor
+expeditions in the following years. In 1800, when only twenty-eight,
+he was made a brevet colonel, and in 1801 he served with
+distinction in Sir Ralph Abercromby&rsquo;s expedition to Egypt, and
+was wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He continued to
+command his regiment, the 90th, until 1803, when he became a
+brigadier-general. During his regimental command he introduced
+a regimental school and a sergeants&rsquo; mess. He held various
+commands as brigadier, and after 1805 as major-general, in
+Ireland. In 1805 he commanded a brigade in the abortive
+Hanover expedition. In 1808 he was appointed to a brigade in
+the force sent to Portugal, and from Vimeira to Vittoria, in
+advance or retreat, he proved himself Wellington&rsquo;s ablest and
+most indefatigable coadjutor. He led a brigade at Vimeira,
+at Corunna and at Oporto, and a division at Talavera (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>). His capacity for independent command
+was fully demonstrated in the campaigns of 1810, 1811 and
+1812. In 1811 he annihilated a French detachment under
+Girard at Arroyo-dos-Molinos, and early in 1812, having now
+attained a rank of lieutenant-general (January 1812) and become
+a K.B. (March), he carried by assault the important works of
+Almaraz on the Tagus. Hill led the right wing of Wellington&rsquo;s
+army in the Salamanca campaign in 1812 and at the battle of
+Vittoria in 1813. Later in this year he conducted the investment
+of Pampeluna and fought with the greatest distinction at the
+Nivelle and the Nive. In the invasion of France in 1814 his corps
+was victoriously engaged both at Orthez and at Toulouse. Hill
+was one of the general officers rewarded for their services by
+peerages, his title being at first Baron Hill of Almaraz and
+Hawkstone, and he received a pension, the thanks of parliament
+and the freedom of the city of London. For about two years
+previous to his elevation to the peerage, he had been M.P. for
+Shrewsbury. In 1815 the news of Napoleon&rsquo;s return from Elba
+was followed by the assembly of an Anglo-Allied army (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>) in the Netherlands, and Hill was appointed
+to one of the two corps commands in this army. At Waterloo he
+led the famous charge of Sir Frederick Adams&rsquo;s brigade against
+the Imperial Guard, and for some time it was thought that he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span>
+had fallen in the mêlée. He escaped, however, without a wound,
+and continued with the army in France until its withdrawal in
+1818. Hill lived in retirement for some years at his estate of
+Hardwicke Grange. He carried the royal standard at the coronation
+of George IV. and became general in 1825. When Wellington
+became premier in 1828, he received the appointment of general
+commanding-in-chief, and on resigning this office in 1842 he was
+created a viscount. He died on the 10th of December of the
+same year. Lord Hill was, next to Wellington, the most popular
+and able soldier of his time in the British service, and was so
+much beloved by the troops, especially those under his immediate
+command, that he gained from them the title of &ldquo;the soldier&rsquo;s
+friend.&rdquo; He was a G.C.B, and G.C.H., and held the grand
+crosses of various foreign orders, amongst them the Russian St
+George and the Austrian Maria Theresa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Life of Lord Hill, G.C.B.</i>, by Rev. Edwin Sidney, appeared in
+1845.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hyll</i>; cf. Low Ger. <i>hull</i>, Mid. Dutch <i>hul</i>, allied
+to Lat. <i>celsus</i>, high, <i>collis</i>, hill, &amp;c.), a natural elevation of the
+earth&rsquo;s surface. The term is now usually confined to elevations
+lower than a mountain, but formerly was used for all such
+elevations, high or low.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLAH,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalik of Bagdad,
+60 m. S. of the city of Bagdad, in 32° 2&prime; 35&Prime; N., 44° 48&prime; 40½&Prime; E.,
+formerly the capital of a sanjak and the residence of a mutasserif,
+who in 1893 was transferred to Diwanieh. It is situated on both
+banks of the Euphrates, the two parts of the town being connected
+by a floating bridge, 450 ft. in length, in the midst of a
+very fertile district. The estimated population, which includes a
+large number of Jews, varies from 6000 to 12,000. The town has
+suffered much from the periodical breaking of the Hindieh dam
+and the consequent deflection of the waters of the Euphrates to
+the westward, as a result of which at times the Euphrates at this
+point has been entirely dry. This deflection of water has also
+seriously interfered with the palm groves, the cultivation of
+which constitutes a large part of the industry of the surrounding
+country along the river. The bazaars of Hillah are relatively
+large and well supplied. Many of the houses in the town are
+built of brick, not a few bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar,
+obtained from the ruins of Babylon, which lie less than an hour
+away to the north.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bibliography.&mdash;C. J. Rich, <i>Babylon and Persepolis</i> (1839); J. R.
+Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (1857); H. Rassam, <i>Asshur and the Land of Nimrod</i>
+(1897); H. V. Geere, <i>By Nile and Euphrates</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1808-1879), American
+lawyer and author, was born at Machias, Maine, on the 22nd of
+September 1808. After graduating at Harvard College in 1828,
+he taught in the Round Hill School at Northampton, Massachusetts.
+He graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1832, and
+in 1833 he was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he entered
+into partnership with Charles Sumner. He was a member of the
+state House of Representatives in 1836, of the state Senate in
+1850, and of the state constitutional convention of 1853, and
+in 1866-70 was United States district attorney for Massachusetts.
+He devoted a large portion of his time to literature.
+He became a member of the editorial staff of the <i>Christian
+Register</i>, a Unitarian weekly, in 1833; in 1834 he became editor
+of The <i>American Jurist</i> (1829-1843), a legal journal to which
+Sumner, Simon Greenleaf and Theron Metcalf contributed; and
+from 1856 to 1861 he was an associate editor of the Boston
+<i>Courier</i>. His publications include an edition of Edmund
+Spenser&rsquo;s works (in 5 vols., 1839); <i>Selections from the Writings of
+Walter Savage Landor</i> (1856); <i>Six Months in Italy</i> (2 vols., 1853);
+<i>Life and Campaigns of George B. McClellan</i> (1864); a part of the
+<i>Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor</i> (1876); besides a
+series of school readers and many articles in periodicals and
+encyclopaedias. He died in Boston on the 21st of January
+1879.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLEBRAND, KARL<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1829-1884), German author, was
+born at Giessen on the 17th of September 1829, his father
+Joseph Hillebrand (1788-1871) being a literary historian and
+writer on philosophic subjects. Karl Hillebrand became involved,
+as a student in Heidelberg, in the Baden revolutionary movement,
+and was imprisoned in Rastatt. He succeeded in escaping
+and lived for a time in Strassburg, Paris&mdash;where for several
+months he was Heine&rsquo;s secretary&mdash;and Bordeaux. He continued
+his studies, and after obtaining the doctor&rsquo;s degree at the
+Sorbonne, he was appointed teacher of German in the <i>École
+militaire</i> at St Cyr, and shortly afterwards, professor of foreign
+literatures at Douai. On the outbreak of the Franco-German
+War he resigned his professorship and acted for a time as
+correspondent to <i>The Times</i> in Italy. He then settled in
+Florence, where he died on the 19th of October 1884. Hillebrand
+wrote with facility and elegance in French, English and
+Italian, besides his own language. His essays, collected under
+the title <i>Zeiten, Völker und Menschen</i> (Berlin, 1874-1885), show
+clear discernment, a finely balanced cosmopolitan judgment
+and grace of style. He undertook to write the <i>Geschichte Frankreichs
+von der Thronbesteigung Ludwig Philipps bis zum Fall
+Napoleons III.</i>, but only two volumes were completed (to 1848)
+(2nd ed., 1881-1882). In French he published <i>Des conditions
+de la bonne comédie</i> (1863), <i>La Prusse contemporaine</i> (1867),
+<i>Études italiennes</i> (1868), and a translation of O. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Griechische
+Literaturgeschichte</i> (3rd ed., 1883). In English he published
+his Royal Institution Lectures on <i>German Thought during the
+Last Two Hundred Years</i> (1880). He also edited a collection
+of essays dealing with Italy, under the title <i>Italia</i> (4 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1824-1877).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Homberger, <i>Karl Hillebrand</i> (Berlin, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLEL,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> Jewish rabbi, of Babylonian origin, lived at Jerusalem
+in the time of King Herod. Though hard pressed by
+poverty, he applied himself to study in the schools of Shemaiah
+and Abtalion (Sameas and Pollion in Josephus). On account
+of his comprehensive learning and his rare qualities he was
+numbered among the recognized leaders of the Pharisaic scribes.
+Tradition assigns him the highest dignity of the Sanhedrin,
+under the title of nasi (&ldquo;prince&rdquo;), about a hundred years before
+the destruction of Jerusalem, <i>i.e.</i> about 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The date at
+least can be recognized as historic; the fact that Hillel took
+a leading position in the council can also be established. The
+epithet <i>ha-za&#7731;en</i> (&ldquo;the elder&rdquo;), which usually accompanies
+his name, proves him to have been a member of the Sanhedrin,
+and according to a trustworthy authority Hillel filled his leading
+position for forty years, dying, therefore, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10. His
+descendants remained, with few exceptions, at the head of
+Judaism in Palestine until the beginning of the 5th century,
+two of them, his grandson Gamaliel I. and the latter&rsquo;s son
+Simon, during the time when the Temple was still standing.
+The fact that Josephus (<i>Vita</i> 38) ascribes to Simon descent from
+a very distinguished stock (<span class="grk" title="genous sphodra lamprou">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#963;&#966;&#972;&#948;&#961;&#945; &#955;&#945;&#956;&#960;&#961;&#959;&#8166;</span>), shows in
+what degree of estimation Hillel&rsquo;s descendants stood. When
+the dignity of <i>nasi</i> became afterwards hereditary among them,
+Hillel&rsquo;s ancestry, perhaps on the ground of old family traditions,
+was traced back to David. Hillel is especially noted for the
+fact that he gave a definite form to the Jewish traditional
+learning, as it had been developed and made into the ruling and
+conserving factor of Judaism in the latter days of the second
+Temple, and particularly in the centuries following the destruction
+of the Temple. He laid down seven rules for the interpretation
+of the Scriptures, and these became the foundation of rabbinical
+hermeneutics; and the ordering of the traditional doctrines
+into a whole, effected in the Mishna by his successor Judah I.,
+two hundred years after Hillel&rsquo;s death, was probably likewise
+due to his instigation. The tendency of his theory and practice
+in matters pertaining to the Law is evidenced by the fact that
+in general he advanced milder and more lenient views in opposition
+to his colleague Shammai, a contrast which after the
+death of the two masters, but not until after the destruction of
+the Temple, was maintained in the strife kept up between the
+two schools named the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai.
+The well-known institution of the Prosbol (<span class="grk" title="prosbolê">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#942;</span>), introduced
+by Hillel, was intended to avert the evil consequences of the
+scriptural law of release in the seventh year (Deut. xv. 1). He
+was led to this, as is expressly set forth (<i>M. Gi&#7789;&#7789;in</i>, iv. 3), by a
+regard for the welfare of the community. Hillel lived in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span>
+memory of posterity chiefly as the great teacher who enjoined
+and practised the virtues of charity, humility and true piety.
+His proverbial sayings, in particular, a great number of which
+were written down partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew, strongly
+affected the spirit both of his contemporaries and of the succeeding
+generations. In his Maxims (<i>Aboth,</i> i. 12) he recommends
+the love of peace and the love of mankind beyond all else, and
+his own love of peace sprang from the tenderness and deep
+humility which were essential features in his character, as has
+been illustrated by many anecdotes. Hillel&rsquo;s patience has
+become proverbial. One of his sayings commends humility
+in the following paradox: &ldquo;My abasement is my exaltation.&rdquo;
+His charity towards men is given its finest expression in the
+answer which he made to a proselyte who asked to be taught
+the commandments of the Torah in the shortest possible form:
+&ldquo;What is unpleasant to thyself that do not to thy neighbour;
+this is the whole Law, all else is but its exposition.&rdquo; This allusion
+to the scriptural injunction to love one&rsquo;s neighbour (Lev. xix.
+18) as the fundamental law of religious morals, became in a
+certain sense a commonplace of Pharisaic scholasticism. For the
+Pharisee who accepts the answer of Jesus regarding that fundamental
+doctrine which ranks the love of one&rsquo;s neighbour as
+the highest duty after the love of God (Mark xii. 33), does so
+because as a disciple of Hillel the idea is familiar to him. St
+Paul also (Gal. v. 14) doubtless learned this in the school of
+Gamaliel. Hillel emphasized the connexion between duty
+towards one&rsquo;s neighbour and duty towards oneself in the epigrammatic
+saying: &ldquo;If I am not for myself, who is for me?
+And if I am for myself alone, what then am I? And if not now,
+then when?&rdquo; (<i>Aboth</i>, i. 14). The duty of working both with
+and for men he teaches in the sentence: &ldquo;Separate not thyself
+from the congregation&rdquo; (<i>ib.</i> ii. 4). The duty of considering
+oneself part of <span class="correction" title="amended from comman">common</span> humanity, of not differing from others
+by any peculiarity of behaviour, he sums up in the words:
+&ldquo;Appear neither naked nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing,
+neither laughing nor weeping&rdquo; (<i>Tosef. Ber.</i> c. ii.). The command
+to love one&rsquo;s neighbour inspired also Hillel&rsquo;s injunction (<i>Aboth</i>,
+ii. 4): &ldquo;Judge not thy neighbour until thou art in his place&rdquo;
+(cf. Matt. vii. 1). The disinterested pursuit of learning, study
+for study&rsquo;s sake, is commended in many of Hillel&rsquo;s sayings
+as being what is best in life: &ldquo;He who wishes to make a name
+for himself loses his name; he who does not increase [his knowledge]
+decreases it; he who does not learn is worthy of death;
+he who works for the sake of a crown is lost&rdquo; (<i>Aboth</i>, i. 13).
+&ldquo;He who occupies himself much with learning makes his life&rdquo;
+(<i>ib.</i> ii. 7). &ldquo;He who has acquired the words of doctrine has
+acquired the life of the world to come&rdquo; (<i>ib.</i>). &ldquo;Say not: When
+I am free from other occupations I shall study; for may be thou
+shalt never at all be free&rdquo; (<i>ib.</i> 4). One of his strings of proverbs
+runs as follows: &ldquo;The uncultivated man is not innocent; the
+ignorant man is not devout; the bashful man learns not; the
+wrathful man teaches not; he who is much absorbed in trade
+cannot become wise; where no men are, there strive thyself
+to be a man&rdquo; (<i>ib.</i> 5). The almost mystical profundity of Hillel&rsquo;s
+<span class="correction" title="amended from conciousness">consciousness</span> of God is shown in the words spoken by him on
+the occasion of a feast in the Temple&mdash;words alluding to the
+throng of people gathered there which he puts into the mouth
+of God Himself: &ldquo;If I am here every one is here; if I
+am not here no one is here&rdquo; (<i>Sukkah</i> 53<i>a</i>). In like manner
+Hillel makes God say to Israel, referring to Exodus xx. 24:
+&ldquo;Whither I please, thither will I go; if thou come into my
+house I come into thy house; if thou come not into my house, I
+come not into thine&rdquo; (<i>ib.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that no miraculous legends are connected
+with Hillel&rsquo;s life. A scholastic tradition, however, tells of
+a voice from heaven which made itself heard when the wise men
+had assembled in Jericho, saying: &ldquo;Among those here present
+is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon
+him, if his time had been worthy of it.&rdquo; And all eyes turned
+towards Hillel (<i>Tos. So&#7789;ah</i>, xiii. 3). When he died lamentation
+was made for him as follows: &ldquo;Woe for the humble, woe for
+the pious, woe for the disciple of Ezra!&rdquo; (<i>ib.</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Hillel II.</span>, one of the patriarchs belonging to the family of Hillel I.,
+lived in Tiberias about the middle of the 4th century, and introduced
+the arrangement of the calendar through which the Jews of the
+Diaspora became independent of Palestine in the uniform fixation
+of the new moons and feasts.</p>
+
+<p>The Rabbi <span class="sc">Hillel</span>, who in the 4th century made the remarkable
+declaration that Israel need not expect a Messiah, because the promise
+of a Messiah had already been fulfilled in the days of King Hezekiah
+(Babli, <i>Sanhedrin</i>, 99a), is probably Hillel, the son of Samuel ben
+Na&#7717;man, a well-known expounder of the scriptures.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLER, FERDINAND<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1811-1885), German composer, was
+born at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 24th of October 1811. His
+first master was Aloys Schmitt, and when he was ten years of
+age his compositions and talent led his father, a well-to-do man,
+to send him to Hummel in Weimar. There he devoted himself
+to composition, among his work being the entr&rsquo;actes to <i>Maria
+Stuart</i>, through which he made Goethe&rsquo;s acquaintance. Under
+Hummel, Hiller made great strides as a pianist, so much so that
+early in 1827 he went on a tour to Vienna, where he met Beethoven
+and produced his first quartet. After a brief visit home Hiller
+went to Paris in 1829, where he lived till 1836. His father&rsquo;s
+death necessitated his return to Frankfort for a time, but on the
+8th of January 1839 he produced at Milan his opera <i>La Romilda</i>,
+and began to write his oratorio <i>Die Zerstörung Jerusalems</i>, one of
+his best works. Then he went to Leipzig, to his friend Mendelssohn,
+where in 1843-1844 he conducted a number of the Gewandhaus
+concerts and produced his oratorio. After a further visit
+to Italy to study sacred music, Hiller produced two operas, <i>Ein
+Traum</i> and <i>Conradin</i>, at Dresden in 1845 and 1847 respectively;
+he went as conductor to Düsseldorf in 1847 and Cologne in 1850,
+and conducted at the Opéra Italien in Paris in 1851 and 1852.
+At Cologne he became a power as conductor of the Gürzenich
+concerts and head of the Conservatorium. In 1884 he retired,
+and died on the 12th of May in the following year. Hiller
+frequently visited England. He composed a work for the
+opening of the Royal Albert Hall, his <i>Nala and Damayanti</i> was
+performed at Birmingham, and he gave a series of pianoforte
+recitals of his own compositions at the Hanover Square Rooms
+in 1871. He had a perfect mastery over technique and form in
+musical composition, but his works are generally dry. He was a
+sound pianist and teacher, and occasionally a brilliant writer on
+musical matters. His compositions, numbering about two
+hundred, include six operas, two oratorios, six or seven cantatas,
+much chamber music and a once-popular pianoforte concerto.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLER, JOHANN ADAM<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1728-1804), German musical
+composer, was born at Wendisch-Ossig near Görlitz in Silesia on
+the 25th of December 1728. By the death of his father in 1734
+he was left dependent to a large extent on the charity of friends.
+Entering in 1747 the Kreuzschule in Dresden, the school attended
+many years afterwards by Richard Wagner, he subsequently
+went to the university of Leipzig, where he studied jurisprudence,
+supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by performing
+at concerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Gradually
+he adopted music as his sole profession, and devoted himself more
+especially to the permanent establishment of a concert institute
+at Leipzig. It was he who in 1781 originated the celebrated
+Gewandhaus concerts which still flourish at Leipzig. In 1789
+he became &ldquo;cantor&rdquo; of the Thomas school there, a position
+previously held by John Sebastian Bach. He died in Leipzig on
+the 16th of June 1804. Two of his pupils placed a monument to
+his memory in front of the Thomas school. Hiller&rsquo;s compositions
+comprise almost every kind of church music, from the cantata to
+the simple chorale. But much more important are his operettas,
+14 in number, which for a long time retained their place on the
+boards, and had considerable influence on the development of
+light dramatic music in Germany. The <i>Jolly Cobbler</i>, <i>Love in the
+Country</i> and the <i>Village Barber</i> were amongst the most popular
+of his works. Hiller also excelled in sentimental songs and ballads.
+With great simplicity of structure his music combines a considerable
+amount of genuine melodic invention. Although an admirer
+and imitator of the Italian school, Hiller fully appreciated the
+greatness of Handel, and did much for the appreciation of his
+music in Germany. It was under his direction that the <i>Messiah</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+was for the first time given at Berlin, more than forty years after
+the composition of that great work. Hiller was also a writer on
+music, and for some years (1766-1770) edited a musical weekly
+periodical named <i>Wöchentliche Nachrichten und Anmerkungen die
+Musik betreffend</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLIARD, LAWRENCE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (d. 1640), English miniature painter.
+The date of his birth is not known, but he died in 1640. He was
+the son of Nicholas Hilliard, and evidently derived his Christian
+name from that of his grandmother. He adopted his father&rsquo;s
+profession and worked out the unexpired time of his licence after
+Nicholas Hilliard died. It was from Lawrence Hilliard that
+Charles I. received the portrait of Queen Elizabeth now at
+Montagu House, since van der Dort&rsquo;s catalogue describes it as
+&ldquo;done by old Hilliard, and bought by the king of young Hilliard.&rdquo;
+In 1624 he was paid £42 from the treasury for five pictures, but
+the warrant does not specify whom they represented. His
+portraits are of great rarity, two of the most beautiful being those
+in the collections of Earl Beauchamp and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
+They are as a rule signed L.H., but are also to be distinguished by
+the beauty of the calligraphy in which the inscriptions round the
+portraits are written. The writing is as a rule very florid, full of
+exquisite curves and flourishes, and more elaborate than the more
+formal handwriting of Nicholas Hilliard. The colour scheme
+adopted by the son is richer and more varied than that used by
+the father, and Lawrence Hilliard&rsquo;s miniatures are not so hard as
+are those of Nicholas, and are marked by more shade and a
+greater effect of atmosphere.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLIARD, NICHOLAS<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1537-1619), the first true English
+miniature painter, is said to have been the son of Richard Hilliard
+of Exeter, high sheriff of the city and county in 1560, by Lawrence,
+daughter of John Wall, goldsmith, of London, and was born
+probably about 1537. He was appointed goldsmith, carver and
+portrait painter to Queen Elizabeth, and engraved the Great Seal
+of England in 1586. He was in high favour with James I. as well
+as with Elizabeth, and from the king received a special patent of
+appointment, dated the 5th of May 1617, and granting him a sole
+licence for the royal work for twelve years. He is believed to
+have been the author of an important treatise on miniature
+painting, now preserved in the Bodleian Library, but it seems
+more probable that the author of that treatise was John de
+Critz, Serjeant Painter to James I. It is probable, however,
+that the treatise was taken down from the instructions of Hilliard,
+for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps Isaac Oliver.</p>
+
+<p>The esteem of his countrymen for Hilliard is testified to by
+Dr Donne, who in a poem called &ldquo;The Storm&rdquo; (1597) praises the
+work of this artist. He painted a portrait of himself at the age of
+thirteen, and is said to have executed one of Mary queen of
+Scots when he was eighteen years old. He died on the 7th of
+January 1619, and was buried in St Martin&rsquo;s-in-the-Fields,
+Westminster, leaving by his will twenty shillings to the poor of
+the parish, £30 between his two sisters, some goods to his maidservant,
+and all the rest of his effects to his son, Lawrence
+Hilliard, his sole executor.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to be pretty certain that he visited France, and that he
+is the artist alluded to in the papers of the duc d&rsquo;Alençon under
+the name of &ldquo;Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois&rdquo; who was
+painter to this prince in 1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres.
+The miniature of Mademoiselle de Sourdis, in the collection of
+Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, is certainly the work of Hilliard, and is
+dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of honour at the
+French Court; and other portraits which are his work are
+believed to represent Gabrielle d&rsquo;Estrées, niece of Madame de
+Sourdis, la Princesse de Condé and Madame de Montgomery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further information respecting Hilliard&rsquo;s sojourn in France,
+see the privately printed catalogue of the collection of miniatures
+belonging to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, compiled by Dr G. C.
+Williamson.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILLSDALE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hillsdale county,
+Michigan, U.S.A., about 87 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop.
+(1900) 4151, of whom 300 were foreign-born; (1904) 4809;
+(1910) 5001. Hillsdale is served by the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan
+Southern railway. It has a public library, and is the seat of
+Hillsdale College (co-educational, Free Baptist), which was
+opened as Michigan Central College, at Spring Arbor, Michigan,
+in 1844, was removed to Hillsdale and received its present
+name in 1853 and was re-opened here in 1855. The college
+in 1907-1908 had 22 instructors and 345 students. The city
+is a centre for a rich farming region; among its manufactures
+are gasoline and gas engines, screen doors, wagons, barrels,
+shoes, fur-coats and flour. Hillsdale was first settled in 1837,
+was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was chartered as
+a city in 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILL TIPPERA,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Tripura</span>, a native state of India, adjoining
+the British district of Tippera, in Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+Area, 4086 sq. m.; pop, (1901) 173,325; estimated revenue,
+£55,000. Six parallel ranges of hill cross it from north to south,
+at an average distance of 12 m. apart. The hills are covered
+for the most part with bamboo jungle, while the low ground
+abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and swamps.
+The principal crop and food staple is rice. The other articles
+of produce are cotton, chillies and vegetables. The chief exports
+are cotton, timber, oilseeds, bamboo canes, thatching-grass
+and firewood, on all of which tolls are levied. The chief rivers
+are the Gumti, Haora, Khoyai, Dulai, Manu and Fenny (Pheni).
+During the heavy rains the people in the plains use boats as
+almost the sole means of conveyance.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the state includes two distinct periods&mdash;the
+traditional period described in the <i>Rajmala</i>, or &ldquo;Chronicles
+of the Kings of Tippera,&rdquo; and the period since <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1407.
+The <i>Rajmala</i> is a history in Bengali verse, compiled by the
+Brahmans of the court of Tripura. In the early history of the
+state, the rajas were in a state of chronic feud with all the
+neighbouring countries. The worship of Siva was here, as
+elsewhere in India, associated with the practice of human
+sacrifice, and in no part of India were more victims offered.
+It was not until the beginning of the 17th century that the
+Moguls obtained any footing in this country. When the East
+India Company obtained the <i>diwani</i> or financial administration
+of Bengal in 1765, so much of Tippera as had been placed on
+the Mahommedan rent-roll came under British rule. Since
+1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the
+British government. In October 1905 the state was attached
+to the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It has a
+chronological era of its own, adopted by Raja Birraj, from
+whom the present raja is 93rd in descent. The year 1875
+corresponded with 1285 of the Tippera era.</p>
+
+<p>Besides being the ruler of Hill Tippera, the raja holds an
+estate in the British district of Tippera, called <i>chakla</i> Roshnabad,
+which is far the most valuable of his possessions. The capital
+is Agartala (pop. 9513), where there is an Arts College. The
+raja&rsquo;s palace and other public buildings were seriously damaged
+by the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. The late raja,
+who died from the result of a motor-car accident in 1909,
+succeeded his father in 1896, but he had taken a large share
+in the administration of the state for some years previously.
+The principle of succession, which had often caused serious
+disputes, was defined in 1904, to the effect that the chief may
+nominate any male descendant through males from himself
+or from any male ancestor, but failing such nomination, then
+the rule of primogeniture applies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILTON, JOHN<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1804-1878), British surgeon, was born at
+Castle Hedingham, in Essex, in 1804. He entered Guy&rsquo;s Hospital
+in 1824. He was appointed demonstrator of anatomy
+in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845, surgeon 1849. In 1867
+he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which
+he became member in 1827 and fellow in 1843, and he
+also delivered the Hunterian oration in 1867. As Arris and
+Gale professor (1859-1862) he delivered a course of lectures
+on &ldquo;Rest and Pain,&rdquo; which have become classics. He was
+also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. Hilton was
+the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nick named &ldquo;Anatomical
+John.&rdquo; It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist,
+enriched Guy&rsquo;s Hospital with its unique collection of models.
+In his grasp of the structure and functions of the brain and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span>
+spinal cord he was far in advance of his contemporaries. As
+an operator he was more cautious than brilliant. This was
+doubtless due partly to his living in the pre-anaesthetics period,
+and partly to his own consummate anatomical knowledge,
+as is indicated by the method for opening deep abscesses which
+is known by his name. But he could be bold when necessary;
+he was the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal
+section, and one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He
+died at Clapham on the 14th of September 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILTON, WILLIAM<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1786-1839), English painter, was born
+in Lincoln on the 3rd of June 1786, son of a portrait-painter.
+In 1800 he was placed with the engraver J. R. Smith, and
+about the same time began studying in the Royal Academy
+school. He first exhibited in this institution in 1803, sending
+a &ldquo;Group of Banditti&rdquo;; and he soon established a reputation
+for choice of subject, and qualities of design and colour superior
+to the great mass of his contemporaries. He made a tour in
+Italy with Thomas Phillips, the portrait-painter. In 1813,
+having exhibited &ldquo;Miranda and Ferdinand with the Logs of
+Wood,&rdquo; he was elected an associate of the Academy, and in
+1820 a full academician, his diploma-picture representing
+&ldquo;Ganymede.&rdquo; In 1823 he produced &ldquo;Christ crowned with
+Thorns,&rdquo; a large and important work, subsequently bought
+out of the Chantrey Fund; this may be regarded as his masterpiece.
+In 1827 he succeeded Henry Thomson as keeper of the
+Academy. He died in London on the 30th of December 1839,
+Some of his best pictures remained on his hands at his decease&mdash;such
+as the &ldquo;Angel releasing Peter from Prison&rdquo; (life-size),
+painted in 1831, &ldquo;Una with the Lion entering Corceca&rsquo;s Cave&rdquo;
+(1832), the &ldquo;Murder of the Innocents,&rdquo; his last exhibited
+work (1838), &ldquo;Comus,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Amphitrite.&rdquo; The National
+Gallery now owns &ldquo;Edith finding the Body of Harold&rdquo; (1834),
+&ldquo;Cupid Disarmed,&rdquo; &ldquo;Rebecca and Abraham&rsquo;s Servant&rdquo;
+(1829), &ldquo;Nature blowing Bubbles for her Children&rdquo; (1821),
+and &ldquo;Sir Calepine rescuing Serena&rdquo; (from the <i>Faerie Queen</i>)
+(1831). In the National Portrait Gallery is his likeness of John
+Keats, with whom he was acquainted. In a great school or
+period Hilton could not count as more than a respectable
+subordinate; but in the British school of the earlier part of
+the 19th century he had sufficient elevation of aim and width
+of attainment to stand conspicuous.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HILVERSUM,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a town in the province of North Holland,
+18 m. by rail S.E. of Amsterdam. It is connected with Amsterdam
+by a steam tramway, passing by way of the small fortified
+towns of Naarden and Muiden on the Zuider Zee. Pop. (1900)
+20,238. It is situated in the middle of the Gooi, a stretch of
+hilly country extending from the Zuider Zee to about 5 m.
+south of Hilversum, and composed of pine woods and sandy
+heaths. A convalescent home, the Trompenberg, was established
+here in 1874, and there are a town hall, middle-class and technical
+schools, and various places of worship, including a synagogue.
+Hilversum manufactures large quantities of floor-cloths and
+horse-blankets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIMALAYA,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the name given to the mountains which form
+the northern boundary of India. The word is Sanskrit and
+literally signifies &ldquo;snow-abode,&rdquo; from <i>him</i>, snow, and <i>álaya</i>,
+abode, and might be translated &ldquo;snowy-range,&rdquo; although that
+expression is perhaps more nearly the equivalent of <i>Himachal</i>,
+another Sanskrit word derived from <i>him</i>, snow, and <i>áchal</i>,
+mountain, which is practically synonymous with Himalaya
+and is often used by natives of northern India. The name
+was converted by the Greeks into <i>Emodos</i> and <i>Imaos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Modern geographers restrict the term Himalaya to that portion
+of the mountain region between India and Tibet enclosed within
+the arms of the Indus and the Brahmaputra. From the bend
+of the Indus southwards towards the plains of the Punjab
+to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards towards the plains
+of Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or Himalaya.
+Beyond the Indus, to the north-west, the region of mountain
+ranges which stretches to a junction with the Hindu Kush south
+of the Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya. Thus the
+Himalaya represents the southern face of the great central
+upheaval&mdash;the plateau of Tibet&mdash;the northern face of which is
+buttressed by the Kuen Lun.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain
+face geologists now trace a system of main chains,
+or axes, extending from the Hindu Kush to Assam,
+<span class="sidenote">Structure of the Himalaya.</span>
+arranged in approximately parallel lines, and
+traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage
+obliquely. Godwin-Austen indicates six of these geological axes
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The main Central Asian axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern
+edge or ridge of the Tibetan plateau.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Trans-Himalayan chain of Muztagh (or Karakoram),
+which is lost in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the
+sources of the Indus.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus&mdash;for
+that river breaks across it about 100 m. above Leh. This chain
+continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes
+part of the Himalayan system.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, <i>i.e.</i> the &ldquo;snowy
+range&rdquo; <i>par excellence</i> which is indicated by Nanga Parbat (overlooking
+the Indus), and passes in a south-east direction to the
+southern side of the Deosai plains. Thence, bending slightly south,
+it extends in the line of snowy peaks which are seen from Simla to the
+famous peaks of Gangotri and Nanda Devi. This is the best known
+range of the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<p>5. The outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge.</p>
+
+<p>6. The Sub-Himalaya, which is &ldquo;easily defined by the fringing
+line of hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked
+off from the main chain by open valleys (dhúns) or narrow valleys,
+parallel to the main axis of the chain.&rdquo; These include the Siwaliks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Interspersed between these main geological axes are many
+other minor ridges, on some of which are peaks of great elevation.
+In fact, the geological axis seldom coincides with the line of
+highest elevation, nor must it be confused with the main lines
+of water-divide of the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<p>On the north and north-west of Kashmir the great water-divide
+which separates the Indus drainage area from that of
+the Yarkand and other rivers of Chinese Turkestan
+has been explored by Sir F. Younghusband, and subsequently
+<span class="sidenote">The great northern watershed of India.</span>
+by H. H. P. Deasy. The general result
+of their investigations has been to prove that the
+Muztagh range, as it trends south-eastwards and finally forms a
+continuous mountain barrier together with the Karakoram,
+is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan plateau. Shutting
+off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of the Central
+Asian system of hydrography, this great water-parting is distinguished
+by a group of peaks of which the altitude is hardly
+less than that of the Eastern Himalaya. Mount Godwin-Austen
+(28,250 ft. high), only 750 ft. lower than Everest, affords an
+excellent example in Asiatic geography of a dominating, peak-crowned
+water-parting or divide. From Kailas on the far west
+to the extreme north-eastern sources of the Brahmaputra, the
+great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan highlands has
+only been occasionally touched. Littledale, du Rhins and
+Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards
+Lhasa, but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be
+lost in the mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan
+plateau. Nor can it be said to be as yet well defined to the east
+of Lhasa.</p>
+
+<p>The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the meridian
+of 92° E., and to the east of this meridian the affluents of the
+Tsanpo (the same river as the Dihong and subsequently
+as the Brahmaputra) drain no longer from the elevated
+<span class="sidenote">Eastern Tibet.</span>
+plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a wild region
+of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where
+its successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves around
+the great bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the
+sources of all the great rivers of Burma and China. Neither
+immediately beyond this great bend, nor within it in the Himalayan
+regions lying north of Assam and east of Bhutan, have
+scientific investigations yet been systematically carried out;
+but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of
+the Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the
+Tibetan plateau, and break down through the containing bands
+of hills, carrying deposits of gold from their sources to the plains,
+as do all the rivers of Tibet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span></p>
+
+<p>Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not
+sufficiently well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed
+even approximately, there exists some scattered
+evidence of the nature of that strip of Northern Himalaya
+<span class="sidenote">Himalaya north of the central chain of snowy peaks.</span>
+on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between
+the line of greatest elevation and the trough of the
+Tsanpo. Recent investigations show that all the
+chief rivers of Nepal flowing southwards to the Tarai
+take their rise north of the line of highest crests, the &ldquo;main
+range&rdquo; of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain long
+lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose
+strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally,
+almost at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels
+breaking down to the plains. This formation brings the
+southern edge of the Tsanpo basin to the immediate neighbourhood
+of the banks of that river, which runs at its foot like a
+drain flanking a wall. It also affords material evidence of that
+wrinkling or folding action which accompanied the process of
+upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised, which
+is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west
+Indian borderland. North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan
+crest and Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained;
+farther east, although the same natural forces first resulted in
+the same effect of successive folds of the earth&rsquo;s crust, forming
+extensive curves of ridge and furrow, the abundant rainfall
+and the totally distinct climatic conditions which govern the
+processes of denudation subsequently led to the erosion of
+deeper valleys enclosed between forest-covered ranges which
+rise steeply from the river banks.</p>
+
+<p>Although suggestions have been made of the existence of
+higher peaks north of the Himalaya than that which dominates
+the Everest group, no evidence has been adduced to
+support such a contention. On the other hand the
+<span class="sidenote">Height of Himalayan peaks.</span>
+observations of Major Ryder and other surveyors who
+explored from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra
+and Indus, at the conclusion of the Tibetan mission in 1904,
+conclusively prove that Mount Everest, which appears from the
+Tibetan plateau as a single dominating peak, has no rival amongst
+Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very remarkable investigations
+made by permission of the Nepal durbar from peaks near Kathmandu
+in 1903, by Captain Wood, R.E., not only place the
+Everest group apart from other peaks with which they have been
+confused by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system
+of Nepal, but clearly show that there is no one dominating and
+continuous range indicating a main Himalayan chain which
+includes both Everest and Kinchinjunga. The main features of
+Nepalese topography are now fairly well defined. So much
+controversy has been aroused on the subject of Himalayan
+altitudes that the present position of scientific analysis in relation
+to them may be shortly stated. The heights of peaks determined
+by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are bound to
+be more or less in error for three reasons: (1) the extraordinary
+geoidal deformation of the level surface at the observing stations
+in submontane regions; (2) ignorance of the laws of refraction
+when rays traverse rarefied air in snow-covered regions; (3)
+ignorance of the variations in the actual height of peaks due to
+the increase, or decrease, of snow. The value of the heights
+attached to the three highest mountains in the world are, for
+these reasons, adjudged by Colonel S. G. Burrard, the Supt.
+Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the
+following extent:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Present Survey<br />Value of Height</td> <td class="tccm allb">Most probable<br />Value.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mount Everest</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,002</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,141</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">K<span class="su">2</span> (Godwin Austen)</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,191</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Kinchinjunga</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,146</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,225</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga
+second and K<span class="su">2</span> third on the list.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumpling
+of the earth&rsquo;s crust along the southern margin of the great tableland
+of Central Asia. Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign of
+this crumpling is to be detected except in the Salt Range, and the
+Peninsula of India has been entirely free from folding of any importance
+since early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean
+period itself. But the contrast between the Himalaya and the
+Peninsula is not confined to their structure: the difference in the
+rocks themselves is equally striking. In the Himalaya the geological
+sequence, from the Ordovician to the Eocene, is almost entirely
+marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the series, but during
+nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at
+least its northern part, must have been beneath the sea&mdash;the Central
+Mediterranean Sea of Neumayr or Tethys of Suess. In the peninsula,
+however, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than
+Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood
+of the coasts; the principal fossiliferous deposits are the plant-bearing
+beds of the Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt that,
+at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the
+Peninsula has been land. Between the folded marine beds of the
+Himalaya and the nearly horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the
+Indo-Gangetic plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial
+and wind-blown deposits of recent date. The deep boring at Lucknow
+passed through 1336 ft. of sands&mdash;reaching nearly to 1000 ft.
+below sea-level&mdash;without any sign of approaching the base of the
+alluvial series. It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there
+is a great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this
+depression was ever beneath the sea.</p>
+
+<p>In the light thrown by recent researches on the structure and
+origin of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer
+difficult. From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has
+been dry land, a part, indeed, of a great continent which in Mesozoic
+times extended across the Indian Ocean towards South Africa. Its
+northern shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in
+Jurassic and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from
+west to east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of
+the Himalaya. The tangential pressures which are known to be set
+up in the earth&rsquo;s crust&mdash;either by the contraction of the interior or
+in some other way&mdash;caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up
+against the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and
+finally led to the whole mass being pushed forward over the edge of
+the part which did not crumple. The Indo-Gangetic depression was
+formed by the weight of the over-riding mass bending down the edge
+over which it rode, or else it is the lower limb of the <b>S</b>-shaped fold
+which would necessarily result if there were no fracture&mdash;the
+Himalaya representing the upper limb of the <b>S</b>.</p>
+
+<p>Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which
+correspond more or less with orographical divisions. The northern
+zone is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and
+Mesozoic age are largely developed&mdash;excepting in the north-west no
+such rocks are known on the southern flanks. The second is the zone
+of the snowy peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed
+chiefly of crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with unfossiliferous
+sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age.
+The southern zone comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely
+of Tertiary beds, and especially of the upper Tertiaries. The oldest
+beds which have hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician
+system, but it is highly probable that the underlying &ldquo;Haimantas&rdquo;
+of the central Himalaya are of Cambrian age. From these beds up
+to the top of the Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but
+the Carboniferous beds were in some places eroded before the deposition
+of the <i>Productus</i> shales, which belong to the Permian period.
+It is, however, possible that this erosion was merely local, for in
+other places there seems to be a complete passage from the Carboniferous
+to the Permian. From the Permian to the Lias the sequence
+in the central Himalaya shows no sign of a break, nor has any unconformity
+been proved between the Liassic beds and the overlying
+Spiti shales, which contain fossils of Middle and Upper Jurassic age.
+The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by Cretaceous beds
+(Gieumal sandstone below and Chikkim limestone above), and these
+are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene age,
+much disturbed and altered by intrusions of gabbro and syenite.
+Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been continuous
+deposition of marine beds from the Permian <i>Productus</i> shales to the
+Eocene Nummulitic formation. The next succeeding deposit is a
+sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon the
+Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the Sub-Himalaya
+(Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any
+kind. The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Tertiaries
+of Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite
+unaffected by any of the folds.</p>
+
+<p>From the absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident
+that in the northern part of the Himalayan belt, at least in the Spiti
+area, there can have been no post-Archaean folding of any magnitude
+until after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the
+folding was completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes were
+laid down. It was, therefore, during the Miocene period that the
+elevation of this part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the
+Siwalik-like sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the
+Pliocene period. Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the
+history of the chain is still more clearly shown. The sub-Himalaya
+are formed of Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while
+the lower Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span>
+without fossils. Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever
+the junction of the Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen,
+it is a great reversed fault. West of the Blas river a similar reversed
+fault forms the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the
+pre-Tertiary rocks of the Himalaya, while between the Sutlej and
+the Jumna rivers, where the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower
+Himalaya, the fault lies between them and the Siwaliks. The hade
+of the fault is constantly inwards, towards the centre of the chain,
+and the older rocks which form the Himalaya proper, have been
+pushed forward over the later beds of the sub-Himalaya. But the
+fault is more than an ordinary reversed fault: it was, nearly everywhere,
+the northern boundary of deposition of the Siwalik beds, and
+only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik deposits extend even to
+a short distance beyond it. The fault in fact was being formed
+during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the beds were laid
+down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the Siwaliks
+themselves being folded and upturned during the process. Accordingly,
+in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and conformable
+series from base to summit, in other places the middle beds
+are absent and the upper beds of the series rest upon the upturned and
+denuded edges of the lower beds. The Siwaliks are fluviatile and
+torrential deposits similar to those which are now being formed
+at the foot of the mountains, in the Indo-Gangetic plain; and
+their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were
+very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of
+the plain and the Siwaliks themselves. But the great fault just
+described is not the only one of this character. There is a series of
+such faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although
+they have not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever
+they occur they seem to have formed the northern boundary of
+deposition of the deposits immediately to the south of them. It
+appears, therefore, that the Himalaya grew southwards in a series
+of stages. A reversed fault was formed at the foot of the chain, and
+upon this fault the mountains were pushed forward over the beds
+deposited at their base, crumpling and folding them in the process,
+and forming a sub-Himalayan ridge in front of the main chain.
+After a time a new fault originated at the foot of the sub-Himalayan
+zone thus raised, which now became part of the Himalaya themselves,
+and a new sub-Himalayan chain was formed in front of the previous
+one. The earthquakes of the present day show that the process is
+still in operation, and in time the deposits of the present Indo-Gangetic
+plain will be involved in the folds.</p>
+
+<p>The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true
+circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed
+forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the
+dip of the plane must be low, for a line drawn along the southern
+foot of the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane
+inclined to the surface at an angle of about 14°. The thrust-plane,
+then, does not coincide with any of the boundary faults already
+mentioned, which are usually inclined at angles of 50° or 60°. The
+latter are due to the fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass
+above the thrust-plane may move, yet the pressure which pushes it
+forwards necessarily proceeds from behind. The back, accordingly,
+moves faster than the front, and the whole is packed together; as
+when an ice-floe drives against the shore, the ice breaks and the
+outer fragments ride over those within. The great thrust-plane
+which is thus imagined to exist at the base of the Himalaya, corresponds
+with the &ldquo;major thrusts&rdquo; of the N.W. Highlands of Scotland,
+and the reversed faults which appear at the surface with the &ldquo;minor
+thrusts.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(P. La.)</div>
+
+<p>Such is the general outline of Himalayan evolution as now understood,
+and the process of it has led to certain marked features of
+scenery and topography. Within the area of the trans-Indus
+mountains we have beds of hard limestone or sandstone
+<span class="sidenote">Topographical results of evolution.</span>
+alternating with soft shales, which leads to the
+scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys where the
+shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep
+rifts or gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which
+stand in irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys
+between. The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure,
+due to the same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much
+larger scale; but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the
+mountains by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially
+by the greater rainfall. Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys,
+here are found fertile alluvial plains&mdash;such as Manipur&mdash;but for the
+most part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep pace
+with the rise of the river bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys
+arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the
+western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers
+cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that originally
+held. An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly
+breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west
+Himalaya to resume its north-westerly course after passing from the
+northern to the southern side of the range. The reason assigned for
+these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the
+general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> that the lines
+of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were raised; and
+that the drainage has merely maintained the course originally held,
+by the power of erosion during the gradual process of upheaval.</p>
+
+<p>In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep,
+so steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still cutting
+down the river beds and have not yet reached the stage of equilibrium.
+Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial detritus owing
+to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this occurs there
+is usually to be found a fertile and productive field for agriculture.
+The straits of the Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably account for
+the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in principles of
+construction) a repetition on grand scale of the Maidan of the Afridi
+Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great amphitheatre of
+hills is collected and then arrested by the gorge which marks the
+outlet to the Bara.</p>
+
+<p>Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by
+draining a considerable area north of the snowy range&mdash;the Sutlej,
+the Kosi, the Gandak and the Subansiri, for example.
+All these rivers break through the main snowy range ere
+<span class="sidenote">General Himalayan formation is typical.</span>
+they twist their way through the southern hills to the
+plains of India. Here the &ldquo;antecedent&rdquo; theory will not
+suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of
+the snows to support it. Their formation is explained by a process
+of &ldquo;cutting back,&rdquo; by which the heads of these streams are gradually
+eating their way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the
+southern than on the northern slopes. The result of this process is
+well exhibited in the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and
+Tibetan sides of the passes to the Indus plateau. On the southern or
+Indian side the routes to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of
+Himalayan valleys with no remarkably steep gradients till they near
+the approach to the water-divide. The slope then steepens with the
+ascending curve to the summit of the pass, from which point it falls
+with a comparatively gentle gradient to the general level of the
+plateau. The Zoji La, the Kashmir water-divide between the
+Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent case in point, and all the passes
+from the Kumaon and Garhwal hills into Tibet exhibit this formation
+in a marked degree. Taking the average elevation of the central
+axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000 ft., the average height of the
+passes is not more than 10,000 owing to this process of cutting down
+by erosion and gradual encroachment into the northern basin.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:930px; height:148px" src="images/img472.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Section across the sub-Himalayan zone.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Meteorology.</i>&mdash;Independently of the enormous variety of topographical
+conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast
+altitude of the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of
+climate in ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by
+those observed in moving from the equator to the poles. One half of
+the total mass of the atmosphere and three-fourths of the water
+suspended in it in the form of vapour lie below the average altitude
+of the Himalaya; and of the residue, one-half of the air and virtually
+almost all the vapour come within the influence of the highest peaks.
+The regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the barometer
+and the annual and diurnal oscillations are as well marked in
+the Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in suspension
+diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than
+one-sixth (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot of
+the mountains is found at the greatest heights. This is dependent
+on the temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude.
+On the mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature,
+an elevation of 1000 ft. producing a fall of 3½°, or about 1° to each
+300 ft. The mean winter temperature at 7000 ft. (which is about the
+average height of Himalayan &ldquo;hill stations&rdquo;) is 44° F. and the
+summer mean about 65° F. At 9000 ft. the mean temperature of
+the coldest month is 32° F. At 12,000 ft. the thermometer never falls
+below freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of October,
+and at 15,000 ft. it is seldom above that point even in the height of
+summer. It should be noted that the thermometrical conditions of
+Tibet vary considerably from those of the Himalaya. At 12,000 ft.
+in Tibet the mean of the hottest month is about 60° F. and of the
+coldest about 10° F. whilst, at 15,000 ft. the frost is only permanent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span>
+from the end of October to the end of April. The distribution of
+vegetation and topographical conformation largely influence the
+question of local temperature. For instance it may be found that
+the difference of temperature between forest-clad ranges and the
+Indian plains is twice as much in April and May as in December or
+January; and the difference between the temperature of a well-wooded
+hill top and the open valley below may vary from 9° to 24°
+within twenty-four hours. The general relations of temperature to
+altitude as determined by Himalayan observations are as follows:
+(1) The decrease of temperature with altitude is most rapid in
+summer. (2) The annual range diminishes with the elevation.
+(3) The diurnal range diminishes with the elevation. Comparisons
+are, however, apt to become anomalous when applied to elevated
+zones with a dense covering of forest and a great quantity of cloud
+and open and uncloudy regions both above and below the forest-clad
+tracts.</p>
+
+<p>The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and
+October (<i>i.e.</i> the period of the monsoon rains of India), the remainder
+of the year being comparatively dry. The fall of rain
+over the great plain of northern India gradually diminishes
+<span class="sidenote">Rainfall.</span>
+in quantity, and begins later, as we pass from east to west.
+At the same time the rain is heavier as we approach the
+Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer ranges;
+but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the
+chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great
+line of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to
+be hardly susceptible of measurement. Diurnal currents of wind,
+which are established from the plains to the mountains during
+the day, and from the hills to the plains during the night, are important
+agents in distributing the rainfall. The condensation of
+vapour from the ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion
+as they are precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in
+the cloud effects produced during the monsoon, the southern or
+windward face of each range being clothed day after day with a
+white crest of cloud whilst the northern slopes are often left
+entirely free. This shows how large a proportion of the vapour is
+arrested and how it is that only by drifting through the deeper
+gorges can any moisture find its way to the Tibetan table-land.</p>
+
+<p>The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 60 and 70 in. in
+the delta of the Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river
+issues from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouchment
+of the Indus into the plains. At Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude)
+on the outer ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about
+120 in. At Naini Tal north of the United Provinces it is about 90 in.;
+at Simla about 80 in., diminishing still further as one approaches the
+north-western hills. All these stations are about the same altitude.</p>
+
+<p>In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is
+6000 ft. and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft. In Kumaon,
+on the west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level
+and occasionally to 2500 ft. Snow has been known to
+<span class="sidenote">Snowfall.</span>
+fall at Peshawar. At Leh, in western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow
+are usually registered and the fall on the passes between 17,000 and
+19,000 ft. is not generally more than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan
+passes farther east the falls are much heavier. Even in September
+these passes may be quite blocked and they are not usually open till
+the middle of June. The snow-line, or the level to which snow
+recedes in the course of the year, ranges from 15,000 to 16,000 ft. on
+the southern exposures of the Himalaya that carry perpetual snow,
+along all that part of the system that lies between Sikkim and the
+Indus. It is not till December that the snow begins to descend for
+the winter, although after September light falls occur which cover
+the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these soon disappear.
+On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than 18,500 ft. and on
+the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000 ft. On all the
+passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500 ft., and in
+August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400 ft.
+without finding any snow upon them; and it is as impossible to find
+snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the
+plains of India.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glaciers.</i>&mdash;The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is
+greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and
+elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and
+position of the mountain on which they are formed. Glaciers on the
+outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly
+the case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy
+range. The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are
+believed not to reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft. In
+Kumaon many of them descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft.
+In the higher valleys and Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary
+level at which they end, but there are exceptions which descend far
+lower. In Europe the glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft.
+below the snow-line, and in the Himalaya and Tibet about the same
+holds good. The summer temperatures of the points where the
+glaciers end on the Himalaya also correspond fairly with those of the
+corresponding positions in European glaciers, viz. for July a little
+below 60° F., August 58° and September 55°.</p>
+
+<p>Measurements of the movement of Himalayan glaciers give results
+according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in
+the Alps, viz. rates from 9½ to 14¼ in. in twenty-four hours. The
+motion of one glacier from the middle of May to the middle of October
+averaged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours. The dimensions of the
+glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the valleys
+descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with those of
+Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in length&mdash;8
+or 10 m. not being unusual. In the elevated valleys of northern
+Tibet, where the destructive action of the summer heat is far less,
+the development of the glaciers is enormous. At one locality in
+north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice
+extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the
+extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends. Another single
+glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long.</p>
+
+<p>The northern tributaries of the Gilgit river, which joins the Indus
+near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from
+a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its
+extent and magnificent proportions. Chief amongst them are the
+glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Muztagh
+mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount
+Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high). The Biafo glacier system, which
+lies in a long narrow trough extending south-west from Nagar on the
+Hunza to near the base of the Muztagh peaks, may be traced for
+90 m. between mountain walls which tower to a height of from 20,000
+to 25,000 ft. above sea-level on either side.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which
+precise accounts are forthcoming are ancient moraines indicating
+some previous condition in which their extent was much larger than
+now. In the east these moraines are very remarkable, extending
+8 or 10 m. In the west they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 m. reach.
+They have been observed on the summit of the table-land as well as
+on the Himalayan slope. The explanation suggested to account for
+the former great extension of glaciers in Norway would seem applicable
+here. Any modification of the coast-line which should submerge
+the area now occupied by the North Indian plain, or any
+considerable part of it, would be accompanied by a much wetter and
+more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow would fall on
+the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be brought to bear
+on the destruction of the glaciers, which would receive larger supplies
+and descend lower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Botany.</i>&mdash;Speaking broadly, the general type of the flora of the
+lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain
+at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger
+rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from
+that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and
+insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to
+west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and
+higher latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter
+cold increases. The vegetation of the western part of the plain and
+of the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely
+allied to, or almost identical with, that of the drier parts of the
+Indian peninsula, more especially of its hilly portions; and, while
+a general tropical character is preserved, forms are observed which
+indicate the addition of an Afghan as well as of an African element,
+of which last the gay lily <i>Gloriosa superba</i> is an example, pointing to
+some previous connexion with Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The European flora, which is diffused from the Mediterranean along
+the high lands of Asia, extends to the Himalaya; many European
+species reach the central parts of the chain, though few reach its
+eastern end, while genera common to Europe and the Himalaya are
+abundant throughout and at all elevations. From the opposite
+quarter an influx of Japanese and Chinese forms, such as the rhododendrons,
+the tea plant, <i>Aucuba</i>, <i>Helwingia</i>, <i>Skimmia</i>, <i>Adamia</i>,
+<i>Goughia</i> and others, has taken place, these being more numerous in
+the east and gradually disappearing in the west. On the higher and
+therefore cooler and less rainy ranges of the Himalaya the conditions
+of temperature requisite for the preservation of the various species
+are readily found by ascending or descending the mountain slopes,
+and therefore a greater uniformity of character in the vegetation is
+maintained along the whole chain. At the greater elevations the
+species identical with those of Europe become more frequent, and
+in the alpine regions many plants are found identical with species of
+the Arctic zone. On the Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness,
+a Siberian type is established, with many true Siberian species and
+more genera; and some of the Siberian forms are further disseminated,
+even to the plains of Upper India. The total absence of a few
+of the more common forms of northern Europe and Asia should also
+be noticed, among which may be named <i>Tilia</i>, <i>Fagus</i>, <i>Arbutus</i>, <i>Erica</i>,
+<i>Azalea</i> and <i>Cistacae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the more humid regions of the east the mountains are almost
+everywhere covered with a dense forest which reaches up to 12,000
+or 13,000 ft. Many tropical types here ascend to 7000 ft. or more.
+To the west the upper limit of forest is somewhat lower, from 11,500
+to 12,000 ft. and the tropical forms usually cease at 5000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>In Sikkim the mountains are covered with dense forest of tall
+umbrageous trees, commonly accompanied by a luxuriant growth
+of under shrubs, and adorned with climbing and epiphytal plants in
+wonderful profusion. In the tropical zone large figs abound, <i>Terminalia</i>,
+<i>Shorea</i> (sál), laurels, many <i>Leguminosae</i>, <i>Bombax</i>, <i>Artocarpus</i>,
+bamboos and several palms, among which species of Calamus are
+remarkable, climbing over the largest trees; and this is the western
+limit of <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Myristica</i> (nutmeg). Plantains ascend to 7000 ft.
+<i>Pandanus</i> and tree-ferns abound. Other ferns, <i>Scitamineae</i>, orchids
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+and climbing <i>Aroideae</i> are very numerous, the last named profusely
+adorning the forests with their splendid dark-green foliage. Various
+oaks descend within a few hundred feet of the sea-level, increasing in
+numbers at greater altitudes, and becoming very frequent at 4000 ft.,
+at which elevation also appear <i>Aucuba</i>, <i>Magnolia</i>, cherries, <i>Pyrus</i>,
+maple, alder and birch, with many <i>Araliaceae</i>, <i>Hollböllea</i>, <i>Skimmia</i>,
+<i>Daphne</i>, <i>Myrsine</i>, <i>Symplocos</i> and <i>Rubus</i>. Rhododendrons begin at
+about 6000 ft. and become abundant at 8000 ft., from 10,000 to 14,000
+ft. forming in many places the mass of the shrubby vegetation which
+extends some 2000 ft. above the forest. Epiphytal orchids are
+extremely numerous between 6000 and 8000 ft. Of the Coniferae,
+<i>Podocarpus</i> and <i>Pinus longifolia</i> alone descend to the tropical zone;
+<i>Abies Brunoniana</i> and <i>Smithiana</i> and the larch (a genus not seen in
+the western mountains) are found at 8000, and the yew and <i>Picea
+Webbiana</i> at 10,000 ft. <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, which occurs in Bhutan, is
+absent in the wetter climate of Sikkim.</p>
+
+<p>On the drier and higher mountains of the interior of the chain, the
+forests become more open, and are spread less uniformly over the
+hill-sides, a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation appears, and the number
+of shrubby <i>Leguminosae</i>, such as <i>Desmodium</i> and <i>Indigofera</i>, increases,
+as well as <i>Ranunculaceae</i>, <i>Rosaceae</i>, <i>Umbelliferae</i>, <i>Labiatae</i>,
+<i>Gramineae</i>, <i>Cyperaceae</i> and other European genera.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the westward, and viewing the flora of Kumaon, which
+province holds a central position on the chain, on the 80th meridian,
+we find that the gradual decrease of moisture and increase of high
+summer heat are accompanied by a marked change of the vegetation.
+The tropical forest is characterized by the trees of the hotter and
+drier parts of southern India, combined with a few of European type.
+Ferns are more rare, and the tree-ferns have disappeared. The
+species of palm are also reduced to two or three, and bamboos, though
+abundant, are confined to a few species.</p>
+
+<p>The outer ranges of mountains are mainly covered with forests of
+<i>Pinus longifolia</i>, rhododendron, oak and <i>Pieris</i>. At Naini Tal cypress
+is abundant. The shrubby vegetation comprises <i>Rosa</i>, <i>Rubus</i>,
+<i>Indigofera</i>, <i>Desmodium</i>, <i>Berberis</i>, <i>Boehmeria</i>, <i>Viburnum</i>, <i>Clematis</i>,
+with an <i>Arundinaria</i>. Of herbaceous plants species of <i>Ranunculus</i>,
+<i>Potentilla</i>, <i>Geranium</i>, <i>Thalictrum</i>, <i>Primula</i>, <i>Gentiana</i> and many other
+European forms are common. In the less exposed localities, on
+northern slopes and sheltered valleys, the European forms become
+more numerous, and we find species of alder, birch, ash, elm, maple,
+holly, hornbeam, <i>Pyrus</i>, &amp;c. At greater elevations in the interior,
+besides the above are met <i>Corylus</i>, the common walnut, found wild
+throughout the range, horse chestnut, yew, also <i>Picea Webbiana</i>,
+<i>Pinus excelsa</i>, <i>Abies Smithiana</i>, <i>Cedrus Deodara</i> (which tree does not
+grow spontaneously east of Kumaon), and several junipers. The
+denser forests are commonly found on the northern faces of the higher
+ranges, or in the deeper valleys, between 8000 and 10,500 ft. The
+woods on the outer ranges from 3000 up to 7000 ft. are more open,
+and consist mainly of evergreen trees.</p>
+
+<p>The herbaceous vegetation does not differ greatly, generically,
+from that of the east, and many species of <i>Primulaceae</i>, <i>Ranunculaceae</i>,
+<i>Cruciferae</i>, <i>Labiatae</i> and <i>Scrophulariaceae</i> occur; balsams
+abound, also beautiful forms of <i>Campanulaceae</i>, <i>Gentiana</i>, <i>Meconopsis</i>,
+<i>Saxifraga</i> and many others.</p>
+
+<p>Cultivation hardly extends above 7000 ft., except in the valleys
+behind the great snowy peaks, where a few fields of buckwheat and
+Tibetan barley are sown up to 11,000 or 12,000 ft. At the lower
+elevations rice, maize and millets are common, wheat and barley at a
+somewhat higher level, and buckwheat and amaranth usually on the
+poorer lands, or those recently reclaimed from forest. Besides these,
+most of the ordinary vegetables of the plains are reared, and potatoes
+have been introduced in the neighbourhood of all the British stations.</p>
+
+<p>As we pass to the west the species of rhododendron, oak and
+<i>Magnolia</i> are much reduced in number as compared to the eastern
+region, and both the Malayan and Japanese forms are much less
+common. The herbaceous tropical and semi-tropical vegetation
+likewise by degrees disappears, the <i>Scitamineae</i>, epiphytal and
+terrestrial <i>Orchideae</i>, <i>Araceae</i>, <i>Cyrtandraceae</i> and <i>Begoniae</i> only occur
+in small numbers in Kumaon, and scarcely extend west of the Sutlej.
+In like manner several of the western forms suited to drier climates
+find their eastern limit in Kumaon. In Kashmir the plane and
+Lombardy poplar flourish, though hardly seen farther east, the cherry
+is cultivated in orchards, and the vegetation presents an eminently
+European cast. The alpine flora is slower in changing its character
+as we pass from east to west, but in Kashmir the vegetation of the
+higher mountains hardly differs from that of the mountains of
+Afghanistan, Persia and Siberia, even in species.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of flowering plants inhabiting the range amounts
+probably to 5000 or 6000 species, among which may be reckoned
+several hundred common English plants chiefly from the temperate
+and alpine regions; and the characteristic of the flora as a whole is
+that it contains a general and tolerably complete illustration of
+almost all the chief natural families of all parts of the world, and
+has comparatively few distinctive features of its own.</p>
+
+<p>The timber trees of the Himalaya are very numerous, but few of
+them are known to be of much value. The &ldquo;Sál&rdquo; is one of the most
+valuable of the trees; with the &ldquo;Toon&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sissoo,&rdquo; it grows in
+the outer ranges most accessible from the plains. The &ldquo;Deodar&rdquo;
+is also much used, but the other pines produce timber that is not
+durable. Bamboos grow everywhere along the outer ranges, and
+rattans to the eastward, and are largely exported for use in the plains
+of India.</p>
+
+<p>Though one species of coffee is indigenous in the hotter Himalayan
+forests, the climate does not appear suitable for the growth of the
+plant which supplies the coffee of commerce. The cultivation of tea,
+however, is carried on successfully on a large scale, both in the east
+and west of the mountains. In the western Himalaya the cultivated
+variety of the tea plant of China succeeds well; on the east the
+indigenous tea of Assam, which is not specifically different, and is
+perhaps the original parent of the Chinese variety, is now almost
+everywhere preferred. The produce of the Chinese variety in the hot
+and wet climate of the eastern Himalaya, Assam and eastern Bengal
+is neither so abundant nor so highly flavoured as that of the indigenous
+plant.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of the cinchona, several species of which have been
+introduced from South America and naturalized in the Sikkim
+Himalaya, promises to yield at a comparatively small cost an ample
+supply of the febrifuge extracted from its bark. At present the
+manufacture is almost wholly in the hands of the Government, and
+the drug prepared is all disposed of in India.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zoology.</i>&mdash;The general distribution of animal life is determined by
+much the same conditions that have controlled the vegetation.
+The connexion with Europe on the north-west, with China on the
+north-east, with Africa on the south-west, and with the Malayan
+region on the south-east is manifest; and the greater or less prevalence
+of the European and Eastern forms varies according to more
+western or eastern position on the chain. So far as is known these
+remarks will apply to the extinct as well as to the existing fauna.
+The Palaeozoic forms found in the Himalaya are very close to those
+of Europe, and in some cases identical. The Triassic fossils are still
+more closely allied, more than a third of the species being identical.
+Among the Jurassic Mollusca, also, are many species that are common
+in Europe. The Siwalik fossils contain 84 species of mammals of
+45 genera, the whole bearing a marked resemblance to the Miocene
+fauna of Europe, but containing a larger number of genera still
+existing, especially of ruminants, and now held to be of Pliocene age.</p>
+
+<p>The fauna of the Tibetan Himalaya is essentially European or
+rather that of the northern half of the old continent, which region has
+by zoologists been termed Palaearctic. Among the characteristic
+animals may be named the yak, from which is reared a cross breed
+with the ordinary horned cattle of India, many wild sheep, and two
+antelopes, as well as the musk-deer; several hares and some burrowing
+animals, including pikas (<i>Lagomys</i>) and two or three species of
+marmot; certain arctic forms of carnivora&mdash;fox, wolf, lynx, ounce,
+marten and ermine; also wild asses. Among birds are found
+bustard and species of sand-grouse and partridge; water-fowl in
+great variety, which breed on the lakes in summer and migrate to
+the plains of India in winter; the raven, hawks, eagles and owls,
+a magpie, and two kinds of chough; and many smaller birds of the
+passerine order, amongst which are several finches. Reptiles, as
+might be anticipated, are far from numerous, but a few lizards are
+found, belonging for the most part to types, such as <i>Phrynocephalus</i>,
+characteristic of the Central-Asiatic area. The fishes from the headwaters
+of the Indus also belong, for the most part, to Central-Asiatic
+types, with a small admixture of purely Himalayan forms. Amongst
+the former are several peculiar small-scaled carps, belonging to the
+genus <i>Schizothorax</i> and its allies.</p>
+
+<p>The ranges of the Himalaya, from the border of Tibet to the
+plains, form a zoological region which is one of the richest of the
+world, particularly in respect to birds, to which the forest-clad
+mountains offer almost every range of temperature.</p>
+
+<p>Only two or three forms of monkey enter the mountains, the
+langur, a species of <i>Semnopithecus</i>, ranging up to 12,000 ft. No
+lemurs occur, although a species is found in Assam, and another in
+southern India. Bats are numerous, but the species are for the most
+part not peculiar to the area; several European forms are found
+at the higher elevations. Moles, which are unknown in the Indian
+peninsula, abound in the forest regions of the eastern Himalayas at
+a moderate altitude, and shrews of several species are found almost
+everywhere; amongst them are two very remarkable forms of water-shrew,
+one of which, however, <i>Nectogale</i>, is probably Tibetan rather
+than Himalayan. Bears are common, and so are a marten, several
+weasels and otters, and cats of various kinds and sizes, from the little
+spotted <i>Felis bengalensis</i>, smaller than a domestic cat, to animals like
+the clouded leopard rivalling a leopard in size. Leopards are common,
+and the tiger wanders to a considerable elevation, but can hardly be
+considered a permanent inhabitant, except in the lower valleys.
+Civets, the mungoose (<i>Herpestes</i>), and toddy cats (<i>Paradoxurus</i>) are
+only found at the lower elevations. Wild dogs (<i>Cyon</i>) are common,
+but neither foxes nor wolves occur in the forest area. Besides these
+carnivora some very peculiar forms are found, the most remarkable
+of which is Aelurus, sometimes called the cat-bear, a type akin to the
+American racoon. Two other genera, <i>Helictis</i>, an aberrant badger,
+and linsang, an aberrant civet, are representatives of Malayan types.
+Amongst the rodents squirrels abound, and the so-called flying
+squirrels are represented by several species. Rats and mice swarm,
+both kinds and individuals being numerous, but few present much
+peculiarity, a bamboo rat (<i>Rhizomys</i>) from the base of the eastern
+Himalaya being perhaps most worthy of notice. Two or three
+species of vole (<i>Arvicola</i>) have been detected, and porcupines are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span>
+common. The elephant is found in the outer forests as far as the
+Jumna, and the rhinoceros as far as the Sarda; the spread of both
+of these animals as far as the Indus and into the plains of India, far
+beyond their present limits, is authenticated by historical records;
+they have probably retreated before the advance of cultivation and
+fire-arms. Wild pigs are common in the lower ranges, and one
+peculiar species of pigmy-hog (<i>Sus salvanius</i>) of very small size
+inhabits the forests at the base of the mountains in Nepál and
+Sikim. Deer of several kinds are met with, but do not ascend very
+high on the hillsides, and belong exclusively to Indian forms. The
+musk deer keeps to the greater elevations. The chevrotains of India
+and the Malay countries are unrepresented. The gaur or wild ox is
+found at the base of the hills. Three very characteristic ruminants,
+having some affinities with goats, inhabit the Himalaya; these are
+the &ldquo;serow&rdquo; (<i>Nemorhaedus</i>), &ldquo;goral&rdquo; (<i>Cemas</i>) and &ldquo;tahr&rdquo; (<i>Hemitragus</i>),
+the last-named ranging to rather high elevations. Lastly,
+the pangolin (<i>Manis</i>) is represented by two species in the eastern
+Himalaya. A dolphin (<i>Platanista</i>) living in the Ganges ascends that
+river and its affluents to their issue from the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all the orders of birds are well represented, and the
+marvellous variety of forms found in the eastern Himalaya is only
+rivalled in Central and South America. Eagles, vultures and other
+birds of prey are seen soaring high over the highest of the forest-clad
+ranges. Owls are numerous, and a small species, <i>Glaucidium</i>, is
+conspicuous, breaking the stillness of the night by its monotonous
+though musical cry of two notes. Several kinds of swifts and nightjars
+are found, and gorgeously-coloured trogons, bee-eaters, rollers,
+and beautiful kingfishers and barbets are common. Several large
+hornbills inhabit the highest trees in the forest. The parrots are
+restricted to parrakeets, of which there are several species, and
+a single small lory. The number of woodpeckers is very great
+and the variety of plumage remarkable, and the voice of the
+cuckoo, of which there are numerous species, resounds in the
+spring as in Europe. The number of passerine birds is immense.
+Amongst them the sun-birds resemble in appearance and
+almost rival in beauty the humming-birds of the New Continent.
+Creepers, nuthatches, shrikes, and their allied forms, flycatchers and
+swallows, thrushes, dippers and babblers (about fifty species), bulbuls
+and orioles, peculiar types of redstart, various sylviads, wrens,
+tits, crows, jays and magpies, weaver-birds, avadavats, sparrows,
+crossbills and many finches, including the exquisitely coloured rose-finches,
+may also be mentioned. The pigeons are represented by
+several wood-pigeons, doves and green pigeons. The gallinaceous
+birds include the peacock, which everywhere adorns the forest bordering
+on the plains, jungle fowl and several pheasants; partridges, of
+which the chikor may be named as most abundant, and snow-pheasants
+and partridges, found only at the greatest elevations.
+Waders and waterfowl are far less abundant, and those occurring are
+nearly all migratory forms which visit the peninsula of India&mdash;the
+only important exception being two kinds of solitary snipe and the
+red-billed curlew.</p>
+
+<p>Of the reptiles found in these mountains many are peculiar. Some
+of the snakes of India are to be seen in the hotter regions, including
+the python and some of the venomous species, the cobra being found
+as high up as 8000 or 9000 ft., though not common. Lizards are
+numerous, and as well as frogs are found at all elevations from the
+plains to the upper Himalayan valleys, and even extend to Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>The fishes found in the rivers of the Himalaya show the same
+general connexion with the three neighbouring regions, the Palaearctic,
+the African and the Malayan. Of the principal families, the
+<i>Acanthopterygii</i>, which are abundant in the hotter parts of India,
+hardly enter the mountains, two genera only being found, of which
+one is the peculiar amphibious genus <i>Ophiocephalus</i>. None of these
+fishes are found in Tibet. The <i>Siluridae</i>, or scaleless fishes, and the
+<i>Cyprinidae</i>, or carp and loach, form the bulk of the mountain fish,
+and the genera and species appear to be organized for a mountain-torrent
+life, being almost all furnished with suckers to enable them
+to maintain their positions in the rapid streams which they inhabit.
+A few <i>Siluridae</i> have been found in Tibet, but the carps constitute
+the larger part of the species. Many of the Himalayan forms are
+Indian fish which appear to go up to the higher streams to deposit
+their ova, and the Tibetan species as a rule are confined to the rivers
+on the table-land or to the streams at the greatest elevations, the
+characteristics of which are Tibetan rather than Himalayan. The
+<i>Salmonidae</i> are entirely absent from the waters of the Himalaya
+proper, of Tibet and of Turkestan east of the Terektag.</p>
+
+<p>The Himalayan butterflies are very numerous and brilliant, for the
+most part belonging to groups that extend both into the Malayan
+and European regions, while African forms also appear. There are
+large and gorgeous species of <i>Papilio</i>, <i>Nymphalidae</i>, <i>Morphidae</i> and
+<i>Danaidae</i>, and the more favoured localities are described as being only
+second to South America in the display of this form of beauty and
+variety in insect life. Moths, also, of strange forms and of great size
+are common. The cicada&rsquo;s song resounds among the woods in the
+autumn; flights of locusts frequently appear after the summer, and
+they are carried by the prevailing winds even among the glaciers and
+eternal snows. Ants, bees and wasps of many species, and flies and
+gnats abound, particularly during the summer rainy season, and at
+all elevations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mountain Scenery.</i>&mdash;Much has been written about the impressiveness
+of Himalayan scenery. It is but lately, however, that any
+adequate conception of the magnitude and majesty of the most
+stupendous of the mountain groups which mass themselves about
+the upper tributaries and reaches of the Indus has been presented to
+us in the works of Sir F. Younghusband, Sir W. M. Conway, H. C. B.
+Tanner and D. Freshfield. It is not in comparison with the picturesque
+beauty of European Alpine scenery that the Himalaya appeals
+to the imagination, for amongst the hills of the outer Himalaya&mdash;the
+hills which are known to the majority of European residents and
+visitors&mdash;there is often a striking absence of those varied incidents
+and sharp contrasts which are essential to picturesqueness in
+mountain landscape. Too often the brown, barren, sun-scorched
+ridges are obscured in the yellow dust haze which drifts upwards
+from the plains; too often the whole perspective of hill and vale is
+blotted out in the grey mists that sweep in soft, resistless columns
+against these southern slopes, to be condensed and precipitated in
+ceaseless, monotonous rainfall. Few Europeans really see the
+Himalaya; fewer still are capable of translating their impressions
+into language which is neither exaggerated nor inadequate.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the magnitude of Himalayan mountain construction&mdash;a
+magnitude which the eye totally fails to appreciate&mdash;may,
+however, be gathered from the following table of comparison of the
+absolute height of some peaks above sea-level with the actual amount
+of their slopes exposed to view:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Relative Extent of Snow Slopes Visible.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Name of Mountain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Place of Observation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Height<br />above<br />sea.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount<br />of Slope<br />exposed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Everest</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dewanganj</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Everest</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sandakphu</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">K<span class="su">2</span> or Godwin-Austen</td> <td class="tcl rb">Between Gilgit and Gor, 16,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pk. XIII. or Makalu</td> <td class="tcl rb">Purnea, 200 ft</td> <td class="tcc rb">27,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pk. XIII. or Makalu</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sandakphu, 12,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nanga Parbat</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gor, 16,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">26,656</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tirach Mir</td> <td class="tcl rb">Between Gilgit and Chitral, 8000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">17-18,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rakapushi</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chaprot (Gilgit), 13,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,560</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kinchinjunga</td> <td class="tcl rb">Darjeeling, 7000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,146</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mont Blanc</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Above Chamonix, 7000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15,781</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,500</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">It will be observed from this table that it is not often that a greater
+slope of snow-covered mountain side is observable in the Himalaya
+than that which is afforded by the familiar view of Mont Blanc from
+Chamonix.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Drew, <i>Jammu and Kashmir</i> (London, 1875);
+G. W. Leitner, <i>Dardistan</i> (1887); J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes of the Hindu
+Kush</i> (Calcutta, 1880); H. H. Godwin-Austen, &ldquo;Mountain Systems
+of the Himalaya,&rdquo; vols. v. and vi. <i>Proc. R. G. S.</i> (1883-1884);
+C. Ujfalvy, <i>Aus dem westlichen Himalaya</i> (Leipzig, 1884); H. C. B.
+Tanner, &ldquo;Our Present Knowledge of the Himalaya,&rdquo; vol. xiii. <i>Proc.
+R. G. S.</i> (1891); R. D. Oldham, &ldquo;The Evolution of Indian Geography,&rdquo;
+vol. iii. <i>Jour. R. G. S.</i>; W. Lawrence, <i>Kashmir</i> (Oxford,
+1895); Sir W. M. Conway, <i>Climbing and Exploring in the Karakoram</i>
+(London, 1898); F. Bullock Workman, <i>In the Ice World of Himalaya</i>
+(1900); F. B. and W. H. Workman, <i>Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh</i>
+(1908); D. W. Freshfield, <i>Round Kangchenjunga</i> (1903).</p>
+
+<p>For geology see R. Lydekker, &ldquo;The Geology of Káshmir,&rdquo; &amp;c.,
+<i>Mem. Geol. Surv. India</i>, vol. xxii. (1883); C. S. Middlemiss,
+&ldquo;Physical Geology of the Sub-Himálaya of Gahrwal and Kumaon,&rdquo;
+<i>ibid.</i>, vol. xxiv. pt. 2 (1890); C. L. Griesbach, <i>Geology of the Central
+Himálayas</i>, vol. xxiii. (1891); R. D. Oldham, <i>Manual of the Geology
+of India</i>, chap. xviii. (2nd ed., 1893). Descriptions of the fossils,
+with some notes on stratigraphical questions, will be found in
+several of the volumes of the <i>Palaeontologia Indica</i>, published by the
+Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIMERA,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> a city on the north coast of Sicily, on a hill above the
+east bank of the Himeras Septentrionalis. It was founded in
+648 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Chalcidian inhabitants of Zancle, in company
+with many Syracusan exiles. Early in the 5th century the
+tyrant Terillas, son-in-law of Anaxilas of Rhegium and Zancle,
+appealed to the Carthaginians, who came to his assistance, but
+were utterly defeated by Gelon of Syracuse in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>&mdash;on the
+same day, it is said, as the battle of Salamis. Thrasydaeus, son
+of Theron of Agrigentum, seems to have ruled the city oppressively,
+but an appeal made to Hiero of Syracuse, Gelon&rsquo;s brother,
+was betrayed by him to Theron; the latter massacred all his
+enemies and in the following year resettled the town. In 415 it
+refused to admit the Athenian fleet and remained an ally of
+Syracuse. In 408 the Carthaginian invading army under
+Hannibal, after capturing Selinus, invested and took Himera
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+and razed the city to the ground, founding a new town close to the
+hot springs (Thermae Himeraeae), 8 m. to the west. The only
+relic of the ancient town now visible above ground is a small
+portion (four columns, lower diameter 7 ft.) of a Doric temple, the
+date of which (whether before or after 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is uncertain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIMERIUS<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 315-386), Greek sophist and rhetorician,
+was born at Prusa in Bithynia. He completed his education at
+Athens, whence he was summoned to Antioch in 362 by the
+emperor Julian to act as his private secretary. After the death
+of Julian in the following year Himerius returned to Athens,
+where he established a school of rhetoric, which he compared
+with that of Isocrates and the Delphic oracle, owing to the
+number of those who flocked from all parts of the world to hear
+him. Amongst his pupils were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil
+the Great, bishop of Caesarea. In recognition of his merits,
+civic rights and the membership of the Areopagus were conferred
+upon him. The death of his son Rufinus (his lament for whom,
+called <span class="grk" title="monôdia">&#956;&#959;&#957;&#8179;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>, is extant) and that of a favourite daughter
+greatly affected his health; in his later years he became blind
+and he died of epilepsy. Although a heathen, who had been
+initiated into the mysteries of Mithra by Julian, he shows no
+prejudice against the Christians. Himerius is a typical representative
+of the later rhetorical schools. Photius (cod. 165, 243
+Bekker) had read 71 speeches by him, of 36 of which he has given
+an epitome; 24 have come down to us complete and fragments
+of 10 or 12 others. They consist of epideictic or &ldquo;display&rdquo;
+speeches after the style of Aristides, the majority of them
+having been delivered on special occasions, such as the arrival of
+a new governor, visits to different cities (Thessalonica, Constantinople),
+or the death of friends or well-known personages. The
+<i>Polemarchicus</i>, like the <i>Menexenus</i> of Plato and the <i>Epitaphios</i>
+<i>Logos</i> of Hypereides, is a panegyric of those who had given their
+lives for their country; it is so called because it was originally
+the duty of the polemarch to arrange the funeral games in
+honour of those who had fallen in battle. Other declamations,
+only known from the excerpts in Photius, were imaginary orations
+put into the mouth of famous persons&mdash;Demosthenes advocating
+the recall of Aeschines from banishment, Hypereides supporting
+the policy of Demosthenes, Themistocles inveighing against the
+king of Persia, an orator unnamed attacking Epicurus for
+atheism before Julian at Constantinople. Himerius is more of a
+poet than a rhetorician, and his declamations are valuable as
+giving prose versions or even the actual words of lost poems by
+Greek lyric writers. The prose poem on the marriage of Severus
+and his greeting to Basil at the beginning of spring are quite in the
+spirit of the old lyric. Himerius possesses vigour of language and
+descriptive powers, though his productions are spoilt by too
+frequent use of imagery, allegorical and metaphorical obscurities,
+mannerism and ostentatious learning. But they are valuable
+for the history and social conditions of the time, although
+lacking the sincerity characteristic of Libanius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Eunapius, <i>Vitae sophistarum</i>; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i>; editions by G.
+Wernsdorf (1790), with valuable introduction and commentaries,
+and by F. Dübner (1849) in the Didot series; C. Teuber, <i>Quaestiones
+Himerianae</i> (Breslau, 1882); on the style, E. Norden, <i>Die antike
+Kunstprosa</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1823-1906), French historian
+and geographer, was born at Strassburg on the 28th of March
+1823. After studying in his native town and taking the university
+course in Berlin (1842-1843) he went to Paris, and passed first
+in the examination for fellowship (<i>agrégation</i>) of the <i>lycées</i>
+(1845), first in the examinations on leaving the École des Chartes,
+and first in the examination for fellowship of the faculties (1849).
+In 1849 he took the degree of doctor of letters with two theses,
+one of which, <i>Wala et Louis le Débonnaire</i> (published in Paris
+in 1849), placed him in the front rank of French scholars in the
+province of Carolingian history. Soon, however, he turned
+his attention to the study of geography. In 1858 he obtained
+an appointment as teacher of geography at the Sorbonne, and
+henceforth devoted himself to that subject. It was not till
+1876 that he published, in two volumes, his remarkable <i>Histoire
+de la formation territoriale des états de l&rsquo;Europe centrale</i>, in which
+he showed with a firm, but sometimes slightly heavy touch,
+the reciprocal influence exerted by geography and history.
+While the work gives evidence throughout of wide and well-directed
+research, he preferred to write it in the form of a
+student&rsquo;s manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained
+him admission to the Institute in 1881. In that year he was
+appointed dean of the faculty of letters, and for ten years he
+directed the intellectual life of that great educational centre
+during its development into a great scientific body. He died
+at Sèvres on the 6th of October 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1765-1814), German composer,
+was born on the 20th of November 1765 at Treuenbrietzen
+in Brandenburg, Prussia, and originally studied theology
+at Halle. During a temporary stay at Potsdam he had an
+opportunity of showing his self-acquired skill as a pianist before
+King Frederick William II., who thereupon made him a yearly
+allowance to enable him to complete his musical studies. This
+he did under Naumann, a German composer of the Italian school,
+and the style of that school Himmel himself adopted in his serious
+operas. The first of these, a pastoral opera, <i>Il Primo Navigatore</i>,
+was produced at Venice in 1794 with great success. In 1792
+he went to Berlin, where his oratorio <i>Isaaco</i> was produced, in
+consequence of which he was made court Kapellmeister to the
+king of Prussia, and in that capacity wrote a great deal of official
+music, including cantatas, and a coronation Te Deum. His
+Italian operas, successively composed for Stockholm, St Petersburg
+and Berlin, were all received with great favour in their
+day. Of much greater importance than these is an operetta
+to German words by Kotzebue, called <i>Fanchon</i>, an admirable
+specimen of the primitive form of the musical drama known
+in Germany as the <i>Singspiel</i>. Himmel&rsquo;s gift of writing genuine
+simple melody is also observable in his songs, amongst which
+one called &ldquo;To Alexis&rdquo; is the best. He died in Berlin on the
+8th of June 1814.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINCKLEY,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a market town in the Bosworth parliamentary
+division of Leicestershire, England, 14½ m. S.W. from Leicester
+on the Nuneaton-Leicester branch of the London &amp; North-Western
+railway, and near the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal. Pop.
+of urban district (1901), 11,304. The town is well situated on
+a considerable eminence. Among the principal buildings are
+the church of St Mary, a Decorated and Perpendicular structure,
+with lofty tower and spire; the Roman Catholic academy
+named St Peter&rsquo;s Priory, and a grammar school. The ditch
+of a castle erected by Hugh de Grentismenil in the time of William
+Rufus is still to be traced. Hinckley is the centre of a stocking-weaving
+district, and its speciality is circular hose. It also
+possesses a boot-making industry, brick and tile works, and
+lime works. There are mineral springs in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINCKS, EDWARD<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1792-1866), British assyriologist, was
+born at Cork, Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin.
+He took orders in the Protestant Church of Ireland, and was
+rector of Killyleagh, Down, from 1825 till his death on the 3rd
+of December 1866. Hincks devoted his spare time to the study
+of hieroglyphics, and to the deciphering of the cuneiform script
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cuneiform</a></span>), in which he was a pioneer, working out contemporaneously
+with Sir H. Rawlinson, and independently
+of him, the ancient Persian vowel system. He published a
+number of original and scholarly papers on assyriological
+questions of the highest value, chiefly in the <i>Transactions</i> of
+the Royal Irish Academy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1807-1885), Canadian statesman,
+was born at Cork, Ireland, the son of an Irish Presbyterian
+minister. In 1832 he engaged in business in Toronto, became
+a friend of Robert Baldwin, and in 1835 was chosen to examine
+the accounts of the Welland Canal, the management of which
+was being attacked by W. L. Mackenzie. This turned his attention
+to political life and in 1838 he founded the <i>Examiner</i>, a
+weekly paper in the Liberal interest. In 1841 he was elected
+M.P. for the county of Oxford, and in the following year was
+appointed inspector-general, the title then borne by the finance
+minister, but in 1843 resigned with Baldwin and the other
+ministers on the question of responsible government. In 1848
+he again became inspector-general in the Baldwin-Lafontaine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span>
+ministry, and on their retirement in 1851 became premier of
+Canada, his chief colleague being A. N. Morin (1803-1865).
+While premier he was prominent in the negotiations which led
+to the construction of the Grand Trunk railway, and in co-operation
+with Lord Elgin negotiated with the United States
+the reciprocity treaty of 1854. In the same year the bitter
+hostility of the &ldquo;Clear Grits&rdquo; under George Brown compelled
+his resignation, and he was prominent in the formation of the
+Liberal-Conservative Party. In 1855 he was chosen governor
+of Barbados and the Windward Islands, and subsequently
+governor of British Guiana. In 1869 he was created K.C.M.G.
+and returned to Canada, becoming till 1873 finance minister
+in the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. In February of that
+year he resigned, but continued to take an active part in public
+life. In 1879 the failure of the Consolidated Bank of Canada,
+of which he was president, led to his being tried for issuing false
+statements. Though found guilty on a technicality (see <i>Journal</i>
+of the Canadian Bankers&rsquo; Association, April 1906) judgment
+was suspended, his personal credit remained unimpaired, and
+he continued to take part in the discussion of public questions
+till his death on the 18th of August 1885.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His writings include: <i>The Political History of Canada between 1840
+and 1855</i> (1877); <i>The Political Destiny of Canada</i> (1878), and his
+<i>Reminiscences</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINCMAR<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 805-882), archbishop of Reims, one of the
+most remarkable figures in the ecclesiastical history of France,
+belonged to a noble family of the north or north-east of Gaul.
+Destined, doubtless, to the monastic life, he was brought up at
+St Denis under the direction of the abbot Hilduin (d. 844), who
+brought him in 822 to the court of the emperor Louis the Pious.
+When Hilduin was disgraced in 830 for having joined the party of
+Lothair, Hincmar accompanied him into exile at Corvey in
+Saxony, but returned with him to St Denis when the abbot was
+reconciled with the emperor, and remained faithful to the emperor
+during his struggle with his sons. After the death of Louis the
+Pious (840) Hincmar supported Charles the Bald, and received
+from him the abbacies of Notre-Dame at Compiègne and St
+Germer de Fly. In 845 he obtained through the king&rsquo;s support
+the archbishopric of Reims, and this choice was confirmed at
+the synod of Beauvais (April 845). Archbishop Ebbo, whom he
+replaced, had been deposed in 835 at the synod of Thionville
+(Diedenhofen) for having broken his oath of fidelity to the emperor
+Louis, whom he had deserted to join the party of Lothair. After
+the death of Louis, Ebbo succeeded in regaining possession of his
+see for some years (840-844), but in 844 Pope Sergius II. confirmed
+his deposition. It was in these circumstances that
+Hincmar succeeded, and in 847 Pope Leo IV. sent him the
+pallium.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first cares of the new prelate was the restitution to
+his metropolitan see of the domains that had been alienated under
+Ebbo and given as benefices to laymen. From the beginning of
+his episcopate Hincmar was in constant conflict with the clerks
+who had been ordained by Ebbo during his reappearance. These
+clerks, whose ordination was regarded as invalid by Hincmar and
+his adherents, were condemned in 853 at the council of Soissons,
+and the decisions of that council were confirmed in 855 by Pope
+Benedict III. This conflict, however, bred an antagonism of
+which Hincmar was later to feel the effects. During the next
+thirty years the archbishop of Reims played a very prominent
+part in church and state. His authoritative and energetic will
+inspired, and in great measure directed, the policy of the west
+Frankish kingdom until his death. He took an active part in
+all the great political and religious affairs of his time, and was
+especially energetic in defending and extending the rights of the
+church and of the metropolitans in general, and of the metropolitan
+of the church of Reims in particular. In the resulting
+conflicts, in which his personal interest was in question, he
+displayed great activity and a wide knowledge of canon law, but
+did not scruple to resort to disingenuous interpretation of texts.
+His first encounter was with the heresiarch Gottschalk, whose
+predestinarian doctrines claimed to be modelled on those of St
+Augustine. Hincmar placed himself at the head of the party
+that regarded Gottschalk&rsquo;s doctrines as heretical, and succeeded
+in procuring the arrest and imprisonment of his adversary (849).
+For a part at least of his doctrines Gottschalk found ardent
+defenders, such as Lupus of Ferrières, the deacon Florus and
+Amolo of Lyons. Through the energy and activity of Hincmar
+the theories of Gottschalk were condemned at Quierzy (853) and
+Valence (855), and the decisions of these two synods were confirmed
+at the synods of Langres and Savonnières, near Toul
+(859). To refute the predestinarian heresy Hincmar composed
+his <i>De praedestinatione Dei et libero arbitrio</i>, and against
+certain propositions advanced by Gottschalk on the Trinity he
+wrote a treatise called <i>De una et non trina deitate</i>. Gottschalk
+died in prison in 868. The question of the divorce of Lothair II.,
+king of Lorraine, who had repudiated his wife Theutberga to
+marry his concubine Waldrada, engaged Hincmar&rsquo;s literary
+activities in another direction. At the request of a number of
+great personages in Lorraine he composed in 860 his <i>De divortio
+Lotharii et Teutbergae</i>, in which he vigorously attacked, both
+from the moral and the legal standpoints, the condemnation
+pronounced against the queen by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(February 860). Hincmar energetically supported the policy of
+Charles the Bald in Lorraine, less perhaps from devotion to the
+king&rsquo;s interests than from a desire to see the whole of the ecclesiastical
+province of Reims united under the authority of a single
+sovereign, and in 869 it was he who consecrated Charles at Metz
+as king of Lorraine.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the 9th century there appeared in Gaul the
+collection of false decretals commonly known as the Pseudo-Isidorian
+Decretals. The exact date and the circumstances of the
+composition of the collection are still an open question, but it is
+certain that Hincmar was one of the first to know of their existence,
+and apparently he was not aware that the documents were forged.
+The importance assigned by these decretals to the bishops and the
+provincial councils, as well as to the direct intervention of the
+Holy See, tended to curtail the rights of the metropolitans, of
+which Hincmar was so jealous. Rothad, bishop of Soissons, one of
+the most active members of the party in favour of the pseudo-Isidorian
+theories, immediately came into collision with his
+archbishop. Deposed in 863 at the council of Soissons, presided
+over by Hincmar, Rothad appealed to Rome. Pope Nicholas I.
+supported him zealously, and in 865, in spite of the protests of the
+archbishop of Reims, Arsenius, bishop of Orta and legate of the
+Holy See, was instructed to restore Rothad to his episcopal see.
+Hincmar experienced another check when he endeavoured to
+prevent Wulfad, one of the clerks deposed by Ebbo, from obtaining
+the archbishopric of Bourges with the support of Charles the
+Bald. After a synod held at Soissons, Nicholas I. pronounced
+himself in favour of the deposed clerks, and Hincmar was constrained
+to make submission (866). He was more successful in
+his contest with his nephew Hincmar, bishop of Laon, who was
+at first supported both by the king and by his uncle, the archbishop
+of Reims, but soon quarrelled with both. Hincmar of
+Laon refused to recognize the authority of his metropolitan, and
+entered into an open struggle with his uncle, who exposed his
+errors in a treatise called <i>Opusculum LV. capitulorum</i>, and procured
+his condemnation and deposition at the synod of Douzy
+(871). The bishop of Laon was sent into exile, probably to
+Aquitaine, where his eyes were put out by order of Count Boso.
+Pope Adrian protested against his deposition, but it was confirmed
+in 876 by Pope John VIII., and it was not until 878, at the
+council of Troyes, that the unfortunate prelate was reconciled
+with the Church. A serious conflict arose between Hincmar on
+the one side and Charles and the pope on the other in 876, when
+Pope John VIII., at the king&rsquo;s request, entrusted Ansegisus,
+archbishop of Sens, with the primacy of the Gauls and of
+Germany, and created him vicar apostolic. In Hincmar&rsquo;s eyes
+this was an encroachment on the jurisdiction of the archbishops,
+and it was against this primacy that he directed his treatise
+<i>De jure metropolitanorum</i>. At the same time he wrote a life of St
+Remigius, in which he endeavoured by audacious falsifications to
+prove the supremacy of the church of Reims over the other
+churches. Charles the Bald, however, upheld the rights of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span>
+Ansegisus at the synod of Ponthion. Although Hincmar had
+been very hostile to Charles&rsquo;s expedition into Italy, he figured
+among his testamentary executors and helped to secure the submission
+of the nobles to Louis the Stammerer, whom he crowned
+at Compiègne (8th of December 877).</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Louis, Hincmar played an obscure part.
+He supported the accession of Louis III. and Carloman, but had
+a dispute with Louis, who wished to instal a candidate in the
+episcopal see of Beauvais without the archbishop&rsquo;s assent. To
+Carloman, on his accession in 882, Hincmar addressed his <i>De
+ordine palatii</i>, partly based on a treatise (now lost) by Adalard,
+abbot of Corbie (<i>c.</i> 814), in which he set forth his system of government
+and his opinion of the duties of a sovereign, a subject he
+had already touched in his <i>De regis persona et regio ministerio</i>,
+dedicated to Charles the Bald at an unknown date, and in his
+<i>Instructio ad Ludovicum regem</i>, addressed to Louis the Stammerer
+on his accession in 877. In the autumn of 832 an irruption of
+the Normans forced the old archbishop to take refuge at Epernay,
+where he died on the 21st of December 882. Hincmar was a
+prolific writer. Besides the works already mentioned, he was the
+author of several theological tracts; of the <i>De villa Noviliaco</i>,
+concerning the claiming of a domain of his church; and he continued
+from 861 the <i>Annales Bertiniani</i>, of which the first part
+was written by Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, the best source for
+the history of Charles the Bald. He also wrote a great number
+of letters, some of which are extant, and others embodied in the
+chronicles of Flodoard.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hincmar&rsquo;s works, which are the principal source for the history
+of his life, were collected by Jacques Sirmond (Paris, 1645), and
+reprinted by Migne, <i>Patrol. Latina</i>, vol. cxxv. and cxxvi. See also
+C. von Noorden, <i>Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims</i> (Bonn, 1863), and,
+especially, H. Schrörs, <i>Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims</i> (Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
+1884). For Hincmar&rsquo;s political and ecclesiastical
+theories see preface to Maurice Prou&rsquo;s edition of the <i>De ordine palatii</i>
+(Paris, 1885), and the abbé Lesné, <i>La Hiérarchie épiscopale en Gaule
+et en Germanie</i> (Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Po.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIND,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> the female of the red-deer, usually taken as being
+three years old and over, the male being known as a &ldquo;hart.&rdquo;
+It is sometimes also applied to the female of other species of
+deer. The word appears in several Teutonic languages, cf.
+Dutch and Ger. <i>Hinde</i>, and has been connected with the Goth.
+<i>hinÞan</i> (<i>hinthan</i>), to seize, which may be connected ultimately
+with &ldquo;hand&rdquo; and &ldquo;hunt.&rdquo; &ldquo;Hart,&rdquo; from the O.E. <i>heort</i>, may
+be in origin connected with the root of Gr. <span class="grk" title="keras">&#954;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#962;</span>, horn.
+&ldquo;Hind&rdquo; (O.E. <i>hine</i>, probably from the O.E. <i>hinan</i>, members
+of a family or household), meaning a servant, especially a
+labourer on a farm, is another word. In Scotland the &ldquo;hind&rdquo;
+is a farm servant, with a cottage on the farm, and duties and
+responsibilities that make him superior to the rest of the
+labourers. Similarly &ldquo;hind&rdquo; is used in certain parts of
+northern England as equivalent to &ldquo;bailiff.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1804-1872), Prussian
+general, was born at Wernigerode near Halberstadt on the
+18th of July 1804. He was the son of a priest and received a
+good education. His earlier life was spent in great poverty,
+and the struggle for existence developed in him an iron strength
+of character. Entering the Prussian artillery in 1820 he became
+an officer in 1825. From 1830 to 1837 he attended the Allgemeine
+Kriegsakademie at Berlin, and in 1841, while still a subaltern,
+he was posted to the great General Staff, in which he afterwards
+directed the topographical section. In 1849 he served with the
+rank of major on the staff of General Peucker, who commanded
+a federal corps in the suppression of the Baden insurrection. He
+fell into the hands of the insurgents at the action of Ladenburg,
+but was released just before the fall of Rastadt. In the Danish
+war of 1864 Hindersin, now lieutenant-general, directed the
+artillery operations against the lines of Düppel, and for his
+services was ennobled by the king of Prussia. Soon afterwards
+he became inspector-general of artillery. His experience at
+Düppel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore
+gun were past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting
+zeal to the rearmament and reorganization of the Prussian
+artillery. The available funds were small, and grudgingly
+voted by the parliament. There was a strong feeling moreover
+that the smooth-bore was still tactically superior to its rival
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, § 19). There was no practical training for
+war in either the field or the fortress artillery units. The latter
+had made scarcely any progress since the days of Frederick
+the Great, and before von Hindersin&rsquo;s appointment had practised
+with the same guns in the same bastion year after year. All
+this was altered, the whole &ldquo;foot-artillery&rdquo; was reorganized,
+manoeuvres were instituted, and the smooth-bores were, except
+for ditch defence, eliminated from the armament of the Prussian
+fortresses. But far more important was his work in connexion
+with the field and horse batteries. In 1864 only one battery
+in four had rifled guns, but by the unrelenting energy of von
+Hindersin the outbreak of war with Austria one and a half
+years later found the Prussians with ten in every sixteen batteries
+armed with the new weapon. But the battles of 1866 showed,
+besides the superiority of the rifled gun, a very marked absence
+of tactical efficiency in the Prussian artillery, which was almost
+always outmatched by that of the enemy. Von Hindersin
+had pleaded, in season and out of season, for the establishment
+of a school of gunnery; and in spite of want of funds, such
+a school had already been established. After 1866, however,
+more support was obtained, and the improvement in the Prussian
+field artillery between 1866 and 1870 was extraordinary, even
+though there had not been time for the work of the school to
+leaven the whole arm. Indeed, the German artillery played
+by far the most important part in the victories of the Franco-German
+war. Von Hindersin accompanied the king&rsquo;s headquarters
+as chief of artillery, as he had done in 1866, and was present
+at Gravelotte, Sedan and the siege of Paris. But his work,
+which was now accomplished, had worn out his physical powers,
+and he died on the 23rd of January 1872 at Berlin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bartholomäus, <i>Der General der Infanterie von Hindersin</i>
+(Berlin, 1895), and Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, <i>Letters
+on Artillery</i> (translated by Major Walford, R.A.), No. xi.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIND&#298;, EASTERN,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> one of the &ldquo;intermediate&rdquo; Indo-Aryan
+languages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). It is spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand
+and Chhattisgarh by over 22,000,000 people. It is derived
+from the Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a form of Ardham&#257;gadh&#299; Prakrit (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), and possesses a large and important literature. Its
+most famous writer was Tuls&#299; D&#257;s, the poet and reformer,
+who died early in the 17th century, and since his time it has
+been the North-Indian language employed for epic poetry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIND&#298;, WESTERN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the Indo-Aryan language of the middle
+and upper Gangetic Doab, and of the country to the north
+and south. It is the vernacular of over 40,000,000 people. Its
+standard dialect is Braj Bh&#257;sh&#257;, spoken near Muttra, which
+has a considerable literature mainly devoted to the religion
+founded on devotion to Krishna. Another dialect spoken
+near Delhi and in the upper Gangetic Doab is the original from
+which Hindostani, the great <i>lingua franca</i> of India, has developed
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). Western Hind&#299;, like Punjabi, its neighbour
+to the west, is descended from the Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a form of &#346;auras&#275;n&#299;
+Prakrit (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), and represents the language of the
+Madhyad&#275;&#347;a or Midland, as distinct from the intermediate
+and outer Indo-Aryan languages.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDKI,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> the name given to the Hindus who inhabit Afghanistan.
+They are of the Khatri class, and are found all over
+the country even amongst the wildest tribes. Bellew in his
+<i>Races of Afghanistan</i> estimates their number at about 300,000.
+The name Hindki is also loosely used on the upper Indus,
+in Dir, Bajour, &amp;c., to denote the speakers of Punjabi or any
+of its dialects. It is sometimes applied in a historical sense
+to the Buddhist inhabitants of the Peshawar Valley north of
+the Kabul river, who were driven thence about the 5th or
+6th century and settled in the neighbourhood of Kandahar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDLEY,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> an urban district in the Ince parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 2 m. E.S.E. of Wigan, on the
+Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901)
+23,504. Cotton spinning and the manufacture of cotton goods
+are the principal industries, and there are extensive coal-mines
+in the neighbourhood. It is recorded that in the time of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span>
+Puritan revolution Hindley church was entered by the Cavaliers,
+who played at cards in the pews, pulled down the pulpit and
+tore the Bible in pieces.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDOSTANI<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (properly <i>Hind&#333;st&#257;ni</i>, of or belonging to
+Hindostan<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the name given by Europeans to an Indo-Aryan
+dialect (whose home is in the upper Gangetic Doab and near
+the city of Delhi), which, owing to political causes, has become
+the great <i>lingua franca</i> of modern India. The name is not
+employed by natives of India, except as an imitation of the
+English nomenclature. Hindostani is by origin a dialect of
+Western Hindi, and it is first of all necessary to explain what
+we mean by the term &ldquo;Hindi&rdquo; as applied to language. Modern
+Indo-Aryan languages fall into three groups,&mdash;an outer band,
+the language of the Midland and an intermediate band. The
+Midland consists of the Gangetic Doab and of the country to
+its immediate north and south, extending, roughly speaking,
+from the Eastern Punjab on the west, to Cawnpore on its east.
+The language of this tract is called &ldquo;Western Hindi&rdquo;; to its
+west we have Panjabi (of the Central Punjab), and to the east,
+reaching as far as Benares, Eastern Hindi, both Intermediate
+languages. These three will all be dealt with in the present
+article. Panjabi and Western Hindi are derived from &#346;auras&#275;n&#299;,
+and Eastern Hindi from Ardham gadh&#257; Prakrit, through the
+corresponding Apabhra&#7745;&#347;as (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>). Eastern Hindi
+differs in many respects from the two others, but it is customary
+to consider it together with the language of the Midland, and
+this will be followed on the present occasion. In 1901 the speakers
+of these three languages numbered: Panjabi, 17,070,961; Western
+Hindi, 40,714,925; Eastern Hindi, 22,136,358.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linguistic Boundaries.</i>&mdash;Taking the tract covered by these
+three forms of speech, it has to its west, in the western Punjab,
+Lannd&#257; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sindhi</a></span>), a language of the Outer band. The
+parent of Lahnd&#257; once no doubt covered the whole of the
+Punjab, but, in the process of expansion of the tribes of the
+Midland described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>,
+it was gradually driven back, leaving traces of its former existence
+which grow stronger as we proceed westwards, until at
+about the 74th degree of east longitude there is a mixed, transition
+dialect. To the west of that degree Lahnd&#257; may be said
+to be established, the deserts of the west-central Punjab forming
+a barrier and protecting it, just as, farther south, a continuation
+of the same desert has protected Sindhi from Rajasthani. It
+is the old traces of Lahnd&#257; which mainly differentiate Panjabi
+from Hindostani. To the south of Panjabi and Western Hindi
+lies Rajasthani. This language arose in much the same way
+as Panjabi. The expanding Midland language was stopped by
+the desert from reaching Sindhi, but to the south-west it found an
+unobstructed way into Gujarat, where, under the form of Gujarati,
+it broke the continuity of the Outer band. Eastern Hindi,
+as an Intermediate form of speech, is of much older lineage.
+It has been an Intermediate language since, at least, the institution
+of Jainism (say, 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and is much less subject to the
+influence of the Midland than is Panjabi. To its east it has
+Bihari, and, stretching far to the south, it has Marathi as its
+neighbour in that direction, both of these being Outer languages.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dialects.</i>&mdash;The only important dialect of Eastern Hindi
+is Awadh&#299;, spoken in Oudh, and possessing a large literature of
+great excellence. Chhatt&#299;sga&#7771;h&#299; and Bagh&#275;l&#299;, the other dialects,
+have scanty literatures of small value. Western Hindi has four
+main dialects, Bund&#275;l&#299; of Bundelkhand, Braj Bhasha (properly
+&ldquo;Braj Bh&#257;&#7779;&#257;&rdquo;) of the country round Mathura (Muttra), Kanauj&#299;
+of the central Doab and the country to its north, and vernacular
+Hindostani of Delhi and the Upper Doab. West of the Upper
+Doab, across the Jumna, another dialect, B&#257;ngar&#363;, is also found.
+It possesses no literature. Kanauji is very closely allied to
+Braj Bhasha, and these two share with Awadhi the honour
+of being the great literary speeches of northern India. Nearly
+all the classical literature of India is religious in character,
+and we may say that, as a broad rule, Awadhi literature is devoted
+to the Ramaite religion and the epic poetry connected with it,
+while that of Braj Bhasha is concerned with the religion of
+Krishna. Vernacular Hindostani has no literature of its own,
+but as the <i>lingua franca</i> now to be described it has a large
+one. Panjabi has one dialect, D&#333;gr&#299;, spoken in the Himalayas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hindostani as a Lingua Franca.</i>&mdash;It has often been said that
+Hindostani is a mongrel &ldquo;pigeon&rdquo; form of speech made up
+of contributions from the various languages which met in Delhi
+bazaar, but this theory has now been proved to be unfounded,
+owing to the discovery of the fact that it is an actual living
+dialect of Western Hindi, existing for centuries in its present
+habitat, and the direct descendant of &#346;auras&#275;n&#299; Prakrit. It
+is not a typical dialect of that language, for, situated where it
+is, it represents Western Hindi merging into Panjabi (Braj
+Bhasha being admittedly the standard of the language), but to
+say that it is a mongrel tongue thrown together in the market
+is to reverse the order of events. It was the natural language
+of the people in the neighbourhood of Delhi, who formed the
+bulk of those who resorted to the bazaar, and hence it became
+the bazaar language. From here it became the <i>lingua franca</i>
+of the Mogul camp and was carried everywhere in India by the
+lieutenants of the empire. It has several recognized varieties,
+amongst which we may mention Dakhin&#299;, Urd&#363;, R&#275;<span class="un">kh</span>ta and
+Hind&#299;. Dakhini or &ldquo;southern,&rdquo; is the form current in the south
+of India, and was the first to be employed for literature. It
+contains many archaic expressions now extinct in the standard
+dialect. Urdu, or <i>Urd&#363; zab&#257;n</i>, &ldquo;the language of the camp,&rdquo;
+is the name usually employed for Hindostani by natives, and
+is now the standard form of speech used by Mussulmans. All
+the early Hindostani literature was in poetry, and this literary
+form of speech was named &ldquo;R&#275;<span class="un">kh</span>ta,&rdquo; or &ldquo;scattered,&rdquo; from the
+way in which words borrowed from Persian were &ldquo;scattered&rdquo;
+through it. The name is now reserved for the dialect used in
+poetry, Urdu being the dialect of prose and of conversation.
+The introduction of these borrowed words, which has been
+carried to even a greater extent in Urdu, was facilitated by the
+facts that the latter was by origin a &ldquo;camp&rdquo; language, and that
+Persian was the official language of the Mogul court. In this
+way Persian (and, with Persian, Arabic) words came into current
+use, and, though the language remained Indo-Aryan in its
+grammar and essential characteristics, it soon became unintelligible
+to any one who had not at least a moderate acquaintance
+with the vocabulary of Iran. This extreme Persianization
+of Urdu was due rather to Hindu than to Persian influence.
+Although Urdu literature was Mussulman in its origin, the
+Persian element was first introduced in excess by the pliant
+Hindu officials employed in the Mogul administration, and
+acquainted with Persian, rather than by Persians and Persianized
+Moguls, who for many centuries used only their own
+languages for literary purposes.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Prose Urdu literature took its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+origin in the English occupation of India and the need for text-books
+for the college of Fort William. It has had a prosperous
+career since the commencement of the 19th century, but some
+writers, especially those of Lucknow, have so overloaded it with
+Persian and Arabic that little of the original Indo-Aryan character
+remains, except, perhaps, an occasional pronoun or auxiliary
+verb. The Hindi form of Hindostani was invented simultaneously
+with Urdu prose by the teachers at Fort William. It
+was intended to be a Hindostani for the use of Hindus, and was
+derived from Urdu by ejecting all words of Persian or Arabic
+birth, and substituting for them words either borrowed from
+Sanskrit (<i>tatsamas</i>) or derived from the old primary Prakrit
+(<i>tadbhavas</i>) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>). Owing to the popularity
+of the first book written in it, and to its supplying the
+need for a <i>lingua franca</i> which could be used by the most patriotic
+Hindus without offending their religious prejudices, it became
+widely adopted, and is now the recognized vehicle for writing
+prose by those inhabitants of northern India who do not employ
+Urdu. This Hindi, which is an altogether artificial product of the
+English, is hardly ever used for poetry. For this the indigenous
+dialects (usually Awadhi or Braj Bhasha) are nearly always
+employed by Hindus. Urdu, on the other hand, having had a
+natural growth, has a vigorous poetical literature. Modern
+Hindi prose is often disfigured by that too free borrowing of
+Sanskrit words instead of using home-born <i>tadbhavas</i>, which
+has been the ruin of Bengali, and it is rapidly becoming a Hindu
+counterpart of the Persianized Urdu, neither of which is intelligible
+except to persons of high education.</p>
+
+<p>Not only has Urdu adopted a Persian vocabulary, but even
+a few peculiarities of Persian construction, such as reversing
+the positions of the governing and the governed word (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>báp m&#275;r&#257;</i> for <i>m&#275;r&#257; b&#257;p</i>), or of the adjective and the substantive
+it qualifies, or such as the use of Persian phrases with the preposition
+<i>ba</i> instead of the native postposition of the ablative
+case (<i>e.g.</i> <i>ba-<span class="un">kh</span>ushí</i> for <i><span class="un">kh</span>ush&#299;-s&#275;</i>, or <i>ba-&#7717;ukm sark&#257;r-k&#275;</i> instead
+of <i>sark&#257;r-k&#275; &#7717;ukm-s&#275;</i>) are to be met with in many writings;
+and these, perhaps, combined with the too free indulgence on
+the part of some authors in the use of high-flown and pedantic
+Persian and Arabic words in place of common and yet chaste
+Indian words, and the general use of the Persian instead of the
+N&#257;gar&#299; character, have induced some to regard Hindostani or
+Urdu as a language distinct from Hindi. But such a view
+betrays a radical misunderstanding of the whole question. We
+must define Urdu as the Persianized Hindostani of educated
+Mussulmans, while Hindi is the Sanskritized Hindostani of
+educated Hindus. As for the written character, Urdu, from
+the number of Persian words which it contains, can only be
+written conveniently in the Persian character, while Hindi,
+for a parallel reason, can only be written in the Nagari or one
+of its related alphabets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>). On the other hand,
+&ldquo;Hindostani&rdquo; implies the great <i>lingua franca</i> of India, capable
+of being written in either character, and, without purism,
+avoiding the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words
+when employed for literature. It is easy to write this Hindostani,
+for it has an opulent vocabulary of <i>tadbhava</i> words understood
+everywhere by both Mussulmans and Hindus. While &ldquo;Hindostani,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Urdu&rdquo; and &ldquo;Hindi&rdquo; are thus names of dialects, it
+should be remembered that the terms &ldquo;Western Hindi&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Eastern Hindi&rdquo; connote, not dialects, but languages.</p>
+
+<p>The epoch of Akbar, which first saw a regular revenue system
+established, with toleration and the free use of their religion to
+the Hindus, was, there can be little doubt, the period of the
+formation of the language. But its final consolidation did not
+take place till the reign of Shah Jah&#257;n. After the date of this
+monarch the changes are comparatively immaterial until we
+come to the time when European sources began to mingle
+with those of the East. Of the contributions from these sources
+there is little to say. Like the greater part of those from Arabic
+and Persian, they are chiefly nouns, and may be regarded rather
+as excrescences which have sprung up casually and have attached
+themselves to the original trunk than as ingredients duly incorporated
+in the body. In the case of the Persian and Arabic
+element, indeed, we do find not a few instances in which nouns
+have been furnished with a Hindi termination, <i>e.g.</i> <i><span class="un">kh</span>ar&#299;dn&#257;</i>,
+<i>badaln&#257;</i>, <i>guzarn&#257;</i>, <i>d&#257;<span class="un">gh</span>n&#257;</i>, <i>ba<span class="un">kh</span>shna&#257;</i>, <i>kam&#299;napan</i>, &amp;c.; but the
+European element cannot be said to have at all woven itself
+into the grammar of the language. It consists, as has been
+observed, solely of nouns, principally substantive nouns, which
+on their admission into the language are spelt phonetically,
+or according to the corrupt pronunciation they receive in the
+mouths of the natives, and are declined like the indigenous
+nouns by means of the usual postpositions or case-affixes. A
+few examples will suffice. The Portuguese, the first in order of
+seniority, contributes a few words, as <i>kamar&#257;</i> or <i>kamr&#257;</i> (<i>camera</i>),
+a room; <i>m&#257;rt&#333;l</i> (<i>martello</i>), a hammer; <i>n&#299;l&#257;m</i> (<i>leilão</i>), an auction,
+&amp;c. &amp;c. Of French and Dutch influence scarcely a trace exists.
+English has contributed a number of words, some of which have
+even found a place in the literature of the language; <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>kamishanar</i> (commissioner); <i>jaj</i> (judge); <i>&#7693;&#257;k&#7789;ar</i> (doctor);
+<i>&#7693;&#257;k&#7789;ar&#299;</i>, &ldquo;the science of medicine&rdquo; or &ldquo;the profession of
+physicians&rdquo;; <i>insp&#275;k&#7789;ar</i> (inspector); <i>is&#7789;an&#7789;</i> (assistant); <i>s&#333;saya&#7789;í</i>
+(society); <i>ap&#299;l</i> (appeal); <i>ap&#299;l karn&#257;</i>, &ldquo;to appeal&rdquo;; <i>&#7693;ikr&#299;</i> or
+<i>&#7693;igr&#299;</i> (decree); <i>&#7693;igr&#299;</i> (degree); <i>inc</i> (inch); <i>fut</i> (foot); and
+many more, are now words commonly used. Some borrowed
+words are distorted into the shape of genuine Hindostani words
+familiar to the speakers; <i>e.g.</i> the English railway term &ldquo;signal&rdquo;
+has become <i>sikandar</i>, the native name for Alexander the Great,
+and &ldquo;signal-man&rdquo; is <i>sikandar-m&#257;n</i>, or &ldquo;the pride of Alexander.&rdquo;
+How far the free use of Anglicisms will be adopted as the language
+progresses is a question upon which it would be hazardous to
+pronounce an opinion, but of late years it has greatly increased
+in the language of the educated, especially in the case of technical
+terms. A native veterinary surgeon once said to the present
+writer, &ldquo;<i>kutt&#275;-k&#257; saliva bahut antiseptic hai</i>&rdquo; for &ldquo;a dog&rsquo;s
+saliva is very antiseptic,&rdquo; and this is not an extravagant
+example.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The vocabulary of Panjabi and Eastern Hindi is very similar
+to that of Western Hindi. Panjabi has no literature to speak
+of and is free from the burden of words borrowed from Persian
+or Sanskrit, only the commonest and simplest of such being found
+in it. Its vocabulary is thus almost entirely <i>tadbhava</i>, and,
+while capable of expressing all ideas, it has a charming rustic
+flavour, like the Lowland Scotch of Burns, indicative of the
+national character of the sturdy peasantry that employs it.
+Eastern Hindi is very like Panjabi in this respect, but for a
+different reason. In it were written the works of Tuls&#299; D&#257;s,
+one of the greatest writers that India has produced, and his
+influence on the language has been as great as that of Shakespeare
+on English. The peasantry are continually quoting
+him without knowing it, and his style, simple and yet vigorous,
+thoroughly Indian and yet free from purism, has set a model
+which is everywhere followed except in the large towns where
+Urdu or Sanskritized Hindi prevails. Eastern Hindi is written
+in the N&#257;gar&#299; alphabet, or in the current character related to
+it called &ldquo;Kaithi&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>). The indigenous alphabet of
+the Punjab is called <i>La&#7751;&#7693;&#257;</i> or &ldquo;clipped.&rdquo; It is related to N&#257;gar&#299;,
+but is hardly legible to any one except the original writer, and
+sometimes not even to him. To remedy this defect an improved
+form of the alphabet was devised in the 16th century by Angad,
+the fifth Sikh Guru, for the purpose of recording the Sikh scriptures.
+It was named <i>Gurmukh&#299;</i>, &ldquo;proceeding from the mouth of
+the Guru,&rdquo; and is now generally used for writing the language.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Grammar.</i>&mdash;In the following account we use these contractions:
+Skr. = Sanskrit; &emsp; Pr. = Prakrit; &emsp; Ap. = Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a; &emsp; W.H. =
+Western Hindi; &emsp; E.H. = Eastern Hindi; &emsp; H. = Hindostani; &emsp; Br. =
+Braj Bhasha; &emsp; P. = Panjabi.</p>
+
+<p>(A) <i>Phonetics.</i>&mdash;The phonetic system of all three languages is
+nearly the same as that of the Apabhra&#7745;&#347;as from which they are
+derived. With a few exceptions, to be noted below, the letters of the
+alphabets of the three languages are the same as in Sanskrit.
+Panjabi, and the western dialects of Western Hindi, have preserved
+the old Vedic cerebral l. There is a tendency for concurrent vowels
+to run into each other, and for the semi-vowels y and v to become
+vowels. Thus, Skr. <i>carmak&#257;ras</i>, Ap. <i>camma&#257;ru</i>, a leather-worker,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+becomes H. <i>cam&#257;r</i>; Skr. <i>rajani</i>, Ap. <i>ra(y)a&#7751;i</i>, H. <i>rain</i>, night; Skr.
+<i>dhavalakas</i>, Ap. <i>dhavalau</i>, H. <i>dhaul&#257;</i>, white. Sometimes the semi-vowel
+is retained, as in Skr. <i>k&#257;taras</i>, Ap. <i>k&#257;(y)aru</i>, H. <i>k&#257;yar</i>, a
+coward. Almost the only compound consonants which survived
+in the Pr. stage were double letters, and in W.H. and E.H. these
+are usually simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened and
+sometimes nasalized, in compensation. P., on the other hand, prefers
+to retain the double consonant. Thus, Skr. <i>karma</i>, Ap. <i>kammu</i>,
+W.H. and E.H. <i>k&#257;m</i>, but P. <i>kamm</i>, a work; Skr. <i>satyas</i>, Ap. <i>saccu</i>,
+W.H. and E.H. <i>s&#257;c</i>, but P. <i>sacc</i>, true (H., being the W.H. dialect
+which lies nearest to P., often follows that language, and in this
+instance has <i>sacc</i>, usually written <i>sac</i>); Skr. <i>hastas</i>, Ap. <i>hatthu</i>,
+W.H. and E.H. <i>h&#257;th</i>, but P. <i>hatth</i>, a hand. The nasalization of vowels
+is very frequent in all three languages, and is here represented by the
+sign ~ over the vowel. Sometimes it is compensatory, as in <i>s<span class="ov">ã</span>c</i>,
+but it often represents an original <i>m</i>, as in <i>kawãl</i> from Skr. <i>kamalas</i>,
+a lotus. Final short vowels quiesce in prose pronunciation, and are
+usually not written in transliteration; thus the final <i>a</i>, <i>i</i> or <i>u</i> has
+been lost in all the examples given above, and other <i>tatsama</i> examples
+are Skr. <i>mati</i>-which becomes <i>mat</i>, mind, and Skr. <i>vastu</i>-, which becomes
+<i>bast</i>, a thing. In all poetry, however (except in the Urd&#363;
+poetry formed on Persian models, and under the rules of Persian
+prosody), they reappear and are necessary for the scansion.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>tadbhava</i> words an original long vowel in any syllable earlier
+than the penultimate is shortened. In P. and H. when the long vowel
+is <i>&#275;</i> or <i>&#333;</i> it is shortened to <i>i</i> or <i>u</i> respectively, but in other W.H.
+dialects and in E.H. it is shortened to <i>e</i> or <i>o</i>; thus, <i>b&#275;&#7789;&#299;</i>, daughter,
+long form H. <i>bi&#7789;iy&#257;</i>, E.H. <i>be&#7789;iy&#257;</i>; <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i>, mare, long form H. <i>ghu&#7771;iy&#257;</i>,
+E.H. <i>gho&#7771;iy&#257;</i>. The short vowels <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> are very rare in P. and H.,
+but are not uncommon (though ignored by most grammars) in E.H.
+and the other W.H. dialects. A medial <i>&#7693;</i> is pronounced as a strongly
+burred cerebral <i>&#7771;</i>, and is then written as shown, with a supposited
+dot. All these changes and various contractions of Prakrit syllables
+have caused considerable variations in the forms of words, but
+generally not so as to obscure the origin.</p>
+
+<p>(B) <i>Declension.</i>&mdash;The nominative form of a <i>tadbhava</i> word is derived
+from the nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but <i>tatsama</i>
+words are usually borrowed in the form of the Skr. crude base; thus,
+Skr. <i>hastin</i>-, nom. <i>hast&#299;</i>, Ap. nom. <i>hatth&#299;</i>, H. <i>h&#257;th&#299;</i>, an elephant;
+Skr. base <i>mati</i>-, nom. <i>matis</i>, H. (<i>tatsama</i>) <i>mati</i>, or, with elision of the
+final short vowel, <i>mat</i>. Some <i>tatsamas</i> are, however, borrowed in the
+nominative form, as in Skr. <i>dhanin</i>-, nom. <i>dhan&#299;</i>, H. <i>dhan&#299;</i>, a rich
+man. As another example of a <i>tadbhava</i> word, we may take the
+Skr. nom. <i>gh&#333;&#7789;as</i>, Ap. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;u</i>, H. <i>gh&#333;&#7771;</i>, a horse. Here again the final
+short vowel has been elided, but in old poetry we should find <i>gh&#333;&#7771;u</i>,
+and corresponding forms in <i>u</i> are occasionally met with at the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> attention is drawn to the frequent use of
+pleonastic suffixes, especially -<i>ka</i>- (fem.-<i>(i)k&#257;</i>).
+With such a suffix we have the Skr. <i>gh&#333;&#7789;a-kas</i>,
+Ap. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;a-u</i>, Western Hindi <i>gho&#7771;au</i>, or in P.
+and H. (which is the W.H. dialect nearest in
+locality to P.) <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i>, a horse; Skr. <i>gh&#333;&#7789;i-k&#257;</i>,
+Ap. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;i-&#257;</i>, W.H. and P. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;</i>, a mare.
+Such modern forms made with one pleonastic
+suffix are called &ldquo;strong forms,&rdquo; while
+those made without it are called &ldquo;weak
+forms.&rdquo; All strong forms end in <i>au</i> (or <i>&#257;</i>)
+in the masculine, and in <i>&#299;</i> in the feminine,
+whereas, in Skr., and hence in <i>tatsamas</i>, both <i>&#257;</i>
+and <i>&#299;</i> are generally typical of feminine words,
+though sometimes employed for the masculine.
+It is shown in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> that
+these pleonastic suffixes can be doubled, or
+even trebled, and in this way we have a new
+series of <i>tadbhava</i> forms. Let us take the
+imaginary Skr. *<i>gh&#333;&#7789;a-ka-kas</i> with a double
+suffix. From this we have the Ap. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;a-a-u</i>,
+and modern <i>gho&#7771;aw&#257;</i> (with euphonic <i>w</i> inserted),
+a horse. Similarly for the feminine
+we have Skr. *<i>gh&#333;&#7789;i-ka-k&#257;</i>, Ap. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;i-a-&#257;</i>,
+modern <i>gho&#7771;iy&#257;</i> (with euphonic <i>y</i> inserted), a
+mare. Such forms, made with two suffixes,
+are called &ldquo;long forms,&rdquo; and are heard in
+familiar conversation, the feminine also serving as diminutives.
+There is a further stage, built upon three suffixes, and called the
+&ldquo;redundant form,&rdquo; which is mainly used by the vulgar. As a rule
+masculine long forms end in -<i>aw&#257;</i>, -<i>iy&#257;</i> or -<i>u&#257;</i>, and feminines in -<i>iy&#257;</i>,
+although the matter is complicated by the occasional use of pleonastic
+suffixes other than the -<i>ka</i>- which we have taken for our example,
+and is the most common. Strong forms are rarely met with in E.H.,
+but on the other hand long forms are more common in that language.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few feminine terminations of weak nouns which may
+be noted. These are -<i>in&#299;</i>, -<i>in</i>, -<i>an</i>, -<i>n&#299;</i> (Skr. -<i>in&#299;</i>, Pr. <i>-i&#7751;&#299;</i>); and
+-<i>&#257;n&#299;</i>, -<i>&#257;ni</i>, -<i>&#257;in</i> (Skr. -<i>&#257;n&#299;</i>, Pr. -<i>&#257;&#7751;&#299;</i>). These are found not only in
+words derived from Prakrit, but are added to Persian and even
+Arabic words; thus, <i>hathin&#299;</i>, <i>hathn&#299;</i>, <i>h&#257;thin</i> (Skr. <i>hastin&#299;</i>, Pr. <i>hatthi&#7751;&#299;</i>),
+a she-elephant; <i>sun&#257;rin</i>, <i>sun&#257;ran</i>, a female goldsmith (<i>s&#333;n&#257;r</i>);
+<i>sh&#275;rn&#299;</i>, a tigress (Persian <i>sh&#275;r</i>, a tiger); <i>Na&#7779;&#299;ban</i>, a proper name
+(Arabic <i>na&#7779;&#299;b</i>); <i>pa&#7751;&#7693;it&#257;n&#299;</i>, the wife of a <i>pa&#7751;&#7693;it</i>; <i>caudhr&#257;in</i>, the
+wife of a <i>caudhr&#299;</i> or head man; <i>mehtr&#257;n&#299;</i>, the wife of a sweeper
+(Pres. <i>mehtar</i>, a sweeper). With these exceptions weak forms rarely
+have any terminations distinctive of gender.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has disappeared.
+We see it in the actual stage of disappearance in Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), in which the case terminations had become worn down
+to -<i>hu</i>, -<i>ho</i>, -<i>hi</i>, -<i>h&#299;</i> and -<i>hã</i>, of which -<i>hi</i> and -<i>h<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i> were employed for
+several cases, both singular and plural. There was also a marked
+tendency for these terminations to be confused, and in the earliest
+stages of the modern vernaculars we find -<i>hi</i> freely employed for
+any oblique case of the singular, and -<i>h<span class="ov">&#299;</span></i> for any oblique case of the
+plural, but more especially for the genitive and the locative. In the
+case of modern weak nouns these terminations have disappeared
+altogether in W.H. and P. except in sporadic forms of the locative
+such as <i>g<span class="ov">ã</span>w&#275;</i> (for <i>g<span class="ov">ã</span>wahi</i>), in the village. In E.H. they are still
+heard as the termination of a form which can stand for any oblique
+case, and is called the &ldquo;oblique form&rdquo; or the &ldquo;oblique case.&rdquo;
+Thus, from <i>ghar</i>, a house (a weak noun), we have W.H. and P.
+oblique form <i>ghar</i>, E.H. <i>gharahi</i>, <i>ghar&#275;</i> or <i>ghar</i>. In the plural, the
+oblique form is sometimes founded on the Ap. terminations -<i>hã</i> and -<i>hu</i>,
+and sometimes on the Skr. termination of the genitive plural -<i>&#257;n&#257;m</i>
+(Pr. -<i>&#257;&#7751;a</i>, -<i>a&#7751;ha&#7747;</i>), as in P. <i>ghar<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, W.H. <i>ghara<span class="ov">&#363;</span></i>, <i>ghar<span class="ov">õ</span></i>,
+<i>gharani</i>, E.H. <i>gharan</i>. In the case of masculine weak forms, the
+plural nominative has dropped the old termination, except in
+E.H., where it has adopted the oblique plural form for this case
+also, thus <i>gharan</i>. The nominative plural of feminine weak forms
+follows the example of the masculine in E.H. In P. it also takes
+the oblique plural form, while in W.H. it takes the old singular
+oblique form in -<i>a<span class="ov">h</span>&#297;</i>, which it weakens to <i>a&#297;</i> or (H.) <i><span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i>; thus <i>b&#257;t</i>
+(fem.), a word, nom. plur. E.H. <i>b&#257;t-an</i>, P. <i>b&#257;t-<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, W.H. <i>b&#257;ta&#297;</i> or (H.)
+<i>b&#257;te</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Strong masculine bases in Ap. ended in -<i>a-a</i> (nom. -<i>a-u</i>); thus
+<i>gh&#333;&#7693;a-a</i>- (nom. <i>gh&#333;&#7693;a-u</i>), and adding -<i>hi</i> we get <i>gh&#333;&#7693;a-a-hi</i>, which
+becomes contracted <i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;hi</i> and finally to <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i>. The nominative
+plural is the same as the oblique singular, except in E.H. where it
+follows the oblique plural. The oblique plural of all closely follows
+in principle the weak forms. Feminine strong forms in Ap. ended
+in -<i>i-&#257;</i>, contracted to <i>&#299;</i> in the modern languages. Except in E.H.
+the -<i>hi</i> of the original oblique form singular disappears, so that we
+have E.H. <i>gh&#333;&#7771;ihi</i> or <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i>, others only <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i>. The nominative
+plural of feminine strong forms exhibits some irregularities. In
+E.H., as usual, it follows the plural oblique forms. In W.H. (except
+Hindostani) it simply nasalizes the oblique form singular (<i>i.e.</i> adds -<i>h<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i>
+instead of -<i>hi</i>), as in <i>gh&#333;r<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i>, but first on line looks like -h<span class="ov">&#297;</span>]. P. and H. adopt the oblique long
+form for the plural and nasalize it, thus, P. <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, H. <i>gh&#333;&#7771;iy<span class="ov">ã</span></i>.
+The oblique plurals call for no further remarks. We thus get the
+following summary, illustrating the way in which these nominative
+and oblique forms are made.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Braj Bhasha.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Eastern Hindi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Masc.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar, gharahi</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharan</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb">ghar<span class="ov">ã</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghara&#361;, gharani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharan</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Masc.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;au</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;, gh&#333;&#7771;ai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;, gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;an</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;i<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;<span class="ov">&#333;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;a&#361;, gh&#333;&#7771;ani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;an</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Fem.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;ta&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;tan</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;ta&#363;, b&#257;tani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;tan</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Fem.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;, gh&#333;&#7771;ihi</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;iy<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;in</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> &emsp; Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;iy<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;iya&#361;, gh&#333;&#7771;iyani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;&#7771;in</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>We have seen that the oblique form is the resultant of a general
+melting down of all the oblique cases of Sanskrit and Prakrit, and
+that in consequence it can be used for any oblique case. It is
+obvious that if it were so employed it would often give rise to great
+confusion. Hence, when it is necessary to show clearly what
+particular case is intended, it is usual to add defining particles
+corresponding to the English prepositions &ldquo;of,&rdquo; &ldquo;to,&rdquo; &ldquo;from,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;by,&rdquo; &amp;c., which, as in all Indo-Aryan languages they follow the
+main word, are here called &ldquo;postpositions.&rdquo; The following are
+the postpositions commonly employed to form cases in our three
+languages:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Agent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Genitive.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ablative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Locative.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Panjabi</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>nai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>d&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>n<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vicc</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hindostani</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>n&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>m<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Braj Bhasha</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>n<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ka&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i>, <i>sa&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma&#297;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Eastern Hindi</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>k&#275;r</i>, <i>k</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>k<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>s&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>m<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i>, <i>bikh&#275;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The agent case is the case which a noun takes when it is the subject
+of a transitive verb in a tense formed from the past participle.
+This participle is passive in origin, and must be construed passively.
+In the Prakrit stage the subject was in such cases put into the
+instrumental case (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), as in the phrase <i>aha&#7745; t&#275;&#7751;a m&#257;ri&#333;</i>,
+I by-him (was) struck, <i>i.e.</i> he struck me. In Eastern Hindi this is
+still the case, the old instrumental being represented by the oblique
+form without any suffix. The other two languages define the fact
+that the subject is in the instrumental (or agent) case by the addition
+of the postposition <i>n&#275;</i>, &amp;c., an old form
+employed elsewhere to define the dative. It
+is really the oblique form (by origin a locative)
+of <i>n&#257;</i> or <i>n&#333;</i>, which is employed in
+Gujarati (<i>q.v.</i>) for the genitive. As this suffix
+is never employed to indicate a material
+instrument but here only to indicate the
+agent or subject of a verb, it is called the
+postposition of the &ldquo;agent&rdquo; case.</p>
+
+<p>The genitive postpositions have an interesting
+origin. In Buddhist Sanskrit the words
+<i>k&#343;tas</i>, done, and <i>k&#343;tyas</i>, to be done, were
+added to a noun to form a kind of genitive.
+A synonym of <i>k&#343;tyas</i> was <i>k&#257;ryas</i>. These
+three words were all adjectives, and agreed
+with the thing possessed in gender, number,
+and case; thus, <i>m&#257;la-k&#343;t&#275;</i> <i>kara&#7751;&#7693;&#275;</i>, in the
+basket of the garland, literally, in the garland-made
+basket. In the various dialects of
+Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a Prakrit <i>k&#343;tas</i> became (strong
+form) <i>kida-u</i> or <i>kia-u</i>, <i>k&#343;tyas</i> became <i>kicca-u</i>,
+and <i>k&#257;ryas</i> became <i>k&#275;ra-u</i> or <i>kajja-u</i>, the
+initial <i>k</i> of which is liable to elision after a
+vowel. With the exception of Gujarati (and
+perhaps Marathi, <i>q.v.</i>) every Indo-Aryan language
+has genitive postpositions derived from
+one or other of these forms. Thus from <i>(ki)da-u</i>
+we have Panjabi <i>d&#257;</i>; from <i>kia-u</i> we have H. <i>k&#257;</i>, Br. <i>kau</i>, E.H. and
+Bihari <i>k</i> and Naipali <i>k&#333;</i>; from <i>(ki)cca-u</i> we have perhaps Marathi
+<i>c&#257;</i>; from <i>k&#275;ra-u</i>, E.H. and Bihari <i>k&#275;r</i>, <i>kar</i>, Bengali Oriya and
+Assamese -<i>r</i>, and Rajasthani -<i>r&#333;</i>; while from <i>(ka)jja-u</i> we have the
+Sindhi <i>j&#333;</i>. It will be observed that while <i>k</i>, <i>k&#275;r</i>, <i>kar</i>, and <i>r</i> are weak
+forms, the rest are strong. As already stated, the genitive is an
+adjective. <i>B&#257;p</i> means &ldquo;father,&rdquo; and <i>b&#257;p-k&#257;</i> <i>gh&#333;r&#257;</i> is literally
+&ldquo;the paternal horse.&rdquo; Hence (while the weak forms as usual do
+not change) these genitives agree with the thing possessed in gender,
+number, and case. Thus, <i>b&#257;p-k&#257; gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i>, the horse of the father,
+but <i>b&#257;p-k&#299; gh&#333;&#7771;&#299;</i>, the mare of the father, and <i>b&#257;p-k&#275; gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;-k&#333;</i>, to the
+horse of the father, the <i>k&#257;</i> being put into the oblique case masculine
+<i>k&#275;</i>, to agree with <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i>, which is itself in an oblique case. The details
+of the agreement vary slightly in P. and W.H., and must be learnt
+from the grammars. The E.H. weak forms do not change in the
+modern language. Finally, in Prakrit it was customary to add
+these postpositions (<i>k&#275;ra-u</i>, &amp;c.) to the genitive, as in <i>mama</i> or
+<i>mama k&#275;ra-u</i>, of me. Similarly these postpositions are, in the
+modern languages, added to the oblique form.</p>
+
+<p>The locative of the Sanskrit <i>k&#343;tas</i>, <i>k&#343;t&#275;</i>, was used in that language
+as a dative postposition, and it can be shown that all the dative
+postpositions given above are by origin old oblique forms of some
+genitive postposition. Thus H. <i>k&#333;</i>, Br. <i>ka&#361;</i>, is a contraction of
+<i>kah&#361;</i>, an old oblique form of <i>kia-u</i>. Similarly for the others. The
+origin of the ablative postpositions is obscure. To the present
+writer they all seem (like the Bengal <i>haït&#275;</i>) to be connected with the
+verb substantive, but their derivation has not been definitely fixed.
+The locative postpositions <i>m<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i> and <i>ma&#299;</i> are derived from the Skr.
+<i>madhy&#275;</i>, in, through <i>majjhi</i>, <i>m&#257;h&#299;</i>, and so on. The derivation of
+<i>vicc</i> and <i>bikh&#275;</i> is obscure.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Braj<br />Bhasha.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern<br />Hindi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">i</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ha&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ha&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma&#299;</i>, <i>mahu</i>, <i>majjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mujh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mohi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>m&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">we</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amh&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>as<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>as&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>hama&#363;</i>, <i>hamani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">thou</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tuh&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta&#297;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta&#297;</i>, <i>tuha</i>, <i>tujjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tujh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tohi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">you</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumh&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tus<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tum</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tum</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tum</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tumhahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tus&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tumh<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tumha&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tum</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. This will be
+evident from the preceding table of the first two personal pronouns
+compared with Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that in most of the nominatives of the first
+person, and in the E.H. nominative of the second person, the old
+nominative has disappeared, and its place has been supplied by an
+oblique form, exactly as we have observed in the nominative plural
+of nouns substantive. The P. <i>as<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i>, <i>tus<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i>, &amp;c., are survivals from the
+old Lahnd&#257; (see <i>Linguistic Boundaries</i>, above). The genitives of
+these two pronouns are rarely used, possessive pronouns (in H. <i>m&#275;r&#257;</i>,
+my; <i>ham&#257;r&#257;</i>, our; <i>t&#275;r&#257;</i>, thy; <i>tumh&#257;r&#257;</i>, your) being employed
+instead. They can all (except P. <i>as&#257;&#7693;&#257;</i>, our; <i>tus&#257;&#7693;&#257;</i>, your, which
+are Lahnd&#257;) be referred to corresponding Ap. forms.</p>
+
+<p>There is no pronoun of the third person, the demonstrative
+pronouns being used instead. The following table shows the
+principal remaining pronominal forms, with their derivation from
+Ap.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Braj<br />Bhasha.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern<br />Hindi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">that, he,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>uh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>woh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>w&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#363;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;uh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;us</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;w&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">those, they,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#333;i</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;&#333;h</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;w&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;wai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;unh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;unh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;unh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;uni</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;unh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">this, he,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;hu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>yeh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>yah</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;&#275;hasu, &#275;haho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;is</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;y&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">these, they,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;i</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;&#275;h</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;y&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;yai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;inh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;&#275;h&#257;&#7751;a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;inh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;inh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;ini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;inh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">that,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tasu, taho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tis</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;t&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;t&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">those,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;s&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;s&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;s&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;t&#257;&#7751;a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tinh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tinh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;tenh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who, </span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>j&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jasu, jaho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jis</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who</span> (pl.),</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;j&#257;&#7751;a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jinh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jinh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;jenh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who?</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#333;, kawa&#7751;u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kau&#7751;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kaun</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kasu, kaho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kis</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;k&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who?</span> (pl.),</td> <td class="tcr rb"> Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;k&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kau&#7751;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kaun</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;k&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;k&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;&#7751;a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kinh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kinh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&ensp;kenh</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">what?</span>(Neut.),</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ki&#7745;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ki&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ky&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kah&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;ha, k&#257;su</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;h, k&#257;s</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;h&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;h&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>&ensp;k&#257;h&#275;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The origin of the first pronoun given above (that, he; those,
+they) cannot be referred to Sanskrit. It is derived from an Indo-Aryan
+base which was not admitted to the classical literary language,
+but of which we find sporadic traces in Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a. The existence
+of this base is further vouched for by its occurrence in the Iranian
+language of the Avesta under the form <i>ava-</i>. The base of the
+second pronoun is the same as the base of the first syllable in the
+Skr. <i>&#275;-&#7779;as</i>, this, and other connected pronouns, and also occurs in
+the Avesta. Ap. <i>&#275;hu</i> is directly derived from <i>&#275;-sas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>There are other pronominal forms upon which, except perhaps
+<i>k&#333;&#299;</i> (Pr. <i>k&#333;-vi</i>, Skr. <i>k&#333;-&rsquo;pi</i>), any one, it is unnecessary to dwell.
+The phrase <i>k&#333;&#299; hai</i>? &ldquo;Is any one (there)?&rdquo; is the usual formula
+for calling a servant in upper India, and is the origin of the Anglo-Indian
+word &ldquo;Qui-hi.&rdquo; The reflexive pronoun is <i>&#257;p</i> (Ap. <i>appu</i>,
+Skr. <i>&#257;tm&#257;</i>), self, which, something like the Latin <i>suus</i> (Skr. <i>svas</i>),
+always refers to the subject of the sentence, but to all persons, not
+only to the third. Thus <i>ma&#297; apn&#275;</i> (not <i>m&#275;r&#275;</i>) <i>b&#257;p-k&#333; d&#275;kht&#257;-h<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>,
+&ldquo;I see my father.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>C. <i>Conjugation</i>.&mdash;The synthetic conjugation was already commencing
+to disappear in Prakrit, and in the modern languages the
+only original tenses which remain are the present, the imperative,
+and here and there the future. The first is now generally employed
+as a present subjunctive. In the accompanying table we have the conjugation
+of this tense, and also the three participles, present active,
+and past and future passive, compared with Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a, the verb
+selected being the intransitive root <i>call</i> or <i>cal</i>, go. In Ap. the word
+may be spelt with one or with two <i>ls</i>, which accounts for the variations
+of spelling in the modern languages.</p>
+
+<p>The imperative closely resembles the old present, except that it
+drops all terminations in the 2nd person singular; thus, <i>cal</i>, go thou.</p>
+
+<p>In P. and H. a future is formed by adding the
+syllable <i>g&#257;</i> (fem. <i>g&#299;</i>) to the simple present. Thus, H.
+<i>cal<span class="ov">&#361;</span>-g&#257;</i>, I shall go. The <i>g&#257;</i> is commonly said to
+be derived from the Skr. <i>gatas</i> (Pr. <i>ga&#333;</i>), gone, but
+this suggestion is not altogether acceptable to the
+present writer, although he is not now able to propose
+a better. Under the form of <i>-gau</i> the same
+termination is used in Br., but in that dialect the old
+future has also survived, as in <i>caliha&#361;</i> (Ap. <i>caliha&#361;</i>,
+Skr. <i>cali&#7779;y&#257;mi</i>), I shall go, which is conjugated like
+the simple present. The E.H. formation of the
+future is closely analogous to what we find in
+Bihari (<i>q.v.</i>). The third person is formed as in Braj
+Bhasha, but the first and second persons are formed
+by adding pronominal suffixes, meaning &ldquo;by me,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;by thee,&rdquo; &amp;c., to the future passive participle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Apabhram&#347;a.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Braj<br />Bjasja.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern<br />Hindi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Old Present&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp;Singular 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calla&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cala&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cala&#363;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp;Singular 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callasi</i>, <i>callahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calas</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp;Singular 3.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calai</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp;Plural &ensp; 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callah&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliy&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cala&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cala&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp;Plural &ensp; 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calau</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp;Plural &ensp; 3.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callanti</i>, <i>callah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calla&#7751;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal<span class="ov">&#7869;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cala&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cala&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Present Participle</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callanta-u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calld&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calt&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calatu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calat</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Past Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callia-u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calli&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calyau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Future Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calla&#7751;ia-u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call&#7751;&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caln&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calna&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>calliavva-u</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>caliwa&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>calab</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Thus, <i>calab-<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>, it-is-to-be-gone by-me, I shall go. We thus get the
+following forms. It will be observed that, as in many other Indo-Aryan
+languages, the first person plural has no suffix:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp; Sing.</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp; Plur.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1. <i>calab&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>calab</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">2. <i>calab&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>calab&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">3. <i>calihai</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>caliha&#299;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In old E.H. the future participle passive, <i>calab</i>, takes no suffix for
+any person, and is used for all persons.</p>
+
+<p>The last remark leads us to a class of tenses in P. and W.H., in
+which a participle, by itself, can be employed for any person of a
+finite tense. A few examples of the use of the present and past
+participles will show the construction. They are all taken from
+Hindostani. <i>Woh calt&#257;</i>, he goes; <i>woh calt&#299;</i>, she goes; <i>ma&#299; cal&#257;</i>,
+I went; <i>woh cal&#299;</i>, she went; <i>w&#275; cal&#275;</i>, they went. The present
+participle in this construction, though it may be used to signify
+the present, is more commonly employed to signify a past conditional
+&ldquo;(if) he had gone.&rdquo; It will have been observed that in the
+above examples, in all of which the verb is intransitive, the past
+as well as the present participle agrees with the subject in gender
+and number; but, if the verb be transitive, the passive meaning
+of the past participle comes into force. The subject must be put
+into the case of the agent, and the participle inflects to agree with
+the object. If the object be not expressed, or, as sometimes happens,
+be expressed in the dative case, the participle is construed impersonally,
+and takes the masculine (for want of a neuter) form.
+Thus, <i>ma&#299;-n&#275; kah&#257;</i>, by-me it-was-said, <i>i.e.</i> I said; <i>us-n&#275; ci&#7789;&#7789;h&#299; likh&#299;</i>,
+by-him a-letter (fem.) was-written, he wrote a letter; <i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#275;
+sh&#275;rn&#299;-k&#333; m&#257;r&#257;</i>, the king killed the tigress, lit.,
+by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress,
+it (impersonal) -was-killed. In the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> it is shown that the same construction <span class="correction" title="added is">is</span> obtained in that
+language.</p>
+
+<p>In E.H. the construction is the same, but is obscured by the
+fact that (as in the future) pronominal suffixes are added to the
+participle to indicate the person of the subject or of the agent, as
+in <i>calat-e&#361;</i>, (if) I had gone; <i>cal-e&#361;</i>, I went; <i>m&#257;r-e&#361;</i> (transitive), I
+struck, lit., struck-by-me; <i>m&#257;r-es</i>, struck-by-him, he struck. If
+the participle has to be feminine, it (although a weak form) takes
+the feminine termination <i>i</i>, as in <i>m&#257;ri-&#361;</i>, I struck her; <i>calati-&#361;</i>,
+(if) I (fem.) had gone; <i>cali-&#361;</i>, I (fem.) went.</p>
+
+<p>Further tenses are formed by adding the verb substantive to
+these participles, as in H. <i>ma&#297; calt&#257;-h&#363;</i>, I am going; <i>ma&#297; calt&#257;-th&#257;</i>,
+I was going; <i>ma&#297; cal&#257;-h&#363;</i>, I have gone; <i>ma&#297; cal&#257;-th&#257;</i>, I had gone.
+These and other auxiliary verbs need not detain us long. They
+differ in the various languages. For &ldquo;I am&rdquo; we have P. <i>h<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, H.
+<i>h&#363;</i>, Br. <i>ha&#361;</i>, E.H. <i>b&#257;&#7789;ye&#361;</i> or <i>ahe&#361;</i>. For &ldquo;I was&rdquo; we have P. <i>s&#299;</i> or <i>s&#257;</i>,
+H. <i>th&#257;</i>, Br. <i>hau</i> or <i>hutau</i>, E.H. <i>rahe&#361;</i>. The H. <i>h&#361;</i> is thus conjugated:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp; Sing.</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp; Plur.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1. <i>h<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>ha&#297;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">2. <i>hai</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>h&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">3. <i>hai</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>ha&#299;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The derivation of <i>h<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, <i>h<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>, <i>ha&#361;</i>, and <i>ahe&#361;</i> is uncertain. They are
+usually derived from the Skr. <i>asmi</i>, I am; but this presents many
+difficulties. An old form of the third person singular is <i>hwai</i>, and
+this points to the Pr. <i>havaï</i>, he is, equivalent to the Skr. <i>bhavati</i>,
+he becomes. On the other hand this does not account for the
+initial <i>a</i> of <i>ahe&#361;</i>. This last word is in the <i>form</i> of a past tense,
+and it may be a secondary formation from <i>asmi</i>. The P. <i>s&#299;</i> is not
+a feminine of <i>s&#257;</i>, as usually stated, but is a survival of the Skr.
+<i>&#257;s&#299;t</i>, Pr. <i>&#257;s&#299;</i>, was. As in the Prakrit form, <i>s&#299;</i> is employed for both
+genders, both numbers and all persons. <i>S&#257;</i> is a secondary formation
+from this, on the analogy of the H. <i>th&#257;</i>, which is from the Skr.
+<i>sthitas</i>, Pr. <i>thi&#333;</i>, stood, and is a participial form like <i>cal</i>&#257;; thus,
+<i>woh th&#257;</i>, he was; <i>woh th&#299;</i>, she was. The Br. <i>hau</i> is a modern past
+of <i>ha&#363;</i>, while <i>hutau</i> is probably by origin a present participle of the
+Skr. <i>bh&#361;</i>, become, Pr. <i>hunta&#333;</i>. The E.H. <i>b&#257;&#7789;e&#361;</i>, is the Skr. <i>vart&#275;</i>,
+Ap. <i>va&#7789;&#7789;a&#361;</i>. <i>Rahe&#361;</i> is the past tense of the root <i>rah</i>, remain.</p>
+
+<p>The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an
+infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. <i>caln&#257;</i>, E.H. <i>calab</i>, the act of
+going, to go. There is a whole series of derivative verbal forms,
+making potential passives and transitives
+from intransitives, and causals (and even
+double causals) from transitives. Thus
+<i>d&#299;khn&#257;</i>, to be seen; potential passive,
+<i>dikh&#257;n&#257;</i>, to be visible; transitive, <i>d&#275;khn&#257;</i>,
+to see; causal, <i>dikhl&#257;n&#257;</i>, to show.</p>
+
+<p>D. <i>Literature.</i>&mdash;The literatures of Western
+and Eastern Hindi form the subject of a
+separate article (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani Literature</a></span>).
+Panjabi has no formal literature.
+Even the <i>Granth</i>, the sacred book of the
+Sikhs, is mainly in archaic Western Hindi,
+only a small portion being in Panjabi.
+On the other hand, the language is
+peculiarly rich in folksongs and ballads,
+some of considerable length and great
+poetic beauty. The most famous is the
+ballad of <i>H&#299;r</i> and <i>R&#257;njh&#257;</i> by W&#257;ris Sh&#257;h,
+which is considered to be a model of pure Panjabi. Colonel Sir
+Richard Temple has published an important collection of these
+songs under the title of <i>The Legends of the Punjab</i> (3 vols., Bombay
+and London, 1884-1900), in which both texts and translations of
+nearly all the favourite ones are to be found.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) General: The two standard authorities are
+the comparative grammars of J. Beames (1872-1879) and A. F. R.
+Hoernle (1880), mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>.
+To these may be added G. A. Grierson, &ldquo;On the Radical and
+Participial Tenses of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages&rdquo; in the
+<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, vol. lxiv. (1895), part i.
+pp. 352 et seq.; and &ldquo;On Certain Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan
+Vernaculars&rdquo; in the <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung
+auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen</i> for 1903,
+pp. 473 et seq.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) For the separate languages, see C. J. Lyall, <i>A Sketch of the
+Hindustani Language</i> (Edinburgh, 1880); S. H. Kellogg, <i>A Grammar
+of the Hindi Language</i> (for both Western and Eastern Hindi), (2nd ed.,
+London, 1893); J. T. Platts, <i>A Grammar of the Hind&#363;st&#257;n&#299; or Urd&#363;
+Language</i> (London, 1874); and <i>A Dictionary of Urd&#363;, Classical
+Hindi and English</i> (London, 1884); E. P. Newton, <i>Panj&#257;b&#299; Grammar:
+with Exercises and Vocabulary</i> (Ludhiana, 1898); and Bhai Maya
+Singh, <i>The Panjabi Dictionary</i> (Lahore, 1895). <i>The Linguistic
+Survey of India</i>, vol. vi., describes Eastern Hindi, and vol. ix.,
+Hindostani and Panjabi, in each instance in great detail.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. A. Gr.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;Hind&#333;st&#257;n&rdquo; is a Persian word, and in modern Persian is
+pronounced &ldquo;Hind&#363;st&#257;n.&rdquo; It means the country of the Hind&#363;s. In
+medieval Persian the word was &ldquo;Hind&#333;st&#257;n,&rdquo; with an <i>&#333;</i>, but in the
+modern language the distinctions between <i>&#275;</i> and <i>&#299;</i> and between <i>&#333;</i>
+and <i>&#363;</i> have been lost. Indian languages have borrowed Persian
+words in their medieval form. Thus in India we have <i>sh&#275;r</i>, a tiger,
+as compared with modern Persian <i>sh&#299;r</i>; <i>g&#333;</i>, but modern Pers. <i>g&#363;</i>;
+<i>b&#333;st&#257;n</i>, but modern Pers. <i>b&#363;st&#257;n</i>. The word &ldquo;Hindu&rdquo; is in medieval
+Persian &ldquo;Hind&#333;&rdquo; representing the ancient Avesta <i>hendava</i> (Sanskrit,
+<i>saindhava</i>), a dweller on the <i>Sindhu</i> or Indus. Owing to the influence
+of scholars in modern Persian the word &ldquo;Hind&#363;&rdquo; is now established
+in English and, through English, in the Indian literary languages;
+but &ldquo;Hind&#333;&rdquo; is also often heard in India. &ldquo;Hindostan&rdquo; with <i>o</i>
+is much more common both in English and in Indian languages,
+although &ldquo;Hindustan&rdquo; is also employed. Up to the days of Persian
+supremacy inaugurated in Calcutta by Gilchrist and his friends, every
+traveller in India spoke of &ldquo;Indostan&rdquo; or some such word, thus
+bearing testimony to the current pronunciation. Gilchrist introduced
+&ldquo;Hindoostan,&rdquo; which became &ldquo;Hindustan&rdquo; in modern
+spelling. The word is not an Indian one, and both pronunciations,
+with <i>&#333;</i> and with <i>&#363;</i>, are current in India at the present day, but that
+with <i>&#333;</i> is unquestionably the one demanded by the history of the
+word and of the form which other Persian words take on Indian
+soil. On the other hand &ldquo;Hindu&rdquo; is too firmly established in English
+for us to suggest the spelling &ldquo;Hindo.&rdquo;. The word &ldquo;Hind&#299;&rdquo;
+has another derivation, being formed from the Persian <i>Hind</i>, India
+(Avesta <i>hindu</i>, Sanskrit <i>sindhu</i>, the Indus). &ldquo;Hindi&rdquo; means &ldquo;of
+or belonging to India,&rdquo; while &ldquo;Hindu&rdquo; now means &ldquo;a person of the
+Hindu religion.&rdquo; (Cf. Sir C. J. Lyall, <i>A Sketch of the Hindustani
+Language</i>, p. 1).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sir C. J. Lyall, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Mr
+Platts&rsquo;s article in vol. xi. of the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In some dialects of W.H. weak forms have masculines ending
+in u and corresponding feminines in <i>i</i>, but these are nowadays rarely
+met in the literary forms of speech. In old poetry they are common.
+In Braj Bhasha they have survived in the present participle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIND&#332;ST&#256;N&#298; LITERATURE.<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> The writings dealt with in
+this article are those composed in the vernacular of that part of
+India which is properly called Hind&#333;st&#257;n,&mdash;that is, the valleys of
+the Jumna and Ganges rivers as far east as the river K&#333;s, and
+the tract to the south including Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257;, Central India
+(Bund&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693; and Bagh&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;), the Narmad&#257; (Nerbudda)
+valley as far west as Khandw&#257;, and the northern half of the
+Central Provinces. It does not include the Punjab proper
+(though the town population there speak Hind&#333;st&#257;n&#299;), nor does
+it extend to Lower Bengal.</p>
+
+<p>In this region several different dialects prevail. The people of
+the towns everywhere use chiefly the form of the language called
+<i>Urd&#363;</i> or <i>R&#275;khta</i>,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> stocked with Persian words and phrases, and
+ordinarily written in a modification of the Persian character.
+The country folk (who form the immense majority) speak
+different varieties of <i>Hind&#299;</i>, of which the word-stock derives
+from the Pr&#257;krits and literary Sanskrit, and which are written
+in the D&#275;van&#257;gari or Kaith&#299; character. Of these the most important
+from a literary point of view, proceeding from west to
+east, are <i>M&#257;rw&#257;&#7771;&#299;</i> and <i>Jaipur&#299;</i> (the languages of Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257;),
+<i>Brajbh&#257;sh&#257;</i> (the language of the country about Mathur&#257; and
+Agra), <i>Kanauj&#299;</i> (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna Do&#257;b
+and western Rohilkha&#7751;&#7693;), <i>Eastern Hind&#299;</i>, also called <i>Awadh&#299;</i> and
+<i>Baisw&#257;r&#299;</i> (the language of Eastern Rohilkha&#7751;&#7693;, Oudh and the
+Benares division of the United Provinces) and <i>Bih&#257;r&#299;</i> (the
+language of Bih&#257;r or Mithil&#257;, comprising several distinct dialects).
+What is called <i>High Hind&#299;</i> is a modern development, for literary
+purposes, of the dialect of Western Hindi spoken in the neighbourhood
+of Delhi and thence northwards to the Him&#257;laya, which has
+formed the vernacular basis of Urd&#363;; the Persian words in the
+latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of Sanskritic
+origin, and the order of words in the sentence which is proper to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span>
+the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in Urd&#363;,
+which under the influence of Persian constructions has admitted
+many inversions.</p>
+
+<p>As in many other countries, nearly all the early vernacular
+literature of Hind&#333;st&#257;n is in verse, and works in prose are a
+modern growth.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Both Hind&#299; and Urd&#363; are, in their application
+to literary purposes, at first intruders upon the ground already
+occupied by the learned languages Sanskrit and Persian, the
+former representing Hind&#363; and the latter Musalm&#257;n culture.
+But there is this difference between them, that, whereas Hind&#299;
+has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech chiefly by
+impulses of revolt against the monopoly of the Brahmans,
+Urd&#363; has been cultivated with goodwill by authors who have
+themselves highly valued and dexterously used the polished
+Persian. Both Sanskrit and Persian continue to be employed
+occasionally for composition by Indian writers, though much
+fallen from their former estate; but for popular purposes it
+may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in sole
+possession of the field.</p>
+
+<p>The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. Early Hind&#299;, of the period during which the language was being
+fashioned as a literary medium out of the ancient Pr&#257;krits, represented
+by the old heroic poems of Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257; and the literature of the early
+<i>Bhagats</i> or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1100
+to 1550;</p>
+
+<p>2. Middle Hind&#299;, representing the best age of Hind&#299; poetry, and
+reaching from about 1550 to the end of the 18th century;</p>
+
+<p>3. The rise and development of literary Urd&#363;, beginning about the
+end of the 16th century, and reaching its height during the 18th;</p>
+
+<p>4. The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature
+in both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the 19th century.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <i>Early Hind&#299;.</i>&mdash;Our knowledge of the ancient metrical
+chronicles of Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257; is still very imperfect, and is chiefly
+derived from the monumental work of Colonel James Tod, called
+<i>The Annals and Antiquities of R&#257;j&#257;sth&#257;n</i> (published in 1829-1832),
+which is founded on them. It is in the nature of compositions
+of this character to be subjected to perpetual revision
+and recasting; they are the production of the family bards of the
+dynasties whose fortunes they record, and from generation to
+generation they are added to, and their language constantly
+modified to make it intelligible to the people of the time. Round
+an original nucleus of historical fact a rich growth of legend
+accumulates; later redactors endeavour to systematize and to
+assign dates, but the result is not often such as to inspire confidence;
+and the mass has more the character of ballad literature
+than of serious history. The materials used by Tod are nearly
+all still unprinted; his manuscripts are now deposited in the
+library of the Royal Asiatic Society in London; and one of the
+tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first be
+undertaken by the investigator of early Hind&#299; literature is the
+examination and sifting, and the publication in their original
+form, of these important texts.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by
+compilers of accounts of Hind&#299; literature, the earliest author of
+whom any portion has as yet been published in the original text
+is Chand Bard&#257;&#299;, the court bard of Prithw&#299;-R&#257;j, the last Hind&#363;
+sovereign of Delhi. His poem, entitled <i>Prith&#299;-R&#257;j R&#257;sau</i> (or
+<i>R&#257;ys&#257;</i>), is a vast chronicle in 69 books or cantos, comprising a
+general history of the period when he wrote. Of this a small
+portion has been printed, partly under the editorship of the late
+Mr John Beames and partly under that of Dr Rudolf Hoernle, by
+the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult
+nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much
+progress.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native
+of Lahore, which had for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under
+Muslim rule when he flourished, and the language of the poem
+exhibits a considerable leaven of Persian words. In its present
+form the work is a redaction made by Amar Singh of M&#275;w&#257;r,
+about the beginning of the 17th century, and therefore more
+than 400 years after Chand&rsquo;s death, with his patron Prithw&#299;-R&#257;j,
+in 1193. There is, therefore, considerable reason to doubt
+whether we have in it much of Chand&rsquo;s composition in its original
+shape; and the nature of the incidents described enhances this
+doubt. The detailed dates contained in the Chronicle have been
+shown by Kabir&#257;j Sy&#257;mal D&#257;s<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> to be in every case about
+ninety years astray. It tells of repeated conflicts between the
+hero Prithw&#299;-R&#257;j and Sult&#257;n Shih&#257;buddin, of Gh&#333;r (Muhammad
+Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last great battle,
+comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on payment
+of a ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our
+contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter
+(that of Tiraur&#299; (Tirawari) near Th&#275;n&#275;sar, fought in 1191) in
+which the Sult&#257;n was defeated, and even then he escaped uncaptured
+to Lahore. The Mongols (Book XV.) are brought on
+the stage more than thirty years before they actually set foot in
+India, and are related to have been vanquished by the redoubtable
+Prithw&#299;-R&#257;j. It is evident that such a record cannot
+possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but
+nevertheless it appears to contain a considerable element which,
+from its language, may belong to Chand&rsquo;s own age, and represents
+the earliest surviving document in Hind&#299;. &ldquo;Though we may not
+possess the actual text of Chand, we have certainly in his writings
+some of the oldest known specimens of Gaudian literature,
+abounding in pure Apabhram&#347;a &#346;auras&#275;n&#299; Pr&#257;krit forms&rdquo;
+(Grierson).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as
+literature. The language, essentially transitional in character, consists
+largely of words which have long since died out of the vernacular
+speech. Even the most learned Hindus of the present day are
+unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses
+must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit
+and Pr&#257;krit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hind&#299;.
+Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of
+ballad chroniclers in general. There is much that is lively and
+spirited in his descriptions of fight or council; and the characters of
+the R&#257;jp&#363;t warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in their
+utterances with skill and animation. The sound, however, frequently
+predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on with the
+wearisome iteration and tedious unfolding of familiar themes and
+images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value,
+for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Chand may be taken as the representative of a long line of
+successors, continued even to the present day in the R&#257;jp&#363;t
+states. Many of their compositions are still widely popular
+as ballad literature, but are known only in oral versions sung
+in Hind&#333;st&#257;n by professional singers. One of the most famous
+of these is the <i>Alh&#257;-kha&#7751;&#7693;</i>, reputed to be the work of a contemporary
+of Chand called Jagnik or Jagn&#257;yak, of Mah&#333;b&#257;
+in Bund&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;, who sang the praises of R&#257;j&#257;-Parm&#257;l, a ruler
+whose wars with Prithw&#299;-R&#257;j are recorded in the Mah&#333;b&#257;-Kha&#7751;&#7693;
+of Chand&rsquo;s work. &#256;lh&#257; and &#362;dal, the heroes of the poem, are
+famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories connected
+with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bih&#257;r, as
+well as in the Bund&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;&#299; or western form which is best
+known. Two versions of the latter have been printed, having
+been taken down as recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists.
+Another celebrated bard was S&#257;rangdhar of Rantambh&#333;r, who
+flourished in 1363, and sang the praises of Hamm&#299;r D&#275;o (Hamir
+Deo), the Chauh&#257;n chief of Rantambh&#333;r who fell in a heroic
+struggle against Sult&#257;n &lsquo;Al&#257;&lsquo;udd&#299;n Khilj&#299; in 1300. He wrote
+the <i>Hamm&#299;r K&#257;vya</i> and <i>Hamm&#299;r R&#257;sau</i>, of which an account
+is given by Tod;<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which
+language he compiled, in 1363, the anthology called <i>S&#257;rngadhara-Paddhati</i>.
+Another work which may be mentioned (though
+much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled <i>Chhattra-Prak&#257;s</i>,
+or the history of R&#257;j&#257; Chhatars&#257;l, the Bund&#275;l&#257; r&#257;j&#257; of
+Pann&#257;, who was killed, fighting on behalf of Prince D&#257;r&#257;-Shuk&#333;h,
+in the battle of Dh&#333;lpur won by Aurangz&#275;b in 1658. The
+author, L&#257;l Kabi, has given in this work a history of the valiant
+Bund&#275;l&#257; nation which was rendered into English by Captain
+W. R. Pogson in 1828, and printed at Calcutta.</p>
+
+<p>Before passing on to the more important branch of early
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span>
+Hind&#299; literature, the works of the <i>Bhagats</i>, mention may be made
+here of a remarkable composition, a poem entitled the <i>Padm&#257;wat</i>,
+the materials of which are derived from the heroic legends
+of Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257;, but which is not the work of a bard nor even of
+a Hindu. The author, Malik Mu&#7717;ammad of J&#257;&lsquo;is, in Oudh,
+was a venerated Muslim devotee, to whom the Hindu r&#257;j&#257; of
+Am&#275;&#7789;h&#299; was greatly attached. Malik Mu&#7717;ammad wrote the
+Padm&#257;wat in 1540, the year in which Sh&#275;r Sh&#257;h S&#363;r ousted
+Hum&#257;y&#257;n from the throne of Delhi. The poem is composed
+in the purest vernacular Awadh&#299;, with no admixture of traditional
+Hindu learning, and is generally to be found written in the
+Persian character, though the metres and language are thoroughly
+Indian. It professes to tell the tale of Padm&#257;wat&#299; or Padmin&#299;,
+a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the
+Chauh&#257;n r&#257;j&#257; of Ch&#299;t&#333;r in M&#275;w&#257;r. The historical Padmin&#299;&rsquo;s
+husband was named Bh&#299;m Singh, but Malik Mu&#7717;ammad calls
+him Ratan S&#275;n; and the story turns upon the attempts of
+&lsquo;Al&#257;&lsquo;udd&#299;n Khilj&#299;, the sovereign of Delhi, to gain possession
+of her person. The tale of the siege of Ch&#299;t&#333;r in 1303 by &lsquo;Al&#257;&lsquo;udd&#299;n,
+the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished
+to the last man in fight with the Sultan&rsquo;s army, and the self-immolation
+of Padmin&#299; and the other women, the wives and
+daughters of the warriors, by the fiery death called <i>j&#333;har</i>, will be
+found related in Tod&rsquo;s <i>R&#257;j&#257;sth&#257;n</i>, i. 262 sqq. Malik Mu&#7717;ammad
+takes great liberties with the history, and explains at the end
+of the poem that all is an allegory, and that the personages
+represent the human soul, Divine wisdom, Satan, delusion
+and other mystical characters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Both on account of its interest as a true vernacular work, and as
+the composition of a Musalm&#257;n who has taken the incidents of his
+morality from the legends of his country and not from an exotic
+source, the poem is memorable. It has often been lithographed, and
+is very popular; a translation has even been made into Sanskrit.
+A critical edition has been prepared by Dr G. A. Grierson and Pa&#7751;&#7693;it
+Sudh&#257;kar Dwiv&#275;di.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other class of composition which is characteristic of the
+period of early Hind&#299;, the literature of the <i>Bhagats</i>, or Vaishnava
+saints, who propagated the doctrine of <i>bhakti</i>, or faith in Vishnu,
+as the popular religion of Hind&#333;st&#257;n, has exercised a much
+more powerful influence both upon the national speech and
+upon the themes chosen for poetic treatment. It is also, as a
+body of literature, of high intrinsic interest for its form and
+content. Nearly the whole of subsequent poetical composition
+in Hind&#299; is impressed with one or other type of Vaishnava
+doctrine, which, like Buddhism many centuries before, was
+essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the
+chains of caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in face of
+the monopoly which the &ldquo;twice-born&rdquo; asserted of learning,
+of worship, of righteousness. A large proportion of the writers
+were non-Brahmans, and many of them of the lowest castes.
+As &#346;iva was the popular deity of the Brahmans, so was Vishnu
+of the people; and while the literature of the &#346;aivas and &#346;&#257;ktas<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+is almost entirely in Sanskrit, and exercised little or no influence
+on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas
+is largely in Hind&#299;, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of
+what has been written in that language.</p>
+
+<p>The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to R&#257;m&#257;nuja,
+a Brahman who was born about the end of the 11th century,
+at Perambur in the neighbourhood of the modern Madras,
+and spent his life in southern India. His works, which are in
+Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on the V&#275;d&#257;nta S&#363;tras,
+are devoted to establishing &ldquo;the personal existence of a Supreme
+Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love and pity
+for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released
+soul a home of eternal bliss near him&mdash;a home where each
+soul never loses its identity, and whose state is one of perfect
+peace.&rdquo;<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In the Deity&rsquo;s infinite love and pity he has on several
+occasions become incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and
+of these incarnations two, R&#257;machandra, the prince of Ay&#333;dhy&#257;,
+and K&#7771;ish&#7751;a, the chief of the Y&#257;dava clan and son of Vasud&#275;va,
+are pre-eminently those in which it is most fitting that he
+should be worshipped. Both of these incarnations had for
+many centuries<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> attracted popular veneration, and their
+histories had been celebrated by poets in epics and by weavers
+of religious myths in <i>Pur&#257;nas</i> or &ldquo;old stories&rdquo;; but it was
+apparently R&#257;m&#257;nuja&rsquo;s teaching which secured for them, and
+especially for R&#257;machandra, their exclusive place as the objects
+of <i>bhakti</i>&mdash;ardent faith and personal devotion addressed to the
+Supreme. The adherents of R&#257;m&#257;nuja were, however, all
+Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of food,
+bathing and dress; the new doctrine had not yet penetrated
+to the people.</p>
+
+<p>Whether R&#257;m&#257;nuja himself gave the preference to R&#257;ma
+against Krishna as the form of Vishnu most worthy of worship
+is uncertain. He dealt mainly with philosophic conceptions
+of the Divine Nature, and probably busied himself little with
+mythological legend. His <i>mantra</i>, or formula of initiation,
+if Wilson<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> was correctly informed, implies devotion to R&#257;ma;
+but V&#257;sud&#275;va (Krishna) is also mentioned as a principal object
+of adoration, and R&#257;m&#257;nuja himself dwelt for several years
+in Mysore, at a temple erected by the r&#257;j&#257;, at Y&#257;davagiri in
+honour of Krishna in his form Ra&#7751;chh&#333;&#7771;.<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> It is stated that
+in his worship of Krishna he joined with that god as his <i>&#346;akt&#299;</i>,
+or Energy, his wife Rukmin&#299;; while the later varieties of
+Krishna-worship prefer to honour his mistress R&#257;dh&#257;. The
+great difference, in temper and influence upon life, between
+these two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development
+subsequent to R&#257;m&#257;nuja; but by the time of Jaid&#275;o (about
+1250) it is clear that the theme of Krishna and R&#257;dh&#257;, and the
+use of passionate language drawn from the relations of the sexes
+to express the longings of the soul for God, had become fully
+established; and from that time onwards the two types of
+Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>The cult of R&#257;ma is founded on family life, and the relation
+of the worshipper to the Deity is that of a child to a father.
+The morality it inculcates springs from the sacred sources of
+human piety which in all religions have wrought most in favour
+of pureness of life, of fraternal helpfulness and of humble
+devotion to a loving and tender Parent, who desires the good
+of mankind, His children, and hates violence and wrong. That
+of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary
+career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked
+by a kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and
+more spent its energy in developing that side of devotion which
+is perilously near to sensual thought, and has allowed the
+imagination and ingenuity of poets to dwell on things unmeet
+for verse or even for speech. It is claimed for those who first
+opened this way to faith that their hearts were pure and their
+thoughts innocent, and that the language of erotic passion
+which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely
+mystical and allegorical. This is probable; but that these
+beginnings were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that
+the fervent impulses of adoration made way in later times for
+those of lust and lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute.</p>
+
+<p>The worship of Krishna, especially in his infant and youthful
+form (which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the
+neighbourhood of Mathur&#257;, the capital of that land of Braj
+where as a boy he lived. Its literature is mainly composed
+in the dialect of this region, called Brajbh&#257;sh&#257;. That of R&#257;ma,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+though general throughout Hind&#333;st&#257;n, has since the time of
+Tuls&#299; D&#257;s adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh, called
+Awadh&#299; or Baisw&#257;r&#299;, a form of Eastern Hind&#299; easily understood
+throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley. Thus these two
+dialects came to be, what they are to this day, the standard
+vehicles of poetic expression.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently to R&#257;m&#257;nuja his doctrine appears to have
+been set forth, about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by
+Jaid&#275;o, a Brahman born at Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli,
+in the B&#299;rbh&#363;m district of Bengal, author of the Sanskrit <i>G&#299;t&#257;
+G&#333;vinda</i>, and by N&#257;md&#275;o or N&#257;m&#257;, a tailor<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> of Mah&#257;r&#257;shtra,
+of both of whom verses in the popular speech are preserved in
+the <i>&#256;di Granth</i> of the Sikhs. But it was not until the beginning
+of the 15th century that the Brahman R&#257;m&#257;nand, a prominent
+<i>G&#333;s&#257;&#299;&#7749;</i> of the sect of R&#257;m&#257;nuja, having had a dispute with the
+members of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed
+by them, left the community, migrated to northern India
+(where he is said to have made his headquarters Galt&#257; in Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257;),
+and addressed himself to those outside the Brahman
+caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the popular
+faith of Hind&#333;st&#257;n. Among his twelve disciples or apostles
+were a R&#257;jp&#363;t, a J&#257;t, a leather-worker, a barber and a Musalm&#257;n
+weaver; the last-mentioned was the celebrated <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kab&#299;r</a></span>
+(see separate article). One short Hind&#299; poem by R&#257;m&#257;nand
+is contained in the <i>&#256;di Granth</i>, and Dr Grierson has collected
+hymns (<i>bhajans</i>) attributed to him and still current in Mithil&#257;
+or Tirh&#363;t. Both R&#257;m&#257;nand and Kab&#299;r were adherents of
+the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to
+R&#257;ama, who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself
+identical with the Deity. A contemporary of R&#257;m&#257;nand,
+Bidy&#257;pati &#7788;h&#257;kur, is celebrated as the author of numerous
+lyrics in the Maithil&#299; dialect of Bih&#257;r, expressive of the other
+side of Vaishnavism, the passionate adoration of the Deity
+in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the worshipper
+being mystically conveyed in the character of R&#257;dh&#257;, the
+cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasud&#275;va.
+These stanzas of Bidy&#257;pati (who was a Brahman and author
+of several works in Sanskrit) afterwards inspired the Vaishnava
+literature of Bengal, whose most celebrated exponent was Chaitanya
+(b. 1484). Another famous adherent of the same cult was
+M&#299;r&#257; B&#257;&#299;, &ldquo;the one great poetess of northern India&rdquo; (Grierson).
+This lady, daughter of R&#257;j&#257; Ratiy&#257; R&#257;n&#257;, R&#257;&#7789;h&#333;r, of M&#275;rt&#257;
+in Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257;, must have been born about the beginning of the
+15th century; she was married in 1413 to R&#257;j&#257; Kumbhkaran
+of M&#275;w&#257;r, who was killed by his son Uday R&#257;n&#257; in 1469. She
+was devoted to Krishna in the form of Ra&#7751;chh&#333;&#7771;, and her songs
+have a wide currency in northern India.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava
+saints or <i>Bhagats</i> is contained in the sacred book, or <i>&#256;di Granth</i>, of
+the Sikh <i>Gurus</i>. N&#257;nak, the founder of this sect (1469-1538), though
+a native of the Punjab (born at Talvand&#299; on the R&#257;v&#299; near Lahore),
+took his doctrine from the <i>Bhagats</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kab&#299;r</a></span>); and each of the
+thirty-one <i>r&#257;gs</i>, forming the body of the <i>Granth</i>, is followed by a
+compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints, chiefly
+of Kab&#299;r, in confirmation of the teaching of the <i>Gurus</i>, while the whole
+book is closed by a <i>bh&#333;g</i> or conclusion, containing more verses by the
+same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian S&#363;f&#299;, Sh&#275;kh Far&#299;d of
+P&#257;kpa&#7789;&#7789;an. The body of the <i>Granth</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), being in old Panj&#257;b&#299;, falls
+outside the scope of this article; but the extracts included in it from
+the early writers of old Hind&#299; are a precious store of specimens of
+authors some of whom have left no other record in the surviving
+literature. The <i>&#256;di Granth</i>, which was put together about 1600 by
+Arjun, the fifth <i>Guru</i> of the Sikhs, sets forth the creed of the sect in
+its original pietistic form, before it assumed the militant character
+which afterwards distinguished it under the five <i>Gurus</i> who succeeded
+him.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Middle Hind&#299;.</i>&mdash;The second period, that of middle Hind&#299;,
+begins with the reign of the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605); and
+it is not improbable that the broad and liberal views of this
+great monarch, his active sympathy with his Hind&#363; subjects,
+the interest which he took in their religion and literature, and
+the peace which his organization of the empire secured for Hindostan,
+had an important effect on the great development of Hind&#299;
+poetry which now set in.<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Akbar&rsquo;s court was itself a centre of
+poetical composition. The court musician T&#257;n S&#275;n (who was
+also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by
+him in the Emperor&rsquo;s name live to this day in the memory of
+the people. Akbar&rsquo;s favourite minister and companion, R&#257;j&#257;
+B&#299;rbal (who fell in battle on the north-western frontier in 1583),
+was a musician and a poet as well as a politician, and held the
+title, conferred by the Emperor, of <i>Kabi-R&#257;y</i>, or poet laureate;
+his verses and witty sayings are still extremely popular in
+northern India, though no complete work by him is known
+to exist. Other nobles of the court were also poets, among
+them the <i>Kh&#257;n-kh&#257;n&#257;n</i> &lsquo;Abdur-Ra&#7717;&#299;m, son of Bairam Kh&#257;n,
+whose Hind&#299; <i>d&#333;h&#257;s</i> and <i>kabittas</i> are still held in high estimation,
+and Fai&#7827;&#299;, brother of the celebrated Abul-Fa&#7827;l, the Emperor&rsquo;s
+annalist.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the worship of Krishna as the lover of R&#257;dh&#257;
+(<i>R&#257;dh&#257;-ballabh</i>) had been systematized, and a local habitation
+found for it at Gokul, opposite Mathur&#257; on the Jumna, some
+30 m. upstream from Agra, Akbar&rsquo;s capital, by Vallabh&#257;ch&#257;rya,
+a Tailinga Br&#257;hman from Madras. Born in 1478, in 1497 he
+chose the land of Braj as his headquarters, thence making
+missionary tours throughout India. He wrote chiefly, if not
+entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate followers, and
+those of his son Bi&#7789;&#7789;haln&#257;th (who succeeded his father on the
+latter&rsquo;s death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets
+in Hind&#299;. Four disciples of Vallabh&#257;ch&#257;rya and four of Bi&#7789;&#7789;haln&#257;th,
+who flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the
+<i>Ash&#7789; Chh&#257;p</i>, or &ldquo;Eight Seals,&rdquo; and are the acknowledged masters
+of the literature of Braj-bh&#257;sh&#257;, in which dialect they all wrote.
+Their names are Krishna-D&#257;s Pay-ah&#257;r&#299;, S&#363;r D&#257;s (the Bh&#257;&#7789;),
+Parm&#257;nand D&#257;s, Kumbhan D&#257;s, Chaturbhuj D&#257;s, Chh&#299;t Sw&#257;m&#299;,
+Nand D&#257;s and G&#333;bind D&#257;s. Of these much the most celebrated,
+and the only one whose verses are still popular, is S&#363;r D&#257;s. The
+son of B&#257;b&#257; R&#257;m D&#257;s, who was a singer at Akbar&rsquo;s court, S&#363;r
+D&#257;s was descended, according to his own statement, from the
+bard of Prithw&#299;-R&#257;j, Chand Bard&#257;&#299;. A tradition gives the date
+of his birth as 1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both
+seem to be placed too early, and in Abul-Fa&#7827;l&rsquo;s <i>A&#299;n-i Akbar&#299;</i>
+he is mentioned as living when that work was completed (1596/7).
+He was blind, and entirely devoted to the worship of Krishna,
+to whose address he composed a great number of hymns (<i>bhajans</i>),
+which have been collected in a compilation entitled the <i>S&#363;r
+S&#257;gar</i>, said to contain 60,000 verses; this work is very highly
+esteemed as the high-water mark of Braj devotional poetry,
+and has been repeatedly printed in India. Other compositions
+by him were a translation in verse of the <i>Bh&#257;gavata Pur&#257;na</i>,
+and a poem dealing with the famous story of Nala and Damayanti;
+of the latter no copies are now known to exist.</p>
+
+<p>The great glory of this age is Tuls&#299; D&#257;s (<i>q.v.</i>). He and S&#363;r
+D&#257;s between them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of
+the poetic art. It is somewhat remarkable that the time of their
+appearance coincided with the Elizabethan age of English
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>To these great masters succeeded a period of artifice and
+reflection, when many works were composed dealing with the
+rules of poetry and the analysis and the appropriate language of
+sentiment. Of their writers the most famous is K&#275;sab D&#257;s, a
+Brahman of Bund&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;, who flourished during the latter part of
+Akbar&rsquo;s reign and the beginning of that of Jah&#257;ng&#299;r. His works
+are the <i>Rasik-priy&#257;</i>, on composition (1591), the <i>Kavi-priy&#257;</i>, on
+the laws of poetry (1601), a highly esteemed poem dedicated to
+Parb&#299;n R&#257;i P&#257;tur&#299;, a celebrated courtesan of Orchha in Bund&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;,
+the <i>R&#257;machandrik&#257;</i>, dealing with the history of R&#257;ma,
+(1610), and the <i>Vigy&#257;n-g&#299;t&#257;</i> (1610). The fruit of this elaboration
+of the poetic art reached its highest perfection in <span class="sc">Bih&#257;r&#299; L&#257;l</span>,
+whose <i>Sat-sa&#299;</i>, or &ldquo;seven centuries&rdquo; (1662), is the most remarkable
+example in Hind&#299; of the rhetorical style in poetry (see
+separate article).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span></p>
+
+<p>Side by side with this cultivation of the literary use of the
+themes of R&#257;ma and Krishna, there grew up a class of compositions
+dealing, in a devotional spirit, with the lives and doings of
+the holy men from whose utterances and example the development
+of the popular religion proceeded. The most famous of
+these is the <i>Bhakta-m&#257;l&#257;</i>, or &ldquo;Roll of the <i>Bhagats</i>,&rdquo; by N&#257;r&#257;yan
+D&#257;s, otherwise called N&#257;bh&#257; D&#257;s, or N&#257;bh&#257;j&#299;. This author, who
+belonged to the despised caste of D&#333;ms and was a native of the
+Deccan, had in his youth seen Tuls&#299; D&#257;s at Mathur&#257;, and himself
+flourished in the first half of the 17th century. His work consists
+of 108 stanzas in <i>chhapp&#257;&#299;</i> metre, each setting forth the
+characteristics of some holy personage, and expressed in a style
+which is extremely brief and obscure. Its exact date is unknown,
+but it falls between 1585 and 1623. The book was furnished
+with a <i>&#299;k&#257;</i> (supplement or gloss) in the <i>kabitta</i> metre, by Priy&#257;
+D&#257;s in 1713, gathering up, in an allusive and disjointed fashion,
+all the legendary stories related of each saint. This again was
+expanded about a century later by a modern author named
+Lachhman into a detailed work of biography, called the <i>Bhakta-sindhu</i>.
+From these nearly all our knowledge (such as it is) of
+the lives of the Vaishnava authors, both of the R&#257;ma and the
+Krishna cults, is derived, and much of it is of a very legendary
+and untrustworthy character. Another work, somewhat earlier
+in date than the <i>Bhakta-m&#257;l&#257;</i>, named the <i>Chaur&#257;s&#299; V&#257;rta</i>, is
+devoted exclusively to stories of the followers of Vallabh&#257;ch&#257;rya.
+It is reputed to have been written by G&#333;kuln&#257;th, son of Bi&#7789;&#7789;haln&#257;th,
+son of Vallabh&#257;ch&#257;rya, and is dated in 1551.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The matter of these tales is justly characterized by Professor Wilson<a name="fa13i" id="fa13i" href="#ft13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+(who gives some translated specimens) as &ldquo;marvellous and insipid
+anecdotes&rdquo;; but the book is remarkable for being in very artless
+prose, and, though written more than 300 years ago, shows that the
+current language of Braj was then almost precisely identical with
+that now spoken in that region. A specimen of the text will be found
+at p. 296 of Mr F. S. Growse&rsquo;s <i>Mathura, a District Memoir</i> (3rd ed.,
+1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would be tedious to enumerate the many authors who
+succeeded the great period of Hind poetical composition which
+extended through the reigns of Akbar, Jah&#257;ng&#299;r and Sh&#257;hjah&#257;n.
+None of them attained to the fame of S&#363;r D&#257;s, Tuls D&#257;s or
+Bih&#257;r&#299; L&#257;l. Their themes exhibit no novelty, and they repeat
+with a wearisome monotony the sentiments of their predecessors.
+The list of Hind&#299; authors drawn up by Dr G. A. Grierson, and
+printed in the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i> in 1889,
+may be consulted for the names and works of these <i>epigoni</i>. The
+courts of Chhatars&#257;l, r&#257;j&#257; of Pann&#257; in Bund&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;, who was
+killed in battle with Aurangz&#275;b in 1658, and of several r&#257;j&#257;s of
+B&#257;ndh&#333; (now called R&#299;w&#257;n or Rewah) in Bagh&#275;lkha&#7751;&#7693;, were
+famous for their patronage of poets; and the Mogul court itself
+kept up the office of <i>Kabi-R&#257;y</i> or poet laureate even during the
+fanatical reign of Aurangz&#275;b.</p>
+
+<p>Such, in the briefest outline, is the character of Hind literature
+during the period when it grew and flourished through its own
+original forces. Founded by a popular and religious impulse in
+many respects comparable to that which, nearly 1600 years
+before, had produced the doctrine and literature, in the vernacular
+tongue, of Jainism and Buddhism, and cultivated largely (though
+by no means exclusively) by authors not belonging to the Brahmanical
+order, it was the legitimate descendant in spirit, as
+Hind&#299; is the legitimate descendant in speech, of the Pr&#257;krit literature
+which preceded it. Entirely in verse, it adopted and elaborated
+the Pr&#257;krit metrical forms, and carried them to a pitch of
+perfection too often overlooked by those who concern themselves
+rather with the substance than the form of the works they read.
+It covers a wide range of style, and expresses, in the works of its
+greatest masters, a rich variety of human feeling. Little studied
+by Europeans in the past, it deserves much more attention than
+it has received. The few who have explored it speak of it as an
+&ldquo;enchanted garden&rdquo; (Grierson), abounding in beauties of thought
+and phrase. Above all it is to be remembered that it is genuinely
+popular, and has reached strata of society scarcely touched by
+literature in Europe. The ballads of Rajput prowess, the
+aphorisms of Kab&#299;r, Tuls&#299; D&#257;s&rsquo;s <i>R&#257;m&#257;yan</i>, and the <i>bhajans</i> of
+S&#363;r D&#257;s are to this day carried about everywhere by wandering
+minstrels, and have found their way, throughout the great plains
+of northern India and the uplands of the Vindhy&#257; plateau, to the
+hearts of the people. There is no surer key to unlock the confidence
+of the villager than an apt quotation from one of these
+inspired singers.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Literary Urd&#363;.</i>&mdash;The <i>origines</i> of Urd&#363; as a literary language
+are somewhat obscure. The popular account refers its rise to
+the time of T&#299;m&#363;r&rsquo;s invasion (1398). Some authors even claim
+for it a higher antiquity, asserting that a <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>, or collection of
+poems, was composed in <i>R&#275;khta</i> by Mas&lsquo;&#363;d, son of Sa&rsquo;d, in the
+last half of the 11th or beginning of the 12th century, and that
+Sa&rsquo;di of Sh&#299;r&#257;z and his friend Am&#299;r Khusrau<a name="fa14i" id="fa14i" href="#ft14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> of Delhi likewise
+made verses in that dialect before the end of the 13th century.
+This, however, is very improbable. It has already been seen that
+during the early centuries of Muslim rule in India adherents of
+that faith used the language and metrical forms of the country
+for their compositions. Persian words early made their way into
+the popular speech; they are common in Chand, and in Kab&#299;r&rsquo;s
+verses (which are nevertheless unquestionable Hind&#299;) they are in
+many places used as freely as in the modern dialect. Much of the
+confusion which besets the subject is due to the want of a clear
+understanding of what Urd&#363;, as opposed to Hind&#299;, really is.</p>
+
+<p>Urd&#363;, as a literary language, differs from Hind&#299; rather in its
+form than in its substance. The grammar, and to a large extent
+the vocabulary, of both are the same. The really vital point of
+difference, that in which Hind&#299; and Urd&#363; are incommensurable,
+is the <i>prosody</i>. Hardly one of the metres taken over by Urd&#363;
+poets from Persian agrees with those used in Hind&#299;. In the latter
+language it is the rule to give the short <i>a</i> inherent in every consonant
+or <i>nexus</i> of consonants its full value in scansion (though
+in prose it is no longer heard), except occasionally at the metrical
+pause; in Urd&#363; this is never done, the words being scanned
+generally as pronounced in prose, with a few exceptions which
+need not be mentioned here. The great majority of Hind&#299;
+metres are scanned by the number of <i>m&#257;tr&#257;s</i> or syllabic instants&mdash;the
+value in time of a short syllable&mdash;of which the lines consist;
+in Urd&#363;, as in Persian, the metre follows a special order of long
+and short syllables.</p>
+
+<p>The question, then, is not When did Persian first become
+intermixed with Hind&#299; in the literary speech?&mdash;for this process
+began with the first entry of Muslim conquerors into India,
+and continued for centuries before a line of Urd&#363; verse was
+composed; nor When was the Persian character first employed
+to write Hind&#299;?&mdash;for the written form is but a subordinate
+matter; as already mentioned, the MSS. of Malik Mu&#7717;ammad&rsquo;s
+purely Hind&#299; poem, the <i>Padm&#257;wat</i>, are ordinarily found to be
+written in the Persian character; and copies lithographed in
+D&#275;van&#257;gar&#299; of the popular compositions of the Urd&#363; poet
+Na&#7829;&#299;r are commonly procurable in the b&#257;z&#257;rs. We must ask
+When was the first verse composed in Hind&#299;, whether with
+or without foreign admixture, according to the forms of Persian
+prosody, and not in those of the indigenous metrical system?
+Then, and not till then, did Urd&#363; poetry come into being. This
+appears to have happened, as already mentioned, about the end
+of the 16th century. Meantime the vernacular speech had been
+gradually permeated with Persian words and phrases. The
+impulse which Akbar&rsquo;s interest in his Hind&#363; subjects had given
+to the translation of Sanskrit works into Persian had brought
+the indigenous and the foreign literatures into contact. The
+current language of the neighbourhood of the capital, the
+Hind&#299; spoken about Delhi and thence northwards to the Him&#257;laya,
+was naturally the form of the vernacular which was most
+subject to foreign influences; and with the extension of Mogul
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span>
+territory by the conquests in the south of Akbar and his successors,
+this idiom was carried abroad by their armies, and was
+adopted by the Musalm&#257;n kingdoms of the Deccan as their
+court language some time before their overthrow by the campaigns
+of Aurangz&#275;b.</p>
+
+<p>It is not a little remarkable that, as happened with the Vaishnava
+reformation initiated by R&#257;m&#257;nuja and R&#257;m&#257;nand, and
+with the Vallabh&#257;ch&#257;rya cult of Krishna established at Mathur&#257;,
+the first impulse to literary composition in Urd&#363; should have
+been given, not at the headquarters of the empire in the north,
+but at the Muhammadan courts of G&#333;lkond&#257; and B&#299;j&#257;pur in
+the south, the former situated amid an indigenous population
+speaking Telugu, and the latter among one whose speech was
+Kanarese, both Dravidian languages having nothing in common
+with the Aryan tongues of the north. This fact of itself defines
+the nature of the literature thus inaugurated. It had nothing
+to do with the idiom or ideas of the people among whom it was
+born, but was from the beginning an imitation of Persian models.
+It adopted the standards of form and content current among
+the poets of &#274;r&#257;n. The <i>qa&#7779;&#299;da</i> or laudatory ode, the <i>ghazal</i>
+or love-sonnet, usually of mystical import, the <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iya</i> or dirge,
+the <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i> or narrative poem with coupled rhymes, the <i>hij&#257;</i>
+or satire, the <i>rub&#257;&lsquo;&#299;</i> or epigram&mdash;these were the types which
+Urd&#363; took over ready-made. And with the forms were appropriated
+also all the conventions of poetic diction. The
+Persians, having for centuries treated the same themes with
+a fecundity which most Europeans find extremely wearisome,
+had elaborated a system of rhetoric and a stock of poetic images
+which, in the exhaustion of original matter, made the success
+of the poet depend chiefly upon dexterity of artifice and cleverness
+of conceit. Pleasing hyperbole, ingenious comparison,
+antithesis, alliteration, carefully arranged gradation of noun
+and epithet, are the means employed to obtain variety; and
+few of the most eloquent passages of later Persian verse admit
+of translation into any other language without losing that which
+in the original makes their whole charm. What is true of Persian
+is likewise true of Urd&#363; poetry. Until quite modern times,
+there is scarcely anything in it which can be called original.<a name="fa15i" id="fa15i" href="#ft15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a>
+Differences of school, which are made much of by native critics,
+are to us hardly perceptible; they consist in the use of one
+or other range of metaphor or comparison, classed, according
+as they repeat the well-worn poetical stock-in-trade of the
+Persians, or seek a slightly fresher and more Indian field of
+sentiment, as the old or the new style of composition.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Shuj&#257;&lsquo;udd&#299;n N&#363;r&#299;, a native of Gujar&#257;t, a friend of Fai&#7827;&#299; and contemporary
+of Akbar, is mentioned by the native biographers as the
+most ancient Urd&#363; poet after Am&#299;r Khusrau. He was tutor of the
+son of the <i>waz&#299;r</i> of Sult&#257;n Abu-l-&#7716;asan Ku&#7789;b Sh&#257;h of Golkonda, and
+several <i>ghazals</i> by him are said to survive. Kul&#299; Ku&#7789;b Sh&#257;h of
+Golkonda, who reigned from 1581, and his successor &lsquo;Abdull&#257;h Ku&#7789;b
+Sh&#257;h, who came to the throne in 1611, have both left collections of
+verse, including <i>ghazals</i>, <i>rub&#257;&lsquo;&#299;s</i>, <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;s</i> and <i>qa&#7779;&#299;das</i>. And during
+the reign of the latter Ibn Nish&#257;&#7789;&#299; wrote two works which are still
+famous as models of composition in Dakhni; they are <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;s</i>
+entitled the <i>T&#363;&#7789;&#299;-n&#257;ma</i>, or &ldquo;Tales of a Parrot,&rdquo; and the <i>Ph&#363;l-ban</i>.
+The first, written in 1639, is an adaptation of a Persian work by
+Nakhshab&#299;, but derives ultimately from a Sanskrit original entitled
+the <i>&#346;uka-saptati</i>; this collection has been frequently rehandled in
+Urd&#363;, both in verse and prose, and is the original of the <i>&#7788;&#333;&#7789;&#257;-Kah&#257;ni</i>,
+one of the first works in Urd&#363; prose, composed in 1801 by
+Mu&#7717;ammad &#7716;aidar-bakhsh &#7716;aidar&#299; of the Fort William College.
+The <i>Ph&#363;l-ban</i> is a love tale named from its heroine, said to be translated
+from a Persian work entitled the <i>Bas&#257;t&#299;n</i>. Another famous
+work which probably belongs to the same place and time is the <i>Story
+of K&#257;mr&#363;p and Kal&#257;</i> by Ta&#7717;s&#299;nudd&#299;n, a <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i> which has been
+published (1836) by M. Garcin de Tassy; what makes this poem
+remarkable is that, though the work of a Musalm&#257;n, its personages
+are Hindu. K&#257;mr&#361;p, the hero, is son of the king of Oudh, and the
+heroine, Kal&#257;, daughter of the king of Ceylon; the incidents somewhat
+resemble those of the tale of as-Sindib&#257;d in the <i>Thousand and
+One Nights</i>; the hero and heroine dream one of the other, and the
+former sets forth to find his beloved; his wanderings take him to
+many strange countries and through many wonderful adventures,
+ending in a happy marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The court of B&#299;j&#257;pur was no less distinguished in literature.
+Ibr&#257;h&#299;m &lsquo;&#256;dil Sh&#257;h (1579-1626) was the author of a work in verse
+on music entitled the <i>Nau-ras</i> or &ldquo;Nine Savours,&rdquo; which, however,
+appears to have been in Hind&#299; rather than Urd&#363;; the three prefaces
+(<i>d&#299;b&#257;jas</i>) to this poem were rendered into Persian prose by Maul&#257;
+&#7829;uh&#363;r&#299;, and, under the name of the <i>Sih na<span class="un">s</span>r-i &#7829;uh&#363;r&#299;</i>, are well-known
+models of style. A successor of this prince, &lsquo;Al&#299; &lsquo;&#256;dil Sh&#257;h, had as
+his court poet a Brahman known poetically as Nu&#7779;rat&#299;, who in 1657
+composed a <i>ma&#7779;nav&#299;</i> of some repute entitled the <i>Gulshan-i &lsquo;Ishq</i>, or
+&ldquo;Rose-garden of Love,&rdquo; a romance relating the history of Prince
+Man&#333;har and Madm&#257;lat&#299;,&mdash;like the <i>K&#257;mr&#363;p</i>, an Indian theme.
+The same poet is author of an extremely long <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i> entitled the
+<i>&lsquo;Al&#299;-n&#257;ma</i>, celebrating the monarch under whom he lived.</p>
+
+<p>These early authors, however, were but pioneers; the first
+generally accepted standard of form, a standard which suffered little
+change in two centuries, was established by Wal&#299; of Aurang&#257;b&#257;d
+(about 1680-1720) and his contemporary and fellow-townsman
+Sir&#257;j. The former of these is commonly called &ldquo;the Father of
+R&#275;khtah&rdquo;&mdash;<i>B&#257;b&#257;-e R&#275;khta</i>; and all accounts agree that the immense
+development attained by Urd&#363; poetry in northern India during the
+18th century was due to his example and initiative. Very little is
+known of Wal&#299;&rsquo;s life; he is believed to have visited Delhi towards the
+end of the reign of Aurangz&#275;b, and is said to have there received
+instruction from Sh&#257;h Gulshan in the art of clothing in a vernacular
+dress the ideas of the Persian poets. His <i>Kull&#299;y&#257;t</i> or complete works
+have been published by M. Garcin de Tassy, with notes and a translation
+of selected passages (Paris, 1834-1836), and may be commended
+to readers desirous of consulting in the original a favourable
+specimen of Urd&#363; poetical composition.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the Delhi school of poets was Zuh&#363;rudd&#299;n H&#257;tim, who
+was born in 1699 and died in 1792. In the second year of Muhammad
+Sh&#257;h (1719), the <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i> of Wal&#299; reached Delhi, and excited the emulation
+of scholars there. H&#257;tim was the first to imitate it in the Urd&#363;
+of the north, and was followed by his friends N&#257;j&#299;, Mazm&#363;n and &#256;br&#363;.
+Two <i>d&#299;w&#257;ns</i> by him survive. He became the founder of a school, and
+one of his pupils was Raf&#299; us-Saud&#257;, the most distinguished poet of
+northern India. Kh&#257;n &#256;rz&#363; (1689-1756) was another of the fathers
+of Urd&#363; poetry in the north. This author is chiefly renowned as a
+Persian scholar, in which language he not only composed much
+poetry, but one of the best of Persian lexicons, the <i>Sir&#257;ju-l-lugh&#257;t</i>;
+but his compositions in Urd&#363; are also highly esteemed. He was the
+master of M&#299;r Taq&#299;, who ranks next to Saud&#257; as the most eminent
+Urd&#363; poet. &#256;rz&#363; died at Lucknow, whither he betook himself after
+the devastation of Delhi by N&#257;dir Sh&#257;h (1739). Another of the early
+Delhi poets who is considered to have surpassed his fellows was
+In&lsquo;&#257;mull&#257;h Kh&#257;n Yaq&#299;n, who died during the reign of Ahmad Sh&#257;h
+(1748-1754), aged only twenty-five. Another was M&#299;r Dard, pupil
+of the same Sh&#257;h Gulshan who is said to have instructed Wal&#299;; his
+<i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i> is not long, but extremely popular, and especially esteemed for
+the skill with which it develops the themes of spiritualism. In his
+old age he became a <i>darw&#275;sh</i> of the <i>Naqshband&#299;</i> following, and died
+in 1793.</p>
+
+<p>Saud&#257; and M&#299;r Taq&#299; are beyond question the most distinguished
+Urd&#363; poets. The former was born at Delhi about the beginning of
+the 18th century, and studied under H&#257;tim. He left Delhi after its
+devastation, and settled at Lucknow, where the Naw&#257;b &#256;&#7779;afuddaulah
+gave him a <i>j&#257;g&#299;r</i> of Rs. 6000 a year, and where he died in
+1780. His poems are very numerous, and cover all the styles of
+Urd&#363; poetry; but it is to his satires that his fame is chiefly due,
+and in these he is considered to have surpassed all other Indian
+poets. M&#299;r Taq&#299; was born at Agra, but early removed to Delhi,
+where he studied under &#256;rz&#363;; he was still living there at the time
+of Saud&#257;&rsquo;s death, but in 1782 repaired to Lucknow, where he likewise
+received a pension; he died at a very advanced age in 1810. His
+works are very voluminous, including no less than six <i>d&#299;w&#257;ns</i>.
+M&#299;r is counted the superior of Saud&#257; in the <i>ghazal</i> and <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i>,
+while the latter excelled him in the satire and <i>qa&#7779;&#299;da</i>. Sayyid
+A&#7717;mad, an excellent authority, and himself one of the best of modern
+authors in Urd&#363;, says of him in his <i>&#256;<span class="un">s</span>&#257;ru-&#7779;-&#7778;an&#257;d&#299;d</i>: &ldquo;M&#299;r&rsquo;s
+language is so pure, and the expressions which he employs so suitable
+and natural, that to this day all are unanimous in his praise.
+Although the language of Saud&#257; is also excellent, and he is superior
+to M&#299;r in the point of his allusions, he is nevertheless inferior to him
+in style.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The tremendous misfortunes which befell Delhi at the hands of
+N&#257;dir Sh&#257;h (1739), Ahmad Sh&#257;h Durr&#257;n&#299; (1756), and the Mar&#257;&#7789;h&#257;s
+(1759), and the rapid decay of the Mogul empire under these repeated
+shocks, transferred the centre of the cultivation of literature from
+that city to Lucknow, the capital of the newly founded and flourishing
+state of Oudh. It has been mentioned how &#256;rz&#363;, Saud&#257; and M&#299;r
+betook themselves to this refuge and ended their days there; they
+were followed in their new residence by a school of poets hardly
+inferior to those who had made Delhi illustrious in the first half
+of the century. Here they were joined by M&#299;r Hasan (d. 1786), M&#299;r
+S&#333;z (d. 1800) and Qalandar-bakhsh Jur&rsquo;at (d. 1810), also like themselves
+refugees from Delhi, and illustrious poets. M&#299;r Hasan was a
+friend and collaborator of M&#299;r Dard, and first established himself at
+Faiz&#257;b&#257;d and subsequently at Lucknow; he excelled in the <i>ghazal</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span>
+<i>rub&#257;&lsquo;&#299;</i>, <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i> and <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iya</i>, and is counted the third, with Saud&#257;
+and M&#299;r Taq&#299;, among the most eminent of Urd&#363; poets. His fame
+chiefly rests upon a much admired <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i> entitled the <i>Si&#7717;ru-l-bay&#257;n</i>,
+or &ldquo;Magic of Eloquence,&rdquo; a romance relating the loves of
+Prince Bë-na&#7829;&#299;r and the Princess Badr-i Mun&#299;r; his <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i> called
+the <i>Gulz&#257;r-i Iram</i> (&ldquo;Rose-garden of Iram,&rdquo; the legendary &lsquo;&#256;dite
+paradise in southern Arabia), in praise of Faiz&#257;b&#257;d, is likewise
+highly esteemed. M&#299;r Mu&#7717;ammad&#299; S&#333;z was an elegant poet, remarkable
+for the success with which he composed in the dialect
+of the harem called <i>Rekht&#299;</i>, but somewhat licentious in his verse; he
+became a <i>darw&#275;sh</i> and renounced the world in his later years. Jur&rsquo;at
+was also a prolific poet, but, like S&#333;z, his <i>ghazals</i> and <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;s</i> are
+licentious and full of double meanings. He imitated Saud&#257; in satire
+with much success; he also cultivated Hind&#299; poetry, and composed
+<i>doh&#257;s</i> and <i>kabittas</i>. Misk&#299;n was another Lucknow poet of the same
+period, whose <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iyas</i> are especially admired; one of them, that
+on the death of Muslim and his two sons, is considered a masterpiece
+of this style of composition. The school of Lucknow, so founded and
+maintained during the early years of the century, continued to
+flourish till the dethronement of the last king, W&#257;jid &lsquo;Al&#299;, in 1856.
+&#256;tash and N&#257;sikh (who died respectively in 1847 and 1841) are the
+best among the modern poets of the school in the <i>ghazal</i>; M&#299;r An&#299;s, a
+grandson of M&#299;r Hasan, and his contemporary Dab&#299;r, the former of
+whom died in December 1875 and the latter a few months later,
+excelled in the <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iyah</i>. Rajab Al&#299; Beg Sur&#363;r, who died in 1869,
+was the author of a much-admired romance in rhyming prose entitled
+the <i>Fis&#257;nah-e &lsquo;Aj&#257;ib</i> or &ldquo;Tale of Marvels,&rdquo; besides a <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>. The
+dethroned prince W&#257;jid &lsquo;Al&#299; himself, poetically styled Akhtar, was
+also a poet; he published three d&#299;w&#257;ns, among them a quantity of
+poetry in the rustic dialect of Oudh which is philologically of much
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Though Delhi was thus deserted by its brightest lights of literature,
+it did not altogether cease to cultivate the poetic art. Among the
+last Moguls several princes were themselves creditable poets. Sh&#257;h
+&#256;lam II. (1761-1806) wrote under the name of &#256;ft&#257;b, and was the
+author of a romance entitled <b><i>Man&#7829;&#363;m-i Aqdas</i></b>, besides a <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>.
+His son Sulaim&#257;n-shukoh, brother of Akbar Sh&#257;h II., who had at
+first, like his brother authors, repaired to Lucknow, returned to
+Delhi in 1815, and died in 1838; he also has left a <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>. Lastly, his
+nephew Bah&#257;dur Sh&#257;h II., the last titular emperor of Delhi (d. 1862),
+wrote under the name of &#7829;afar, and was a pupil in poetry of Shaikh
+Ibr&#257;h&#299;m &#7829;auq, a distinguished writer; he has left a voluminous
+<i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>, which has been printed at Delhi. Ma&#7779;&#7717;af&#299; (Ghul&#257;m-i Hamd&#257;n&#299;),
+who died about 1814, was one of the most distinguished of the
+revived poetic school of Delhi, and was himself one of its founders.
+Originally of Lucknow, he left that city for Delhi in 1777, and held
+conferences of poets, at which several authors who afterwards acquired
+repute formed their style; he has left five <i>d&#299;w&#257;ns</i>, a <i>Ta&#7829;kira</i>
+or biography of Urd&#363; poets, and a <i>Sh&#257;h-n&#257;ma</i> or account of the
+kings of Delhi down to Sh&#257;h &lsquo;&#256;lam. Q&#257;im (Qiy&#257;mudd&#299;n &lsquo;Al&#299;) was one
+of his society, and died in 1792; he has left several works of merit.
+Gh&#257;lib, otherwise Mirz&#257; Asadull&#257;h Kh&#257;n Naush&#257;h, laureate of the
+last Mogul, who died in 1869, was undoubtedly the most eminent of
+the modern Delhi poets. He wrote chiefly in Persian, of which
+language, especially in the form cultivated by Firdaus&#299;, free from
+intermixture of Arabic words, he was a master; but his Urd&#363;
+<i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>, though short, is excellent in its way, and his reputation
+spread far and wide. To this school, though he lived and died at
+Agra, may be attached M&#299;r Wal&#299; Mu&#7717;ammad Na&#7829;&#299;r (who died in the
+year 1832); his <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;s</i> entitled <i>Jog&#299;-n&#257;ma</i>, <i>Kau&#7771;&#299;-n&#257;ma</i>, <i>Banj&#257;re-n&#257;ma</i>,
+and <i>Bu&#7771;h&#257;pe-n&#257;ma</i>, as well as his <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>, have been frequently
+reprinted, and are extremely popular. His language is less artificial
+than that of the generality of Urd&#363; poets, and some of his poems
+have been printed in N&#257;gar&#299;, and are as well known and as much
+esteemed by Hindus as by Mahommedans. His verse is defaced by
+much obscenity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. <i>Modern Period.</i>&mdash;While such, in outline, is the history
+of the literary schools of the Deccan, Delhi and Lucknow, a
+fourth, that of the Fort William College at Calcutta, was being
+formed, and was destined to give no less an impulse to the
+cultivation of Urd&#363; prose than had a hundred years before
+been given to that of poetry by Wal&#299;. At the commencement
+of the 19th century Dr John Gilchrist was the head of this
+institution, and his efforts were directed towards getting together
+a body of literature suitable as text-books for the study of the
+Urd&#363; language by the European officers of the administration.
+To his exertions we owe the elaboration of the vernacular as
+an official speech, and the possibility of substituting it for the
+previously current Persian as the language of the courts and
+the government. He gathered together at Calcutta the most
+eminent vernacular scholars of the time, and their works, due
+to his initiative, are still notable as specimens of elegant and
+serviceable prose composition, not only in Urd&#363;, but also in
+Hind&#299;. The chief authors of this school are &#7716;aidar&#299; (Sayyid
+Mu&#7717;ammad &#7716;aidar-bakhsh), &#7716;usain&#299; (M&#299;r Bah&#257;dur &lsquo;Al&#299;), M&#299;r
+Amman Lu&#7789;f, &#7716;af&#299;&#7829;udd&#299;n A&#7717;mad, Sh&#275;r &lsquo;Al&#299; Afs&#333;s, Nih&#257;l Chand
+of Lahore, K&#257;&#7829;im &lsquo;Al&#299; Jaw&#257;n, Lall&#363; L&#257;l Kavi, Ma&#7829;har &lsquo;Al&#299; Wil&#257;
+and Ikr&#257;m &lsquo;Al&#299;.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&#7716;aidar&#299; died in 1828. He composed the <i>&#7788;o&#7789;&#257;-Kah&#257;n&#299;</i> (1801), a
+prose redaction of the <i>&#7788;&#363;&#7789;&#299;-n&#257;mah</i> which has been already mentioned;
+a romance named <i>&#256;r&#257;ish-i Ma&#7717;fil</i> (&ldquo;Ornament of the Assembly&rdquo;),
+detailing the adventures of the famous Arab chief &#7716;&#257;tim-i &#7788;ai; the
+<i>Gul-i Maghfirat</i> or <i>Dah Majlis</i>, an account of the holy persons of
+the Muhammadan faith; the <i>Gulz&#257;r-i D&#257;nish</i>, a translation of the
+<i>Bah&#257;r-i D&#257;nish</i>, a Persian work containing stories descriptive of the
+craft and faithlessness of women; and the <i>T&#257;r&#299;kh-i N&#257;dir&#299;</i>, a translation
+of a Persian history of N&#257;dir Sh&#257;h. &#7716;usain&#299; is the author of
+an imitation in prose of M&#299;r &#7716;asan&rsquo;s <i>Si&#7717;ru-l-bay&#257;n</i>, under the name
+of <i>Na&#7779;r-i B&#275;na&#7829;&#299;r</i> (&ldquo;the Incomparable Prose,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the Prose of
+B&#275;na&#7827;&#299;r,&rdquo; the latter being the name of the hero), and of a work
+named <i>Akhl&#257;q-i Hind&#299;</i>, or &ldquo;Indian Morals,&rdquo; both composed in 1802.
+The <i>Akhl&#257;q-i Hind&#299;</i> is an adaptation of a Persian work called the
+<i>Mufarri&#7717;u-l-qul&#363;b</i> (&ldquo;the Delighter of Hearts&rdquo;), itself a version of the
+<i>Hit&#333;pad&#275;&#353;a</i>. M&#299;r Amman was a native of Delhi, which he left in the
+time of A&#7717;mad Sh&#257;h Durr&#257;n&#299; for Patna, and in 1801 repaired to
+Calcutta. To him we owe the <i>B&#257;gh o Bah&#257;r</i> (1801-1802), an adaptation
+of Am&#299;r Khusrau&rsquo;s famous Persian romance entitled the <i>Chah&#257;r
+Darw&#275;sh</i>, or &ldquo;Story of the Four Dervishes.&rdquo; Amman&rsquo;s work is not
+itself directly modelled on the Persian, but is a rehandling of an
+almost contemporary rendering by Tahs&#299;n of Et&#257;w&#257;, called the
+<i>Nau-&#7789;arz-i Mura&#7779;&#7779;a&lsquo;</i>. The style of this composition is much admired
+by natives of India, and editions of it are very numerous. Amman
+also composed an imitation of Husain W&#257;&lsquo;iz K&#257;shif&#299;&rsquo;s <i>Akhl&#257;q-i
+Mu&#7717;sin&#299;</i> under the name of the <i>Ganj-i Kh&#363;b&#299;</i> (&ldquo;Treasure of Virtue&rdquo;),
+produced in 1802. &#7716;af&#299;&#7829;udd&#299;n Ahmad was a professor at the Fort
+William College; in 1803 he completed a translation of Abu-l-Fa&#7827;l&rsquo;s
+<i>&rsquo;Iy&#257;r-i D&#257;nish</i>, under the name of the <i>Khirad-afr&#333;z</i> (&ldquo;Enlightener
+of the Understanding&rdquo;). The <i>&rsquo;Iy&#257;r-i D&#257;nish</i> (&ldquo;Touchstone of
+Wisdom&rdquo;) is one of the numerous imitations of the originally
+Sanskrit collection of apologues known in Persian as the <i>Fables of
+B&#299;dp&#257;&#299;</i>, or <i>Kal&#299;lah and Dimna</i>. Afs&#333;s was one of the most illustrious
+of the Fort William school; originally of Delhi, he left that city at
+the age of eleven, and entered the service of Q&#257;sim &lsquo;Al&#299; Kh&#257;n,
+Naw&#257;b of Bengal; he afterwards repaired to Hyder&#257;b&#257;d in the
+Deccan, and thence to Lucknow, where he was the pupil of M&#299;r
+&#7716;asan, M&#299;r S&#333;z and M&#299;r &#7716;aidar &lsquo;Al&#299; &#7716;air&#257;n. He joined the Fort
+William College in 1800, and died in 1809. He is the author of a
+much esteemed d&#299;w&#257;n; but his chief reputation is founded on two
+prose works of great excellence, the <i>&#256;r&#257;ish-i Mahfil</i> (1805), an account
+of India adapted from the introduction of the Persian <i>Khul&#257;&#7779;atu-t-taw&#257;rikh</i>
+of Suj&#257;n R&#257;e, and the <i>B&#257;gh-i Urd&#363;</i> (1808), a translation of
+Sa&rsquo;d&#299;&rsquo;s <i>Gulist&#257;n</i>. Nih&#257;l Chand translated into Urd&#363; a <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;</i>,
+entitled the <i>Gul-i Bak&#257;wal&#299;</i>, under the name of <i>Ma&#7829;hab-i &lsquo;Ishq</i>
+(&ldquo;Religion of Love&rdquo;); this work is in prose intermingled with
+verse, was composed in 1804, and has been frequently reproduced.
+Jaw&#257;n, like most of his collaborators, was originally of Delhi and
+afterwards of Lucknow; he joined the College in 1800. He is the
+author of a version in Urd&#363; of the well-known story of Sakuntal&#257;,
+under the name of <i>Sakuntal&#257; N&#257;&#7789;ak</i>; the Urd&#363; was rendered from
+a previous Braj-bh&#257;sh&#257; version by Naw&#257;z Kab&#299;shwar made in 1716,
+and was printed in 1802. He also composed a <i>B&#257;rah-m&#257;s&#257;</i>, or poetical
+description of the twelve months (a very popular and often-handled
+form of composition), with accounts of the various Hindu and
+Muhammadan festivals, entitled the <i>Dast&#363;r-i Hind</i> (&ldquo;Usages of
+India&rdquo;), printed in 1812. Ikr&#257;m &lsquo;Ali translated, under the name
+of the <i>Ikhw&#257;nu-&#7779;-&#7779;af&#257;</i>, or &ldquo;Brothers of Purity&rdquo; (1810), a chapter
+of a famous Arabian collection of treatises on science and philosophy
+entitled <i>Ras&#257;ilu Ikhw&#257;ni-&#7779;-&#7779;af&#257;</i>, and composed in the 10th century.
+The complete collection, due to different writers who dwelt at
+Ba&#7779;ra, has recently been made known to European readers by the
+translation of Dr F. Dieterici (1858-1879); the chapter selected by
+Ikr&#257;m &lsquo;Al&#299; is the third, which records an allegorical strife for the
+mastery between men and animals before the king of the <i>Jinn</i>.
+The translation is written in excellent Urd&#363;, and is one of the best
+of the Fort William productions.</p>
+
+<p>Sr&#299; Lall&#363; L&#257;l was a Brahman, whose family, originally of Gujar&#257;t,
+had long been settled in northern India. What was done by the
+other Fort William authors for Urd&#363; prose was done by Lall&#363; L&#257;l
+almost alone for Hind&#299;. He may indeed without exaggeration be
+said to have created &ldquo;High Hind&#299;&rdquo; as a literary language. His
+<i>Prem S&#257;gar</i> and <i>R&#257;jn&#299;ti</i>, the former a version in pure Hind&#299; of the
+10th chapter of the <i>Bh&#257;gavata Pur&#257;na</i>, detailing the history of
+K&#7771;ish&#7751;a, and founded on a previous Braj-bh&#257;sh&#257; version by Chaturbhuj
+Misr, and the latter an adaptation in Braj-bh&#257;sh&#257; prose of the
+<i>Hit&#333;pad&#275;&#353;a</i> and part of the <i>Pancha-tantra</i>, are unquestionably the
+most important works in Hind&#299; prose. The <i>Prem S&#257;gar</i> was begun
+in 1804 and ended in 1810; it enjoys immense popularity in northern
+India, has been frequently reproduced in a lithographed form,
+and has several times been printed. The <i>R&#257;jn&#299;ti</i> was composed in
+1809; it is much admired for its sententious brevity and the purity
+of its language. Besides these two works, Lall&#363; L&#257;l was the author
+of a collection of a hundred anecdotes in Hind&#299; and Urd&#363; entitled
+<i>Lat&#257;if-i Hind&#299;</i>, an anthology of Hind&#299; verse called the <i>Sabh&#257;-bil&#257;s</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span>
+a <i>Sat-sa&#299;</i> in the style of Bih&#257;ri-L&#257;l called <i>Sapta-satika</i> and several
+other works. He and Jaw&#257;n worked together at the <i>Singh&#257;san
+Batt&#299;s&#299;</i> (1801), a redaction in mixed Urd&#363; and Hind&#299; (D&#275;van&#257;gar&#299;
+character) of a famous collection of legends relating the prowess of
+King Vikram&#257;ditya; and he also aided the latter author in the
+production of the <i>Sakuntal&#257; N&#257;&#7789;ak</i>. Ma&#7829;har &lsquo;Ali Wil&#257; was his collaborator
+in the <i>Bait&#257;l Pach&#299;s&#299;</i>, a collection of stories similar in many
+respects to the <i>Singh&#257;san Batt&#299;s&#299;</i>, and also in mixed Urd&#363;-Hind&#299;;
+and he aided Wil&#257; in the preparation in Urd&#363; of the <i>Story of M&#257;dh&#333;nal</i>,
+a romance originally composed in Braj-bh&#257;sh&#257; by M&#333;t&#299; R&#257;m.</p>
+
+<p>The works of these authors, though compiled and published under
+the superintendence of Dr Gilchrist, Captain Abraham Lockett,
+Professor J. W. Taylor, Dr W. Hunter and other European officers of
+the college of Fort William, and originally intended for the instruction
+of the Company&rsquo;s officers in the vernacular, are essentially
+Indian in taste and style, and, until superseded by the more recent
+developments of literature noticed below, enjoyed a very wide
+reputation and popularity. They may, indeed, be said to have set
+the standard of prose composition in Urd&#363; and Hind&#299;, and for the
+first half of the 19th century their influence in this respect continued
+almost unchallenged. Side by side with them, among the Musalm&#257;n
+population of northern India, another almost contemporaneous
+impulse did much for the expansion of the Urd&#363; language, and,
+like the work of the Vaishnava reformers in moulding literary Hind&#299;,
+gave an impetus to composition which might otherwise have been
+lacking. This was the reform in Islam led by Sayyid Ahmad<a name="fa16i" id="fa16i" href="#ft16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a> and
+his followers. In all Eastern countries religion is the first and chief
+subject of literary production; and the controversies which the
+new preaching aroused in India at once afforded abundant material
+for authorship in Urd&#363;, and interested deeply the people to whom
+the works were addressed.</p>
+
+<p>Sayyid A&#7717;mad was born in 1782, and received his early education
+at Delhi; his instructors were two learned Muslims, Sh&#257;h &lsquo;Abdul-&lsquo;Az&#299;z,
+author of a celebrated commentary on the Qur&lsquo;&#257;n (the <i>Tafs&#299;r-i
+&lsquo;Az&#299;ziyyah</i>), and his brother &lsquo;Abdu-l-Q&#257;dir, the writer of the first
+translation of the holy volume into Urd&#363;. Under their guidance
+Sayyid A&#7717;mad embraced the doctrines of the Wahh&#257;b&#299;s, a sect
+whose preaching appears at this time to have first reached India.
+He gathered round him a large number of fervent disciples, among
+others Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l &#7716;&#257;j&#299;, nephew of &lsquo;Abdu-l&lsquo;Az&#299;z and &lsquo;Abdu-l-Q&#257;dir, the
+chief author of the sect. After a course of preaching and apostleship
+at Delhi, Sayyid A&#7717;mad set out in 1820 for Calcutta, attended by
+numerous adherents. Thence in 1822 he started on a pilgrimage
+to Mecca, whence he went to Constantinople, and was there received
+with distinction and gained many disciples. He travelled for nearly
+six years in Turkey and Arabia, and then returned to Delhi. The
+religious degradation and coldness which he found in his native
+country strongly impressed him after his sojourn in lands where
+the life of Isl&#257;m is stronger, and he and his disciples established
+a propaganda throughout northern India, reprobating the superstitions
+which had crept into the faith from contact with Hindus,
+and preaching a <i>jih&#257;d</i> or holy war against the Sikhs. In 1828 he
+started for Pesh&#257;war, attended by, it is said, upwards of 100,000
+Indians, and accompanied by his chief followers, &#7716;&#257;j&#299; Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l and
+&lsquo;Abdu-l-&#7716;ayy. He was furnished with means by a general subscription
+in northern India, and by several Muhammadan princes
+who had embraced his doctrines. At the beginning of 1829 he
+declared war against the Sikhs, and in the course of time made
+himself master of Pesh&#257;war. The Afgh&#257;ns, however, with whom
+he had allied himself in the contest, were soon disgusted by the
+rigour of his creed, and deserted him and his cause. He fled across
+the Indus and took refuge in the mountains of Pakhl&#299; and Dhamt&#333;r,
+where in 1831 he encountered a detachment of Sikhs under the
+command of Sh&#275;r Singh, and in the combat he and &#7716;&#257;j&#299; Isma&lsquo;&#299;l
+were slain. His sect is, however, by no means extinct; the Wahh&#257;b&#299;
+doctrines have continued to gain ground in India, and to give rise
+to much controversial writing, down to our own day.</p>
+
+<p>The translation of the Quran by &lsquo;Abdu-l-Q&#257;dir was finished in
+1803, and first published by Sayyid &lsquo;Abdull&#257;h, a fervent disciple of
+Sayyid A&#7717;mad, at H&#363;ghl&#299; in 1829. The <i>Tamb&#299;hu-l-gh&#257;fil&#299;n</i>, or
+&ldquo;Awakener of the Heedless,&rdquo; a work in Persian by Sayyid A&#7717;mad,
+was rendered into Urd&#363; by &lsquo;Abdull&#257;h, and published at the same
+press in 1830. H&#257;j&#299; Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l was the author of a treatise in Urd&#363;
+entitled <i>Taqwiyatu-l-&#298;m&#257;n</i> (&ldquo;Confirmation of the Faith&rdquo;), which
+had great vogue among the following of the Sayyid. Other works
+by the disciples of the <i>Tar&#299;qah-e Mu&#7717;ammadiyyah</i> (as the new
+preaching was called) are the <i>Targh&#299;b-i Jih&#257;d</i> (&ldquo;Incitation to Holy
+War&rdquo;), <i>Hid&#257;yatu-l-M&#363;min&#299;n</i> (&ldquo;Guide of the Believers&rdquo;), <i>M&#363;&#7827;i&#7717;u-l-Kab&#257;ir</i>
+wa-l-Bid&rsquo;ah (&ldquo;Exposition of Mortal Sins and Heresy&rdquo;),
+<i>Na&#7779;lhatu-l-Muslim&#299;n</i> (&ldquo;Admonition to Muslims&rdquo;), and the <i>Mi&rsquo;at
+Mas&#257;il</i>, or &ldquo;Hundred Questions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Printing was first used for vernacular works by the College Press
+at Fort William, at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the
+19th century, and all the compositions prepared for Dr Gilchrist
+and his successors which have been mentioned were thus given to
+the public. But the expense of this method of reproduction long
+precluded its extensive use in India, and movable types, though
+well suited for alphabets derived from the Sanskrit, were not equally
+applicable to the flowing and graceful characters of Persian.
+Lithography was introduced about 1837, when the first press was
+set up at Delhi, and immediately gave a powerful stimulus to the
+multiplication of literature, both original and editions of older
+works. In 1832 the vernaculars were substituted for Persian as
+the official language of the courts and the acts of the legislature,
+and this at once led to the transfer to the former of a mass of technical
+and forensic terms which had previously been only to a limited
+extent in popular use. Thirdly, the spread of education in subjects
+of Western learning, for which text-books (many of them translations
+from English) were required, not only greatly enlarged the
+vocabulary of the common speech, but led by degrees to the use
+of a simpler and more direct style, and the abandonment wholesale
+of the florid and artificial ornament which was the legacy of the
+Persian literature upon which Urd&#363; prose had at first modelled
+itself. Lastly, the establishment of a vernacular newspaper press,
+which lithography had rendered possible, placed within the reach
+of a continually widening public the means of becoming acquainted
+with new ideas in every department of culture, and practised the
+writers who contributed to it in the art of wielding their mother-tongue
+with effect in its application to European themes.</p>
+
+<p>All these revolutionary agencies were at work, though in a tentative
+and limited fashion, when the great change, following on the
+Mutiny of 1857, of the transfer of the government of India from
+the Company to the Crown inaugurated a new era. Since 1860 their
+operation has become extremely rapid and far-reaching. The use
+of lithography both for Urd&#363; and Hind&#299; annually gives birth to
+hundreds of works. The extension of education through both
+public and private agency has created an immense mass of school-books,
+and the spread of instruction in English and the activity of
+translators have filled the vernaculars with a multitude of new
+words drawn from that language. The newspaper press, in Urd&#363;
+and Hind&#299;, now counts over two hundred journals, the majority
+issued in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and in the Punjab,
+but a few at Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bombay and Calcutta.
+Of this great body of literary production it is possible to speak only
+in general terms. Style and vocabulary are still in a somewhat
+fluid and unsettled condition, and the subjects treated are almost
+as various as they are in European literatures. Much, indeed, of
+the work produced has scarcely any claim to literary excellence,
+and in the crowd of writers we may content ourselves with mentioning
+only a few whose influence and authority make it probable
+that they will hereafter be known as leaders in the new culture.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first effects of the new literary inspiration seemed to
+be the extinction of poetical composition as previously practised.
+With the deaths of &#7828;auq (1854) and Gh&#257;lib (1869) of the Delhi
+school, and those of An&#299;s (1875) and Dab&#299;r (1876) of Lucknow,
+the end of Urd&#363; poetry appeared to have come. The new age was
+intensely practical and eager to engage in the race for material and
+political advancement, and had no time for sentiment, or taste for
+mystical conceits. Moreover, poetical composition in India, as in
+other Eastern countries, has always owed much to the patronage of
+courts and princes. The thrones of Delhi and Lucknow had passed
+away, and the new rulers showed little interest in this form of
+achievement. Only at Hyderabad in the Deccan, under the patronage
+of the Nizam, were laureates still honoured; the last of these,
+Mirz&#257; Kh&#257;n D&#257;gh (1831-1905), enjoyed a wide reputation as a
+graceful and eloquent master of the poetic art.</p>
+
+<p>But prose and material prosperity did not succeed in monopolizing
+the genius of the people. The great movement of reform and
+liberalism in Isl&#257;m led by Sir Sayyid A&#7717;mad Kh&#257;n (1817-1898)
+found its bard in Sayyid Al&#7789;&#257;f &#7716;usain of P&#257;nip&#257;&#7789;, poetically styled
+&#7716;&#257;l&#299;&mdash;an ambiguous <i>nom-de-plume</i> now generally taken in the
+sense of &ldquo;modern,&rdquo; or &ldquo;up-to-date.&rdquo; &#7716;&#257;l&#299; in his youth was a
+pupil of the famous Gh&#257;lib, whose life he has written and of whose
+writings he has published an able criticism. At the age of forty
+he came under the influence of Sir Sayyid A&#7717;mad Kh&#257;n, and from
+that time devoted his great poetic gifts to the service of his co-religionists.
+He has published much verse, of which an interesting
+specimen will be found in the edition of his <i>Rub&#257;&lsquo;&#299;s</i> or quatrains
+(101 in number), with an English translation, by Mr G. E. Ward
+(Oxford, 1904); in this is included a famous poem addressed to
+his muse, setting forth his ideals in poetry&mdash;simplicity, avoidance
+of exaggeration and unreality, direct and emotional appeal to the
+heart, and above all sincerity. There can be no doubt that he has
+succeeded in becoming the leader of a new poetic school, which
+shows much vigour and promise.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most memorable of all &#7716;&#257;l&#299;&rsquo;s compositions is his long
+poem in six-line stanzas (called <i>musaddas</i>) on &ldquo;the flow and ebb of
+Islam&rdquo; (1879), which has had an extraordinary influence in stimulating
+enthusiasm in the cause of progress among the Musalm&#257;ns
+of the north of India. In it he draws, in simple and direct but
+searching and eloquent language, a rapid sketch of the glories of
+Islam in the past, its principles and precepts, and the sources of
+its strength; and then turns to contrast with this picture the
+degradation and decay into which it had, when he wrote, fallen in
+Hind&#333;st&#257;n. Never have the vices and shortcomings of a people
+been lashed by one of themselves with more vigorous denunciation,
+or with more earnestness of moral purpose. In his preface he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span>
+explains how the poem came to be written&mdash;after a youth spent in
+heedlessness and unsettlement, at the instigation of Sir Sayyid
+A&#7717;mad Kh&#257;n, and in the cause of that great reformer. The poem
+is still recited and imitated by Muslims in the Punjab and United
+Provinces, though the picture which it presents of Indian Musalm&#257;ns
+is no longer wholly applicable to the community. &#7716;&#257;l&#299;
+has recently completed a life of Sir Sayyid A&#7717;mad Kh&#257;n in two
+volumes, entitled <i>&#7716;ay&#257;t-i J&#257;v&#299;d</i> (&ldquo;eternal life&rdquo;), a work of great
+merit.</p>
+
+<p>Another writer whose work, though chiefly in prose, deals with
+poetry and poetic style, is Maulav&#299; Mu&#7717;ammad &#7716;usain &#256;z&#257;d, lately
+professor of Arabic at the Government College, Lahore. He has not
+himself composed much verse; but his biographies of Urd&#363; poets,
+with criticisms of their works, entitled <i>Äb-i &#7716;ay&#257;t</i> (&ldquo;Water of Life,&rdquo;
+Lahore, 1883), is by far the best book dealing with the subject.
+His prose style is much admired. As &#7716;&#257;l&#299; was the pupil of Gh&#257;lib,
+so was &#256;z&#257;d that of &#7828;auq, of whose poems he has published a revised
+and annotated edition. His other works in prose are <i>Qi&#7779;a&#7779;-i
+Hind</i>, episodes of Indian history arranged for schools; <i>Nairang-i
+Khay&#257;l</i>, an allegory dealing with human life; and <i>Darb&#257;r-i Akbar&#299;</i>,
+an account of the reign of Akbar.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Sayyid A&#7717;mad Kh&#257;n&rsquo;s life and work are dealt with elsewhere.
+Among his literary achievements may be mentioned the <i>&#256;<span class="un">s</span>&#257;ru&#7779;-&#7778;an&#257;did</i>
+(&ldquo;Vestiges of Princes&rdquo;), an excellent account of Delhi
+and its monuments, which has passed through several editions
+since it was first lithographed in 1847. His essays and occasional
+papers, published in the <i>Al&#299;ga&#7771;h Institute Gazette</i> (started in 1864),
+and afterwards (from 1870 onwards) in a periodical entitled <i>Tah&#7829;&#299;bul-Akhl&#257;q</i>
+(or &ldquo;Muhammadan Social Reformer&rdquo;), handle all the problems
+of religious, social and educational advancement among
+Indian Musalm&#257;ns&mdash;the cause with which his life was identified.
+His great <i>Commentary on the Qur&lsquo;&#257;n</i>, in seven volumes, the last
+finished only a few days before his death in 1898, is carried to the
+end of S&#363;rah xx., a little more than half the book. In him Urd&#363;
+prose found its most powerful wielder for the diffusion of modern
+ideas, and the movement which he set on foot has been the spring
+of the best literature in the language during recent years.</p>
+
+<p>Another excellent writer of Urd&#363; is Shamsul-&rsquo;Ulam&#257; Maulav&#299;
+Na&#7829;&#299;r A&#7717;mad of Delh&#299;, who is the author of a series of novels describing
+domestic life, of a somewhat didactic character, which
+have had a wide popularity, and from their admirable moral tone
+have been specially serviceable in the education of Indian women.
+These are entitled the <i>Mir&lsquo;&#257;tul-&lsquo;Ar&#363;s</i> (or &ldquo;Brides&rsquo; Mirror&rdquo;);
+<i>Taubatun-Na&#7779;&#363;&#7717;</i> (&ldquo;the Repentance of Na&#7779;&#363;&#7717;&rdquo;), <i>Ban&#257;tun-Na&rsquo;sh</i>
+(&ldquo;the Seven Stars of the Great Bear&rdquo;), <i>Ibnul-Waqt</i> (&ldquo;Son of the
+Age&rdquo;), and <i>Ay&#257;m&#257;</i> (&ldquo;Widows&rdquo;). But Na&#7829;&#299;r A&#7717;mad is a man of
+many sides; before he took to novel-writing he was the principal
+translator into Urd&#363; of the <i>Indian Penal Code</i> (1861), which is
+reckoned a masterpiece in the exact rendering of European legal
+ideas; and more lately he gave to the world the best Urd&#363; version
+of the Quran. He has been a popular lecturer on social subjects,
+displaying a rich vein of humour, and in his old age even ventured
+upon verse. During the latter portion of his life he was most closely
+associated with Sir Sayyid A&#7717;mad Kh&#257;n.</p>
+
+<p>The novel is one of the most noteworthy features of recent
+literary composition in Urd&#363;. India has from time immemorial been
+rich in stories and romances of adventure; but the description of
+actual life and character in action, as the modern novel is understood
+in Europe, is quite a new development. The most admired
+production of this kind in Urd&#363; is a work entitled <i>Fis&#257;na-e &#256;z&#257;d</i>,
+by Pa&#7751;&#7693;it Ratan-n&#257;th Sarsh&#257;r of Lucknow. The story, which is very
+long, is remarkable for the faithful and vivid pictures of Lucknow
+society which it presents, and its exact and lifelike delineation of
+character; it appeared originally as a <i>feuilleton</i> of the <i>Awadh
+Akhb&#257;r</i>, of which paper the author was at the time editor. Another
+good writer in the same branch of literature is Maulav&#299; &lsquo;Abdul-&#7716;al&#299;m
+Sharar, also a native of the neighbourhood of Lucknow, but
+settled at Hyderabad. He was editor of a monthly periodical
+called the <i>Dil-gud&#257;z</i> (&ldquo;melter of hearts&rdquo;), which contained essays
+and papers in European style, and in it his novels, which are all of
+an historical character, in the style of Sir Walter Scott, originally
+appeared. The best are <i>&lsquo;Az&#299;z and Virgin&#257;</i>, a tale of the Crusades,
+and <i>Mans&#363;r and M&#333;hin&#257;</i>, a story of which the scene is laid in India
+at the time of the invasions of Sultan Ma&#7717;m&#363;d of Ghazn&#299;.</p>
+
+<p>Although Urd&#363; chiefly represents Musalm&#257;n culture, its use is
+by no means confined to adherents of that faith. It has just been
+mentioned that the most popular Urd&#363; novelist is a Hind&#363; (a
+Br&#257;hman from Kashm&#299;r); and the statistics of the vernacular
+press show that this form of the language is widely used by Hind&#363;s
+as well as Musalm&#257;ns. Thus, of eighty periodicals in Urd&#363; published
+in the United Provinces, twenty-nine are conducted by
+Hind&#363;s; similarly, in the Punjab, of forty-eight Urd&#363; journals,
+twenty are edited by Hindus.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;High Hind&#299;&rdquo; has scarcely adapted itself to modern requirements
+with the thoroughness displayed by Urd&#363;. It is taught in the schools
+where the population is mainly Hind&#363;, and books of science have been
+written in it with a terminology borrowed from Sanskrit, in place
+of the Persian terms used in the other dialect. But Sanskrit is far
+removed from the daily life of the people, and the majority of works
+in this style are read only by Pa&#7751;&#7693;its, the great bulk of them dealing
+with religion, philosophy and the ancient literature. There are
+thirty-seven Hind&#299; and four Hind&#299;-Urd&#363; journals in the United
+Provinces; but many of them are exclusively religious in their
+character, and several, though written in D&#275;van&#257;gar&#299;, employ a
+mixed language which admits Persian words freely. The old
+dialects of literature, Awadh&#299; and Braj-bh&#257;sh&#257;, are now only used
+for poetry; High Hind&#299; has been a complete failure for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The most noticeable authors in Hind&#299; since the middle of the 19th
+century have been B&#257;b&#363; Harishchandra and R&#257;j&#257; &#7776;iva Pras&#257;d, both
+of Benares. The former, during his short life (1850-1885), was an
+enthusiastic cultivator of the old poetic art, using the dialects just
+mentioned. He published in the <i>Sundar&#299; Tilak</i> an anthology of the
+best Hind&#299; poetry, and in the <i>Kabi-bachan-Sudh&#257;</i> (&ldquo;ambrosia of the
+words of poets&rdquo;) and the magazine called <i>Harishchandrik&#257;</i> a quantity
+of old texts, with much added matter. He also wrote a volume of
+biographies of famous men, European and Indian, and many critical
+studies, historical and literary. In history especially he cleared up
+many problems, and traced the lines for further investigation. In
+his <i>Kashm&#299;r Kusum</i>, or history of Kashm&#299;r, a list is given of about
+a hundred works by him. He was also the real founder of the modern
+Hind&#299; drama; he wrote plays himself, and inspired others. R&#257;j&#257;
+&#7776;iva Pras&#257;d (1823-1895) served for many years in the educational
+department, and published a number of works intended for use in
+schools, which have greatly contributed to the formation of a sound
+vernacular form of Hind&#299;, not excessively Sanskritized, and not
+rejecting current Persian forms. The society at Benares called the
+<i>N&#257;gar&#299; Prach&#257;rin&#299; Sabh&#257;</i> (&ldquo;Society for promoting the use of the
+N&#257;gar&#299; character&rdquo;) has, since the death of Harishchandra, been
+active in procuring the publication of works in Hind&#299;, and has
+issued many useful books, besides conducting a systematic search
+for old MSS.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The best account in English of Hind&#299; literature
+is Dr G. A. Grierson&rsquo;s <i>Modern Vernacular Literature of Hind&#333;st&#257;n</i>,
+issued by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889; the dates in this
+work, which is founded on indigenous compilations, have, however,
+in many cases to be received with caution. Before it appeared,
+Garcin de Tassy&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la littérature Hindouie et Hindoustanie</i>,
+and his annual summaries of the progress made from 1850 to 1877,
+were our chief authority, and may still be consulted with advantage.
+For the religious literature of the Vaishnava sects, Professor H. H.
+Wilson&rsquo;s <i>Essay on the Religious Sects of the Hindus</i> (vol. i. of his
+collected works) has not yet been superseded.</p>
+
+<p>For Urd&#363; poets, Professor &#256;z&#257;d&rsquo;s <i>&#256;b-i &#7716;ay&#257;t</i> (in Urd&#363;) is the most
+trustworthy record. For the new school of Urd&#363; literature reference
+may be made to a series of lectures (in English) by Shaikh &lsquo;Abdul-Q&#257;dir
+of Lahore, printed in 1898. The catalogues by Professor Blumhardt
+of Hind&#333;st&#257;n&#299; and Hind&#299; books in the libraries of the British
+Museum and the India Office will give a good idea of the volume of
+the recent productions of the press in those languages.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. J. L.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Urd&#363;</i> is a Turkish word meaning a camp or army with its
+followers, and is the origin of the European word <i>horde</i>. <i>R&#275;khta</i>
+means &ldquo;scattered, strewn,&rdquo; referring to the way in which Persian
+words are intermixed with those of Indian origin; it is used chiefly
+for the literary form of Urd&#363;.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The only known exceptions are a work in Hind&#299; called the
+<i>Chaur&#257;s&#299; V&#257;rt&#257;</i> (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems;
+the latter can scarcely be called literature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A fresh critical edition of the text by Pa&#7751;&#7693;it M&#333;han L&#257;l Vishnu
+L&#257;l Pa&#7751;&#7693;ia at Benares, under the auspices of the <i>N&#257;gar&#299; Prach&#257;rin&#299;
+Sabh&#257;</i>, had reached canto xxiv. in 1907.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See <i>J.A.S.B.</i> (1886), pp. 6 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Annals and Antiquities</i>, ii. 452 n. and 472 n.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Worshippers of the energic power&mdash;<i>&#346;akt&#299;</i>&mdash;of &#346;iva, represented
+by his consort P&#257;rvat&#299; or Bhaw&#257;ní.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Quoted from G. A. Grierson, chapter on &ldquo;Literature,&rdquo; in the
+<i>India Gazetteer</i> (ed. 1907).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathur&#257; on
+the Jumna river. That of R&#257;ma is probably still more ancient; the
+name occurs in stories of the Buddha.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Religious Sects of the Hindus</i>, p. 40.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> This name of Krishna, which means &ldquo;He who quits the battle,&rdquo;
+is connected with the story of the transfer of the Y&#257;dava clan from
+Mathur&#257; to the new capital on the coast of the peninsula of
+K&#257;thiaw&#257;r, the city of Dw&#257;r&#257;ka. This migration was the result of
+an invasion of Braj by Jar&#257;sandha, king of Magadh&#257;, before whom
+Krishna resolved to retreat. As his path southwards took him
+through Rajp&#363;t&#257;n&#257; and Gujar&#257;t, it is in these regions that his form
+Ra&#7751;chh&#333;&#7771; is most generally venerated as a symbol of the shifting of
+the centre of divine life from Gangetic to southern India.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> In the <i>Granth</i> N&#257;md&#275;o is called a calico-printer, <i>Chh&#299;p&#299;</i>. The
+Mar&#257;thi tradition is that he was a tailor, <i>Shimp&#299;</i>; it is probable that
+the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been wrongly
+rendered by the former.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> It will be remembered that Akbar&rsquo;s reign was remarkable for the
+translation into Persian of a large number of Sanskrit works of
+religion and philosophy, most of the versions being made by, or in
+the names of, members of his court.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13i" id="ft13i" href="#fa13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Religious Sects</i>, p. 132.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14i" id="ft14i" href="#fa14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Am&#299;r Khusrau is credited with the authorship of many still
+popular rhymes, riddles or punning verses (called <i>pah&#275;l&#299;s</i> and
+<i>mukur&#299;s</i>); but these, though often containing Persian words, are in
+Hind&#299; and scanned according to the prosody of that language; they
+are, therefore, like Malik Mu&#7717;ammad&rsquo;s <i>Padm&#257;wat</i>, not Urd&#363; or
+Rekhta verse (see Professor &#256;z&#257;d&rsquo;s <i>&#256;bi-&#7716;ay&#257;t</i>, pp. 72-76). A late
+Dakkhan&#299; poet who used the <i>takkallu&#7779;</i> of Sa&rsquo;d&#299; is said by &#256;z&#257;d (p. 79)
+to have been confused by M&#299;rz&#257; Raf&#299;&lsquo;us-Saud&#257; in his <i>Tazkira</i> with
+Sa&rsquo;d&#299; of Sh&#299;r&#257;z.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15i" id="ft15i" href="#fa15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> An exception may be made to this general statement in favour
+of the <i>genre</i> pictures of city and country life contained in the <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>nav&#299;s</i>
+of Saud&#257; and Na&#7829;&#299;r. These are often satires (in the vein of Horace
+rather than Juvenal), and are full of interest as pictures of society.
+In Saud&#257;, however, the conventional language used in description is
+often Persian rather than Indian.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16i" id="ft16i" href="#fa16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> To be carefully distinguished from the reformer of the same
+name who flourished half a century later.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDU CHRONOLOGY.<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> The subject of Hindu chronology
+divides naturally into three parts: the calendar, the eras, and
+other reckonings.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. The Calendar</p>
+
+<p>The Hindus have had from very ancient times the system
+of lunisolar cycles, made by the combination of solar years,
+regulated by the course of the sun, and lunar years, regulated
+by the course of the moon, but treated in such a manner as to
+keep the beginning of the lunar year near the beginning of the
+solar year. The exact manner in which they arranged the details
+of their earliest calendar is still a subject of research. We deal
+here with their calendar as it now stands, in a form which was
+developed from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 under the influence of the Greek
+astronomy which had been introduced into India at no very
+long time previously.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindu calendar, then, is determined by years of two
+kinds, solar and lunar. For civil purposes, solar years are used
+in Bengal, including Orissa, and in the Tamil and Malay&#257;&#7735;am
+districts of Madras, and lunar years throughout the rest of India.
+But the lunar year regulates everywhere the general religious
+rites and festivals, and the details of private and domestic life,
+such as the selection of auspicious occasions for marriages and
+for starting on journeys, the choice of lucky moments for shaving,
+and so on. Consequently, the details of the lunar year are
+shown even in the almanacs which follow the solar year. On
+the other hand, certain details of the solar year, such as the
+course of the sun through the signs and other divisions of the
+zodiac, are shown in the almanacs which follow the lunar year.
+We will treat the solar year first, because it governs the lunisolar
+system, and the explanation of it will greatly simplify
+the process of explaining the lunar calendar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span></p>
+
+<p>The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical solar
+year. The latter professes to begin at the vernal equinox,
+but the actual position is as follows. In our Western
+astronomy the signs of the zodiac have, in consequence
+<span class="sidenote">The astronomical solar year.</span>
+of the precession of the equinoxes, drawn away to
+a large extent from the constellations from which
+they derived their names; with the result that the sun now
+comes to the vernal equinox, at the first point of the sign Aries,
+not in the constellation Aries, but at a point in Pisces, about
+28 degrees before the beginning of Aries. The Hindus, however,
+have disregarded precession in connexion with their calendar
+from the time (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 499, 522, or 527, according to different schools)
+when, by their system, the signs coincided with the constellations;
+and their sign Aries, called M&#275;sha by them, is still their
+constellation Aries, beginning, according to them, at or near
+the star &zeta; Piscium. Their astronomical solar year is, in fact,
+not the tropical year, in the course of which the sun really
+passes from one vernal equinox to the next, but a sidereal year,
+the period during which the earth makes one revolution in its
+orbit round the sun with reference to the first point of M&#275;sha;
+its beginning is the moment of the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti, the entrance
+of the sun into the sidereal sign M&#275;sha, instead of the tropical
+sign Aries; and it begins, not with the true equinox, but with
+an artificial or nominal equinox.</p>
+
+<p>The length of this sidereal solar year was determined in the
+following manner. The astronomer selected what the Greeks
+termed an <i>exeligmos</i>, the Romans an <i>annus magnus</i> or <i>mundanus</i>,
+a period in the course of which a given order of things is completed
+by the sun, moon, and planets returning to a state of conjunction
+from which they have started. The usual Hindu <i>exeligmos</i>
+has been the Great Age of 4,320,000 sidereal solar years, the
+aggregate of the K&#7771;ita or golden age, the Tr&#275;t&#257; or silver age,
+the Dv&#257;para or brazen age, and the Kali or iron age, in which
+we now are; but it has sometimes been the Kalpa or aeon,
+consisting according to one view of 1000, according to another
+view of 1008, Great Ages. He then laid down the number of
+revolutions, in the period of his <i>exeligmos</i>, of the <i>nakshatras</i>,
+certain stars and groups of stars which will be noticed more
+definitely in our account of the lunar year; that is, the number
+of rotations of the earth on its axis, or, in other words, the number
+of sidereal days. A deduction of the number of the years from
+the number of the sidereal days gave, as remainder, the number
+of civil days in the <i>exeligmos</i>. And, this remainder being
+divided by the number of the years, the quotient gave the
+length of the sidereal solar year: refinements, suggested by
+experience, inference, or extraneous information, were made
+by increasing or decreasing the number of sidereal days assigned
+to the <i>exeligmos</i>. The Hindus now recognize three standard
+sidereal solar years determined in that manner. (1) A year of
+365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to the <i>&#256;ryabha&#7789;&#299;ya</i>,
+otherwise called the <i>First &#256;rya-Siddh&#257;nta</i>, which was written
+by the astronomer &#256;ryabha&#7789;a (b. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 476): this year is
+used in the Tamil and Malay&#257;&#7735;am districts, and, we may add,
+in Ceylon. (2) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30.915 sec.
+according to the <i>R&#257;jam&#7771;ig&#257; ka</i>, a treatise based on the <i>Br&#257;hma-Siddh&#257;nta</i>
+of Brahmagupta (b. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 598) and attributed to
+king Bh&#333;ja, of which the epoch, the point of time used in it
+for calculations, falls in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1042: this year is used in parts
+of Gujar&#257;t (Bombay) and in R&#257;jput&#257;n&#257; and other western parts
+of Northern India. (3) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min.
+36.56 sec. according to the present <i>S&#363;rya-Siddh&#257;nta</i>, a work
+of unknown authorship which dates from probably about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000: this year is used in almost all the other parts of
+India. It may be remarked that, according to modern science,
+the true mean sidereal solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min.
+9.6 sec., and the mean tropical year measures 365 days 5 hrs.
+48 min. 46.054440 sec.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the use of this sidereal solar year is that the
+beginning of the Hindu astronomical solar year, and with it
+the civil solar year and the lunar year and the nominal incidence
+of the seasons, has always been, and still is, travelling slowly
+forward in our calendar year by an amount which varies according
+to the particular authority.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> For instance, &#256;ryabha&#7789;a&rsquo;s
+year exceeds the Julian year by 12 min. 30 sec. This amounts
+to exactly one day in 115<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> years, and five days in 576 years.
+Thus, if we take the longer period and confine ourselves to a
+time when the Julian calendar (old style) was in use, according
+to &#256;ryabha&#7789;a the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti began to occur in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 603
+on 20th March, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1179 on 25th March. The intermediate
+advances arrange themselves into four steps of one
+day each in 116 years, followed by one step of one day in 112
+years: thus, the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti began to occur on 21st
+March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 719, on 22nd March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 835, on 23rd March
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 951, and on 24th March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1067 (whence 112 years
+take us to 25th March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1179). It is now occurring sometimes
+on 11th April, sometimes on the 12th; having first come
+to the 12th in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1871.</p>
+
+<p>The civil solar year exists in more varieties than one. The
+principal variety, conveniently called the M&#275;sh&#257;di year, <i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;the year beginning at the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti,&rdquo; is
+the only one that we need notice at this point. The
+<span class="sidenote">The civil solar year.</span>
+beginning of it is determined directly by the astronomical
+solar year; and for religious purposes it begins,
+with that year, at the moment of the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti. Its
+first civil day, however, may be either the day on which the
+<i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i> occurs, or the next day, or even the day after that:
+this is determined partly by the time of day or night at which
+the <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i> occurs, which, moreover, of course varies in
+accordance with the locality as well as the particular authority
+that is followed; partly by differing details of practice in
+different parts of the country. In these circumstances an
+exact equivalent of the M&#275;sh&#257;di civil solar year cannot be
+stated; but it may be taken as now beginning on or closely
+about the 12th of April.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The solar year is divided into twelve months, in accordance with
+the successive <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis</i> or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal)
+signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are twelve in
+number. The names of the signs in Sansk&#7771;it are as
+<span class="sidenote">The solar month.</span>
+follows: M&#275;sha, the ram (Aries); V&#7771;ishabha, the bull
+(Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini); Karka, Karka&#7789;a,
+Karka&#7789;aka, the crab (Cancer); Si&#7745;ha, the lion (Leo); Kany&#257;, the
+maiden (Virgo); Tul&#257;, the scales (Libra); V&#7771;i&#347;chika, the scorpion
+(Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius); Makara, the sea-monster
+(Capricornus); Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius); and
+M&#299;na, the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some
+parts by the names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them;
+and these are the best names for them for general use, because they
+lead to no confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of
+names, preserving the connexion of them with the lunar months:
+the Sansk&#7771;it forms of these names are Chaitra, Vai&#347;&#257;kha, Jyaish&#7789;ha,
+&#256;sh&#257;&#7693;ha, &#346;r&#257;va&#7751;a, Bh&#257;drapada, &#256;&#347;vina or &#256;&#347;vayuja, K&#257;rttika,
+M&#257;rga&#347;ira or M&#257;rga&#347;&#299;rsha (also known as Agrah&#257;ya&#7751;a), Pausha,
+M&#257;gha, and Ph&#257;lguna: in some localities these names are used
+in corrupted forms, and in others vernacular names are substituted
+for some of them; and, while in some parts the name Chaitra is
+attached to the month M&#275;sha, in other parts it is attached to the
+month M&#299;na, and so on throughout the series in each case. The
+astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i>
+of the sun to the moment of the next <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i>; and, as the signs
+of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as with us,
+while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its orbit
+round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the length
+of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+longest is Mithuna. The civil solar month begins with its first
+civil day, which is determined, in different localities, in the same
+manner with the first civil day of the M&#275;sh&#257;di year, as indicated
+above. The civil month is of variable length; partly for that
+reason, partly because of the variation in the length of the astronomical
+month. No exact equivalents of the civil months, therefore,
+can be stated; but, speaking approximately, we may say that,
+while the month M&#275;sha now begins on or closely about 12th April,
+the beginning of a subsequent month may come as late as the 16th
+day of the English month in which it falls.</p>
+
+<p>The solar year is also divided into six seasons, the Sanskrit names
+of which are Vasanta, spring; Gr&#299;shma, the hot weather; Varsh&#257;,
+the rainy season; &#346;arad, autumn; H&#275;manta, the cold
+weather; and &#346;i&#347;ira, the dewy season. Vasanta begins
+<span class="sidenote">The seasons.</span>
+at the M&#299;na-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti; the other seasons begin at each
+successive second <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i> from that. Originally, this scheme was
+laid out with reference to the true course of the sun, and the starting-point
+of it was the real winter solstice, with &#346;i&#347;ira, as the first season,
+beginning then; now, owing partly to the disregard of precession,
+partly to our introduction of New Style, each season comes
+about three weeks too late; Vasanta begins on or about 12th
+March, instead of 19th or 20th February, and so on with the rest.
+It may be added that in early times the year was also divided into
+three or four, and even into five or seven, seasons; and there
+appears to have been also a practice of reckoning the seasons according
+to the lunar months, which, however, would only give a
+very varying arrangement, in addition to neglecting the point that
+the seasons are naturally determined by the course of the sun, not
+of the moon. But there is now recognized only the division into
+six seasons, determined as stated above.</p>
+
+<p>The solar year is also divided into two parts called Uttar&#257;ya&#7751;a,
+the period during which the sun is moving to the north, and Dakshi&#7751;&#257;yana,
+the period during which it is moving to the south.
+The Uttar&#257;ya&#7751;a begins at the nominal winter solstice,
+<span class="sidenote">The solstitial divisions of the year.</span>
+as marked by the Makara-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti; and the day on
+which this solstice occurs, usually 12th January at
+present, is still a special occasion of festivity and rejoicing;
+the Dakshi&#7751;&#257;yana begins at the nominal summer
+solstice, as marked by the Karka-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti. It may be
+added here that, while the Hindus disregard precession in the actual
+computation of their years and the regulation of their calendar,
+they pay attention to it in certain other respects, and notably as
+regards the solstices: the precessional solstices are looked upon as
+auspicious occasions, as well as the non-precessional solstices, and
+are customarily shown in the almanacs; and some of the almanacs
+show also the other precessional <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis</i> of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are
+<span class="sidenote">The civil day.</span>
+numbered 1, 2, 3, &amp;c., in unbroken succession to the end of the
+month. And, the length of the month being variable
+for the reasons stated above, the number of the civil
+days may range from twenty-nine to thirty-two.</p>
+
+<p>The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual
+appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some
+of the names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit
+&#256;dityav&#257;ra or Raviv&#257;ra, the day of the sun, sometimes
+called &#256;div&#257;ra, the beginning-day (Sunday); S&#333;mav&#257;ra,
+<span class="sidenote">The weekday.</span>
+the day of the moon (Monday); Ma&#7749;galav&#257;ra, the day of Mars
+(Tuesday); Budhav&#257;ra, the day of Mercury (Wednesday); B&#7771;ihas-pativ&#257;ra
+or Guruv&#257;ra, the day of Jupiter (Thursday); Sukrav&#257;ra,
+the day of Venus (Friday); and &#346;aniv&#257;ra, the day of Saturn
+(Saturday). It may be mentioned, as a matter of archaeological
+interest, that, while some of the astronomical books perhaps postulate
+an earlier knowledge of the &ldquo;lords of the days,&rdquo; and other writings
+indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven days, the first
+proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is of the year
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor district,
+Central India.</p>
+
+<p>The divisions of the civil day, as far as we need note them, are
+60 <i>vipalas</i> = 1 <i>pala</i> = 24 seconds; 60 <i>palas</i> = 1 <i>gha&#7789;ik&#257;</i> = 24 minutes;
+<span class="sidenote">Divisions of the day.</span>
+60 <i>gha&#7789;ik&#257;s</i> = 24 hours = 1 day. There is also the <i>muh&#363;rta</i>
+= 2 <i>gha&#7789;ik&#257;s</i> = 48 minutes: this is the nearest approach
+to the &ldquo;hour.&rdquo; The comparative value of these measures
+of time may perhaps be best illustrated thus: 2½ <i>muh&#363;rtas</i>
+= 2 hours; 2½ <i>gha&#7789;ik&#257;s</i> = 1 hour; 2½ <i>palas</i> = 1 minute; 2½ <i>vipalas</i> =
+1 second.</p>
+
+<p>As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count
+all their times, in <i>gha&#7789;ik&#257;s</i> and <i>palas</i>, from that moment. But
+the moment is a varying one, though not in India to
+anything like the extent to which it is so in European
+<span class="sidenote">Civil time.</span>
+latitudes; and under the British Government the Hindus
+have recognized the advantage, and in fact the necessity, especially
+in connexion with their lunar calendar, of having a convenient
+means of referring their own times to the time which prevails officially.
+Consequently, some of the almanacs have adopted the
+European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours and
+minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset
+from noon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lunar year consists primarily of twelve lunations or
+lunar months, of which the present Sansk&#7771;it names, generally
+used in more or less corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vai&#347;&#257;kha,
+&amp;c., to Ph&#257;lguna, as given above in connexion with the solar
+<span class="sidenote">The lunar year.</span>
+months. It is of two principal varieties, according as
+it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or
+with the corresponding day in K&#257;rttika: the former
+variety is conveniently known as the Chaitr&#257;di year; the
+latter as the K&#257;rttik&#257;di year. For religious purposes the lunar
+year begins with its first lunar day: for civil purposes it begins
+with its first civil day, the relation of which to the lunar day
+will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which, as
+we shall explain, the beginning of the lunar year is always
+shifting backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay
+down any close equivalents for comparison: but an indication
+may be given as follows. The first civil day of the Chaitr&#257;di
+year is the day after the new-moon conjunction which occurs
+next after the entrance of the sun into M&#299;na, and it now falls
+from about 13th March to about 11th April: the first civil
+day of the K&#257;rttik&#257;di year is the first day after the new-moon
+conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun
+into Tul&#257;, and it now falls from about 17th October to about
+15th November.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were
+derived from the <i>nakshatras</i>, which are certain conspicuous stars
+and groups of stars lying more or less along the neighbourhood
+of the ecliptic. The <i>nakshatras</i> are regarded
+<span class="sidenote">The lunar month.</span>
+sometimes as twenty-seven in number, sometimes as
+twenty-eight, and are grouped in twelve sets of two or three each,
+beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the list, with the
+pair K&#7771;ittik&#257; and R&#333;hi&#7751;&#299;, and including in the sixth place Chitr&#257;
+and Sv&#257;ti, and ending with the triplet R&#275;vat&#299;, A&#347;vin&#299; and Bhara&#7751;&#299;.
+They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes
+spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac; and it is, no doubt,
+chiefly in connexion with the moon that they are now taken into
+consideration. But they mark divisions of the ecliptic: according
+to one system, twenty-seven divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes;
+according to two other systems, twenty-seven or twenty-eight
+unequal divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs
+show the course of the sun through them, as well as the course of
+the moon; and the course of the sun was marked by them only,
+before the time when the Hindus began to use the twelve signs of
+the solar zodiac. So there is nothing exclusively lunar about them.
+The present names of the lunar months were derived from the
+<i>nakshatras</i> in the following manner: the full-moon which occurred
+when the moon was in conjunction with Chitr&#257; (the star &alpha; Virginis)
+was named Chaitr&#299;, and the lunar month, which contained the
+Chaitr&#299; full-moon, was named Chaitra; and so on with the others.
+The present names have superseded another set of names which
+were at one time in use concurrently with them; these other names
+are Madhu (= Chaitra), M&#257;dhava, &#346;ukra, &#346;uchi, Nabhas, Nabhasya,
+Isha, &#362;rja (= K&#257;rttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and Tapasya
+(= Ph&#257;lguna): they seem to have marked originally solar season-months
+of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar
+year.</p>
+
+<p>A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new-moon,
+which is called <i>am&#257;v&#257;sy&#257;</i>, or with the full-moon, which is
+called <i>p&#363;r&#7751;am&#257;s&#299;</i>, <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;</i>: a month of the former kind is termed
+<i>am&#257;nta</i>, &ldquo;ending with the new-moon,&rdquo; or <i>&#347;ukl&#257;di</i>, &ldquo;beginning with
+the bright fortnight;&rdquo; a month of the latter kind is termed p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta,
+&ldquo;ending with the full-moon,&rdquo; or <i>k&#7771;ish&#7751;&#257;di</i>, &ldquo;beginning with
+the dark fortnight.&rdquo; For all purposes of the calendar, the <i>am&#257;nta</i>
+month is used in Southern India, and the <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> month in
+Northern India. But only the <i>am&#257;nta</i> month, the period of the
+synodic revolution of the moon, is recognized in Hindu astronomy,
+and for the purpose of naming the lunations and adjusting the
+lunar to the solar year by the intercalation and suppression of
+lunar months; and the rule is that the lunar Chaitra is the <i>am&#257;nta</i>
+or synodic month at the first moment of which the sun is in the sign
+M&#299;na, and in the course of which the sun enters M&#275;sha: the other
+months follow in the same way; and the lunar K&#257;rttika is the
+<i>am&#257;nta</i> month at the first moment of which the sun is in Tul&#257;, and
+in the course of which the sun enters V&#7771;i&#347;chika. The connexion
+between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by the point
+that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice to the
+solar M&#299;na, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to
+another practice to the solar M&#275;sha, in which the lunar Chaitra
+ends. Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious
+purposes with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its
+first civil day.</p>
+
+<p>One mean lunar year of twelve lunations measures very nearly
+354 days 8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures
+365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to &#256;ryabha&#7789;a, or slightly
+more according to the other two authorities. Consequently, the
+<span class="sidenote">Intercalation and suppression of lunar months.</span>
+beginning of a lunar year pure and simple would be always travelling
+backwards through the solar year, by about eleven days on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+each occasion, and would in course of time recede entirely through
+the solar year, as it does in the Mahommedan calendar. The
+Hindus prevent that in the following manner. The length
+of the Hindu astronomical solar month, measured by the
+<i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis</i> of the sun, its successive entrances into the
+signs of the zodiac, ranges, in accordance with periodical
+variations in the speed of the sun, from about 29 days
+7 hrs. 38 min. up to about 31 days 15 hrs. 28 min. The
+length of the <i>am&#257;nta</i> or synodic lunar month ranges,
+in accordance with periodical variations in the speed of the moon
+and the sun, from about 29 days 19 hrs. 30 min. down to about
+29 days 7 hrs. 20 min. Consequently, it happens from time to
+time that there are two new-moon conjunctions, so that two lunations
+begin, in one astronomical solar month, between two <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis</i>
+of the sun, while the sun is in one and the same sign of the
+zodiac, and there is no <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i> in the lunation ending with the
+second new-moon: when this is the case, there are two lunations
+to which the same name is applicable, and so there is an additional
+or intercalated month, in the sense that a name is repeated: thus,
+when two new-moons occur while the sun is in M&#275;sha, the lunation
+ending with the first of them, during which the sun has entered
+M&#275;sha, is Chaitra; the next lunation, in which there is no <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i>,
+is V&#257;i&#347;&#257;kha, because it begins when the sun is in M&#275;sha; and the
+next lunation after that is again Vai&#347;&#257;kha, for the same reason,
+and also because the sun enters V&#7771;ishabha in the course of it: in
+these circumstances, the first of the two Vai&#347;&#257;khas is called Adhika-Vai&#347;&#257;kha,
+&ldquo;the additional or intercalated Vai&#347;&#257;kha,&rdquo; and the
+second is called simply Vai&#347;&#257;kha, or sometimes Nija-Vai&#347;&#257;kha,
+&ldquo;the natural Vai&#347;&#257;kha.&rdquo; On the other hand, it occasionally
+happens, in an autumn or winter month, that there are two <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis</i>
+of the sun in one and the same <i>am&#257;nta</i> or synodic lunar
+month, between two new-moon conjunctions, so that no lunation
+begins between the two <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis</i>: when this is the case, there is
+one lunation to which two names are applicable, and there is a
+suppressed month, in the sense that a name is omitted: thus, if
+the sun enters both Dhanus and Makara during one synodic lunation,
+that lunation is M&#257;rga&#347;ira, because the sun was in V&#7771;i&#347;chika at the
+first moment of it and enters Dhanus in the course of it;<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the next
+lunation is M&#257;gha, because the sun is in Makara by the time when
+it begins and will enter Kumbha in the course of it; and the name
+Pausha, between M&#257;rga&#347;ira and M&#257;gha, is omitted. When a month
+is thus suppressed, there is always one intercalated month, and
+sometimes two, in the same Chaitr&#257;di lunar year, so that the lunar
+year never contains less than twelve months, and from time to
+time consists of thirteen months. There are normally seven intercalated
+months, rising to eight when a month is suppressed, in 19
+solar years, which equal very nearly 235 lunations;<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and there is
+never less than one year without an intercalated month between
+two years with intercalated months, except when there is only
+one such month in a year in which a month is suppressed; then
+there is always an intercalated month in the next year also. The
+suppression of a month takes place at intervals of 19 years and
+upwards, regarding which no definite statement can conveniently
+be made here. It may be added that an intercalated Chaitra or
+K&#257;rttika takes the place of the ordinary month as the first month
+of the year; an intercalated month is not rejected for that purpose,
+though it is tabooed from the religious and auspicious points of
+view.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which this arrangement of intercalated and suppressed
+months works out, so as to prevent the beginning of the
+Chaitr&#257;di lunar year departing far from the beginning of the M&#275;sh&#257;di
+solar year, may be illustrated as follows. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1815 the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti
+occurred on 11th April; and the first civil day of the
+Chaitr&#257;di year was 10th April. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1816 and 1817 the first
+civil day of the Chaitr&#257;di year fell back to 29th March and 18th
+March. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1817, however, there was an intercalated month,
+&#346;r&#257;va&#7751;a; with the result that in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1818 the first civil day of the
+Chaitr&#257;di year advanced to 6th April. And, after various shiftings
+of the same kind&mdash;including in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1822 an intercalation of &#256;&#347;vina
+and a suppression of Pausha, followed in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1823, when the first
+civil day of the Chaitr&#257;di year had fallen back to 13th March, by
+an intercalation of Chaitra itself&mdash;in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1834, when the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti
+occurred again on 11th April, the first civil day of the
+Chaitr&#257;di year was again 10th April.</p>
+
+<p>The lunar month is divided into two fortnights (<i>paksha</i>), called
+bright and dark, or, in Indian terms, <i>&#347;ukla</i> or <i>&#347;uddha</i>, <i>&#347;udi</i>, <i>sudi</i>,
+and <i>k&#7771;ish&#7751;a</i> or <i>bahula</i>, <i>badi</i>, <i>vadi</i>: the bright fortnight,
+<i>&#347;ukla-paksha</i>, is the period of the waxing moon, ending
+<span class="sidenote">The lunar fortnight.</span>
+at the full-moon; the dark fortnight, <i>k&#7771;ish&#7751;a-paksha</i>,
+is the period of the waning moon, ending at the new-moon.
+In the <i>am&#257;nta</i> or <i>&#347;ukl&#257;di</i> month, the bright fortnight precedes
+the dark; in the <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> or <i>k&#7771;ish&#7751;&#257;di</i> month, the dark
+fortnight comes first; and the result is that, whereas, for instance,
+the bright fortnight of Chaitra is the same period of time throughout
+India, the preceding dark fortnight is known in Northern India as
+the dark fortnight of Chaitra, but in Southern India as the dark
+fortnight of Ph&#257;lguna. This, however, does not affect the period
+covered by the lunar year; the Chaitr&#257;di and K&#257;rttik&#257;di years
+begin everywhere with the bright fortnight of Chaitra and K&#257;rttika
+respectively; simply, by the <i>am&#257;nta</i> system the dark fortnights
+of Chaitra and K&#257;rttika are the second fortnights, and by the
+<i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> system they are the last fortnights, of the years. Like
+the month, the fortnight begins for religious purposes with its first
+lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil day.</p>
+
+<p>The lunar fortnights are divided each into fifteen tithis or lunar
+days.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The <i>tithi</i> is the time in which the moon increases her distance
+from the sun round the circle by twelve degrees; and the
+almanacs show each <i>tithi</i> by its ending-time; that is,
+<span class="sidenote">The lunar day.</span>
+by the moment, expressed in <i>gha&#7789;ik&#257;s</i> and <i>palas</i>, after
+sunrise, at which the moon completes that distance. In accordance
+with that, the <i>tithi</i> is usually used and cited with the weekday on
+which it ends; but there are special rules regarding certain rites,
+festivals, &amp;c., which sometimes require the <i>tithi</i> to be used and cited
+with the weekday on which it begins or is current at a particular
+time. The first <i>tithi</i> of each fortnight begins immediately after the
+moment of new-moon and full-moon respectively; the last <i>tithi</i>
+ends at the moment of full-moon and new-moon. The <i>tithis</i> are
+primarily denoted by the numbers 1, 2, 3, &amp;c., for each fortnight;
+but, while the full-moon <i>tithi</i> is always numbered 15, the new-moon
+<i>tithi</i> is generally numbered 30, even where the <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> month
+is used. The <i>tithis</i> may be cited either by their figures or by the
+Sansk&#7771;it ordinal words <i>pratham&#257;</i>, &ldquo;first,&rdquo; <i>dvit&#299;y&#257;</i>, &ldquo;second,&rdquo; &amp;c.,
+or corruptions of them. But usually the first <i>tithi</i> of either fortnight
+is cited by the term <i>pratipad</i>, <i>pratipad&#257;</i>, and the new-moon and full-moon
+<i>tithis</i> are cited by the terms <i>am&#257;v&#257;sy&#257;</i> and <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;</i>; or here,
+again, corruptions of the Sansk&#7771;it terms are used. And special
+names are sometimes prefixed to the numbers of the <i>tithis</i>, according
+to the rites, festivals, &amp;c., prescribed for them, or events or merits
+assigned to them: for instance, Vai&#347;&#257;kha &#347;ukla 3 is Akshaya or
+Akshayya-t&#7771;it&#299;y&#257;, the third <i>tithi</i> which ensures permanence to acts
+performed on it; Bh&#257;drapada &#347;ukla 4 is Ga&#7751;&#275;sa-chaturth&#299;, the
+fourth <i>tithi</i> dedicated to the worship of the god Ga&#7751;&#275;&#347;a, Ga&#7751;apati,
+and the <i>am&#257;nta</i> Bh&#257;drapada or <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> &#256;&#347;vina k&#7771;ish&#7751;a 13 is
+Kaliyug&#257;di-tray&#333;da&#347;&#299;, as being regarded (for some reason which
+is not apparent) as the anniversary of the beginning of the
+Kaliyuga, the present Age. The first <i>tithi</i> of the year is styled
+Sa&#7745;vatsara-pratipad&#257;, which term answers closely to our &ldquo;New
+Year&rsquo;s Day.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The civil days of the lunar month begin, like those of the solar
+month, at sunrise, and bear in the same way the names of the
+weekdays. But they are numbered in a different manner;
+fortnight by fortnight and according to the <i>tithis</i>. The
+<span class="sidenote">The civil day.</span>
+general rule is that the civil day takes the number of the
+<i>tithi</i> which is current at its sunrise. And the results are as follows.
+As the motions of the sun and the moon vary periodically, a tithi
+is of variable length, ranging, according to the Hindu calculations,
+from 21 hrs. 34 min. 24 sec. to 26 hrs. 6 min. 24 sec.: it may, therefore,
+be either shorter or longer than a civil day, the duration of
+which is practically 24 hours (one minute, roughly, more or less,
+according to the time of the year). A <i>tithi</i> may end at any moment
+during the civil day; and ordinarily it ends on the civil day after
+that on which it begins, and covers only one sunrise and gives its
+number to the day on which it ends. It may, however, begin on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+one civil day and end on the next but one, and so cover two sunrises;
+and it is then treated as a repeated <i>tithi</i>, in the sense that
+its number is repeated: for instance, if the seventh <i>tithi</i> so begins
+and ends, the civil day on which it begins is numbered 6, from the
+<i>tithi</i> which is current at the sunrise of that day and ends on it; the
+day covered entirely by the seventh <i>tithi</i> is numbered 7, because
+that <i>tithi</i> is current at its sunrise; the next day, at the sunrise of
+which the seventh <i>tithi</i> is still current and during which it ends,
+is again numbered 7; and the number 8 falls to the next day after
+that, when the eighth tithi is current at sunrise.<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> On the other
+hand, a <i>tithi</i> may begin and end during one and the same civil day,
+so as not to touch a sunrise at all: in this case, it exists for any
+practical purposes for which it may be wanted (it is, however, to be
+avoided if possible, as being an unlucky occasion), but it is suppressed
+or expunged for the numbering of the civil day, in the
+sense that its number is omitted; for instance, if the seventh <i>tithi</i>
+begins and ends during one civil day, that day is numbered 6 from,
+as before, the <i>tithi</i> which is current at its sunrise and ends when the
+seventh <i>tithi</i> begins; the next day is numbered 8, because the
+eighth <i>tithi</i> is current at its sunrise; and there is, in this case, no
+civil day bearing the number seven. In consequence of this method
+of numbering, it sometimes happens, as the result of the suppression
+of a <i>tithi</i>, that the day of a full-moon is numbered 14 instead of 15;
+that the day of a new-moon is numbered 14 instead of 30; and that
+the first day of a fortnight, and even the first day of a lunar year,
+is numbered 2 instead of 1.</p>
+
+<p>There are, on an average, thirteen suppressed <i>tithis</i> and seven
+repeated <i>tithis</i> in twelve lunar months; and so the lunar year
+averages 354 days, rising to about 384 when a month is intercalated.
+It occasionally happens that there are two suppressions of <i>tithis</i> in
+one and the same fortnight; and the almanacs show such a case in
+the bright fortnight of Jyaish&#7789;ha, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1878: but this occurs only
+after very long intervals.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>tithi</i> is divided into two <i>karanas</i>; each <i>karana</i> being the
+time in which the moon increases her distance from the sun by six
+degrees. But this is a detail of astrological rather than
+chronological interest. So, also, are two other details
+<span class="sidenote">The Karana.</span>
+to which a prominent place is given in the lunar calendars;
+to y&#333;ga, or time in which the joint motion in longitude, the sum
+of the motions of the sun and the moon, is increased by 13 degrees
+20 minutes; and the <i>nakshatra</i>, the position of the moon as referred
+to the ecliptic by means of the stars and groups of stars which have
+been mentioned above under the lunar month.</p>
+
+<p>In the Indian calendar everything depends upon exact times,
+which differ, of course, on every different meridian; and (to cite
+what is perhaps the most frequent and generally important occurrence)
+suppression and repetition may affect one <i>tithi</i> and civil day
+in one locality, and another <i>tithi</i> and civil day in another locality
+not very far distant. Consequently, neither for the lunar nor for
+the solar calendar is there any almanac which is applicable to even
+the whole area in which any particular length of the astronomical
+solar year prevails; much less, for the whole of India. Different
+almanacs are prepared and published for places of leading importance;
+details for minor places, when wanted, have to be worked
+out by the local astrologer, the modern representative of an ancient
+official known as S&#257;&#7745;mvatsara, the &ldquo;clerk of the year.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Eras</p>
+
+<p>As far as the available evidence goes (and we have no reason
+to expect to discover anything opposed to it), any use of eras,
+in the sense of continuous reckonings which originated in historical
+occurrences or astronomical epochs and were employed for
+official and other public chronological purposes, did not prevail
+in India before the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Prior to that time, there
+existed, indeed, in connexion with the sacrificial calendar, a
+five-years lunisolar cycle, and possibly some extended cycles of
+the same nature; and there was in Buddhist circles a record of
+the years elapsed since the death of Buddha, which we shall
+mention again further on. But, as is gathered from books and is
+well illustrated by the edicts of A&#347;&#333;ka (reigned 264-227 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and
+the inscriptions of other rulers, the years of the reign of each
+successive king were found sufficient for the public dating of proclamations
+and the record of events. There is no known case in
+which any Indian king, of really ancient times, deliberately
+applied himself to the foundation of an era: and we have no
+reason for thinking that such a thing was ever done, or that any
+Hindu reckoning at all owes its existence to a recognition of
+historical requirements. The eras which came into existence
+from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards mostly had their origin in the
+fortuitous extension of regnal reckonings. The usual course has
+been that, under the influence of filial piety, pride in ancestry,
+loyalty to a paramount sovereign, or some other such motive,
+the successor of some king continued the regnal reckoning of his
+predecessor, who was not necessarily the first king in the dynasty,
+and perhaps did not even reign for any long time, instead of
+starting a new reckoning, beginning again with the year 1,
+according to the years of his own reign. Having thus run for two
+reigns, the reckoning was sufficiently well established to continue
+in the same form, and to eventually develop into a generally
+accepted local era, which might or might not be taken over by
+subsequent dynasties ruling afterwards over the same territory.
+In these circumstances, we find the establisher of any particular
+era in that king who first continued his predecessor&rsquo;s regnal
+reckoning, instead of replacing it by his own; but we regard as
+the founder of the era that king whose regnal reckoning was so
+continued. We may add here that it was only in advanced
+stages that any of the Hindu eras assumed specific names:
+during the earlier period of each of them, the years were simply
+cited by the term <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> or <i>varsha</i>, &ldquo;the year (bearing such-and-such
+a number),&rdquo; or by the abbreviations <i>sa&#7745;vat</i> and <i>sam</i>,
+without any appellative designation.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindus have had two religious reckonings, which it will
+be convenient to notice first. Certain, statements in the
+Ceylonese chronicles, the <i>D&#299;pava&#7745;sa</i> and <i>Mah&#257;va&#7745;sa</i>,
+endorsed by an entry in a record of A&#347;&#333;ka, show that in
+<span class="sidenote">The Buddhist and Jain religious reckonings.</span>
+the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there existed among the Buddhists
+a record of the time elapsed since the death of Buddha
+in 483 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, from which it was known that A&#347;&#333;ka was
+anointed to the sovereignty 218 years after the
+death. The reckoning, however, was confined to esoteric Buddhist
+circles, and did not commend itself for any public use; and the
+only known inscriptional use of it, which also furnishes the
+latest known date recorded in it, is found in the Last Edict of
+A&#347;&#333;ka, which presents his dying speech delivered in 226 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, 256
+years after the death of Buddha. In Ceylon, where, also the
+original reckoning was not maintained, there was devised in the
+12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a reckoning styled Buddhavarsha, &ldquo;the years
+of Buddha,&rdquo; which still exists, and which purports to run from
+the death of Buddha, but has set up an erroneous date for that
+event in 544 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This later reckoning spread from Ceylon to
+Burma and Siam, where, also, it is still used. It did not obtain
+any general recognition in India, because, when it was devised,
+Buddhism had practically died out there, except at B&#333;dh-Gay&#257;.
+But, as there seems to have been constant intercourse between
+B&#333;dh-Gay&#257; and Ceylon as well as other foreign Buddhist countries,
+we should not be surprised to find an occasional instance of its
+use at B&#333;dh-Gay&#257;: and it is believed that one such instance,
+belonging to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1270, has been obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The Jains have had, and still maintain, a reckoning from the
+death of the founder of their faith, V&#299;ra, Mah&#257;v&#299;ra, Vardham&#257;na,
+which event is placed by them in 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This reckoning
+figures largely in the Jain books, which put forward dates in it
+for very early times. But the earliest known synchronous date
+in it&mdash;by which we mean a date given by a writer who recorded
+the year in which he himself was writing&mdash;is one of the year 980,
+or, according to a different view mentioned in the passage itself,
+of the year 993. This reckoning, again, did not commend itself
+for any official or other public use. And the only known inscriptional
+instances of the use of it are modern ones, of the 19th
+century. While it is certain that the Jain reckoning, as it exists,
+has its initial point in 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it has not yet been determined
+whether that is actually the year in which V&#299;ra died. All that can
+be said on this point is that the date is not inconsistent with
+certain statements in Buddhist books, which mention, by a
+Pr&#257;krit name of which the Sansk&#7771;it form is Nirgrantha-J&#324;&#257;ta-putra,
+a contemporary of Buddha, in whom there is recognized
+the original of the Jain V&#299;ra, Mah&#257;v&#299;ra, or Vardham&#257;na, and who,
+the same books say, died while Buddha was still alive. But there
+are some indications that Nirgrantha-Jñ&#257;taputra may have died
+only a short time before Buddha himself; and the event may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+easily have been set back to 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in circumstances, attending
+a determination of the reckoning long after the occurrence,
+analogous to those in which the Ceylonese Buddhavarsha set up
+the erroneous date of 544 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for the death of Buddha.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the class of eras of royal origin, brought into existence in the
+manner indicated above, the Hindus have had various reckonings
+which have now mostly fallen into disuse. We may
+<span class="sidenote">Bygone Eras of royal origin.</span>
+mention them, without giving them the detailed treatment
+which the more important of the still existing
+reckonings demand.</p>
+
+<p>The Kalachuri or Ch&#275;di era, commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 248
+or 249, is known best from inscriptional records, bearing dates
+which range from the 10th to the 13th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, of the Kalachuri
+kings of the Ch&#275;di country in Central India; and it is from them
+that it derived the name under which it passes. In earlier times,
+however, we find this era well established, without any appellation,
+in Western India, in Gujar&#257;t and the &#7788;h&#257;&#7751;a district of Bombay,
+where it was used by kings and princes of the Chalukya, Gurjara,
+S&#275;ndraka, Ka&#7789;achchuri and Traik&#363;&#7789;aka families. It is traced
+back there to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 457, at which time there was reigning a Traik&#363;&#7789;aka
+king named Dahras&#275;na. Beyond that point, we have at present no
+certain knowledge about it. But it seems probable that the founder
+of it may be recognized in an &#256;bh&#299;ra king &#298;&#347;va&#7771;as&#275;na, or else in
+his father &#346;ivadatta, who was reigning at N&#257;sik in or closely about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 248-49.</p>
+
+<p>The Gupta era, commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320, was founded by Chandragupta
+I., the first paramount king in the great Gupta dynasty of
+Northern India. When the Guptas passed away, their reckoning
+was taken over by the Maitraka kings of Valabh&#299;, who succeeded
+them in K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r and some of the neighbouring territories; and
+so it became also known as the Valabh&#299; era.</p>
+
+<p>From Halsi in the Be&#7735;gaum district, Bombay, we have a record
+of the Kadamba king K&#257;kusthavarman, which was framed during
+the time when he was the Yuvar&#257;ja or anointed successor to the
+sovereignty, and may be referred to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500. It is dated
+in &ldquo;the eightieth victorious year,&rdquo; and thus indicates the preservation
+of a reckoning running from the foundation of the Kadamba
+dynasty by May&#363;ravarman, the great-grandfather of K&#257;kusthavarman.
+But no other evidence of the existence of this era has been
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the G&#257;&#7749;ga kings of Kali&#7749;ganagara, which is the
+modern Mukhali&#7749;gam-Nagarika&#7789;akam in the Gañj&#257;m district,
+Madras, show the existence of a G&#257;&#7749;ga era which ran for at any
+rate 254 years. And various details in the inscriptions enable us
+to trace the origin of the G&#257;&#7749;ga kings to Western India, and to
+place the initial point of their reckoning in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 590, when a certain
+Saty&#257;&#347;raya-Dhruvar&#257;ja-Indravarman, an ancestor and probably
+the grandfather of the first G&#257;&#7749;ga king R&#257;jasi&#7745;ha-Indravarman I.,
+commenced to govern a large province in the Ko&#7749;ka&#7751; under the
+Chalukya king K&#299;rtivarman I.</p>
+
+<p>An era commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 605 or 606 was founded in Northern
+India by the great king Harshavardhana, who reigned first at
+&#7788;h&#257;&#7751;&#275;sar and then at Kanauj, and who was the third sovereign in
+a dynasty which traced its origin to a prince named Naravardhana.
+A peculiarity about this era is that it continued in use for apparently
+four centuries after Harshavardhana, in spite of the fact that his line
+ended with him.</p>
+
+<p>The inscriptions assert that the Western Ch&#257;lukya king Vikrama
+or Vikram&#257;ditya VI. of Kaly&#257;&#7751;i in the Nizam&rsquo;s dominions, who
+reigned from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1076 to 1126, abolished the use of the &#346;aka era
+in his dominions in favour of an era named after himself. What
+he or his ministers did was to adopt, for the first time in that dynasty,
+the system of regnal years, according to which, while the &#346;aka era
+also remained in use, most of the records of his time are dated, not
+in that era, but in the year so-and-so of the Ch&#257;lukya-Vikrama-k&#257;la
+or Ch&#257;lukya-Vikrama-varsha, &ldquo;the time or years of the Ch&#257;lukya
+Vikrama.&rdquo; There is some evidence that this reckoning survived
+Vikram&#257;ditya VI. for a short time. But his successors introduced
+their own regnal reckonings; and that prevented it from acquiring
+permanence.</p>
+
+<p>In Tirhut, there is still used a reckoning which is known as the
+Lakshma&#7751;as&#275;na era from the name of the king of Bengal by whom
+it was founded. There is a difference of opinion as to the exact
+initial point of this reckoning; but the best conclusion appears to
+be that which places it in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1119. This era prevailed at one
+time throughout Bengal: we know this from a passage in the
+<i>Akbarn&#257;ma</i>, written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1584, which specifies the &#346;aka era as
+the reckoning of Gujar&#257;t and the Dekkan, the Vikrama era as the
+reckoning of M&#257;lw&#257;, Delhi, and those parts, and the Lakshma&#7751;as&#275;na
+era as the reckoning of Bengal.</p>
+
+<p>The last reckoning that we have to mention here is one known
+as the R&#257;jy&#257;bhish&#275;ka-&#346;aka, &ldquo;the era of the anointment to the
+sovereignty,&rdquo; which was in use for a time in Western India. It
+dated from the day Jyaish&#7789;ha &#347;ukla 13 of the &#346;aka year 1597 current,
+= 6 June, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1674, when &#346;ivaj&#299;, the founder of the Mar&#257;&#7789;h&#257;
+kingdom, had himself enthroned.</p>
+
+<p>There are four reckonings which it is difficult at present to class
+exactly. Two inscriptions of the 15th and 17th centuries, recently
+brought to notice from J&#275;salm&#275;r in R&#257;jput&#257;n&#257;, present a reckoning
+which postulates an initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 624 or in the preceding
+<span class="sidenote">Miscellaneous Eras.</span>
+or the following year, and bears an appellation, Bh&#257;&#7789;ika,
+which seems to be based on the name of the Bha&#7789;&#7789;i
+tribe, to which the rulers of J&#275;salm&#275;r belong. No historical
+event is known, referable to that time, which can
+have given rise to an era. It is possible that the apparent initial
+date represents an epoch, at the end of the &#346;aka year 546 or thereabouts,
+laid down in some astronomical work composed then or
+soon afterwards and used in the J&#275;salm&#275;r territory. But it seems
+more probable that it is a purely fictitious date, set up by an attempt
+to evolve an early history Of the ruling family.</p>
+
+<p>In the Tinnevelly district of Madras, and in the territories of the
+same presidency in which the Malay&#257;&#7735;am language prevails, namely,
+South Kanara below Mangalore, the Malabar district, and the
+Cochin and Travancore states, there is used a reckoning which is
+known sometimes as the Kollam or K&#333;lamba reckoning, sometimes
+as the era of Para&#347;ur&#257;ma. The years of it are solar: in the southern
+parts of the territory in which it is current, they begin with the
+month Si&#7745;ha; in the northern parts, they begin with the next
+month, Kany&#257;. The initial point of the reckoning is in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825;
+and the year 1076 commenced in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900. The popular view about
+this reckoning is that it consists of cycles of 1000 years; that we
+are now in the fourth cycle; and that the reckoning originated in
+1176 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with the mythical Para&#347;ur&#257;ma, who exterminated the
+Kshatriya or warrior caste, and reclaimed the Ko&#7749;ka&#7751; countries,
+Western India below the Ghauts, from the ocean. But the earliest
+known date in it, of the year 149, falls in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 973; and the reckoning
+has run on in continuation of the thousand, instead of beginning
+afresh in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1825. It seems probable, therefore, that the reckoning
+had no existence before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825. The years are cited sometimes as
+&ldquo;the Kollam year (of such-and-such a number),&rdquo; sometimes as
+&ldquo;the year (so-and-so) after Kollam appeared;&rdquo; and this suggests
+that the reckoning may possibly owe its origin to some event,
+occurring in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825, connected with one or other of the towns and
+ports named Kollam, on the Malabar coast; perhaps Northern
+Kollam in the Malabar district, perhaps Southern Kollam, better
+known as Quilon, in Travancore. But the introduction of Para&#347;ur&#257;ma
+into the matter, which would carry back (let us say) the
+foundation of Kollam to legendary times, may indicate, rather, a
+purely imaginative origin. Or, again, since each century of the
+Kollam reckoning begins in the same year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> with a century of
+the Saptarshi reckoning (see below under III. Other Reckonings),
+it is not impossible that this reckoning may be a southern offshoot
+of the Saptarshi reckoning, or at least may have had the same
+astrological origin.</p>
+
+<p>In N&#275;p&#257;l there is a reckoning, known as the N&#275;w&#257;r era and commencing
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 879, which superseded the Gupta and Harsha eras
+there. One tradition attributes the foundation of it to a king
+R&#257;ghavad&#275;va; another says that, in the time and with the permission
+of a king Jayad&#275;vamalla, a merchant named S&#257;khw&#257;l
+paid off, by means of wealth acquired from sand which turned into
+gold, all the debts then existing in the country, and introduced the
+new era in commemoration of the occurrence. It is possible that
+the era may have been founded by some ruler of N&#275;p&#257;l: but nothing
+authentic is known about the particular names mentioned in connexion
+with it. This era appears to have been discarded for state
+and official purposes, in favour of the &#346;aka era, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1768, when
+the G&#363;rkhas became masters of N&#275;p&#257;l; but manuscripts show that
+in literary circles it has remained in use up to at any rate <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1875.</p>
+
+<p>Inscriptions disclose the use in K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r and Gujar&#257;t, in the
+12th and 13th centuries, of a reckoning, commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1114,
+which is known as the Si&#7745;ha-sa&#7745;vat. No historical occurrence is
+known, on which it can have been based; and the origin of it is
+obscure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The eras mentioned above have for the most part served their
+purposes and died out. But there are three great
+reckonings, dating from a very respectable antiquity,
+<span class="sidenote">Three great Eras in general use.</span>
+which have held their own and survived to the present
+day. These are the Kaliyuga, Vikrama, and &#346;aka eras.
+It will be convenient to treat the Kaliyuga first, though,
+in spite of having the greatest apparent antiquity, it is the
+latest of the three in respect of actual date of origin.</p>
+
+<p>The Kaliyuga era is the principal astronomical reckoning of
+the Hindus. It is frequently, if not generally, shown in the
+almanacs: but it can hardly be looked upon as being
+now in practical use for civil purposes; and, as regards
+<span class="sidenote">The Kaliyuga Era of 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span>
+the custom of previous times as far as we can judge it
+from the inscriptional use, which furnishes a good
+guide, the position is as follows: from Southern India we
+have one such instance of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 634, one of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 770, three of the
+10th century, and then, from the 12th century onwards, but
+more particularly from the 14th, a certain number of instances,
+not exactly very small in itself, but extremely so in comparison
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+with the number of cases of the use of the Vikrama and &#346;aka
+eras and other reckonings: from Northern India the earliest
+known instance of is <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1169 or 1170, and the later ones number
+only four. Its years are by nature sidereal solar years, commencing
+with the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti, the entrance of the sun
+into the Hindu constellation and sign M&#275;sha, <i>i.e.</i> Aries (for
+this and other technical details, see above, under the Calendar);<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+but they were probably cited as lunar years in the inscriptional
+records which present the reckoning; and the almanacs appear
+to treat them either as M&#275;sh&#257;di civil solar years with solar months,
+or as Chaitr&#257;di lunar years with lunar months <i>am&#257;nta</i> (ending
+with the new-moon) or <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> (ending with the full-moon)
+as the case may be, according to the locality. Its initial point lies
+in 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and the year 5002 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900.<a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This reckoning is not an historical era, actually running from
+3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was devised for astronomical purposes at some time
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400, when the Hindu astronomers, having taken over
+the principles of the Greek astronomy, recognized that they required
+for purposes of computation a specific reckoning with a definite
+initial occasion. They found that occasion in a conjunction of the
+sun, the moon, and the five planets which were then known, at the
+first point of their sign M&#275;sha. There was not really such a conjunction;
+nor, apparently, is it even the case that the sun was
+actually at the first point of M&#275;sha at the moment arrived at. But
+there was an approach to such a conjunction, which was turned
+into an actual conjunction by taking the mean instead of the true
+positions of the sun, the moon, and the planets. And, partly from
+the reckoning which has come down to us, partly from the astronomical
+books, we know that the moment assigned to the assumed
+conjunction was according to one school the midnight between
+Thursday the 17th, and Friday the 18th, February, 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and
+according to another school the sunrise on the Friday.</p>
+
+<p>The reckoning thus devised was subsequently identified with
+the Kaliyuga as the iron age, the last and shortest, with a duration
+of 432,000 years, of the four ages in each cycle of ages in the Hindu
+system of cosmical periods. Also, traditional history was fitted
+to it by one school, represented notably by the Pur&#257;&#7751;as, which,
+referring the great war between the P&#257;&#7751;&#7693;avas and the Kurus, which
+is the topic of the Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata, to the close of the preceding age,
+the Dv&#257;para, placed on the last day of that age the culminating
+event which ushered in the Kali age; namely, the death of K&#7771;ish&#7751;a
+(the return to heaven of Vish&#7751;u on the termination of his incarnation
+as K&#7771;ish&#7751;a), which was followed by the abdication of the
+P&#257;&#7751;&#7693;ava king Yudhish&#7789;hira, who, having installed his grand-nephew
+Parikshit as his successor, then set out on his own journey to heaven.
+Another school, however, placed the P&#257;&#7751;&#7693;avas and the Kurus
+653 years later, in 2449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A third school places in 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the
+anointment of Yudhish&#7789;hira to the sovereignty, and treats that
+event as inaugurating the Kali age; from this point of view, the
+first 3044 years of the Kaliyuga&mdash;the period from its commencement
+in 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the commencement of the first historical era, the
+so-called Vikrama era, in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>&mdash;are also known as &ldquo;the era of
+Yudhish&#7789;hira.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Vikrama era, which is the earliest of all the Hindu eras
+in respect of order of foundation, is the dominant era and the
+great historical reckoning of Northern India&mdash;that
+is, of the territory on the north of the rivers Narbad&#257;
+<span class="sidenote">The Vikrama Era of 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span>
+and Mah&#257;nad&#299;&mdash;to which part of the country its use
+has always been practically confined. Like, indeed,
+the Kaliyuga and &#346;aka eras, it is freely cited in almanacs in any
+part of India; and it is sometimes used in the south by immigrants
+from the north: but it is, by nature, so essentially foreign to
+the south that the earliest known inscriptional instance of the
+use of it in Southern India only dates from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1218, and the
+very few later instances that have been obtained, prior to the
+15th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, come, along with the instance of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1218,
+from the close neighbourhood of the dividing-line between the
+north and the south. The Vikrama era has never been used for
+astronomical purposes. Its years are lunar, with lunar months,
+but seem liable to be sometimes regarded as solar, with solar
+months, when they are cited in almanacs of Southern India
+which present the solar calendar. Originally they were K&#257;rtti-k&#257;di,
+with <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> months (ending with the full-moon).
+They now exist in the following three varieties: in K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r
+and Gujar&#257;t, they are chiefly K&#257;rttik&#257;di, with <i>am&#257;nta</i> months
+(ending with the new-moon); and they are shown in this form
+in almanacs for the other parts of the Bombay Presidency;
+but there is also found in K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r and that neighbourhood
+an &#256;sh&#257;&#7693;h&#257;di variety, commencing with &#256;sh&#257;&#7693;ha &#347;ukla I,
+similarly with <i>am&#257;nta</i> months; in the rest of Northern India,
+they are Chaitr&#257;di, with <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> months. The era has its
+initial point in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and its first civil day, K&#257;rttika &#347;ukla I,
+is 19th September in that year if we determine it with reference
+to the Hindu Tul&#257;-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti, or 18th October if we determine
+it with reference to the tropical equinox. The years of the
+three varieties, Chaitr&#257;di, &#256;sha&#7693;h&#257;di, and K&#257;rttik&#257;di, all
+commence in the same year <span class="scs">A.D.</span>; and the year 1958 began in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hindu legend connects the foundation of this era with a king
+Vikrama or Vikram&#257;ditya of Ujjain in M&#257;lw&#257;, Central India: one
+version is that he began to reign in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; another is that he
+died in that year, and that the reckoning commemorates his death.
+Modern research, however, based largely on the inscriptional records,
+has shown that there was no such king, and that the real
+facts are very different. The era owes its existence to the Kushan
+king Ka&#7751;ishka, a foreign invader, who established himself in
+Northern India and commenced to reign there in <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 58.<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> He was
+the founder of it, in the sense that the opening years of it were
+the years of his reign. It was established and set going as an era
+by his successor, who continued the reckoning so started, instead of
+breaking it by introducing another according to his own regnal
+years. And it was perpetuated as an era, and transmitted as such
+to posterity by the M&#257;lavas, the people from whom the modern
+territory M&#257;lw&#257; derived its name, who were an important section
+of the subjects of Ka&#7751;ishka and his successors. In consonance
+with that, records ranging in date from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 473 to 879 style it
+&ldquo;the reckoning of the M&#257;lavas, the years of the M&#257;lava lords, the
+M&#257;lava time or era.&rdquo; Prior to that, it had no specific name; the
+years of it were simply cited, in ordinary Hindu fashion, by the
+term <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>, &ldquo;the year (of such-and-such a number),&rdquo; or by
+its abbreviations <i>sa&#7745;vat</i> and <i>sa&#7745;</i>: and the same was frequently
+done in later times also, and is habitually done in the present day;
+and so, in modern times, this era has often been loosely styled
+&ldquo;the Sa&#7745;vat era.&rdquo; The idea of a king Vikrama in connexion with
+it appears to date from only the 9th or 10th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The &#346;aka era, though it actually had its origin in the south-west
+corner of Northern India, is the dominant era and the
+great historical reckoning of Southern India; that
+is, of the territory below the rivers Narbad&#257; and
+<span class="sidenote">The &#346;aka Era of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78.</span>
+Mah&#257;nad&#299;. It is also the subsidiary astronomical
+reckoning, largely used, from the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+onwards, in the <i>Kara&#7751;as</i>, the works dealing with practical
+details of the calendar, for laying down epochs or points of time
+furnishing convenient bases for computation. As a result
+of that, it came to be used in past times for general purposes
+also, to a limited extent, in parts of Northern India where it
+was not indigenous. And it is now used more or less freely,
+and is cited in almanacs everywhere. Its years are usually
+lunar, Chaitr&#257;di, and its months are <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> (ending with
+the full-moon) in Northern India, and <i>am&#257;nta</i> (ending with
+the new-moon) in Southern India; but in times gone by it was
+sometimes treated for purposes of calculation as having astronomical
+solar years, and it is now treated as having M&#275;sh di
+civil solar years and solar months in those parts of India where
+that form of the solar calendar prevails. It has its initial point
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78; and its first civil day, Chaitra &#347;ukla I, is 3rd March
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+in that year, as determined with reference either to the Hindu
+M&rsquo;na-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti or to the entrance of the sun into the tropical
+Pisces. The year 1823 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the origin of the &#346;aka era, there was current in
+the 10th and 11th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a belief which, ignoring the
+difference of a hundred and thirty-five years between the two
+reckonings, connected the legendary king Vikr&#257;maditya of
+Ujjain, mentioned above under the Vikrama era, with the
+foundation of this era also. The story runs, from this point of
+view, that the &#346;akas were a barbarous people who established
+themselves in the western and north-western dominions of that
+king, but were met in battle and destroyed by him, and that
+the era was established in celebration of that event. The modern
+belief, however, ascribes the foundation of this era to a king
+&#346;&#257;liv&#257;hana of Pratish&#7789;h&#257;na, which is the modern Pai&#7789;ha&#7751;, on
+the G&#333;d&#257;var&#299;, in the Nizam&rsquo;s dominions. But in this case,
+again, research has shown that the facts are very different.
+Like the Vikrama era, the &#346;aka era owes its existence to foreign
+invaders. It was founded by the Chhahar&#257;ta or Kshahar&#257;ta
+king Nahap&#257;na, who appears to have been a Pahlava or Palhava,
+<i>i.e.</i> of Parthian extraction, and who reigned from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78 to
+about 125.<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> He established himself first in K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r, but
+subsequently brought under his sway northern Gujar&#257;t (Bombay)
+and Ujjain, and, below the Narbad&#257;, southern Gujar&#257;t,
+N&#257;sik and probably Kh&#257;nd&#275;sh. His capital seems to have been
+D&#333;had, in the Pa&#324;ch Mah&#257;ls. And he had two viceroys: one,
+named Bh&#363;maka, of the same family with himself, in K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r;
+and another, Chash&#7789;ana, son of Ghsamotika, at Ujjain. Soon
+after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 125, Nahap&#257;na was overthrown, and his family was
+wiped out, by the S&#257;tav&#257;hana-S&#257;takar&#7751;i king Gautam&#299;putra-&#346;r&#299;-S&#257;takar&#7751;i,
+who thereby recovered the territories on the
+south of the Narbad&#257;, and perhaps secured for a time K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r
+and some other parts on the north of that river. Very soon,
+however, Chash&#7789;ana, or else his son Jayad&#257;man, established
+his sway over all the territory which had belonged to Nahap&#257;na
+on the north of the Narbad&#257;; founded a line of Hinduized
+foreign kings, who ruled there for more than three centuries;
+and, continuing Nahap&#257;na&rsquo;s regnal reckoning, established
+the era to which the name &#346;aka eventually became attached.
+Inscriptions and coins show that, up to at least the second
+decade of its fourth century, this reckoning had no specific appellation;
+its years were simply cited, in the usual fashion, as <i>varsha</i>,
+&ldquo;the year (of such-and-such a number).&rdquo; The reckoning was
+then taken up by the astronomers. And we find it first called
+&#346;akak&#257;la, &ldquo;the time or era of the &#346;akas,&rdquo; in an epochal date,
+the end of the year 427, falling in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 505, which was used by
+the astronomer Var&#257;hamihira (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 587) in his Pa&#324;chasiddh&#257;ntik&#257;.
+That this name came to be attached to it appears to be
+due to the points that, along with some of the Pahlavas or Palhavas
+and the Yavanas or descendants of the Asiatic Greeks,
+some of the &#346;akas, the Scythians, had made their way into
+K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r and neighbouring parts by about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100, and that
+the &#346;akas incidentally came to acquire prominence in the memory
+of the Hindus regarding these occurrences, in such a manner
+that their name was selected when the occasion arose to devise
+an appellation for an era the exact origin of which had been
+forgotten. The name of the imaginary king S&#257;liv&#257;hana first
+figures in connexion with the era in a record of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1272, and
+seems plainly to have been introduced in imitation of the coupling
+of the name Vikrama, Vikram&#257;ditya, with the era of <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 58.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>That the &#346;aka era, though it had its origin in the south-west
+corner of Northern India, is essentially an era of Southern India,
+is proved by its inscriptional and numismatic history. During the
+period before the time when it was taken up by the astronomers,
+it is found only in the inscriptions of Nahap&#257;na, and in the similar
+records and on the coins of the descendants of Chash&#7789;ana. After
+that same time, it figures first in a record of the Chalukya king
+K&#299;rtivarman I., at B&#257;d&#257;mi in the Bij&#257;p&#363;r district, Bombay, which
+is dated on the full-moon day of the month K&#257;rttika, falling in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 578, &ldquo;when there had elapsed five centuries of the years of the
+anointment of the &#346;aka king to the sovereignty.&rdquo; And from this
+date onwards the records of a large part of Southern India are
+mostly dated in this era, by various expressions all of which include
+the term &#346;aka or &#346;&#257;ka. In Northern India the case is very different.
+We have a record dated in the month K&#257;rttika, the &#346;aka year 631
+(expired), falling in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 709: it comes from Mult&#257;&#299; in the B&#275;t&#363;l
+district, Central Provinces, that is, from the south of the Narbad&#257;;
+but it belongs to Gujar&#257;t (Bombay), and perhaps to the north,
+though more probably to the south, of that province. But, setting
+that aside, the earliest inscriptional instance of the use of this era
+in Northern India, outside K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r and Gujar&#257;t, is found in a
+record of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 862 at D&#275;&#333;ga&#7771;h near Lalitp&#363;r, the headquarters
+town of the Lalitp&#363;r district, United Provinces of Agra and Oude;
+here, however, the record is primarily dated, with the full details of
+the month, &amp;c., in &ldquo;Sa&#7745;vat 919,&rdquo; that is, in the Vikrama year 919;
+it is only as a subsidiary detail that the &#346;aka year 784 is given in a
+separate passage at the end of the record, a sort of postscript.
+From this date onwards the era is found in other records of Northern
+India, but to any appreciable extent only from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1137, and to
+only a very small extent in comparison with the Vikrama and other
+northern eras; and the cases in which it was used exclusively there,
+without being coupled with one or other of the northern reckonings,
+are still more conspicuously few. In short, the general position is
+that the &#346;aka era has been essentially foreign to Northern India
+until recent times; it was used there quite exceptionally and
+sporadically, and in very few cases indeed at any appreciable distance
+from the dividing-line between the north and the south. That it
+found its way into Northern India, outside K&#257;&#7789;hi&#257;w&#257;r and northern
+Gujar&#257;t at all, is unquestionably due to its use by the astronomers.
+It also travelled, across the sea, by the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> to Cambodia,
+and somewhat later to Java; to which parts it was doubtless taken
+in almanacs, or in invoices, statements of account, &amp;c., by the persons
+engaged in the trade between Broach and the far east via Tagara
+(T&#275;r) and the east coast. It also found its way in subsequent times
+to Assam and Ceylon, and more recently still to N&#275;p&#257;l.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Other Reckonings</p>
+
+<p>We come now to certain reckonings consisting of cycles,
+and will take first the cycles of Guru or B&#7771;ihaspati, Jupiter.
+This planet, a very conspicuous object in eastern
+skies, requires a period of 4332.6 days, = 50.4 days
+<span class="sidenote">The Cycles of Jupiter.</span>
+less than twelve Julian years, to make a circuit of the
+heavens, and has provided the Hindus with two reckonings,
+each in more than one variety; a cycle of twelve years,
+and a cycle of sixty years. The years of Jupiter, in all their
+varieties, are usually styled <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>; and it is convenient
+to use this term here, in order to preserve clearly the distinction
+between them and the solar and lunar years. The <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i>
+have no divisions of their own; the months, days, &amp;c., cited
+with them are those of the ordinary solar or lunar calendar,
+as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>The older reckoning of Jupiter appears to be that of the 12-years
+cycle, which is found in two varieties; in both of them the
+<i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i> bear, according to certain rules which need
+not be explained here, the same names with the
+<span class="sidenote">The 12-years Cycle.</span>
+lunar months, Chaitra, Vai&#347;&#257;kha, &amp;c. In one variety,
+each <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> runs from one of the planet&rsquo;s heliacal
+risings&mdash;that is, from the day on which it becomes visible as a
+morning star on the eastern horizon&mdash;to the next such rising;
+and the length of such a <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>, according to the Hindu data,
+is from 392 to 405 days, with an average of 399 days. Inscriptional
+instances of the use of this cycle are found in six of the
+Gupta records of Northern India, ranging from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 475 to 528.</p>
+
+<p>In the other variety of the 12-years cycle, which is mentioned
+in astronomical works from the time of &#256;ryabha&#7789;a onwards
+(b. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 476), the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i> are regulated by Jupiter&rsquo;s course
+with reference to his mean motion and mean longitude: a
+<i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> of this variety commences when Jupiter thus enters a
+sign of the zodiac, and lasts for the time occupied by him in
+traversing that sign from the same point of view; and the period
+taken by him to do that&mdash;that is, the duration of such a <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>&mdash;is
+slightly in excess, according to the Hindu data, of
+361.02 days, which amount is very close to the actual fact,
+361.05 days. Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle are
+perhaps found in two records of Southern India of the Kadamba
+series, belonging to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 575.</p>
+
+<p>The 12-years mean-sign cycle seems to be still used in some
+parts. And the heliacal risings of Jupiter, as also, indeed, those
+of the other planets, are shown in almanacs for astrological
+purposes. In either variety, however, the 12-years cycle is now
+chiefly of antiquarian interest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span></p>
+
+<p>The cycle of Jupiter now in general use is a cycle of sixty years,
+the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i> of which bear certain special names,
+Prabhava, Vibhava, &#346;ukla, Pram&#333;da, &amp;c., again
+<span class="sidenote">The 60-years cycle.</span>
+in accordance with certain rules which we need not
+explain here. This cycle exists in three varieties.</p>
+
+<p>According to the original constitution of this cycle, the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i>
+are determined as in the second or mean-sign variety of
+the 12-years cycle: each <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> commences when Jupiter
+enters a sign of the zodiac with reference to his mean motion and
+longitude; and it lasts for slightly more than 361.02 days.
+This variety is traced back in inscriptional records to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 602,
+and is still used in Northern India.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i> are calculated by means of the astronomical
+solar year commencing with the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti, the
+entrance of the sun into the sign M&#275;sha (Aries). The process
+gives the number of the <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> last expired before any
+particular M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti, with a remainder denoting the
+portion of the current <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> elapsed up to the same time;
+and the remainder, reduced to months, &amp;c., gives the moment of
+the commencement of the current <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>, by reckoning back
+from the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti. As the result, apparently, of unwillingness
+to take the trouble to work out the full details, at some
+time about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800 a practice arose, in some quarters, according
+to which that <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> of the 60-years cycle which was current
+at any particular M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti was taken as coinciding with
+the astronomical solar year beginning at that <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i>, and
+with the Chaitr&#257;di lunar year belonging to that same solar year.
+And this practice set up a lunisolar variety of the cycle, in connexion
+with which we have to notice the following point. While
+the duration of a mean-sign <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> is closely about 361.02
+days, the length of the Hindu astronomical solar year is closely
+about 365.258 days. It consequently happens, after every 85 or
+86 years, that a mean-sign <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> begins and ends between
+two successive M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis. In the mean-sign cycle, such
+a <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> retains its existence unaffected; and the names
+Prabhava, Vibhava, &amp;c., run on without any interruption. According
+to the lunisolar system, however, the position is different;
+the <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> beginning and ending between the two M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis
+is expunged or suppressed, in the sense that its
+name is omitted and is replaced by the next name on the list. The
+second variety of the 60-years cycle, thus started, ran on alongside
+of the mean-sign variety, and, being eventually transferred, with
+that variety, to Northern India, is now known as the northern
+lunisolar variety. It preserves a connexion between the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i>
+and the movements of Jupiter: but the connexion is an
+imperfect one; and both in this variety, and still more markedly
+in the remaining one still to be described, the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i> practically
+became mere appellations for the solar and lunar years.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, just after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 900, another development occurred,
+and there was started a third variety, which is now known as the
+southern lunisolar variety. The precise year in which this happened
+depends on the particular authority that we follow. If we
+take the elements adopted in the S&#363;rya-Siddh&#257;nta as the proper
+data for that time and for the locality&mdash;Western India below the
+Narbad&#257;&mdash;to which the early history of the cycle belongs, the
+position was as follows. At the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 908
+there was current, by the mean-sign system, the <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>
+No. 2, Vibhava: but No. 4, Pram&#333;da, was current by the same
+system at the M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909; and No. 3, &#346;ukla,
+began and ended between the two M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;ntis. Accordingly,
+No. 2, Vibhava, was the lunisolar <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> for the
+M&#275;sh&#257;di solar year and the Chaitr&#257;di lunar year commencing in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 908; and by the strict lunisolar system, which was adhered
+to by some people and is now known as the northern lunisolar
+system, it was followed in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909 by No. 4, Pram&#333;da, the name
+of the intermediate <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>, No. 3, &#346;ukla, being passed over.
+On the other hand, whether through oversight, or whatever the
+reason may have been, by other people the name of No. 3, &#346;ukla,
+was not passed over, but that <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> was taken as the lunisolar
+<i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> for the M&#275;sh&#257;di solar year and the Chaitr&#257;di
+lunar year beginning in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909, and No. 4, Pram&#333;da, followed it
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 910. On subsequent similar occasions, also, there was, in
+the same quarters, no passing over of the name of any <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>.
+And this practice established itself in Southern India, to the
+exclusion there of the mean-sign and the northern lunisolar
+varieties; the discrepancy between the last-mentioned variety
+and the variety thus set up continuing, of course, to increase by
+one <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> after every 85 or 86 years. In this variety, the
+southern lunisolar variety, all connexion between the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i>
+and the movements of Jupiter has now been lost.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The present position of the 60-years cycle in its three varieties
+may be illustrated thus. In Northern India, by the mean-sign system
+the <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> No. 46, Paridh&#257;vin, began, according to different
+authorities, in August, September or October, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1899. Consequently,
+by the northern or expunging lunisolar system, that same
+<i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>, No. 46, Paridh&#257;vin, coincided with the M&#275;sh&#257;di civil
+solar year beginning with or just after 12th April, and with the
+Chaitr&#257;di lunar year beginning with 31st March, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900. But by
+the southern or non-expunging lunisolar system those same solar
+and lunar years were No. 34, &#346;arvarin.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of the cycles of Jupiter in the Sanskrit books
+shows that it was primarily from the astrological point of view
+that they appealed to the Hindus; it was only as a secondary
+consideration that they acquired anything of a chronological nature.
+For the practical application of any of them to historical purposes,
+it is, of course, necessary that, along with the mention of a <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i>,
+there should always be given the year of some known era, or some
+other specific guide to the exact period to which that <i>sa&#7745;vatsara</i> is
+to be referred. But it is fortunately the case that the <i>sa&#7745;vatsaras</i>
+have been but rarely cited in the inscriptional records without such
+a guide, of some kind or another.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Saptarshi reckoning is used in Kashm&#299;r, and in the K&#257;&#7751;gra
+district and some of the Hill states on the south-east of Kashmir;
+some nine centuries ago it was also in use in the Punjab,
+and apparently in Sind. In addition to being cited by
+<span class="sidenote">The Saptarshi reckoning.</span>
+such expressions as Saptarshi-sa&#7745;vat, &ldquo;the year (so-and-so)
+of the Saptarshis,&rdquo; and &#346;&#257;stra-sa&#7745;vatsara,
+&ldquo;the year (so-and-so) of the scriptures,&rdquo; it is found mentioned
+as L&#333;kak&#257;la, &ldquo;the time or era of the people,&rdquo; and by other terms
+which mark it as a vulgar reckoning. And it appears that modern
+popular names for it are Pah&#257;&#7771;&#299;-sa&#7745;vat and Kachch&#257;-sa&#7745;vat,
+which we may render by &ldquo;the Hill era&rdquo; and &ldquo;the crude era.&rdquo;
+The years of this reckoning are lunar, Chaitr&#257;di; and the months
+are <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> (ending with the full-moon). As matters stand
+now, the reckoning has a theoretical initial point in 3077 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>;
+and the year 4976, more usually called simply 76, began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+1900; but there are some indications that the initial point was
+originally placed one year earlier.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The idea at the bottom of this reckoning is a belief that the
+Saptarshis, &ldquo;the Seven Rishis or Saints,&rdquo; Mar&#299;chi and others, were
+translated to heaven, and became the stars of the constellation
+Ursa Major, in 3076 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or 3077); and that these stars possess an
+independent movement of their own, which, referred to the ecliptic,
+carries them round at the rate of 100 years for each <i>nakshatra</i> or
+twenty-seventh division of the circle. Theoretically, therefore, the
+Saptarshi reckoning consists of cycles of 2700 years; and the
+numbering of the years should run from 1 to 2700, and then commence
+afresh. In practice, however, it has been treated quite
+differently. According to the general custom, which has distinctly
+prevailed in Kashm&#299;r from the earliest use of the reckoning for
+chronological purposes, and is illustrated by Kalha&#7751;a in his history
+of Kashm&#299;r, the <i>R&#257;jatara&#7745;gi&#7751;&#299;</i>, written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1148-1150, the numeration
+of the years has been centennial; whenever a century has
+been completed, the numbering has not run on 101, 102, 103, &amp;c.,
+but has begun again with 1, 2, 3, &amp;c. Almanacs, indeed, show
+both the figures of the century and the full figures of the entire
+reckoning, which is treated as running from 3076 B. C., not from
+376 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the commencement of a new cycle, the second; thus,
+an almanac for the year beginning in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1793 describes that year
+as &ldquo;the year 4869 according to the course of the Seven &#7770;ishis,
+and similarly the year 69.&rdquo; And elsewhere sometimes the full.
+figures are found, sometimes the abbreviated ones; thus, while a
+manuscript written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1648 is dated in &ldquo;the year 24&rdquo; (for
+4724), another, written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1224 is dated in &ldquo;the year 4300.&rdquo;
+But, as in the <i>R&#257;jatara&#7745;gi&#7751;&#299;</i>, so also in inscriptions, which range
+from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1204 onwards, only the abbreviated figures have hitherto
+been found. Essentially, therefore, the Saptarshi reckoning is a
+centennial reckoning, by suppressed or omitted hundreds, with its
+earlier centuries commencing in 3076, 2976 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and so on, and its
+later centuries commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 25, 125, 225, &amp;c.; on precisely the
+same lines with those according to which we may use, <i>e.g.</i> 98 to mean
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1798, and 57 to mean <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1857, and 9 to mean <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1909.
+And the practical difficulties attending the use of such a system for
+chronological purposes are obvious; isolated dates recorded in
+such a fashion cannot be allocated without some explicit clue to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+the centuries to which they belong. Fortunately, however, as
+regards Kashm&#299;r, we have the necessary guide in the facts that
+Kalha&#7751;a recorded his own date in the &#346;aka era as well as in this
+reckoning, and gave full historical details which enable us to determine
+unmistakably the equivalent of the first date in this reckoning
+cited by him, and to arrange with certainty the chronology presented
+by him from that time.</p>
+
+<p>The belief underlying this reckoning according to the course of
+the Seven &#7770;ishis is traced back in India, as an astrological detail,
+to at least the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> But the reckoning was first adopted
+for chronological purposes in Kashm&#299;r and at some time about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800; the first recorded date in it is one of &ldquo;the year 89,&rdquo;
+meaning 3889, = <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 813-814, given by Kalha&#7751;a. It was introduced
+into India between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 925 and 1025.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Grahapariv&#7771;itti is a reckoning which is used in the
+southernmost parts of Madras, particularly in the Madura
+district. It consists of cycles of 90 M&#275;sh&#257;di solar
+years, and is said, in conformity with its name, which
+<span class="sidenote">The Grahapariv&#7771;itti cycle.</span>
+means &ldquo;the revolution of planets,&rdquo; to be made up
+by the sum of the days in 1 revolution of the sun,
+22 of Mercury, 5 of Venus, 15 of Mars, 11 of Jupiter, and 29 of
+Saturn. The first cycle is held to have commenced in 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+the second in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67, and so on; and, in accordance with
+that view, the year 34, which began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900, was the 34th
+year of the 22nd cycle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>No inscriptional use of this cycle has come to notice. There
+seems no substantial reason for believing that the reckoning was
+really started in 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The alleged constitution of the cycle, which
+appears to be correct within about twelve days, and might possibly
+be made apparently exact, suggests an astrological origin. And,
+if a guess may be hazarded, we would conjecture that the reckoning
+is an offshoot of the southern lunisolar variety of the 60-years cycle
+of Jupiter, and had its real origin in some year in which a Prabhava
+<i>samvatsara</i> of that variety commenced, and to which the first year
+of a Grahapariv&#7771;itti cycle can be referred: that was the case in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 967 and at each subsequent 180th year.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In part of the Gañj&#257;m district, Madras, there is a reckoning,
+known as the O&#7749;ko or A&#7749;ka, <i>i.e.</i> literally &ldquo;the number or
+numbers,&rdquo; consisting of lunar years, each commencing
+with Bh&#257;drapada &#347;ukla 12, which run theoretically
+<span class="sidenote">The O&#7749;ko cycle.</span>
+in cycles of 59 years. But the reckoning has the
+peculiarity that, whether the explanation is to be found in a
+superstition about certain numbers or in some other reason,
+the year 6, and any year the number of which ends with 6 or 0
+(except the year 10), is omitted from the numbering; so that,
+for instance, the year 7 follows next after the year 5. The
+origin of the reckoning is not known. But the use of it seems
+to be traceable in records of the Ga&#7749;ga kings who reigned in
+that part of the country and in Orissa in the 12th and following
+centuries. And the initial day, Bh&#257;drapada &#347;ukla 12, which
+figures again in the Vilay&#257;ti and Amli reckoning of Orissa (see
+farther on), is perhaps to be accounted for on the view that this
+day was the day of the anointment, in the 7th century, of the
+first G&#257;&#7749;ga king, R&#257;jasi&#7745;ha-Indravarman I.</p>
+
+<p>In the Chittagong district, Bengal, there is a solar reckoning,
+known by the name Magh&#299;, of which the year 1262 either began
+or ended in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; so that it has an initial point
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 639 or 638. It appears that Chittagong was
+<span class="sidenote">The Magh&#299; reckoning.</span>
+conquered by the king of Arakan in the 9th century,
+and remained usually in the possession of the Maghs&mdash;the
+Arakanese or a class of them&mdash;till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1666, when it was
+finally annexed to the Mogul empire. In these circumstances
+it is plain that the Magh reckoning took its name from the
+Maghs; its year, which is M&#275;sh&#257;di, from Bengal; and its
+numbering from the Sakkar&#257;j, the ordinary era of Arakan and
+Burma, which has its initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 638.</p>
+
+<p>The Hijra (Hegira) era, the reckoning from the flight of
+Mahomet, which dates from the 16th of July, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 662, is, of
+course, used by the Mahommedans in India, and is
+customarily shown, with the details of its calendar,
+<span class="sidenote">Hinduized offshoots of the Hijra era.</span>
+in the Hindu almanacs. An account of it does not
+fall within the scope of this article. But we have
+to mention it because we come now to certain Hinduized
+reckonings which are hybrid offshoots of it. We need
+only say, however, in explanation of some of the following
+figures, that the years of the Hijra era are purely lunar, consisting
+of twelve lunar months and no more; with the result that the
+initial day of the year is always travelling backwards through
+the Julian year, and makes a complete circuit in thirty-four
+years. The reckonings derived from it, which we have to describe,
+have apparent initial points in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 591, 593, 594, and 600.
+They had their real origin, however, in the 14th, 16th, and 17th
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor Akbar succeeded to the throne in February,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1556, in the Hijra year 963, which ran from 16th November
+1555 to 3rd November 1556. Amongst the reforms aimed at
+by him and his officials, one was to abolish, or at least minimize,
+by introducing uniformity of numbering, the confusion due
+to the existence of various reckonings, both Mahommedan and
+Hindu. And one step taken in that direction was to assign to
+the Hindu year the same number with the Hijra year. It is
+believed that this was first done by the Persian clerks of the
+revenue and financial offices at an early time in Akbar&rsquo;s reign,
+and that it received authoritative sanction in the Hijra year
+971 (21st August 1563 to 8th August 1564). At any rate, the
+innovation was certainly first made in Upper India; and the
+numbering started there was introduced into Bengal and those
+parts as Akbar extended his dominions, but without interfering
+with local customs as to the commencement of the Hindu year.
+The result is that we now have the following reckonings, the
+years of which are used as revenue years:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the United Provinces and the Punjab, there is an &#256;&#347;vin&#257;di
+lunar reckoning, known as the Fasli, according to which the year
+1308 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; so that the reckoning has an
+apparent initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 593. The name of this
+<span class="sidenote">The Fasli reckoning of Upper India.</span>
+reckoning is derived from <i>fa&#7779;l</i>, &ldquo;a harvest,&rdquo; of which
+there are two; the <i>fa&#7779;l-i-rab&#299;</i> or &ldquo;spring harvest,&rdquo;
+commencing in February, and the <i>fa&#7779;l-i-khar&#299;f</i>, or &ldquo;autumn
+harvest&rdquo; commencing in October. The years of this reckoning
+begin with the <i>p&#363;r&#7751;im&#257;nta</i> &#256;&#347;vina krishna 1, which now falls in
+September. A peculiar feature of it is that, though the months are
+lunar, they are not divided into fortnights, and the numbering of
+the days runs on, as in the Mahommedan month, from the first to
+the end of the month without being affected by any expunction and
+repetition of <i>tithis</i>; and, for this and other reasons, it seems that
+in this case a new form of Hindu year was devised, of such a kind
+as to enable the agriculturists to realize their produce and pay
+their assessments comfortably within the year. The Hijra era
+has, of course, now drawn somewhat widely away from this and
+the other reckonings derived from it; the Hijra year commencing
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900 was 1318, ten years in advance of the Fasli
+year.</p>
+
+<p>In Orissa and some other parts of Bengal, there is a reckoning,
+or two almost identical reckonings, the facts of which are not quite
+clear. According to one account, the term Amli-san,
+&ldquo;the official year,&rdquo; is only another name of the Vil&#257;yati-san,
+<span class="sidenote">The Vil&#257;yati-san and Amli-san of Orissa.</span>
+&ldquo;the year received from the <i>vil&#257;yat</i> or province
+of Hindust&#257;n.&rdquo; But we are also told that the Vil&#257;yati-san
+is a Kany&#257;di solar year, whereas the Amli-san,
+though it too has solar months, changes its number on
+the lunar day Bh&#257;drapada &#347;ukla 12 (mentioned above in connexion
+with the O&#7749;ko cycle of Orissa), which comes sometimes in Kany&#257;,
+but sometimes in the preceding month, Si&#7745;ha. Elsewhere, again,
+it is the Vil&#257;yati-san which is shown as changing its number on
+Bh&#257;drapada &#347;ukla 12. In either case, the year 1308 of this reckoning,
+also, began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; and so, like the Fasli of Upper India,
+this reckoning, too, has an apparent initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 593. The
+day Bh&#257;drapada &#347;ukla 12 now usually falls in September, but may
+come during the last three days of August. The first day of the
+solar month Kany&#257; now falls on 15th or 16th September.</p>
+
+<p>In Bengal there is in more general use a M&#275;sh&#257;di solar reckoning,
+known as the Beng&#257;li-san or &ldquo;Bengal year,&rdquo; according
+<span class="sidenote">The Beng&#257;li-san.</span>
+to which the year 1307 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; so that this
+reckoning has an apparent initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 594. The
+initial day of the year is the first day of the solar month M&#275;sha,
+now falling on 12th or 13th April.</p>
+
+<p>The system of Fasli reckonings was introduced into Southern
+India under the emperor Sh&#257;h Jah&#257;n, at some time in the Hijra
+year 1046, which ran from 26th May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1636, to 15th
+May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1637. But the numbering which was current
+<span class="sidenote">The Fasli of Bombay and Madras.</span>
+in Northern India was not taken over. A new start was
+made; and, as the year of the Hijra had gone back,
+during the intervening seventy-three Julian years, by
+two years and a quarter (less by only five days) from the date of its
+commencement in the year 971, the Fasli reckoning of Southern
+India began with a nominal year 1046 (instead of 971 + 73 = 1044),
+commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1636. The Fasli reckoning of Southern India
+exists in two varieties. The years of the Bombay Fasli are popularly
+known as Mrigas&#257;l years, because they commence when the sun
+enters the <i>nakshatra</i> M&#7771;iga&#347;iras, which occurs now on 6th or 7th June:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+the reckoning seems to have taken over this initial day from the
+Mar&#257;&#7789;h&#257; S&#363;r-san (see below). The Fasli years of Madras originally
+began at the Karka-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti, the nominal summer solstice:
+under the British government, the commencement of them was first
+fixed to 12th July, on which day the <i>sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti</i> was then usually
+occurring; but it was afterwards changed to 1st July as a more
+convenient date. The years of the Bombay and Madras Fasli
+have no division of their own into months, fortnights, &amp;c.; the year
+is always used along with one or other of the real Hindu reckonings,
+and the details are cited according to that reckoning.</p>
+
+<p>Another offshoot of the Hijra era, but one of earlier date and not
+belonging to the class of Fasli reckonings, is found, in the Mar&#257;&#7789;h&#257;
+country, in the S&#363;r-san or Shah&#363;r-san, &ldquo;the year of
+months,&rdquo; also known as Arab&#299;-san, &ldquo;the Arab year.&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">The Mar&#257;&#7789;h&#257; S&#363;r-san or A&#7769;ab&#299;-san.</span>
+This reckoning, which is met with chiefly in old <i>sanads</i> or
+charters, appears to have branched off in or closely about
+the Hijra year 745, which ran from 15th May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1344, to
+3rd May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1345; but the exact circumstance in which
+it originated is not known. The years of this reckoning begin, like
+those of the Bombay Fasli, with the entrance of the sun into the
+<i>nakshatra</i> M&#7771;iga&#347;iras, which now occurs on 6th or 7th June; but the
+months and days are those of the Hijra year. The S&#363;r-san year 1301
+began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; and so the reckoning has an apparent initial
+point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 600. A peculiarity attending this reckoning is that,
+whatever may be the vernacular of a clerk, he uses the Arabic
+numeral words in reading out the year; and the same words are
+given alongside of the figures in the Hindu almanacs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The Hindu astronomy had already begun to
+attract attention before the close of the 18th century. The investigation,
+however, of the calendar and the eras, along with the
+verification of dates, was started by Warren, whose <i>Kala Sankalita</i>
+was published in 1825. The inquiry was carried on by Prinsep in
+his <i>Useful Tables</i> (1834-1836), by Cowasjee Patell in his <i>Chronology</i>
+(1866), and by Cunningham in his <i>Book of Indian Eras</i> (1883).
+But Warren&rsquo;s processes, though mostly giving accurate results, were
+lengthy and troublesome; and calculations made on the lines laid
+down by his successors gave results which might or might not be
+correct, and could only be cited as approximate results. The exact
+calculation of Hindu dates by easy processes was started by Shankar
+Balkrishna Dikshit, in an article published in the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>,
+vol. 16 (1887). This was succeeded by methods and tables devised
+by Jacobi, which were published in the next volume of the same
+journal. There then followed several contributions in the same
+line by other scholars, some for exact, others for closely approximate,
+results, and some valuable articles by Kielhorn on some of the
+principal Hindu eras and other reckonings, which were published in
+the same journal, vols. 17 (1888) to 26 (1897). And the treatment
+of the matter culminated for the time being in the publication,
+in 1896, of Sewell and Dikshit&rsquo;s <i>Indian Calendar</i>, which contains an
+appendix by Schram on eclipses of the sun in India, and was supplemented
+in 1898 by Sewell&rsquo;s <i>Eclipses of the Moon in India</i>. The
+present article is based on the above-mentioned and various detached
+writings, supplemented by original research. For the exact
+calculation of Hindu dates and the determination of the European
+equivalents of them, use may be made either of Sewell and Dikshit&rsquo;s
+works mentioned above, or of the improved tables by Jacobi
+which were published in the <i>Epigraphia Indica</i>, vols. 1 and 2
+(1892-1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. F. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The disregard of precession, and the consequent travelling
+forward of the year through the natural seasons, is, of course, a
+serious defect in the Hindu calendar, the principles of which are
+otherwise good. Accordingly, an attempt was made by a small
+band of reformers to rectify this state of things by introducing a
+precessional calendar, taking as the first lunar month the synodic
+lunation in which the sun enters the tropical Aries, instead of the
+sidereal M&#275;sha; and the publication was started, in or about 1886,
+of the S&#257;yana-Pañch&#257;ng or &ldquo;Precessional Almanac.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Further, the Hindu sidereal solar year is in excess of the true
+mean sidereal year by (if we use &#256;ryabha&#7789;a&rsquo;s value) 3 min. 20.4
+sec. If we take this, for convenience, at 3 min. 20 sec., the excess
+amounts to exactly one day in 432 years. And so even the sidereal
+M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti is now found to occur three or four days later
+than the day on which it should occur. Accordingly, another reformer
+had begun, in or about 1865, to publish the Nav&#299;n athav&#257;
+Pa&#7789;wardhan&#299; Pañch&#257;ng, the &ldquo;New or Pa&#7789;wardhan&#299; Almanac,&rdquo; in
+which he determined the details of the year according to the proper
+M&#275;sha-sa&#7745;kr&#257;nti.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It might also be called Pausha, because the sun enters Makara
+in the course of it; and it may be observed that, in accordance
+with a second rule which formerly existed, it would have been
+named Pausha because it ends while the sun is in Makara, and the
+omitted name would have been M&#257;rga&#347;ira. But the more important
+condition of the present rule, that Pausha begins while the sun is
+in Dhanus, is not satisfied.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The well-known Metonic cycle, whence we have by rearrangement
+our system of Golden Numbers, naturally suggests itself;
+and we have been told sometimes that that cycle was adopted by
+the Hindus, and elsewhere that the intercalation of a month by
+them generally takes place in the years 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 19 of
+each cycle, differing only in respect of the 14th year, instead of the
+13th, from the arrangement which is said to have been fixed by
+Meton. As regards the first point, however, there is no evidence that
+a special period of 19 years was ever actually used by the Hindus
+during the period with which we are dealing, beyond the extent
+to which it figures as a component of the number of years, 19 × 150 =
+2850, forming the lunisolar cycle of an early work entitled <i>R&#333;maka-Siddh&#257;nta</i>;
+and, as was recognized by Kalippos not long after the
+time of Meton himself, the Metonic cycle has not, for any length of
+time, the closeness of results which has been sometimes supposed
+to attach to it; it requires to be readjusted periodically. As
+regards the second point, the precise years of the intercalated
+months depend upon, and vary with, the year that we may select
+as the apparent first year of a set of 19 years, and it is not easy to
+arrange the Hindu years in sets answering to a direct continuation
+of the Metonic cycle.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It is customary to render the term <i>tithi</i> by &ldquo;lunar day:&rdquo; it
+is, in fact, explained as such in Sansk&#7771;it works; and, as the <i>tithis</i>
+do mark the age of the moon by periods approximating to 24 hours,
+they are, in a sense, lunar days. But the <i>tithi</i> must not be confused
+with the lunar day of western astronomy, which is the interval,
+with a mean duration of about 24 hrs. 54 min., between two successive
+meridian passages of the moon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> We illustrate the ordinary occurrences. But there are others.
+Thus, a repeated <i>tithi</i> may occasionally be followed by a suppressed
+one: in this case the numbering of the civil days would be 6, 7, 7, 9,
+&amp;c., instead of 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, &amp;c. Or it may occasionally be preceded
+by a suppressed one: in this case the numbering would be 5, 7, 7,
+8, &amp;c., instead of 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It is always to be borne in mind that, as already explained,
+while the Hindu M&#275;sha answers to our Aries, it does not coincide
+with either the sign or the constellation Aries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> We select <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900 as a gauge-year, in preference to the year
+in which we are writing, because its figures are more convenient
+for comparative purposes. In accordance with the general tendency
+of the Hindus to cite expired years, the almanacs would mostly
+show 5001 (instead of 5002) as the number for the Kaliyuga year
+answering to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900-1901. And, for the same reason, this
+reckoning has often been called the Kaliyuga era of 3101 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> There
+is, perhaps, no particular objection to that, provided that we then
+deal with the Vikrama and &#346;aka eras on the same lines, and bear in
+mind that in each case the initial point of the reckoning really lies
+in the preceding year. But we prefer to treat these reckonings with
+exact correctness.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views
+regarding the date of Ka&#7751;ishka and the origin of the Vikrama era.
+Some writers hold that Ka&#7751;ishka began to reign in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78, and
+founded the so-called &#346;aka era beginning in that year; one writer
+would place his initial date about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 123, others would place it
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held
+at one time by Sir A. Cunningham: and, as some others have
+already begun to recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating
+in support of the correctness of it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See the preceding note.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19662 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4
+       "Hero" to "Hindu Chronology"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 2, 2012 [EBook #39353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HERO: "... Arthur's foster-brother and seneschal, the type
+      of the bluff and boastful warrior, and Bedivere (Bedwyr), ..."
+      'seneschal' amended from 'sensechal'.
+
+    ARTICLE HERWEGH, GEORG: "He next studied law, but having gained the
+      interest of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he
+      returned to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic
+      post." 'journalistic' amended from 'journalisitic'.
+
+    ARTICLE HESSE-CASSEL: "The regent, without his father's coarseness,
+      had a full share of his arbitrary and avaricious temper."
+      'arbitrary' amended from 'arbitary'.
+
+    ARTICLE HIEL, EMMANUEL: "... Jakoba van Beieren ('Jacqueline of
+      Bavaria,' a poetic drama, 1880); ..." 'Jacqueline' amended from
+      'Jacquelein'.
+
+    ARTICLE HILL, JOHN: "Hill's botanical labours were undertaken at
+      the request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the
+      order of Vasa from the king of Sweden in 1774." 'undertaken'
+      amended from 'underaken'.
+
+    ARTICLE HILLEL: "The duty of considering oneself part of common
+      humanity, of not differing from others by any peculiarity of
+      behaviour, he sums up in the words:" 'common' amended from
+      'comman'.
+
+    ARTICLE HILLEL: "The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's
+      consciousness of God is shown in the words spoken by him on the
+      occasion of a feast in the Temple ..." 'consciousness' amended from
+      'conciousness'.
+
+    ARTICLE HINDOSTANI: "In the article Prakrit it is shown that the
+      same construction is obtained in that language." added 'is'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE IV
+
+         HERO to HINDU CHRONOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HERO                               HIAWATHA
+  HERO AND LEANDER                   HIBBING
+  HERO OF ALEXANDRIA                 HIBERNACULUM
+  HERO (the Younger)                 HIBERNATION
+  HEROD                              HIBERNIA
+  HERODAS                            HICKERINGILL, EDMUND
+  HERODIANS                          HICKES, GEORGE
+  HERODIANUS                         HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS
+  HERODIANUS, AELIUS                 HICKORY
+  HERODOTUS                          HICKS, ELIAS
+  HEROET, ANTOINE                    HICKS, HENRY
+  HEROIC ROMANCES                    HICKS, WILLIAM
+  HEROIC VERSE                       HIDALGO (state of Mexico)
+  HEROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND     HIDALGO (Spanish title)
+  HERON                              HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL
+  HERPES                             HIDDENITE
+  HERRERA, FERNANDO DE               HIDE
+  HERRERA, FRANCISCO                 HIEL, EMMANUEL
+  HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE  HIEMPSAL
+  HERRICK, ROBERT                    HIERAPOLIS
+  HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES              HIERARCHY
+  HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL              HIERATIC
+  HERRING                            HIERAX
+  HERRING-BONE                       HIERO
+  HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE            HIERO II.
+  HERRNHUT                           HIEROCLES
+  HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA        HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA
+  HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM    HIEROGLYPHICS
+  HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN WILLIAM         HIERONYMITES
+  HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL        HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA
+  HERSENT, LOUIS                     HIERRO
+  HERSFELD                           HIGDON, RANULF
+  HERSTAL                            HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES
+  HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF  HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH
+  HERTFORD (Hertfordshire, England)  HIGHAM FERRERS
+  HERTFORDSHIRE                      HIGHGATE
+  HERTHA                             HIGHLANDS, THE
+  HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF             HIGHNESS
+  HERTZ, HENRIK                      HIGH PLACE
+  HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH         HIGH SEAS
+  HERTZEN, ALEXANDER                 HIGHWAY
+  HERULI                             HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE
+  HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO          HILARION, ST
+  HERVEY, JAMES                      HILARIUS, ST (bishop of Pictavium)
+  HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, JEAN LEON   HILARIUS (bishop of Rome)
+  HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY    HILARIUS (Latin poet)
+  HERVIEU, PAUL                      HILARIUS, ST (bishop of Arles)
+  HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, EBERHARD  HILDA, ST
+  HERWEGH, GEORG                     HILDBURGHAUSEN
+  HERZBERG (town in Hanover)         HILDEBERT
+  HERZBERG (town in Saxony)          HILDEBRAND, LAY OF
+  HERZL, THEODOR                     HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD
+  HERZOG, HANS                       HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR
+  HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB               HILDEGARD, ST
+  HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG      HILDEN
+  HESILRIGE, SIR ARTHUR              HILDESHEIM
+  HESIOD                             HILDRETH, RICHARD
+  HESPERIDES                         HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH
+  HESPERUS                           HILL, AARON
+  HESS (family of German artists)    HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
+  HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF       HILL, DANIEL HARVEY
+  HESSE                              HILL, DAVID BENNETT
+  HESSE-CASSEL                       HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN
+  HESSE-DARMSTADT                    HILL, JAMES J.
+  HESSE-HOMBURG                      HILL, JOHN
+  HESSE-NASSAU                       HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT
+  HESSE-ROTENBURG                    HILL, OCTAVIA and MIRANDA
+  HESSIAN                            HILL, ROWLAND
+  HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS             HILL, SIR ROWLAND
+  HESTIA                             HILL, ROWLAND HILL
+  HESYCHASTS                         HILL (elevation)
+  HESYCHIUS (Alexandrian grammarian) HILLAH
+  HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS               HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN
+  HETAERISM                          HILLEBRAND, KARL
+  HETEROKARYOTA                      HILLEL (Jewish rabbi)
+  HETERONOMY                         HILLER, FERDINAND
+  HETMAN                             HILLER, JOHANN ADAM
+  HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR           HILLIARD, LAWRENCE
+  HETTSTEDT                          HILLIARD, NICHOLAS
+  HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON               HILLSDALE
+  HEULANDITE                         HILL TIPPERA
+  HEUSCH, WILLEM                     HILTON, JOHN
+  HEVELIUS, JOHANN                   HILTON, WILLIAM
+  HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER       HILVERSUM
+  HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS              HIMALAYA
+  HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY             HIMERA
+  HEXAMETER                          HIMERIUS
+  HEXAPLA                            HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE
+  HEXAPODA                           HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY
+  HEXASTYLE                          HINCKLEY
+  HEXATEUCH                          HINCKS, EDWARD
+  HEXHAM                             HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS
+  HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER                HINCMAR
+  HEYLYN, PETER                      HIND
+  HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON            HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON
+  HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB           HINDI, EASTERN
+  HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG          HINDI, WESTERN
+  HEYSHAM                            HINDKI
+  HEYWOOD, JOHN                      HINDLEY
+  HEYWOOD, THOMAS                    HINDOSTANI
+  HEYWOOD (Lancashire, England)      HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
+  HEZEKIAH                           HINDU CHRONOLOGY
+  HIATUS
+
+
+
+
+HERO (Gr. [Greek: heros]), a term specially applied to warriors of
+extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who were
+distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical or
+intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the word has been
+suggested.
+
+
+_Ancient Greek Heroes._
+
+In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult, and as
+such were intimately connected with its religious life. Various theories
+have been put forward as to the nature of these heroes. According to
+some authorities, they were idealized historical personages; according
+to others, symbolical representations of the forces of nature. The view
+most commonly held is that they were degraded or "depotentiated" gods,
+occupying a position intermediate between gods and men. According to E.
+Rohde (in _Psyche_) they are souls of the dead, which after separation
+from the body enter upon a higher, eternal existence. But it is only a
+select minority who attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the
+distinguished men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality
+an ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was
+preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being
+degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real heroes, the
+heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes were all persons
+who had lived the life of man on earth, and it was necessary for the
+degraded gods to pass through this stage. They did not at once become
+cult-heroes, but only after they had undergone death like other mortals.
+Only one who has been a man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of
+the dead, not demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods
+and men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class.
+
+In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to kings and
+kings' sons, even to distinguished persons of lower rank, and free men
+generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly confined to those who fought before
+Troy and Thebes; in view of their supposed divine origin, he calls them
+demi-gods ([Greek: hemitheoi]). This name is also given them in an
+interpolated passage in the _Iliad_ (xii. 23), which is quite at
+variance with the general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more
+than men, even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess.
+But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea that
+the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over the lives of
+those who survived them; and consequently, no cult. Nevertheless, traces
+of an earlier ancestor worship appear, e.g. in funeral games in honour
+of Patroclus and other heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five
+ages of man is a reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence
+of souls in a higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a
+time obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry (_De
+abstinentia_, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica to honour
+the gods and heroes of their country "in accordance with the usage of
+their fathers" with offerings of first fruits and sacrificial cakes
+every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom of high antiquity.
+Solon also ordered that the tombs of the heroes should be treated with
+the greatest respect, and Cleisthenes (q.v.) sought to create a
+pan-Athenian enthusiasm by calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and
+setting up their statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first
+bestowed upon the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of
+families; if their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In
+many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the supposed
+ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica and elsewhere
+(Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus Ceryces at Eleusis), of the
+eponymi of the tribes and demes. Again, side by side with gods of
+superior rank, certain heroes were worshipped as protecting spirits of
+the country or state; such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans,
+Ajax son of Oileus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at
+Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be
+responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes, while, on
+the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was equally
+beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic oracle, which was
+largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship and keeping alive its due
+observance. Special importance was attached to the grave of the hero and
+to his bodily remains, with which the spirit of the departed was
+inseparably connected. The grave was regarded as his place of abode,
+from which he could only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones
+were fetched from abroad (e.g. Cimon brought those of Theseus from
+Scyros), or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was
+erected in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the
+house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone on
+which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special shrines ([Greek:
+heroa]) were also erected in their honour, usually over their graves. In
+these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in accordance with the
+idea that the hero was essentially a warrior, who on occasion came forth
+from his grave and fought at the head of his countrymen, putting the
+enemy to flight as during his lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes
+were supposed to exercise an influence on human affairs, though not to
+the same extent, their sphere of action being confined to their own
+localities. Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the
+elevation of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of
+Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton and
+Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local Athenian hero
+Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank of a hero became far
+more common, and was even accorded to the living, such as Lysimachus in
+Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene
+instituted an order of priests to celebrate the anniversary of his birth
+and coronation in a special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed
+divine honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime. The
+birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month sacrifice was
+offered to him and games held in his honour. In addition to persons of
+high rank, poets, legendary and others (Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus
+and Sophocles), legislators and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the
+patrons of various trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers,
+potters), the heads of philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus,
+Epicurus) received the honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered
+before the statue of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some
+countries the honour became so general that every man after death was
+described as a hero in his epitaph--in Thessaly even slaves.
+
+The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that of the
+chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that of the
+ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not "depotentiated"
+gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at night or in the evening;
+not on a high, but on a low altar ([Greek: eschara]), surrounded by a
+trench to receive the blood of the victim, which was supposed to make
+its way through the ground to the occupant of the grave; the victims
+were black male animals, whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards;
+their blood was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed
+([Greek: haimakouria]); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no
+mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the
+sacrifice was not [Greek: thuein] but [Greek: enagizein] (less commonly
+[Greek: entemnein]). The chthonian aspect of the hero is further shown
+by his attribute the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form
+himself. On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set
+out for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake. The
+fullest description of such a festival is the account given by Plutarch
+(_Aristides_, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans in honour
+of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of Plataea. On the 16th
+of the month Maimacterion, a long procession, headed by a trumpeter
+playing a warlike air, set out for the graves; wagons decked with myrtle
+and garlands of flowers followed, young men (who must be of free birth)
+carried jars of wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull
+destined for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who
+wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand, in the
+other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew some water with
+which he washed the gravestones, afterwards anointing them with perfume;
+he then sacrificed the bull on the altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and
+Hermes Psychopompos, and inviting them in company with the heroes to the
+festival of blood. Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words:
+"I drink to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes."
+
+  See especially E. Rohde, _Psyche_ (1905) and in _Rheinisches Museum_,
+  li. (1895), 28; P. Stengel, _Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer_
+  (Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schomann, _Griechische Altertumer_, ii.
+  (1897), 159; J. Wassner, _De heroum apud Graecos cultu_ (Kiel, 1883);
+  article by F. Deneken in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, in which
+  a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild, _Etude sur les
+  demons_ (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquites_.
+
+
+_Teutonic Legend._
+
+Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek heroes are
+reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the parallel being in some
+cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance, like Achilles, is
+vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith, like Hephaestus, is
+lame. Superhuman qualities and powers, too, are commonly ascribed to
+both, an important difference, however, being that whatever worship may
+have been paid to the Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult.
+This applies equally to those who have a recognized historical origin
+and to those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the
+number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship. The
+fashion during the 19th century set strongly in the other direction, and
+the "degraded gods" theory was applied not only to such conspicuous
+heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and Beowulf, but to a host of minor
+characters, such as the good marquis Rudeger of the Nibelungenlied and
+our own Robin Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The
+reaction from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until
+not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being traced to
+very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus M. Henri de Tourville,
+in his_ Histoire de la formation particulariste_ (1903), basing his
+argument on the _Ynglinga Saga_, interpreted in the light of "Social
+Science," reveals Odin, "the traveller," as a great "caravan-leader" and
+warrior, who, driven from Asgard--a trading city on the borders of the
+steppes east of the Don--by "the blows that Pompey aimed at
+Mithridates," brought to the north the arts and industries of the East.
+The argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be
+doubted whether it has permanently "rescued Odin from the misty
+dreamland of mythology and restored him to history." It is now, however,
+admitted that, whatever influence the one may have from time to time
+exercised on the other, Teutonic myth and Teutonic heroic legend were
+developed on independent lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main,
+historical personages, never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they
+are sometimes endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as
+symbolical representations of natural forces.
+
+The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded as including
+that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians, is to be
+looked for in the period of the so-called migration of nations (A.D.
+350-650). It consequently rests upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga
+(in the older and wider sense of any story said or sung) being indeed
+the oldest form of historical tradition; though this of course does not
+exclude the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round
+persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the heroic
+sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds of Arminius
+were still celebrated in song a hundred years after his death (_Annals_,
+ii. 88) and in the _Germania_ he speaks of "old songs" as the only kind
+of "annals" which the ancient Germans possessed; but, whatever relics of
+the old songs may be embedded in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no
+recognizable mark on the heroic poetry of the German peoples. The
+attempt to identify Arminius with Siegfried is now generally abandoned.
+Teutonic heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions
+connected with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are
+found in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus
+and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of Cassiodorus's
+_History of the Goths_) at the funeral of Attila his vassals, as they
+rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds. The next step in the
+development of epic narrative was the single lay of an episodic
+character, sung by a single individual, who was frequently a member of a
+distinguished family, not merely a professional minstrel. Then, as
+different stories grew up round the person of a particular hero, they
+formed a connected cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person
+of the hero (e.g. Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these
+cycles are the following.
+
+(1) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its present
+form was probably brought from the continent by the Angles. It is an
+amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the slayer of the water-demon and the
+dragon, with the historical legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of
+Hygelac (Chochilaicus), king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain
+(c. 520) while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel and
+the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally wounded, have been
+supposed to represent the powers of autumn and darkness, the floods
+which at certain seasons overflow the low-lying countries on the coast
+of the North Sea and sweep away all human habitations; Beowulf is the
+hero of spring and light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging
+waters, finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others
+regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours of the
+fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf-Scyld (i.e. Scyld
+Scefing, "the protector with the sheaf") lands on the Anglian or
+Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudderless ship, asleep on a sheaf
+of grain, symbolical of the means whereby his kingdom shall become
+great; the son indicates the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured
+against the attacks of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest
+German epic. A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when
+threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty years'
+absence, he returns to his home In Italy; his son Hadubrand, believing
+his father to be dead, suspects treachery and refuses to accept presents
+offered by the father in token of good-will. A fight takes place, in
+which the son is slain by the father. In a later version, recognition
+and reconciliation take place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and
+Telegonis, Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths,
+who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (c. 375) in terror at
+the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected the old German Dioscuri
+myth of the Harlungen. (4) Dietrich of Bern (Verona), the legendary name
+of Theodoric the Great. Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is
+supposed to have been his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been
+deprived by Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a
+typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes refuge in
+Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally recovers his
+kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented as fighting with
+giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears on a black horse.
+Some attempts have been made to identify him as a kind of Donar or god
+of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H. Ger. Sivrit), the hero of the
+_Niebelungenlied_, the Sigurd of the related northern sagas, is usually
+regarded as a purely mythical figure, a hero of light who is ultimately
+overcome by the powers of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He
+is, however, closely associated with historical characters and events,
+e.g. with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the
+overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars have
+exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify him with
+various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (_Das Nibelungenlied_,
+Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to three groups of Burgundian
+legends, each based on fact: the Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the
+murder of Segeric, son of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by
+his father at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian
+story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. 11), of the defeat of the
+Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity and murder of
+Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation of their mother
+Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her father Chilperich and of
+her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish-Burgundian story of the ruin of
+Gundahari's kingdom by Attila's Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried
+(Sigurd) with Segeric, while--according to him--the heroine of the
+Nibelung sagas, Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two
+historical persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde),
+the wife of Attila. (See also the articles KRIEMHILD, NIBELUNGENLIED).
+
+(6) Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like that of
+Siegfried, is of Frankish origin. It is preserved in four versions, the
+best of which is the oldest, and has an historical foundation.
+Hugdietrich is the "Frankish Dietrich" (= Hugo Theodoric), king of
+Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and successor Theodebert, was
+illegitimate; both had to fight for their inheritance with relatives.
+The transference of the scene to Constantinople is a reminiscence of the
+events of the Crusades and Theodebert's projected campaign against that
+city. The version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife
+by disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As the
+myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so another Dioscuri
+myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend.
+The Hartungen are probably identical with the divine youths (mentioned
+in Tacitus as worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from
+whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent. Asdingi
+([Greek: Astiggoi]) would be represented in Gothic by Hazdiggos, "men
+with women's hair" (cf. _muliebri ornatu_ in Tacitus), and in middle
+high German by Hartungen. (7) Rother, king of Lombardy. Desiring to wed
+the daughter of Constantine, king of Constantinople, he sends twelve
+envoys to ask her in marriage. They are arrested and thrown into prison
+by the king. Rother, who appears under the name of Dietrich, sets out
+with an army, liberates the envoys and carries off the princess. One
+version places the scene in the land of the Huns. The character of
+Constantine in many respects resembles that of Alexius Comnenus; the
+slaying of a tame lion by one of the gigantic followers of Rother is
+founded on an incident which actually took place at the court of Alexius
+during the crusade of 1101 under duke Welf of Bavaria, when _King
+Rother_ was composed about 1160 by a Rhenish minstrel. Rother may be the
+Lombard king Rothari (636-650), transferred to the period of the
+Crusades. (8) Walther of Aquitaine, chiefly known from the Latin poem
+_Waltharius_, written by Ekkehard of St Gall at the beginning of the
+10th century, and fragments of an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Epic
+_Waldere_. Walther is not an historical figure, although the legend
+undoubtedly represents typical occurrences of the migration period, such
+as the detention and flight of hostages of noble family from the court
+of the Huns, and the rescue of captive maidens by abduction. (9) Wieland
+(Volundr), Wayland the Smith, the only Teutonic hero (his original home
+was lower Saxony) who firmly established himself in England. There is
+absolutely no historical background for his legend. He is a fire-spirit,
+who is pressed into man's service, and typifies the advance from the
+stone age to a higher stage of civilization (working in metals). As the
+lame smith he reminds us of Hephaestus, and in his flight with wings of
+Daedalus escaping from Minos. (10) Hogni (Hagen) and Hedin (Hetel),
+whose personalities are overshadowed by the heroines Hilde and Gudrun
+(Kudrun, Kutrun). In one version occurs the incident of the never-ending
+battle between the forces of Hagen and Hedin. Every night Hilde revives
+the fallen, and "so will it continue till the twilight of the gods." The
+battle represents the eternal conflict between light and darkness, the
+alternation of day and night. Hilde here figures as a typical Valkyr
+delighting in battle and bloodshed, who frustrates a reconciliation.
+Hedin had sent a necklace as a peace-offering to Hagen, but Hilde
+persuades her father that it is only a ruse. This necklace occurs in the
+story of the goddess Freya (Frigg), who is said to have caused the
+battle to conciliate the wrath of Odin at her infidelity, the price paid
+by her for the possession of the necklace Brisnigamen; again, the light
+god Heimdal is said to have fought with Loki for the necklace (the sun)
+stolen by the latter. Hence the battle has been explained as the
+necklace myth in epic form. The historical background is the raids of
+the Teutonic maritime tribes on the coasts of England and Ireland.
+
+Famous heroes who are specially connected with England are Alfred the
+Great, Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King Horn, Havelok the Dane, Guy of
+Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton (or Southampton), Robin Hood and his
+companions.
+
+
+_Celtic Heroes._
+
+The Celtic heroic saga in the British islands may be divided into the
+two principal groups of Gaelic (Irish) and Brython (Welsh), the first,
+excluding the purely mythological, into the Ultonian (connected with
+Ulster) and the Ossianic. The Ultonianis grouped round the names of King
+Conchobar and the hero Cuchulainn, "the Irish Achilles," the defender of
+Ulster against all Ireland, regarded by some as a solar hero. The second
+cycle contains the epics of Finn (Fionn, Fingal) mac Cumhail, and his
+son Oisin (Ossian), the bard and warrior, chiefly known from the
+supposed Ossianic poems of Macpherson. (See CELT, sec. _Celtic
+Literature_.)
+
+Of Brython origin is the cycle of King Arthur (Artus), the adopted
+national hero of the mixed nationalities of whom the "English" people
+was composed. Here he appears as a chiefly mythical personality, who
+slays monsters, such as the giant of St Michel, the boar Troit, the
+demon cat, and goes down to the underworld. The original Welsh legend
+was spread by British refugees in Brittany, and was thus celebrated by
+both English and French Celts. From a literary point of view, however,
+it is chiefly French and forms "the matter of Brittany." Arthur, the
+leader (_comes Britanniae, dux bellorum_) of the Siluri or Dumnonii
+against the Saxons, flourished at the beginning of the 6th century. He
+is first spoken of in Nennius's _History of the Britons_ (9th century),
+and at greater length in Geoffrey of Monmouth's _History of the Kings of
+Britain_ (12th century), at the end of which the French Breton cycle
+attained its fullest development in the poems of Chretien de Troyes and
+others.
+
+Speaking generally, the Celtic heroes are differentiated from the
+Teutonic by the extreme exaggeration of their superhuman, or rather
+extra-human, qualities. Teutonic legend does not lightly exaggerate, and
+what to us seems incredible in it may be easily conceived as credible to
+those by whom and for whom the tales were told; that Sigmund and his son
+Sinfiotli turned themselves into wolves would be but a sign of
+exceptional powers to those who believed in werewolves; Fafnir assuming
+the form of a serpent would be no more incredible to the barbarous
+Teuton than the similar transformation of Proteus to the Greek. But in
+the characterization of their heroes the Celtic imagination runs riot,
+and the quality of their persons and their acts becomes exaggerated
+beyond the bounds of any conceivable probability. Take, for instance,
+the description of some of Arthur's knights in the Welsh tale of
+_Kilhwch and Olwen_ (in the _Mabinogion_). Along with Kai and Bedwyr
+(Bedivere), Peredur (Perceval), Gwalchmai (Gawain), and many others, we
+have such figures as Sgilti Yscandroed, whose way through the wood lay
+along the tops of the trees, and whose tread was so light that no blade
+of grass bent beneath his weight; Sol, who could stand all day upon one
+leg; Sugyn the son of Sugnedydd, who was "broad-chested" to such a
+degree that he could suck up the sea on which were three hundred ships
+and leave nothing but dry land; Gweyyl, the son of Gwestad, who when he
+was sad would let one of his lips drop beneath his waist and turn up the
+other like a cap over his head; and Uchtry Varyf Draws, who spread his
+red untrimmed beard over the eight-and-forty rafters of Arthur's hall.
+Such figures as these make no human impression, and criticism has busied
+itself in tracing them to one or other of the shadowy divinities of the
+Celtic pantheon. However this may be, remnants of their primitive
+superhuman qualities cling to the Celtic heroes long after they have
+been transfigured, under the influence of Christianity and chivalry,
+into the heroes of the medieval Arthurian romance, types--for the most
+part--of the knightly virtues as these were conceived by the middle
+ages; while shadowy memories of early myths live on, strangely
+disguised, in certain of the episodes repeated uncritically by the
+medieval poets. So Merlin preserves his diabolic origin; Arthur his
+mystic coming and his mystic passing; while Gawain, and after him
+Lancelot, journey across the river, as the Irish hero Bran had done
+before them to the island of fair women--the Celtic vision of the realm
+of death.
+
+The chief heroes of the medieval Arthurian romances are the following.
+Arthur himself, who tends however to become completely overshadowed by
+his knights, who make his court the starting-point of their adventures.
+Merlin (Myrddin), the famous wizard, bard and warrior, perhaps an
+historical figure, first introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth, originally
+called Ambrose from the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, under whom
+he is said to have first served. Perceval (Parzival, Parsifal), the
+Welsh Peredur, "the seeker of the basin," the most intimately connected
+with the quest of the Grail (q.v.). Tristan (Tristram), the ideal lover
+of the middle ages, whose name is inseparably associated with that of
+Iseult. Lancelot, son of Ban king of Brittany, a creation of chivalrous
+romance, who only appears in Arthurian literature under French
+influence, known chiefly from his amour with Guinevere, perhaps in
+imitation of the story of Tristan and Iseult. Gawain (Welwain, Welsh
+Gwalchmai), Arthur's nephew, who in medieval romance remains the type of
+knightly courage and chivalry, until his character is degraded in order
+to exalt that of Lancelot. Among less important, but still conspicuous,
+figures may be mentioned Kay (the Kai of the _Mabinogion_), Arthur's
+foster-brother and seneschal, the type of the bluff and boastful
+warrior, and Bedivere (Bedwyr), the type of brave knight and faithful
+retainer, who alone is with Arthur at his passing, and afterwards
+becomes "a hermit and a holy man." (See ARTHUR, MERLIN, PERCEVAL,
+TRISTAN, LANCELOT, GAWAIN.)
+
+
+_Heroes of Romance._
+
+Another series of heroes, forming the central figures of stories
+variously derived but developed in Europe by the Latin-speaking peoples,
+may be conveniently grouped under the heading of "romance." Of these the
+most important are Alexander of Macedon and Charlemagne, while alongside
+of them Priam and other heroes of the Trojan war appear during the
+middle ages in strangely altered guise. Of all heroes of romance
+Alexander has been the most widely celebrated. His name, in the form of
+Iskander, is familiar in legend and story all over the East to this day;
+to the West he was introduced through a Latin translation of the
+original Greek romance (by the pseudo-Callisthenes) to which the
+innumerable Oriental versions are likewise traceable (see ALEXANDER
+III., KING OF MACEDON; sec. _The Romance of Alexander_). More important
+in the West, however, was the cycle of legends gathering round the
+figure of Charlemagne, forming what was known as "the matter of France."
+The romances of this cycle, of Germanic (Frankish) origin and developed
+probably in the north of France by the French (probably in the north of
+France) contain reminiscences of the heroes of the Merovingian period,
+and in their later development were influenced by the Arthurian cycle.
+Just as Arthur was eclipsed by his companions, so Charlemagne's vassal
+nobles, except in the _Chanson de Roland_, are exalted at the expense of
+the emperor, probably the result of the changed relations between the
+later emperors and their barons. The character of Charlemagne himself
+undergoes a change; in the _Chanson de Roland_ he is a venerable figure,
+mild and dignified, while later he appears as a cruel and typical tyrant
+(as is also the case with Ermanaric). The basis of his legend is mainly
+historical, although the story of his journey to Constantinople and the
+East is mythical, and incidents have been transferred from the reign of
+Charles Martel to his. Charlemagne is chiefly venerated as the champion
+of Christianity against the heathen and the Saracens. (See CHARLEMAGNE,
+_ad fin._ "The Charlemagne Legends.")
+
+The most famous heroes who are associated with him are Roland, praefect
+of the marches of Brittany, the Orlando of Ariosto, slain at Roncevaux
+(Roncevalles) in the Pyrenees, and his friend and rival Oliver
+(Olivier); Ogier the Dane, the Holger Danske of Hans Andersen, and Huon
+of Bordeaux, probably both introduced from the Arthurian cycle; Renaud
+(Rinaldo) of Montauban, one of the four sons of Aymon, to whom the
+wonderful horse Bayard was presented by Charlemagne; the traitor Doon of
+Mayence; Ganelon, responsible for the treachery that led to the death of
+Roland; Archbishop Turpin, a typical specimen of muscular Christianity;
+William Fierabras, William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and
+William of Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of
+the latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances
+originated the legends, in English form, of _Sowdone of Babylone_, _Sir
+Otnel_, _Sir Firumbras_ and _Huon of Bordeaux_ (in which Oberon, the
+king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the Fay, was
+first made known to England).
+
+The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems on the Cid,
+on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fernan Gonzalez, count of Castile.
+The legend of Charlemagne as told in the _Cronica general_ of Alfonso X.
+created the desire for a national hero distinguished for his exploits
+against the Moors, and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del
+Carpio. Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of
+romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish, although the
+Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from their own language.
+There is no trace of a French original.
+
+_Slavonic Heroes._--The Slavonic heroic saga of Russia centres round
+Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), the first Christian ruler of that country,
+whose personality is eclipsed by that of Ilya (Elias) of Mourom, the son
+of a peasant, who was said to have saved the empire from the Tatars at
+the urgent request of his emperor. It is not known whether he was an
+historical personage; many of the achievements attributed to him border
+on the miraculous. A much-discussed work is the _Tale of Igor_, the
+oldest of the Russian medieval epics. Igor was the leader of a raid
+against the heathen Polovtsi in 1185; at first successful, he was
+afterwards defeated and taken prisoner, but finally managed to escape.
+Although the Finns are not Slavs, on topographical grounds mention may
+here be made of Wainamoinen, the great magician and hero of the Finnish
+epic _Kalevala_ ("land of heroes"). The popular hero of the Servians and
+Bulgarians is Marko Kralyevich (q.v.), son of Vukashin, characterized by
+Goethe as a counterpart of the Greek Heracles and the Persian Rustem.
+For the Persian, Indian, &c., heroes see the articles on the literature
+and religions of the various countries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grasse, _Die
+  grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters_ (Dresden, 1842), forming part of
+  his _Lehrbuch einer Literargeschichte der beruhmtesten Volker des
+  Mittelalters_; W. P. Ker, _Epic and Romance_ (2nd ed., 1908).
+  TEUTONIC.--B. Symons, "Germanische Heldensage" in H. Paul's _Grundris
+  der germanischen Philologie_, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd revised
+  edition, separately printed (_ib._, 1905); W. Grimm, _Die deutsche
+  Heldensage_ (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most important
+  works; W. Muller, _Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage_ (Heilbronn,
+  1886) and supplement, _Zur Mythologie der griechischen und deutschen
+  Heldensage_ (_ib._, 1889); O. L. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensagen_, i.
+  (Strassburg, 1898) and _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (3rd revised edition,
+  Leipzig, 1906); Chantepie de la Saussaye, _The Religion of the
+  Teutons_ (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902); J. G. Robertson, _History
+  of German Literature_ (1902). See also HELDENBUCH.
+
+  CELTIC.--M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de litterature
+  celtique_ (12 vols., 1883-1902), one vol. trans. into English by R. I.
+  Best, _The Irish Mythological Cycle and Celtic Mythology_ (1903); L.
+  Petit de Julleville, _Hist. de la langue et de la litt. francaise_, i.
+  _Moyen age_ (1896); C. Squire, _The Mythology of the British Isles: an
+  Introduction to Celtic Myth and Romance_ (1905); J. Rhys, _Celtic
+  Britain_ (3rd ed., 1904). SLAVONIC.--A. N. Rambaud, _La Russie epique_
+  (1876); W. Wollner, _Untersuchungen uber die Volksepik der
+  Grossrussen_ (1879); W. R. Morfill, _Slavonic Literature_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HERO AND LEANDER, two lovers celebrated in antiquity. Hero, the
+beautiful priestess of Aphrodite at Sestos, was seen by Leander, a youth
+of Abydos, at the celebration of the festival of Aphrodite and Adonis.
+He became deeply enamoured of her; but, as her position as priestess and
+the opposition of her parents rendered their marriage impossible they
+agreed to carry on a clandestine intercourse. Every night Hero placed a
+lamp in the top of the tower where she dwelt by the sea, and Leander,
+guided by it, swam across the dangerous Hellespont. One stormy night the
+lamp was blown out and Leander perished. On finding his body next
+morning on the shore, Hero flung herself into the waves. The story is
+referred to by Virgil (_Georg._ iii. 258), Statius (_Theb._ vi. 535) and
+Ovid (_Her._ xviii. and xix.). The beautiful little epic of Musaeus has
+been frequently translated, and is expanded in the _Hero and Leander_ of
+C. Marlowe and G. Chapman. It is also the subject of a ballad by
+Schiller and a drama by F. Grillparzer.
+
+  See M. H. Jellinek, _Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Dichtung_
+  (1890), and G. Knaack "Hero und Leander" in _Festgabe fur Franz
+  Susemihl_ (1898). A careful collection of materials will be found in
+  F. Koppner, _Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Literatur und Kunst
+  des Altertums_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+HERO OF ALEXANDRIA, Greek geometer and writer on mechanical and physical
+subjects, probably flourished in the second half of the 1st century.
+This is the more modern view, in contrast to the earlier theory most
+generally accepted, according to which he flourished about 100 B.C. The
+earlier theory started from the superscription of one of his works,
+[Greek: Heronos Ktesibiou belopoiika], from which it was inferred that
+Hero was a pupil of Ctesibius. Martin, Hultsch and Cantor took this
+Ctesibius to be a barber of that name who lived in the reign of Ptolemy
+Euergetes II. (d. 117 B.C.) and is credited with having invented an
+improved water-organ. But this identification is far from certain, as a
+Ctesibius _mechanicus_ is mentioned by Athenaeus as having lived under
+Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). Nor can the relation of master
+and pupil be certainly inferred from the superscription quoted (observe
+the omission of any article), which really asserts no more than that
+Hero re-edited an earlier treatise by Ctesibius, and implies nothing
+about his being an _immediate_ predecessor. Further, it is certain that
+Hero used physical and mathematical writings by Posidonius, the Stoic,
+of Apamea, Cicero's teacher, who lived until about the middle of the 1st
+century B.C. The positive arguments for the more modern view of Hero's
+date are (1) the use by him of Latinisms from which Diels concluded that
+the 1st century A.D. was the earliest possible date, (2) the description
+in Hero's _Mechanics_ iii. of a small olive-press with one screw which
+is alluded to by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ viii.) as having been introduced
+since A.D. 55, (3) an allusion by Plutarch (who died A.D. 120) to the
+proposition that light is reflected from a surface at an angle equal to
+the angle of incidence, which Hero proved in his _Catoptrica_, the words
+used by Plutarch fitting well with the corresponding passage of that
+work (as to which see below). Thus we arrive at the latter half of the
+1st century A.D. as the approximate date of Hero's activity.
+
+The geometrical treatises which have survived (though not interpolated)
+in Greek are entitled respectively _Definitiones_, _Geometria_,
+_Geodaesia_, _Stereometrica_ (i. and ii.), _Mensurae_, _Liber
+Geoponicus_, to which must now be added the _Metrica_ recently
+discovered by R. Schone in a MS. at Constantinople. These books, except
+the _Definitiones_, mostly consist of directions for obtaining, from
+given parts, the areas or volumes, and other parts, of plane or solid
+figures. A remarkable feature is the bare statement of a number of very
+close approximations to the square roots of numbers which are not
+complete squares. Others occur in the _Metrica_ where also a method of
+finding such approximate square, and even approximate cube, roots is
+shown. Hero's expressions for the areas of regular polygons of from 5 to
+12 sides in terms of the squares of the sides show interesting
+approximations to the values of trigonometrical ratios. Akin to the
+geometrical works is that _On the Dioptra_, a remarkable book on
+land-surveying, so called from the instrument described in it, which was
+used for the same purposes as the modern theodolite. It is in this book
+that Hero proves the expression for the area of a triangle in terms of
+its sides. The _Pneumatica_ in two books is also extant in Greek as is
+also the _Automatopoietica_. In the former will be found such things as
+siphons, "Hero's fountain," "penny-in-the-slot" machines, a fire-engine,
+a water-organ, and arrangements employing the force of steam. Pappus
+quotes from three books of _Mechanics_ and from a work called
+_Barulcus_, both by Hero. The three books on _Mechanics_ survive in an
+Arabic translation which, however, bears a title "On the lifting of
+heavy objects." This corresponds exactly to _Barulcus_, and it is
+probable that _Barulcus_ and _Mechanics_ were only alternative titles
+for one and the same work. It is indeed not credible that Hero wrote
+two separate treatises on the subject of the mechanical powers, which
+are fully discussed in the _Mechanics_, ii., iii. The _Belopoiica_ (on
+engines of war) is extant in Greek, and both this and the _Mechanics_
+contain Hero's solution of the problem of the two mean proportionals.
+Hero also wrote _Catoptrica_ (on reflecting surfaces), and it seems
+certain that we possess this in a Latin work, probably translated from
+the Greek by Wilhelm van Moerbeek, which was long thought to be a
+fragment of Ptolemy's _Optics_, because it bore the title _Ptolemaei de
+speculis_ in the MS. But the attribution to Ptolemy was shown to be
+wrong as soon as it was made clear (especially by Martin) that another
+translation by an Admiral Eugenius Siculus (12th century) of an optical
+work from the Arabic was Ptolemy's _Optics_. Of other treatises by Hero
+only fragments remain. One was four books on _Water Clocks_ ([Greek:
+Peri hydrion horoskopeion]), of which Proclus (_Hypotyp. astron._, ed.
+Halma) has preserved a fragment, and to which Pappus also refers.
+Another work was a commentary on Euclid (referred to by the Arabs as
+"the book of the resolution of doubts in Euclid") from which quotations
+have survived in an-Nairizi's commentary.
+
+  The _Pneumatica_, _Automatopoietica_, _Belopoiica_ and
+  _Cheiroballistra_ of Hero were published in Greek and Latin in
+  Thevenot's _Veterum mathematicorum opera graece et latine pleraque
+  nunc primum edita_ (Paris, 1693); the first important critical
+  researches on Hero were G. B. Venturi's _Commentari sopra la storia e
+  la teoria dell'ottica_ (Bologna, 1814) and H. Martin's "Recherches sur
+  la vie et les ouvrages d'Heron d'Alexandrie disciple de Ctesibius et
+  sur tous les ouvrages mathematiques grecs conserves ou perdus, publies
+  ou inedits, qui ont ete attribues a un auteur nomme Heron" (_Mem.
+  presentes a l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, i. serie,
+  iv., 1854). The geometrical works (except of course the _Metrica_)
+  were edited (Greek only) by F. Hultsch (_Heronis Alexandrini
+  geometricorum et stereometricorum reliquiae_, 1864), the _Dioptra_ by
+  Vincent (_Extraits des manuscrits relatifs a la geometrie pratique des
+  Grecs, Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque
+  Imperiale_, xix. 2, 1858), the treatises on _Engines of War_ by C.
+  Wescher (_Poliorcetique des Grecs_, Paris, 1867). The _Mechanics_ was
+  first published by Carra de Vaux in the _Journal asiatique_ (ix.
+  serie, ii., 1893). In 1899 began the publication in Teubner's series
+  of _Heronis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt omnia_. Vol. i. and
+  Supplement (by W. Schmidt) contains the _Pneumatica_ and _Automata_,
+  the fragment on _Water Clocks_, the _De ingeniis spiritualibus_ of
+  Philon of Byzantium and extracts on Pneumatics by Vitruvius. Vol. ii.
+  pt. i., by L. Nix and W. Schmidt, contains the _Mechanics_ in Arabic,
+  Greek fragments of the same, the _Catoptrica_ in Latin with appendices
+  of extracts from Olympiodorus, Vitruvius, Pliny, &c. Vol. iii. (by
+  Hermann Schone) contains the _Metrica_ (in three books) and the
+  _Dioptra_. A German translation is added throughout. The approximation
+  to square roots in Hero has been the subject of papers too numerous to
+  mention. But reference should be made to the exhaustive studies on
+  Hero's arithmetic by Paul Tannery, "L'Arithmetique des Grecs dans
+  Heron d'Alexandrie" (_Mem. de la Soc. des sciences phys. et math. de
+  Bordeaux_, ii. serie, iv., 1882), "La Stereometrie d'Heron
+  d'Alexandrie" and "Etudes Heroniennes" (_ibid._ v., 1883), "Questions
+  Heroniennes" (_Bulletin des sciences math._, ii. serie, viii., 1884),
+  "Un Fragment des Metriques d'Heron" (_Zeitschrift fur Math. und
+  Physik_, xxxix., 1894; _Bulletin des sciences math._, ii. serie,
+  xviii., 1894). A good account of Hero's works will be found in M.
+  Cantor's _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i.^2 (1894), chapters 18 and 19,
+  and in G. Loria's studies, _Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia_,
+  especially libro iii. (Modena, 1900), pp. 103-128.     (T. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERO, THE YOUNGER, the name given without any sufficient reason to a
+Byzantine land-surveyor who wrote (about A.D. 938) a treatise on
+land-surveying modelled on the works of Hero of Alexandria, especially
+the _Dioptra_.
+
+  See "Geodesie de Heron de Byzance," published by Vincent in _Notices
+  et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Imperiale_, xix. 2
+  (Paris, 1858), and T. H. Martin in _Memoires presentes a l' Academie
+  des Inscriptions_, 1st series, iv. (Paris, 1854).
+
+
+
+
+HEROD, the name borne by the princes of a dynasty which reigned in
+Judaea from 40 B.C.
+
+HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT), the son of Antipater, who supported Hyrcanus
+II. against Aristobulus II. with the aid first of the Nabataean Arabs
+and then of Rome. The family seems to have been of Idumaean origin, so
+that its members were liable to the reproach of being half-Jews or even
+foreigners. Justin Martyr has a tradition that they were originally
+Philistines of Ascalon (_Dial._ c. 52), and on the other hand Nicolaus
+of Damascus (_apud_ Jos. _Ant._ xiv. 1. 3) asserted that Herod, his
+royal patron, was descended from the Jews who first returned from the
+Babylonian Captivity. The tradition and the assertion are in all
+probability equally fictitious and proceed respectively from the foes
+and the friends of the Herodian dynasty.
+
+Antipas (or Antipater), the father of Antipater, had been governor of
+Idumaea under Alexander Jannaeus. His son allied himself by marriage
+with the Arabian nobility and became the real ruler of Palestine under
+Hyrcanus II. When Rome intervened in Asia in the person of Pompey, the
+younger Antipater realized her inevitable predominance and secured the
+friendship of her representative. After the capture of Jerusalem in 63
+B.C. Pompey installed Hyrcanus, who was little better than a figurehead,
+in the high-priesthood; and when in 55 B.C. the son of Aristobulus
+renewed the civil war in Palestine, the Roman governor of Syria in the
+exercise of his jurisdiction arranged a settlement "in accordance with
+the wishes of Antipater" (Jos. _Ant._ xiv. 6. 4). To this policy of
+dependence upon Rome Antipater adhered, and he succeeded in commending
+himself to Mark Antony and Caesar in turn. After the battle of Pharsalia
+Caesar made him procurator and a Roman citizen.
+
+At this point Herod appears on the scene as ruler of Galilee (Jos.
+_Ant._ xiv. 9. 2) appointed by his father at the age of fifteen or,
+since he died at seventy, twenty-five. In spite of his youth he soon
+found an opportunity of displaying his mettle; for he arrested Hezekiah
+the arch-brigand, who had overrun the Syrian border, and put him to
+death. The Jewish nobility at Jerusalem seized upon this high-handed
+action as a pretext for satisfying their jealousy of their Idumaean
+rulers. Herod was cited in the name of Hyrcanus to appear before the
+Sanhedrin, whose prerogative he had usurped in executing Hezekiah. He
+appeared with a bodyguard, and the Sanhedrin was overawed. Only Sameas,
+a Pharisee, dared to insist upon the legal verdict of condemnation. But
+the governor of Syria had sent a demand for Herod's acquittal, and so
+Hyrcanus adjourned the trial and persuaded the accused to abscond. Herod
+returned with an army, but his father prevailed upon him to depart to
+Galilee without wreaking his vengeance upon his enemies. About this time
+(47-46 B.C.) he was created _strategus_ of Coelesyria by the provincial
+governor. The episode is important for the light which it throws upon
+Herod's relations with Rome and with the Jews.
+
+In 44 B.C. Cassius arrived in Syria for the purpose of filling his
+war-chest: Antipater and Herod collected the sum of money at which the
+Jews of Palestine had been assessed. In 43 B.C. Antipater was poisoned
+at the instigation of one Malichus, who was perhaps a Jewish patriot
+animated by hatred of the Herods and their Roman patrons.
+
+With the connivance of Cassius Herod had Malichus assassinated; but the
+country was in a state of anarchy, thanks to the extortions of Cassius
+and the encroachments of neighbouring powers. Antony, who became master
+of the East after Philippi, was ready to support the sons of his friend
+Antipater; but he was absent in Egypt when the Parthians invaded
+Palestine to restore Antigonus to the throne of his father Aristobulus
+(40 B.C.). Herod escaped to Rome: the Arabians, his mother's people, had
+repudiated him. Antony had made him tetrarch, and now with the assent of
+Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare him king of Judaea.
+
+In 39 B.C. Herod returned to Palestine and, when the presence of Antony
+put the reluctant Roman troops entirely at his disposal, he was able to
+lay siege to Jerusalem two years later. Secure of the support of Rome he
+was concerned also to legitimize his position in the eyes of the Jews by
+taking, for love as well as policy, the Hasmonaean princess Mariamne to
+be his second wife. Jerusalem was taken by storm; the Roman troops
+withdrew to behead Antigonus the usurper at Antioch. In 37 B.C. Herod
+was king of Judaea, being the client of Antony and the husband of
+Mariamne.
+
+The Pharisees, who dominated the bulk of the Jews, were content to
+accept Herod's rule as a judgment of God. Hyrcanus returned from his
+prison: mutilated, he could no longer hold office as high-priest; but
+his mutilation probably gave him the prestige of a martyr, and his
+influence--whatever it was worth--seems to have been favourable to the
+new dynasty. On the other hand Herod's marriage with Mariamne brought
+some of his enemies into his own household. He had scotched the faction
+of Hasmonaean sympathizers by killing forty-five members of the
+Sanhedrin and confiscating their possessions. But so long as there were
+representatives of the family alive, there was always a possible
+pretender to the throne which he occupied; and the people had not lost
+their affection for their former deliverers. Mariamne's mother used her
+position to further her plots for the overthrow of her son-in-law; and
+she found an ally in Cleopatra of Egypt, who was unwilling to be spurned
+by him, even if she was not weary of his patron, Antony.
+
+The events of Herod's reign indicate the temporary triumphs of his
+different adversaries. His high-priest, a Babylonian, was deposed in
+order that Aristobulus III., Mariamne's brother, might hold the place to
+which he had some ancestral right. But the enthusiasm with which the
+people received him at the Feast of Tabernacles convinced Herod of the
+danger; and the youth was drowned by order of the king at Jericho.
+Cleopatra had obtained from Antony a grant of territory adjacent to
+Herod's domain and even part of it. She required Herod to collect
+arrears of tribute. So it fell out that, when Octavian and the Senate
+declared war against Antony and Cleopatra, Herod was preoccupied in
+obedience to her commands and was thus prevented from fighting against
+the future emperor of Rome.
+
+After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Herod executed Hyrcanus and
+proceeded to wait upon the victorious Octavian at Rhodes. His position
+was confirmed and his territories were restored. On his return he took
+in hand to heal with the Hasmonaeans, and in 25 B.C. the old intriguers,
+their victims like Mariamne, and all pretenders were dead. From this
+time onwards Herod was free to govern Palestine, as a client-prince of
+the Roman Empire should govern his kingdom. In order to put down the
+brigands who still infested the country and to check the raids of the
+Arabs on the frontier, he built or rebuilt fortresses, which were of
+material assistance to the Jews in the great revolt against Rome. Within
+and without Judaea he erected magnificent buildings and founded cities.
+He established games in honour of the emperor after the ancient Greek
+model in Caesarea and Jerusalem and revived the splendour of the Olympic
+games. At Athens and elsewhere he was commemorated as a benefactor; and
+as Jew and king of the Jews he restored the temple at Jerusalem. The
+emperor recognized his successful government by putting the districts of
+Ulatha and Panias under him in 20 B.C.
+
+But Herod found new enemies among the members of his household. His
+brother Pheroras and sister Salome plotted for their own advantage and
+against the two sons of Mariamne. The people still cherished a loyalty
+to the Hasmonaean lineage, although the young princes were also the sons
+of Herod. The enthusiasm with which they were received fed the
+suspicion, which their uncle instilled into their father's mind, and
+they were strangled at Sebaste. On his deathbed Herod discovered that
+his eldest son, Antipater, whom Josephus calls a "monster of iniquity,"
+had been plotting against him. He proceeded to accuse him before the
+governor of Syria and obtained leave from Augustus to put him to death.
+The father died five days after his son in 4 B.C. He had done much for
+the Jews, thanks to the favour he had won and kept in spite of all from
+the successive heads of the Roman state; he had observed the Law
+publicly--in fact, as the traditional epigram of Augustus says, "it was
+better to be Herod's _swine_ than a _son_ of Herod."
+
+  Josephus, _Ant._ xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8, _B.J._ i. 18-33; Schurer,
+  _Gesch. d. jud. Volk._, 4th ed., i. pp. 360-418.
+
+HEROD ANTIPAS, son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan Malthace, and
+full brother of Archelaus, received as his share of his father's
+dominions the provinces of Galilee and Peraea, with the title of
+tetrarch. Like his father, Antipas had a turn for architecture: he
+rebuilt and fortified the town of Sepphoris in Galilee; he also
+fortified Betharamptha in Peraea, and called it Julias after the wife of
+the emperor. Above all he founded the important town of Tiberias on the
+west shore of the Sea of Galilee, with institutions of a distinctly
+Greek character. He reigned 4 B.C.-A.D. 39. In the gospels he is
+mentioned as Herod. He it was who was called a "fox" by Christ (Luke
+xiii. 32). He is erroneously spoken of as a king in Mark vi. 14. It was
+to him that Jesus was sent by Pilate to be tried. But it is in connexion
+with his wife Herodias that he is best known, and it was through her
+that his misfortunes arose. He was married first of all to a daughter of
+Aretas, the Arabian king; but, making the acquaintance of Herodias, the
+wife of his brother Philip (not the tetrarch), during a visit to Rome,
+he was fascinated by her and arranged to marry her. Meantime his Arabian
+wife discovered the plan and escaped to her father, who made war on
+Herod, and completely defeated his army. John the Baptist condemned his
+marriage with Herodias, and in consequence was put to death in the way
+described in the gospels and in Josephus. When Herodias's brother
+Agrippa was appointed king by Caligula, she was determined to see her
+husband attain to an equal eminence, and persuaded him, though naturally
+of a quiet and unambitious temperament, to make the journey to Rome to
+crave a crown from the emperor. Agrippa, however, managed to influence
+Caligula against him. Antipas was deprived of his dominions and banished
+to Lyons, Herodias voluntarily sharing his exile.
+
+HEROD PHILIP, son of Herod the Great by Cleopatra of Jerusalem, received
+the tetrarchate of Ituraea and other districts to E. and N.E. of the
+Lake of Galilee, the poorest part of his father's kingdom. His subjects
+were mainly Greeks or Syrians, and his coins bear the image of Augustus
+or Tiberius. He is described as an excellent ruler, who loved peace and
+was careful to maintain justice, and spent his time in his own
+territories. He was also a builder of cities, one of which was Caesarea
+Philippi, and another was Bethsaida, which he called Julias. He died
+after a reign of thirty-seven years (4 B.C.-A.D. 34); and his dominions
+were incorporated in the province of Syria.     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERODAS (Gr. [Greek: Herodas]), or HERONDAS (the name is spelt
+differently in the few places where he is mentioned), Greek poet, the
+author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written under the
+Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century B.C. Apart from the intrinsic
+merit of these pieces, they are interesting in the history of Greek
+literature as being a new species, illustrating Alexandrian methods.
+They are called [Greek: Mimiamboi], "Mimeiambics." Mimes were the Dorian
+product of South Italy and Sicily, and the most famous of them--from
+which Plato is said to have studied the drawing of character--were the
+work of Sophron. These were scenes in popular life, written in the
+language of the people, vigorous with racy proverbs such as we get in
+other reflections of that region--in Petronius and the _Pentamerone_.
+Two of the best known and the most vital among the _Idylls_ of
+Theocritus, the 2nd and the 15th, we know to have been derived from
+mimes of Sophron. What Theocritus is doing there, Herodas, his younger
+contemporary, is doing in another manner--casting old material into
+novel form, upon a small scale, under strict conditions of technique.
+The method is entirely Alexandrian: Sophron had written in a peculiar
+kind of rhythmical prose; Theocritus uses the hexameter and Doric,
+Herodas the _scazon_ or "lame" iambic (with a dragging spondee at the
+end) and the old Ionic dialect with which that curious metre was
+associated. That, however, hardly goes beyond the choice and form of
+words; the structure of the sentences is close-knit Attic. But the
+grumbling metre and quaint language suit the tone of common life which
+Herodas aims at realizing; for, as Theocritus may be called idealist,
+Herodas is a realist unflinching. His persons talk in vehement
+exclamations and emphatic turns of speech, with proverbs and fixed
+phrases; and occasionally, where it is designed as proper to the part,
+with the most naked coarseness of expression.
+
+The scene of the second and the fourth is laid at Cos, and the speaking
+characters in each are never more than three. In Mime I. the old nurse,
+now the professional go-between or bawd, calls on Metriche, whose
+husband has been long away in Egypt, and endeavours to excite her
+interest in a most desirable young man, fallen deeply in love with her
+at first sight. After hearing all the arguments Metriche declines with
+dignity, but consoles the old woman with an ample glass of wine, this
+kind being always represented with the taste of Mrs Gamp. II. is a
+monologue by the [Greek: Pornoboskos] ("Whoremonger") prosecuting a
+merchant-trader for breaking into his establishment at night and
+attempting to carry off one of the inmates, who is produced in court.
+The vulgar blackguard, who is a stranger to any sort of shame, remarking
+that he has no evidence to call, proceeds to a peroration in the regular
+oratorical style, appealing to the Coan judges not to be unworthy of
+their traditional glories. In fact, the whole oration is also a
+burlesque in every detail of an Attic speech at law; and in this case we
+have the material from which to estimate the excellence of the parody.
+In III. a desperate mother brings to the schoolmaster a truant urchin,
+with whom neither she nor his incapable old father can do anything. In a
+voluble stream of interminable sentences she narrates his misdeeds and
+implores the schoolmaster to flog him. The boy accordingly is hoisted on
+another's back and flogged; but his spirit does not appear to be
+subdued, and the mother resorts to the old man after all. IV. is a visit
+of two poor women with an offering to the temple of Asclepius at Cos.
+While the humble cock is being sacrificed, they turn, like the women in
+the _Ion_ of Euripides, to admire the works of art; among them a small
+boy strangling a vulpanser--doubtless the work of Boethus that we
+know--and a sacrificial procession by Apelles, "the Ephesian," of whom
+we have an interesting piece of contemporary eulogy. The oily sacristan
+is admirably painted in a few slight strokes. V. brings us very close to
+some unpleasant facts of ancient life. The jealous woman accuses one of
+her slaves, whom she has made her favourite, of infidelity; has him
+bound and sent degraded through the town to receive 2000 lashes; no
+sooner is he out of sight than she recalls him to be branded "at one
+job." The only pleasing person in the piece is the little
+maidservant--permitted liberties as a _verna_ brought up in the
+house--whose ready tact suggests to her mistress an excuse for
+postponing execution of a threat made in ungovernable fury. VI. is a
+friendly chat or a private conversation. The subject is an ugly one, but
+the dialogue is as clever and amusing as the rest, with some delicious
+touches. Our interest is engaged here in a certain Kerdon, the artistic
+shoemaker, to whom we are introduced in VII. (the name had already
+become generic for the shoemaker as the typical representative of retail
+trade), a little bald man with a fluent tongue, complaining of hard
+times, who bluffs and wheedles by turns. VII. opens with a mistress
+waking up her maids to listen to her dream; but we have only the
+beginning, and the other fragments are very short.
+
+Within the limits of 100 lines or less Herodas presents us with a highly
+entertaining scene and with characters definitely drawn. Some of these
+had been perfected no doubt upon the Attic stage, where the tendency in
+the 4th century had been gradually to evolve accepted types--not
+individuals, but generalizations from a class, an art in which
+Menander's was esteemed the master-hand. The [Greek: Pornoboskos] and
+the [Greek: Mastropos] we can piece together from succeeding literature,
+and see how skilfully the established traits are indicated here. This is
+achieved by true dramatic means, with touches never wasted and the more
+delightful often because they do not clamour for attention. The
+execution has the qualities of first-rate Alexandrian work in miniature,
+such as the epigrams of Asclepiades possess, the finish and firm
+outlines; and these little pictures bear the test of all artistic
+work--they do not lose their freshness with familiarity, and gain in
+interest as one learns to appreciate their subtle points.
+
+  The papyrus MS., obtained from the Fayum, is in the possession of the
+  British Museum, and was first printed by F. G. Kenyon in 1891.
+  Editions by O. Crusius (1905, text only, in Teubner series) and J. A.
+  Nairn (1904), with introduction, notes and bibliography. There is an
+  English verse translation of the mimes by H. Sharpley (1906) under the
+  title _A Realist of the Aegean_.     (W. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERODIANS ([Greek: Herodianoi]), a sect or party mentioned in Scripture
+as having on two occasions--once in Galilee, and again in
+Jerusalem--manifested an unfriendly disposition towards Jesus (Mark iii.
+6, xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 6; cf. also Mark viii. 15). In each of these
+cases their name is coupled with that of the Pharisees. According to
+many interpreters the courtiers or soldiers of Herod Antipas ("Milites
+Herodis," Jerome) are intended; but more probably the Herodians were a
+public political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great
+historical parties of post-exilian Judaism by the fact that they were
+and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great and to his dynasty
+(cf. such formations as "Caesariani," "Pompeiani"). It is possible that,
+to gain adherents, the Herodian party may have been in the habit of
+representing that the establishment of a Herodian dynasty would be
+favourable to the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may
+account for Tertullian's (_De praescr._) allegation that the Herodians
+regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called by the Rabbis
+Boethusians as being friendly to the family of Boethus, whose daughter
+Mariamne was one of Herod the Great's wives.     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERODIANUS, Greek historian, flourished during the third century A.D. He
+is supposed to have been a Syrian Greek. In 203 he was in Rome, where he
+held some minor posts. He does not appear to have attained high official
+rank; the statement that he was imperial procurator and legate of the
+Sicilian provinces rests upon conjecture only. His historical work
+([Greek: Herodianou tes meta Markon basileias historion biblia okto])
+narrates the events of the fifty-eight years between the death of Marcus
+Aurelius and the proclamation of Gordianus III. (180-238). The narrative
+is of special value as supplementing Dion Cassius, whose history ends
+with Alexander Severus. His work has the value that attaches to a record
+written by one chronicling the events of his own times, gifted with
+ordinary powers of observation, indubitable candour and independence of
+view. But while he gives a lively account of external events--such as
+the death of Commodus and the assassination of Pertinax--the barbarian
+invasions, the spread of Christianity, the extension of the franchise by
+Caracalla are unnoticed. The dates are often wrong, and little attention
+is paid to geographical details, which makes the narrative of military
+expeditions beyond the borders of the empire difficult to understand.
+Herodian has been accused of prejudice against Alexander Severus. His
+style, modelled on that of Thucydides and unreservedly praised by
+Photius, is on the whole pure, though somewhat rhetorical and showing a
+fondness for Latinisms.
+
+  Extensive use has been made of Herodianus by later chroniclers,
+  especially the "Scriptores historiae Augustae" and John of Antioch.
+  His history was first translated into Latin at the end of the 15th
+  century by Politian. The most complete edition is by G. W. Irmisch
+  (1789-1805), with elaborate indices, but the notes are very diffuse;
+  critical editions by I. Bekker (1855), L. Mendelssohn (1883); see also
+  C. Dandliker.
+
+
+
+
+HERODIANUS, AELIUS, called [Greek: ho technikos], Alexandrian
+grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He early took up his
+residence at Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of Marcus Aurelius
+(161-180), to whom he dedicated his great treatise on prosody. This work
+in twenty-one books ([Greek: Katholike prosodia]) included also an
+account of the etymological part of grammar. The work itself is lost,
+but several epitomes of it have been preserved. His [Greek:
+Hepimerismoi] dealt with difficult words and peculiar forms in Homer.
+Herodianus also wrote numerous grammatical treatises, of which only one
+has come down to us in a complete form ([Greek: Peri monerous lexeos],
+on peculiar style), articles on exceptional or anomalous words. Numerous
+quotations and fragments still exist, chiefly in the Homeric scholiasts
+and Stephanus of Byzantium. Herodianus enjoyed a great reputation as a
+grammarian, and Priscian styles him "maximus auctor artis grammaticae."
+
+  The best edition is by A. Lentz, _Herodiani. Technici reliquiae_
+  (1867-1870); a supplementary volume is included in Uhling's _Corpus
+  grammaticorum Graecorum_; for further bibliographical information see
+  W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.), Greek historian, called the Father of
+History, was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, then dependent upon
+the Persians, in or about the year 484 B.C. Herodotus was thus born a
+Persian subject, and such he continued until he was thirty or
+five-and-thirty years of age. At the time of his birth Halicarnassus was
+under the rule of a queen Artemisia (q.v.). The year of her death is
+unknown; but she left her crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498
+B.C.), who was succeeded upon the throne by his son Lygdamis about the
+time that Herodotus grew to manhood. The family of Herodotus belonged to
+the upper rank of the citizens. His father was named Lyxes, and his
+mother Rhaeo, or Dryo. He had a brother Theodore, and an uncle or cousin
+Panyasis (q.v.), the epic poet, a personage of so much importance that
+the tyrant Lygdamis, suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to
+death. It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative's political
+opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted it
+voluntarily at the time of his execution.
+
+Of the education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it was
+thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects essential to
+a Greek liberal education--grammar, gymnastic training and music. His
+studies would be regarded as completed when he attained the age of
+eighteen, and took rank among the _ephebi_ or _eirenes_ of his native
+city. In a free Greek state he would at once have begun his duties as a
+citizen, and found therein sufficient employment for his growing
+energies. But in a city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no
+political life worthy of the name existed. Herodotus may thus have had
+his thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory
+career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the example
+of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his writings when
+Herodotus was still an infant. At any rate it is clear from the extant
+work of Herodotus that he must have devoted himself early to the
+literary life, and commenced that extensive course of reading which
+renders him one of the most instructive as well as one of the most
+charming of ancient writers. The poetical literature of Greece was
+already large; the prose literature was more extensive than is generally
+supposed; yet Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of
+it. The _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ are as familiar to him as Shakespeare
+to the educated Englishman. He is acquainted with the poems of the epic
+cycle, the _Cypria_, the _Epigoni_, &c. He quotes or otherwise shows
+familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, Bacis,
+Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, Aesop,
+Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Aeschylus and
+Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the best of the prose
+writers who had preceded him, and makes numerous allusions to other
+authors of the same class.
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a mere
+student. It is probable that from an early age his inquiring disposition
+led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in foreign countries.
+He traversed Asia Minor and European Greece probably more than once; he
+visited all the most important islands of the Archipelago--Rhodes,
+Cyprus, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and
+Aegina. He undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the
+Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western shores
+of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he travelled in
+Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna Graecia, explored the
+antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores of Palestine, saw Gaza,
+and made a long stay in Egypt. At the most moderate estimate, his
+travels covered a space of thirty-one degrees of longitude, or 1700
+miles, and twenty-four of latitude, or nearly the same distance. At all
+the more interesting sites he took up his abode for a time; he examined,
+he inquired, he made measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in
+his mind the scheme of his great work, he gave ample time to the
+elaboration of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal
+observation a full knowledge of the various countries.
+
+The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished between
+his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 B.C.).[1] It was
+probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject he visited Susa
+and Babylon, taking advantage of the Persian system of posts which he
+describes in his fifth book. His residence in Egypt must, on the other
+hand, have been subsequent to 460 B.C., since he saw the skulls of the
+Persians slain by Inarus in that year. Skulls are rarely visible on a
+battlefield for more than two or three seasons after the fight, and we
+may therefore presume that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454
+B.C.),[2] when the Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he
+visited the country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and
+therefore receiving favour and attention on the part of the Egyptians,
+who were so much beholden to his countrymen (see ATHENS, CIMON,
+PERICLES). On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the Syrian
+shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence to have gone to
+Thasos. His Scythian travels are thought to have taken place prior to
+450 B.C.
+
+It is a question of some interest from what centre or centres these
+various expeditions were made. Up to the time of the execution of
+Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about the year 457
+B.C., there is every reason to believe that Herodotus lived at
+Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European Greece, and among
+the islands of the Aegean, probably belong to this period, as also his
+journey to Susa and Babylon. We are told that when he quitted
+Halicarnassus on account of the tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the
+year 457 B.C., he took up his abode in Samos. That island was an
+important member of the Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home
+Herodotus would have put himself under the protection of Athens. The
+fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian influence (see CIMON,
+PERICLES) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or 456 B.C., to that
+country. The stories that he had heard in Egypt of Sesostris may then
+have stimulated him to make voyages from Samos to Colchis, Scythia and
+Thrace. He was thus acquainted with almost all the regions which were to
+be the scene of his projected history.
+
+After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in Samos,
+events occurred in his native city which induced him to return thither.
+The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from bad to worse, and at last he was
+expelled. According to Suidas, Herodotus was himself an actor, and
+indeed the chief actor, in the rebellion against him; but no other
+author confirms this statement, which is intrinsically improbable. It is
+certain, however, that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary
+member of the Athenian confederacy. Herodotus would now naturally return
+to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those rights of free
+citizenship on which every Greek set a high value. He would also, if he
+had by this time composed his history, or any considerable portion of
+it, begin to make it known by recitation among his friends. There is
+reason to believe that these first attempts were not received with much
+favour, and that it was in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately
+withdrew from his native town, and sought a refuge in Greece proper
+(about 447 B.C.).[3] We learn that Athens was the place to which he
+went, and that he appealed from the verdict of his countrymen to
+Athenian taste and judgment. His work won such approval that in the year
+445 B.C., on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted a sum of
+ten talents (L2400) by decree of the people. At one of the recitations,
+it was said, the future historian Thucydides was present with his
+father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst into tears, whereupon
+Herodotus remarked to the father--"Olorus, your son has a natural
+enthusiasm for letters."[4]
+
+Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and could boast
+an almost unique galaxy of talent--Pericles, Thucydides the son of
+Melesias, Aspasia, Antiphon, the musician Damon, Pheidias, Protagoras,
+Zeno, Cratinus, Crates, Euripides and Sophocles. Accepted into this
+brilliant society, on familiar terms with all probably, as he certainly
+was with Olorus, Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted,
+like many another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home. It is to
+his credit that he did not yield to this temptation. At Athens he must
+have been a dilettante, an idler, without political rights or duties. As
+such he would have soon ceased to be respected in a society where
+literature was not recognized as a separate profession, where a Socrates
+served in the infantry, a Sophocles commanded fleets, a Thucydides was
+general of an army, and an Antiphon was for a time at the head of the
+state. Men were not men according to Greek notions unless they were
+citizens; and Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling,
+was anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to
+obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens the franchise, jealously guarded
+at this period, was not to be attained without great expense and
+difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following year he sailed
+from Athens with the colonists who went out to found the colony of
+Thurii (see PERICLES), and became a citizen of the new town.
+
+From this point of his career, when he had reached the age of forty, we
+lose sight of him almost wholly. He seems to have made but few journeys,
+one to Crotona, one to Metapontum, and one to Athens (about 430 B.C.)
+being all that his work indicates.[5] No doubt he was employed mainly,
+as Pliny testifies, in retouching and elaborating his general history.
+He may also have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of
+Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is quoted
+by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that he lived to a great age,
+and argued that "the never-to-be-mistaken fundamental tone of his
+performance is the quiet talkativeness of a highly cultivated, tolerant,
+intelligent, _old_ man" (Dahlmann). But the indications derived from the
+later touches added to his work, which form the sole evidence on the
+subject, would rather lead to the conclusion that his life was not very
+prolonged. There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been
+written as early as 430 B.C.; there is no touch which, even probably,
+points to a later date than 424 B.C. As the author was evidently engaged
+in polishing his work to the last, and even promises touches which he
+does not give, we may assume that he did not much outlive the date last
+mentioned, or in other words, that he died at about the age of sixty.
+The predominant voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii,
+where his tomb was shown in later ages.
+
+_The History._--In estimating the great work of Herodotus, and his
+genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to conceive
+aright what that work was intended to be. It has been called "a
+universal history," "a history of the wars between the Greeks and the
+barbarians," and "a history of the struggle between Greece and Persia."
+But these titles are all of them too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits
+wholly the histories of Phoenicia, Carthage and Etruria, three of the
+most important among the states existing in his day, cannot have
+intended to compose a "universal history," the very idea of which
+belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object was to
+record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians; but as he omits
+the Trojan war, in which he fully believes, the expedition of the
+Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace and Thessaly, the wars connected
+with the Ionian colonization of Asia Minor and others, it is evident
+that he does not really aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars
+between Greeks and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it
+even seem to have been his object to give an account of the entire
+struggle between Greece and Persia. That struggle was not terminated by
+the battle of Mycale and the capture of Sestos in 479 B.C. It continued
+for thirty years longer, to the peace of Callias (but see CALLIAS and
+CIMON). The fact that Herodotus ends his history where he does shows
+distinctly that his intention was, not to give an account of the entire
+long contest between the two countries, but to write the history of a
+particular war--the great Persian war of invasion. His aim was as
+definite as that of Thucydides, or Schiller, or Napier or any other
+writer who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined to
+treat it in a certain way. Every partial history requires an
+"introduction"; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples, resolved to give
+his history a magnificent introduction. Thucydides is content with a
+single introductory book, forming little more than one-eighth of his
+work; Herodotus has six such books, forming two-thirds of the entire
+composition.
+
+By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in the _grand_
+way, which is so characteristic of him. Making it his main object in his
+"introduction" to set before his readers the previous history of the two
+nations who were the actors in the great war, he is able in tracing
+their history to bring into his narrative some account of almost all the
+nations of the known world, and has room to expatiate freely upon their
+geography, antiquities, manners and customs and the like, thus giving
+his work a "universal" character, and securing for it, without trenching
+upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which are a principal
+charm of the best histories, and of none more than his. In tracing the
+growth of Persia from a petty subject kingdom to a vast dominant empire,
+he has occasion to set out the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria,
+Babylon, Egypt, Scythia, Thrace, and to describe the countries and the
+peoples inhabiting them, their natural productions, climate,
+geographical position, monuments, &c.; while, in noting the
+contemporaneous changes in Greece, he is led to tell of the various
+migrations of the Greek race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the
+arts, revolutions, internal struggles, wars with one another,
+legislation, religious tenets and the like. The greatest variety of
+episodical matter is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion
+and the mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made; the
+episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly interrupt the
+main narrative.
+
+It has been questioned, both in ancient and in modern times, whether the
+history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite of
+trustworthiness. Several ancient writers accuse him of intentional
+untruthfulness. Moderns generally acquit him of this charge; but his
+severer critics still urge that, from the inherent defects of his
+character, his credulity, his love of effect and his loose and
+inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the historian's
+office, and has produced a work of but small historical value. Perhaps
+it may be sufficient to remark that the defects in question certainly
+exist, and detract to some extent from the authority of the work, more
+especially of those parts of it which deal with remoter periods, and
+were taken by Herodotus on trust from his informants, but that they only
+slightly affect the portions which treat of later times and form the
+special subject of his history. In confirmation of this view, it may be
+noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances of the great
+Persian war, and for all local and other details which come under his
+immediate notice, is accepted by even the most sceptical of modern
+historians, and forms the basis of their narratives.
+
+Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most prominent are
+the diligence with which he collected his materials, the candour and
+impartiality with which he has placed his facts before the reader, the
+absence of party bias and undue national vanity, and the breadth of his
+conception of the historian's office. On the other hand, he has no claim
+to rank as a critical historian; he has no conception of the philosophy
+of history, no insight into the real causes that underlie political
+changes, no power of penetrating below the surface, or even of grasping
+the real interconnexion of the events which he describes. He belongs
+distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and picturesque
+description, the lively presentation of scenes and actions, characters
+and states of society, not the subtle analysis of motives, the power of
+detecting the undercurrents or the generalizing faculty.
+
+But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most
+conspicuous. "O that I were in a condition," says Lucian, "to resemble
+Herodotus, if only in some measure! I by no means say in all his gifts,
+but only in some single point; as, for instance, the beauty of his
+language, or its harmony, or the natural and peculiar grace of the Ionic
+dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by whatever name those thousand
+beauties are called which to the despair of his imitator are united in
+him." Cicero calls his style "copious and polished," Quintilian, "sweet,
+pure and flowing"; Longinus says he was "the most Homeric of
+historians"; Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucydides, and
+regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree the excellences of
+sublimity, beauty and the true historical method of composition. Modern
+writers are almost equally complimentary. "The style of Herodotus," says
+one, "is universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and
+sweetness." "The charm of his style," argues another, "has so dazzled
+men as to make them blind to his defects." Various attempts have been
+made to analyse the charm which is so universally felt; but it may be
+doubted whether any of them are very successful. All, however, seem to
+agree that among the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be
+admired are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of rhythm.
+Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical, and
+possessed of a delicate ear which instinctively suggested the most
+musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences, without art or
+effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt, never too diffuse,
+much less prolix or wearisome, and being himself simple, fresh, _naif_
+(if we may use the word), honest and somewhat quaint, he delights us by
+combining with this melody of sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts,
+perspicuously expressed, often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and
+always manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and
+unsophisticated mind. Reminding us in some respects of the quaint
+medieval writers, Froissart and Philippe de Comines, he greatly excels
+them, at once in the beauty of his language and the art with which he
+has combined his heterogeneous materials into a single perfect
+harmonious whole. See also GREECE, section _History_, "Authorities."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The history of Herodotus has been translated by many
+  persons and into many languages. About 1450, at the time of the
+  revival of learning, a Latin version was made and published by
+  Laurentius Valla. This was revised in 1537 by Heusbach, and
+  accompanies the Greek text of Herodotus in many editions. The first
+  complete translation into a modern language was the English one of
+  Littlebury, published in 1737. This was followed In 1786 by the French
+  translation of Larcher, a valuable work, accompanied by copious notes
+  and essays. Beloe, the second English translator, based his work on
+  that of Larcher. His first edition, in 1791, was confessedly very
+  defective; the second, in 1806, still left much to be desired. A good
+  German translation, but without note or comment, was brought out by
+  Friedrich Lange at Berlin in 1811. Andrea Mustoxidi, a native of
+  Corfu, published an Italian version in 1820. In 1822 Auguste Miot
+  endeavoured to improve on Larcher; and in 1828-1832 Dr Adolf Scholl
+  brought out a German translation with copious notes (new ed., 1855),
+  which has to some extent superseded the work of Lange. About the same
+  time a new English version was made by Isaac Taylor (London, 1829). In
+  1858-1860, the history of Herodotus was translated by Canon G.
+  Rawlinson, assisted in the copious notes and appendices accompanying
+  the work by Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Sir Henry Rawlinson. More
+  recently we have translations in English by G. C. Macaulay (2 vols.,
+  1890); in German by Bahr (Stuttgart, 1867) and Stein (Oldenburg,
+  1875); in French by Giguet (1857) and Talbot (1864); in Italian by
+  Ricci (Turin, 1871-1876), Grandi (Asti, 1872) and Bertini (Naples,
+  1871-1872). A Swedish translation by F. Carlstadt was published at
+  Stockholm in 1871.
+
+  The best of the older editions of the Greek text are the
+  following:--_Herodoti historiae_, ed. Schweighauser (5 vols.,
+  Strassburg, 1816); _Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX._ (ed.
+  Gaisford, Oxford, 1840); _Herodotus, with a Commentary_, by J. W.
+  Blakesley (2 vols. London, 1854); _Herodoti musae_ (ed. Bahr, 4 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1856-1861, 2nd ed.); and _Herodoti historiae_ (ed. Abicht,
+  Leipzig, 1869).
+
+  The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with and
+  without commentaries are the following:--H. Stein, _Herodoti
+  Historiae_ (ed. Major, 2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1871, with _apparatus
+  criticus_; still the best edition of the text); H. Kellenberg,
+  _Historiarum libri IX._ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); van Herwerden,
+  [Greek: Historiai] (Leiden, 1885); H. Stein, _Herodotus, erklart_
+  (Berlin, 1856-1861, and several editions since; the best short
+  commentary and introduction); A. H. Sayce, _The Ancient Empires of the
+  East, Herodotus I.-III., with introductions and appendices_ (1883; an
+  attempt to prove the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to
+  the extent of his travels, which has found little support amongst more
+  recent English or German writers); R. W. Macan, _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (2
+  vols., 1895) and _Herodotus VII.-IX._ (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive
+  introduction, appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of
+  these books in English; E. Abbott, _Herodotus V. and VI._ (Oxford,
+  1893); A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch mit sachlichen
+  Bemerkungen_ (Leipzig, 1890; the best and fullest commentary on book
+  ii.).
+
+  Among works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned
+  Bouhier, _Recherches sur Herodote_ (Dijon, 1746); Rennell, _Geography
+  of Herodotus_ (London, 1800); Niebuhr, _Geography of Herodotus and
+  Scythia_ (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830); Dahlmann, _Herodot, aus seinem
+  Buche sein Leben_ (Altona, 1823); Eltz, _Quaestiones Herodoteae_
+  (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, _Egypt of Herodotus_ (London, 1841); Mure,
+  _Literature of Greece_, vol. iv. (London, 1852); Abicht, _Ubersicht
+  uber den Herodoteischen Dialekt_ (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed., 1874), and
+  _De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctoritate_ (Naumburg, 1869); Melander,
+  _De anacoluthis Herodoteis_ (Lund, 1869); Matzat, "Uber die
+  Glaubenswurdigkeit der geograph. Angaben Herodots uber Asien," in
+  _Hermes_, vi.; Budinger, _Zur agyptischen Forschung Herodots_ (Vienna,
+  1873, reprinted from the _Sitzungsber._ of the Vienna Acad.);
+  Merzdorf, _Quaestiones grammaticae de dialecto Herodotea_ (Leipzig,
+  1875); A. Kirchhoff, _Uber die Entstehungszeit des Herodotischen
+  Geschichtswerkes_ (Berlin, 1878); Adolf Bauer, _Herodots Biographie_
+  (Vienna, 1878); H. Delbruck, _Perser und Burgunderkriege_ (Berlin,
+  1887; of great importance for the criticism of the Persian Wars); N.
+  Wecklein, _Uber die Tradition der Perserkriege_ (Munich, 1876); A.
+  Hauvette-Besnault, _Herodote historien des guerres mediques_ (Paris,
+  1894); J. A. R. Munro, _Some Observations on the Persian Wars_ (in
+  various vols. of the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; acute and
+  suggestive); G. B. Grundy, _The Great Persian War_ (London, 1901); J.
+  P. Mahaffy, _History of Greek Classical Literature_, ii. 16 ff.
+  (London, 1880); E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, i. 151
+  ff., and ii. 196 ff. (Halle, 1892-1899); Busolt, _Griechische
+  Geschichte_, ii. 602 ff. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1895); J. B. Bury, _Ancient
+  Greek Historians_ (1908), lecture 2. For notices of current literature
+  see Bursian's _Jahresbericht_. Students of the original may also
+  consult with advantage the lexicons of Aemilius Portus (Oxford, 1817)
+  and of Schweighauser (London, 1824). On Herodotus' debt to Hecataeus
+  see Wells, in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1909, pt. i.     (G. R.; E. M. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The date of his travels is difficult to determine. E. Meyer
+    inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between
+    440 and 430 B.C. The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by C. F.
+    Lehmann c. 450 B.C., and by H. Stein before 450.
+
+  [2] Most recent critics (e.g. Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to
+    Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarus and Amyrtaeus
+    (i.e. after 449 B.C.), on the strength of Herod. 2. 30, which implies
+    the restoration of Persian authority.
+
+  [3] Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his
+    departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, e.g. the ascendancy
+    of the anti-Athenian party in the state.
+
+  [4] This story is on chronological grounds rejected by all recent
+    critics.
+
+  [5] Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his
+    settlement at Thurii. Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his
+    work (especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after
+    430 B.C. See further Wachsmuth, _Rheinisches Museum_, lvi. (1901)
+    215-218. Macan, _Herodotus_ VII.-IX. (_Introduction_, pp.
+    xlv.-lxvi.), seeks to prove that the last three books were the first
+    part of the _Histories_ to be composed. He is followed in this view
+    by Bury.
+
+
+
+
+HEROET, ANTOINE, surnamed LA MAISON-NEUVE (d. 1568), French poet, was
+born in Paris of a family connected with the famous chancellor, Francois
+Olivier. His poetry belongs to his early years, for after he had taken
+orders he ceased to write profane poetry, no doubt because he considered
+it out of keeping with his calling, in which he attained the dignity of
+bishop of Digue. His chief work is _La Parfaicte Amye_ (Lyons, 1542) in
+which he developed the idea of a purely spiritual love, based chiefly on
+the reading of the Italian Neo-Platonists. The book aroused great
+controversy. La Borderie replied in _L'Amye de cour_ with a description
+of a very much more human woman, and Charles Fontaine contributed a
+_Contr' amye de cour_ to the dispute. Heroet, in addition to some
+translations from the classics, wrote the _Complainte d'une dame
+nouvellement surprise d'amour_, an _Epistre a Francois I^er_, and some
+pieces included in the now very rare _Opuscules d'amour par Heroet, La
+Borderie et autres divins poetes_ (Lyons, 1547). Heroet belongs to the
+Lyonnese school of which Maurice Sceve may be regarded as the leader.
+Clement Marot praises him, and Ronsard was careful to exempt him with
+one or two others from the scorn he poured on his immediate
+predecessors.
+
+  See H. F. Cary, _The Early French Poets_ (1846).
+
+
+
+
+HEROIC ROMANCES, the name by which is distinguished a class of
+imaginative literature which flourished in the 17th century, principally
+in France. The beginnings of modern fiction in that country took a
+pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated _Astree_ (1610) of Honore d'Urfe
+(1568-1625), which is the earliest French novel, is properly styled a
+pastoral. But this ingenious and diffuse production, in which all is
+artificial, was the source of a vast literature, which took many and
+diverse forms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and
+sentimental, there was a side of the _Astree_ which encouraged that
+extravagant love of glory, that spirit of "panache," which was now
+rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which animated Marin
+le Roy, sieur de Gomberville (1600-1674), who was the inventor of what
+have since been known as the Heroical Romances. In these there was
+experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of
+romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible
+beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere
+of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to
+the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they
+were well-known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise.
+
+In the _Astree_ of Honore d'Urfe, which was a pure pastoral, in the
+religious romances of Pierre Camus (1582-1653), in the comic _Francion_
+of Charles Sorel, piquancy had been given to the recital by this belief
+that real personages could be recognized under the disguises. But in the
+_Carithee_ of Gomberville (1621) we have a pastoral which is already
+beginning to be a heroic romance, and a book in which, under a travesty
+of Roman history, an appeal is made to an extravagantly chivalrous
+enthusiasm. A further development was seen in the _Polyxene_ (1623) of
+Francois de Moliere, and the _Endymion_ (1624) of Gombauld; in the
+latter the elderly queen, Marie de' Medici, was celebrated under the
+disguise of Diana, for whom a beautiful shepherd of Caria (the author
+himself) nourishes a hopeless passion. The earliest of the Heroic
+Romances, pure and simple, is, however, the celebrated _Polexandre_
+(1629) of Gomberville. The author began by intending his hero to
+represent Louis XIII., but he changed his mind, and drew a portrait of
+Cardinal Richelieu. In this novel, for the first time, the romantic
+character proper to this class of books is seen undiluted; there is no
+intrusion of a personage who is not celebrated for his birth, his beauty
+or his exploits. The story deals with the adventures of a hero who
+visits all the sea-coasts of the world, the most remote as well as the
+most fabulous, in search of an ineffable princess, Alcidiane. This
+absurd and pretentious, yet very original piece of invention enjoyed an
+immense success, and historical romances of a similar class competed for
+the favour of the public. There was an equal amount of geography and
+more of ancient history in the _Ariane_ (1632) of Desmarets de
+Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a book which, long neglected, has in late
+years been rediscovered, and which has been greeted by M. Paul Morillot
+as the most readable and the least tiresome of all the Heroic Romances.
+The type of that class of literature, however, has always been found in
+the highly elaborate writings of Gauthier de Coste de la Calprenede
+(1609-1663), which enjoyed for a time a prodigious celebrity, and were
+read and imitated all over Europe. La Calprenede was a Gascon soldier,
+imbued with all the extravagance of his race, and in full sympathy with
+the audacity and violence of the aristocratic society of France in his
+day. His _Cassandre_, which appeared in ten volumes between 1642 and
+1645, is perhaps the most characteristic of all the Heroic Romances. It
+deals with a highly romantic epoch of ancient history, the decline of
+the empire of Alexander the Great. The wars of the Persians and of the
+Scythians are introduced, and among the characters are discovered such
+personages as Artaxerxes, Roxana and Ephestion. It must not be supposed,
+however, that la Calprenede makes the smallest effort to deal with the
+subject accurately or realistically. The figures are those of his own
+day; they are seigneurs and great ladies of the court of Louis XIII.,
+masquerading in Macedonian raiment. The passion of love is dominant
+throughout, and it is treated in the most exalted and hyperbolical
+spirit. The central heroes of the story, Oroondate and Lysimachus, are
+dignified, eloquent and amorous; they undergo unexampled privations in
+the quest of incomparable ladies whose beauty and whose nobility is only
+equalled by their magnificent loyalty. These books were written with an
+aim that was partly didactic. Their object was to entertain the ladies
+and to gratify a taste for endlessly wire-drawn sentimentality, but it
+was also to teach fortitude and grandeur of soul and to inculcate
+lessons of practical chivalry. La Calprenede followed up the success of
+his _Cassandre_ with a _Cleopatre_ (1647) in twelve volumes, and a
+_Faramond_ (1661) which he did not live to finish. He became more
+extravagant, more rhapsodical as he proceeded, and he lost all the
+little hold on history which he had ever held. _Cleopatre_,
+nevertheless, enjoyed a prodigious popularity, and it became the fashion
+to emulate as far as possible the prowess of its magnificent hero, the
+proud Artaban. It should be said that la Calprenede objected to his
+books being styled romances, and insisted that they were specimens of
+"history embellished with certain inventions." He may, in opposition to
+his wishes, claim the doubtful praise of being, in reality, the creator
+of the modern historical novel. He was immediately imitated or
+accompanied by a large number of authors, of whom two have achieved a
+certain immortality, which, unhappily, must be confessed to be partly of
+ridicule. The vogue of the historical romance was carried to its height
+by a brother and a sister, Georges de Scudery (1601-1667) and Madeleine
+de Scudery (1608-1701), who represented in their own persons all the
+extravagant, tempestuous and absurd elements of the age, and whose
+elephantine romances remain as portents in the history of literature.
+These novels--there are five of them--were signed by Georges de Scudery,
+but it is believed that all were in the main written by Madeleine. The
+earliest was _Ibrahim, ou l'Illustre Bassa_ (1641); it was followed by
+_Le Grand Cyrus_ (1648-1653) and the final, and most preposterous member
+of the series was _Clelie_ (1649-1654). The romances of Mlle de Scudery
+(for to her we may safely attribute them) are much inferior in style to
+those of la Calprenede. They are pretentious, affected and sickly. The
+author abuses the element of analysis, and pushes a psychology, which
+was beyond the age in penetration, to a wearisome and excessive extent.
+Nothing, it is probable, in the whole evolution of the Historical
+Romances has attracted so much attention as the "Carte de Tendre" which
+occurs in the opening book of _Clelie_. This celebrated map, drawn by
+the heroine in order to show the route from New Friendship to Tender,
+and a geographical symbol, therefore, of the progress of love, with its
+city of Tender-upon-Esteem, its sea of Enmity, its river of Inclination,
+its rock-built citadel of Pride, its cold lake of Indifference, is a
+miracle of elaborate and incongruous ingenuity. But, amusing as it is,
+it shows into what depths of puerility the amorous casuistry of these
+romances had fallen. These novels formed the chief topic of conversation
+and of correspondence in the literary society which gathered at and
+around the Hotel de Rambouillet, and in the personages of Mlle de
+Scudery's romances could be recognized all the famous leaders of that
+society. The mawkish love-making and the false heroism of these
+monstrous novels went rapidly out of fashion in France soon after 1660,
+when the epoch of the Heroic Romance came to an end. In England the
+Heroic Romance had a period of flourishing popularity. All the principal
+French examples were very promptly translated, and "he was not to be
+admitted into the academy of wit who had not read _Astrea_ and _The
+Grand Cyrus_." The great vogue of these books in England lasted from
+about 1645 to 1660. It led, of course, to the composition of original
+works in imitation of the French. The most remarkable and successful of
+these was _Parthenissa_, published in 1654 by Roger Boyle, Lord Broghill
+and afterwards Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), which was greatly admired by
+Dorothy Osborne and her correspondents. Addison speaks in the
+"Spectator" of the popularity of all these huge books, "the _Grand
+Cyrus_, with a pin stuck in one of the middle leaves, _Clelie_, which
+opened of itself in the place that describes two lovers in a bower."
+When the drama, and in particular tragedy, was reinstituted in England,
+sentimental readers found a field for their emotions on the stage, and
+the heroic romances immediately began to go out of fashion. They
+lingered, however, for a quarter of a century more, and M. Jusserand has
+analysed what may be considered the very latest of the race, _Pandion
+and Amphigenia_, published in 1665 by the dramatist, John Crowne.
+
+  See Gordon de Percel, _De l'usage des romans_ (1734); Andre Le Breton,
+  _Le Roman au XVII^e siecle_ (1890); Paul Morillot, _Le Roman en France
+  depuis 1610_ (1894); J. J. Jusserand, _Le Roman anglais au XVII^e
+  siecle_ (1888).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HEROIC VERSE, a term exclusively used in English to Indicate the rhymed
+iambic line or HEROIC COUPLET. In ancient literature, the heroic verse,
+[Greek: heroikon metron], was synonymous with the dactylic hexameter. It
+was in this measure that those typically heroic poems, the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_ and the _Aeneid_ were written. In English, however, it was
+not enough to designate a single iambic line of five beats as heroic
+verse, because it was necessary to distinguish blank verse from the
+distich, which was formed by the heroic couplet. This had escaped the
+notice of Dryden, when he wrote "The English Verse, which we call
+Heroic, consists of no more than ten syllables." If that were the case,
+then _Paradise Lost_ would be written in heroic verse, which is not
+true. What Dryden should have said is "consists of two rhymed lines,
+each of ten syllables." In French the alexandrine has always been
+regarded as the heroic measure of that language. The dactylic movement
+of the heroic line in ancient Greek, the famous [Greek: rhythmos heroos]
+of Homer, is expressed in modern Europe by the iambic movement. The
+consequence is that much of the rush and energy of the antique verse,
+which at vigorous moments was like the charge of a battalion, is lost.
+It is owing to this, in part, that the heroic couplet is so often
+required to give, in translation, the full value of a single Homeric
+hexameter. It is important to insist that it is the couplet, not the
+single line, which constitutes heroic verse. It is interesting to note
+that the Latin poet Ennius, as reported by Cicero, called the heroic
+metre of one line _versum longum_, to distinguish it from the brevity of
+lyrical measures. The current form of English heroic verse appears to be
+the invention of Chaucer, who used it in his _Legend of Good Women_ and
+afterwards, with still greater freedom, in the _Canterbury Tales_. Here
+is an example of it in its earliest development:--
+
+  "And thus the longe day in fight they spend,
+   Till, at the last, as everything hath end,
+   Anton is shent, and put him to the flight,
+   And all his folk to go, as best go might."
+
+This way of writing was misunderstood and neglected by Chaucer's English
+disciples, but was followed nearly a century later by the Scottish poet,
+called Blind Harry (_c._ 1475), whose _Wallace_ holds an important place
+in the history of versification as having passed on the tradition of the
+heroic couplet. Another Scottish poet, Gavin Douglas, selected heroic
+verse for his translation of the _Aeneid_ (1513), and displayed, in such
+examples as the following, a skill which left little room for
+improvement at the hands of later poets:--
+
+  "One sang, 'The ship sails over the salt foam,
+   Will bring the merchants and my leman home';
+   Some other sings, 'I will be blithe and light,
+   Mine heart is leant upon so goodly wight.'"
+
+The verse so successfully mastered was, however, not very generally used
+for heroic purposes in Tudor literature. The early poets of the revival,
+and Spenser and Shakespeare after them, greatly preferred stanzaic
+forms. For dramatic purposes blank verse was almost exclusively used,
+although the French had adopted the rhymed alexandrine for their plays.
+In the earlier half of the 17th century, heroic verse was often put to
+somewhat unheroic purposes, mainly in prologues and epilogues, or other
+short poems of occasion; but it was nobly redeemed by Marlowe in his
+_Hero and Leander_ and respectably by Browne in his _Britannia's
+Pastorals_. It is to be noted, however, that those Elizabethans who,
+like Chapman, Warner and Drayton, aimed at producing a warlike and
+Homeric effect, did so in shambling fourteen-syllable couplets. The one
+heroic poem of that age written at considerable length in the
+appropriate national metre is the _Bosworth Field_ of Sir John Beaumont
+(1582-1628). Since the middle of the 17th century, when heroic verse
+became the typical and for a while almost the solitary form in which
+serious English poetry was written, its history has known many
+vicissitudes. After having been the principal instrument of Dryden and
+Pope, it was almost entirely rejected by Wordsworth and Coleridge, but
+revised, with various modifications, by Byron, Shelley (in _Julian and
+Maddalo_) and Keats (in _Lamia_). In the second half of the 19th century
+its prestige was restored by the brilliant work of Swinburne in
+_Tristram_ and elsewhere.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HEROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND (1791-1833), French musician, the son of
+Francois Joseph Herold, an accomplished pianist, was born in Paris, on
+the 28th of January 1791. It was not till after his father's death that
+Herold in 1806 entered the Paris conservatoire, where he studied under
+Catal and Mehul. In 1812 he gained the grand prix de Rome with the
+cantata _La Duchesse de la Valliere_, and started for Italy, where he
+remained till 1815 and composed a symphony, a cantata and several pieces
+of chamber music. During his stay in Italy also Herold for the first
+time ventured on the stage with the opera _La Gioventu di Enrico V._,
+first performed at Naples in 1815 with moderate success. During a short
+stay in Vienna he was much in the society of Salieri. Returning to Paris
+he was invited by Boieldieu to collaborate with him on an opera called
+_Charles de France_, performed in 1816, and soon followed by Herold's
+first French opera, _Les Rosieres_ (1817), which was received very
+favourably. Herold produced numerous dramatic works for the next fifteen
+years in rapid succession. Only the names of some of the more important
+need here be mentioned:--_La Clochette_ (1817), _L'Auteur mort et
+vivant_ (1820), _Marie_ (1826), and the ballets _La Fille mal gardee_
+(1828) and _La Belle au bois dormant_ (1829). Herold also wrote a vast
+quantity of pianoforte music, in spite of his time being much occupied
+by his duties as accompanist at the Italian opera in Paris. In 1831 he
+produced the romantic opera _Zampa_, and in the following year _Le Pre
+aux clercs_ (first performance December 15, 1832), in which French
+_esprit_ and French chivalry find their most perfect embodiment. These
+two operas secured immortality for the name of the composer, who died on
+the 18th of January 1833, of the lung disease from which he had suffered
+for many years, and the effects of which he had accelerated by incessant
+work. Herold's incomplete opera _Ludovic_ was afterwards printed by J.
+F. F. Halevy.
+
+
+
+
+HERON (Fr. _heron_; Ital. _aghirone_, _airone_; Lat. _ardea_; Gr.
+[Greek: erodios]: A.-S. _hragra_; Icelandic, _hegre_; Swed. _hager_;
+Dan. _heire_; Ger. _Heiger_, _Reiher_, _Heergans_; Dutch, _reiger_), a
+long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical
+representative of the group _Ardeidae_. It is difficult or even
+impossible to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of
+_Ardeidae_ which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863 enumerated
+61, besides 5 of what he terms "conspecies," as contained in the
+collection at Leyden (_Mus. des Pays-Bas_, Ardeae, 64 pp.),--on the
+other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871 (_Handlist_, &c. iii. 26-34) admitted
+above 90, while Dr Anton Reichenow (_Journ. fur Ornithologie_, 1877, pp.
+232-275) recognizes 67 as known, besides 15 "subspecies" and 3
+varieties, arranging them in 3 genera, _Nycticorax_, _Botaurus_ and
+_Ardea_, with 17 sub-genera. But it is difficult to separate the family,
+with any satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have
+to be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost
+insensibly into each other--though in common language it is easy to
+speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and boatbills. With the
+exception of the last, Professor Schlegel retains all in the genus
+_Ardea_, dividing it into _eight_ sections, the names of which may
+perhaps be Englished--great herons, small herons, egrets, semi-egrets,
+rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns and night-herons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heron.]
+
+The common heron of Europe, _Ardea cinerea_ of Linnaeus, is universally
+allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also be regarded as
+that of Professor Schlegel's first section. The species inhabits
+suitable localities throughout the whole of Europe, Africa and Asia,
+reaching Japan, many of the islands of the Indian Archipelago and even
+Australia. Though by no means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is
+still sufficiently common,[1] and there must be few persons who have not
+seen it rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing
+overhead in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its
+daily haunts; while they are many who have been entertained by watching
+it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly of fishes (especially eels
+and flounders) and amphibians--though young birds and small mammals come
+not amiss--wading midleg in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out
+of its depth, or standing motionless to strike its prey with its
+formidable and sure beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in
+societies, known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by
+law and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the sport
+their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly owing to
+the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and still more, it
+would seem, from agricultural improvement, which, by draining meres,
+fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding-places of a great population
+of herons, many of the larger heronries have broken up--the birds
+composing them dispersing to neighbouring localities and forming smaller
+settlements, most of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of
+heronry, though commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called
+heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and Wales,
+has become far greater than formerly, but no one can doubt that the
+number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen by the heron for its
+nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the top of a lofty tree, but
+not unfrequently (and this seems to have been much more usual in former
+days) near or on the ground among rough vegetation, on an island in a
+lake, or again on a rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a
+huge mass of sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs,
+and in it are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are
+clothed in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a
+considerable time, therein differing remarkably from the "pipers" of the
+crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched. The
+first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way resemble those
+of the adult, but the pure white breast, the black throat-streaks and
+especially the long pendent plumes, which characterize only the very old
+birds, and are most beautiful in the cocks, are subsequently acquired.
+The heron measures about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the
+expanse of its wings is sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs
+only between 3 and 4 lb.
+
+Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in size by the
+great blue heron of America (_Ardea herodias_), which generally
+resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are smaller than the _A.
+sumatrana_ or _A. typhon_ of India and the Malay Archipelago, while the
+_A. goliath_, of wide distribution in Africa and Asia, is the largest of
+all. The purple heron, _A. purpurea_, as a well-known European species
+having a great range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The
+species included in Professor Schlegel's second section inhabit the
+tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets, forming
+his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they are by their
+pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by the beautiful
+dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily droop over the tail,
+and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by Oriental magnates. The
+largest species is _A. occidentalis_, only known apparently from Florida
+and Cuba; but one not much less, the great egret (_A. alba_), belongs to
+the Old World, breeding regularly in south-eastern Europe, and
+occasionally straying to Britain. A third, _A. egretta_, represents it
+in America, while much the same may be said of two smaller species, _A.
+garzetta_, the little egret of English authors, and _A. candidissima_;
+and a sixth, _A. intermedia_, is common in India, China and Japan,
+besides occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing
+some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron (_A.
+bubulcus_), is the only species that is known to have occurred in
+Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except by
+their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species with
+slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons form
+Professor Schlegel's next section, but it can scarcely be satisfactorily
+differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its members have no
+rail-like affinities, though the typical species, which inhabits the
+south of Europe, and occasionally finds its way to England, has long
+been known as _A. ralloides_.[2] Nearly all these birds are tropical or
+subtropical. Then there is the somewhat better defined group of little
+bitterns, containing about a dozen species--the smallest of the whole
+family. One of them, _A. minuta_, though very local in its distribution,
+is a native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England. It
+has a close counterpart in the _A. exilis_ of North America, and is
+represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world, the _A.
+pusilla_ of Australia especially differing very slightly from it. Ranged
+by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all remarkable for
+their skulking habits, but more resembling the true herons in their
+nature, are the common green bittern of America (_A. virescens_) and its
+very near ally the African _A. atricapilla_, from which last it is
+almost impossible to distinguish the _A. javanica_, of wide range
+throughout Asia and its islands, while other species, less closely
+related, occur elsewhere as _A. flavicollis_--one form of which, _A.
+gouldi_, inhabits Australia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bittern.]
+
+The true bitterns, forming the genus _Botaurus_ of most authors, seem to
+be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their wholly
+nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage than on strictly
+structural grounds, though some differences of proportion are
+observable. The common bittern (q.v.) of Europe (_B. stellaris_), is
+widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere.[3] Australia and New
+Zealand have a kindred species, _B. poeciloptilus_, and North America a
+third, _B. mugitans_[4] or _B. lentiginosus_. Nine other species from
+various parts of the world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some
+of them should perhaps be excluded from the genus _Botaurus_.
+
+Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all of which
+may be reasonably placed in the genus _Nycticorax_, characterized by a
+shorter beak and a few other peculiarities, among which the large eyes
+deserve mention. The first is _N. griseus_, a bird widely spread over
+the Old World, and not unfrequently visiting England, where it would
+undoubtedly breed if permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the
+common night-heron of America; but this, though very closely allied, is
+generally deemed distinct, and is the _N. naevius_ or _N. gardeni_ of
+most writers. A clearly different American species, with a more southern
+habitat, is the _N. violaceus_ or _N. cayennensis_, while others are
+found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands and in
+West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species, _N. pauper_, and
+another, so far as is known, peculiar to Rodriguez, _N. megacephalus_,
+existed in that island at the time of its being first colonized, but is
+now extinct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Boatbill.]
+
+The boatbill, of which only one species is known, seems to be merely a
+night-heron with an exaggerated bill,--so much widened as to suggest its
+English name,--but has always been allowed generic rank. This curious
+bird, the _Cancroma cochlearia_ of most authors, is a native of tropical
+America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are essentially
+those of a _Nycticorax_.[5]
+
+Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in the peat of
+the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and Langy in France have been
+referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards to herons under the names of _Ardea
+perplexa_ and _A. formosa_; a tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am
+Albuch by Dr Fraas to an _A. similis_, while Sir R. Owen recognized a
+portion of a sternum from the London Clay as most nearly approaching
+this family.
+
+It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley's section
+_Pelargomorphae_, belonging to his larger group _Desmognathae_, and to
+draw attention to the singular development of the patches of
+"powder-down" which in the family _Ardeidae_ attain a magnitude hardly
+to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly unknown.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In many parts of England it is generally called a
+    "hernser"--being a corruption of "heronsewe," which, as Professor
+    Skeat states (_Etymol. Dictionary_, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct
+    word from "heronshaw," commonly confounded with it. The further
+    corruption of "hernser" into "handsaw," as in the well-known proverb,
+    was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was
+    unfamiliar.
+
+  [2] It is the "Squacco-Heron" of modern British authors--the
+    distinctive name, given "Sguacco" by Willughby and Ray from
+    Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham.
+
+  [3] The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England was
+    in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (_Birds of Norfolk_, ii. 164).
+
+  [4] Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (_Fauna
+    Boreali-Americana_, ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet)
+    exactly resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American
+    ornithologists seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes
+    when disturbed.
+
+  [5] The very wonderful shoe-bird (_Balaeniceps_) has been regarded by
+    many authorities as allied to _Cancroma_; but there can be little
+    doubt that it is more nearly related to the genus _Scopus_ belonging
+    to the storks. The sun-bittern (_Eurypyga_) forms a family of itself,
+    allied to the rails and cranes.
+
+
+
+
+HERPES (from the Gr. [Greek: herpein], to creep) an inflammation of the
+true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or its
+ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped vesicles of
+various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a clear fluid, and
+either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked varieties of herpes are
+frequently met with. (a) In _herpes labialis et nasalis_ the eruption
+occurs about the lips and nose. It is seen in cases of certain acute
+febrile ailments, such as fevers, inflammation of the lungs or even in a
+severe cold. It soon passes off. (b) In the _herpes zoster, zona_ or
+"shingles" the eruption occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous
+nerves, often on one side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs
+or other parts. It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently
+met with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually
+preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and, not
+only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long after they
+have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes continue and give
+rise to great suffering. The disease seldom recurs. The most that can be
+done for its relief is to protect the parts with cotton wool or some
+dusting powder, while the pain may be allayed by opiates or bromide of
+potassium. Quinine internally is often of service.
+
+
+
+
+HERRERA, FERNANDO DE (c. 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical poet, was born at
+Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed many impassioned poems
+to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro Colon de Portugal; but it is
+suggested that these should be regarded as Platonic literary exercises
+in the manner of Petrarch. As is shown by his _Anotaciones a las obras
+de Garcilaso de la Vega_ (1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for
+the Italian poets, and continued the work of Boscan in naturalizing the
+Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso involved
+him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal innovations laid
+him open to attack. But, even if his amatory sonnets are condemned as
+insincere in sentiment, their workmanship is admirable, while his odes
+on the battle of Lepanto, on Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King
+Sebastian of Portugal entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian
+poets and as the most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega
+(see VEGA). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with
+additions in 1619; they are reissued in the _Biblioteca de autores
+espanoles_, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera's prose works only the _Vida y muerta
+de Tomas Moro_ (1592) survives; it is a translation of the life in
+Thomas Stapleton's _Tres Thomae_ (1588).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Bourciez, "Les Sonnets de Fernando de Herrera,"
+  _Annales de la Faculte des Lettres de Bordeaux_ (1891); _Fernando de
+  Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones a les obras de Garcilaso
+  de la Vega_ (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, _L'Hymne sur Lepante_
+  (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HERRERA, FRANCISCO (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the old), Spanish
+historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis Fernandez in Seville,
+his native city, where he spent most of his life. Although so rough and
+coarse in manners that neither scholar nor child could remain with him,
+the great talents of Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used
+them, brought him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in
+bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with coining
+base money. From this accusation, whether true or false, he sought
+sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermenegildo, which he adorned
+with a fine picture of its patron saint. Philip IV., on his visit to
+Seville in 1624, having seen this picture, and learned the position of
+the artist, pardoned him at once, warning him, however, that such powers
+as his should not be degraded. In 1650 Herrera removed to Madrid, where
+he lived in great honour till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first
+to relinquish the timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of
+painting, and to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which
+reached such perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his
+pupil. His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of
+execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is said to
+have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also said that,
+when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours on the canvas
+with a broom under his directions, and that he worked them up into his
+designs before they dried. The drawing in his pictures is correct, and
+the colouring original and skilfully managed, so that the figures stand
+out in striking relief. What has been considered his best easel-work,
+the "Last Judgment," in the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an
+original and striking composition, showing in its treatment of the nude
+how ill-founded the common belief was that Spanish painters, through
+ignorance of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his
+best fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura; but
+many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the weather
+and others by the artist's own carelessness in preparing his surfaces.
+He has, however, preserved several of his own designs in etchings. For
+his easel-works Herrera often chose such humble subjects as fairs,
+carnivals, ale-houses and the like.
+
+His son FRANCISCO HERRARA (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo (the young), was
+also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to endure his father's
+cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what money he could find, fled
+from Seville to Rome. There, instead of devoting himself to the
+antiquities and the works of the old Italian masters, he gave himself up
+to the study of architecture and perspective, with the view of becoming
+a fresco-painter. He did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became
+renowned for his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his
+skill in painting fish was called by the Italians _Lo Spagnuolo degli
+pesci_. In later life he painted portraits with great success. He
+returned to Seville on hearing of his father's death, and in 1660 was
+appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo. His
+vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and throwing up his
+appointment he went to Madrid. There he was employed to paint a San
+Hermenegildo for the barefooted Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco
+the roof of the choir of San Felipe el Real. The success of this last
+work procured for him a commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco
+the roof of the Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the
+Assumption of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title
+of painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the royal
+buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo was of a somewhat
+similar temperament to his father, and offended many people by his
+inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy. His pictures are inferior to
+the older Herrera's both in design and in execution; but in some of them
+traces of the vigour of his father, who was his first teacher, are
+visible. He was by no means an unskilful colourist, and was especially
+master of the effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund
+Head in his _Handbook_ names his "San Francisco," in Seville Cathedral.
+An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who died very
+young, gave great promise as a painter.
+
+
+
+
+HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE (1549-1625), Spanish historian, was
+born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia in Spain. His father,
+Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother, Agnes de Herrera, were both of
+good family. After studying for some time in his native country, Herrera
+proceeded to Italy, and there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago,
+with whom, on his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to
+Spain. Gonzago, sensible of his secretary's abilities, commended him to
+Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first
+historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of
+Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary, Herrera
+devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature, retaining his
+offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was appointed
+secretary of state very shortly before his death, which took place at
+Madrid on the 29th of March 1625. Of Herrera's writings, the most
+valuable is his _Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en
+las islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano_ (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a
+work which relates the history of the Spanish-American colonies from
+1492 to 1554. The author's official position gave him access to the
+state papers and to other authentic sources not attainable by other
+writers, while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS.,
+especially from that of Bartolome de Las Casas. He used his facilities
+carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on the whole
+accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable to the student either
+of the history of the early colonies, or of the institutions and
+customs of the aboriginal American peoples. Although it is written in
+the form of annals, mistakes are not wanting, and several glaring
+anachronisms have been pointed out by M. J. Quintana. "If," to quote Dr
+Robertson, "by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New
+World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events in his
+work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected and obscure that
+it is an unpleasant task to collect from different parts of his book and
+piece together the detached shreds of a story, he might justly have been
+ranked among the most eminent historians of his country." This work was
+republished in 1730, and has been translated into English by J. Stevens
+(London, 1740), and into other European languages.
+
+  Herrera's other works are the following: _Historia de lo sucedido en
+  Escocia e Inglaterra en quarenta y quatro anos que vivio la reyna
+  Maria Estuarda_ (Madrid, 1589); _Cinco libros de la historia de
+  Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Acores, 1582-1583_ (Madrid,
+  1591); _Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594_ (Madrid, 1598);
+  _Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II, desde 1559
+  hasta su muerte_ (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); _Tratado, relacion, y
+  discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon_ (Madrid, 1612);
+  _Comentarios de los hechos de los Espanoles, Franceses, y Venecianos
+  en Italia, &c., 1281-1559_ (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H. Prescott,
+  _History of the Conquest of Mexico_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674), English poet, was born at Cheapside,
+London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591. He belonged to an old
+Leicestershire family which had settled in London. He was the seventh
+child of Nicholas Herrick, goldsmith, of the city of London, who died in
+1592, under suspicion of suicide. The children were brought up by their
+uncle, Sir William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to
+whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably been educated
+at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to Cambridge; and it was
+no doubt during his apprenticeship that the young poet was introduced to
+that circle of wits which he was afterwards to adorn. He seems to have
+been present at the first performance of _The Alchemist_ in 1610, and it
+was probably about this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical
+"son." He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John's
+College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his degree,
+he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen letters to his
+uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beaumanoir, and shows that
+Herrick suffered much from poverty at the university. He took his B.A.
+in 1617, and in 1620 he became master of arts. From this date until 1627
+we entirely lose sight of him; it has been variously conjectured that he
+spent these years preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much
+looser pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by
+the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in
+Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when he was
+ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed him at first; the
+village was dull and remote, and he felt very bitterly that he was cut
+off from all literary and social associations; but soon the quiet
+existence in Devonshire soothed and delighted him. He was pleased with
+the rural and semi-pagan customs that survived in the village, and in
+some of his most charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances,
+wakes and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night
+revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick never
+married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy family of pets,
+and tended by an excellent old servant named Prudence Baldwin. His first
+appearance in print was in some verses he contributed to _A Description
+of the King and Queen of Fairies_, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of _Wit's
+Recreations_ contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by
+Herrick in the _Hesperides_, and one not reprinted until our own day.
+These partial appearances make it probable that he visited London from
+time to time. We have few hints of his life as a clergyman. Anthony Wood
+says that Herricks's sermons were florid and witty, and that he was
+"beloved by the neighbouring gentry." A very aged woman, one Dorothy
+King, stated that the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation,
+cursing them for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his
+favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He was a
+devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil War, and
+immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his celebrated
+collection of lyrical poems, entitled _Hesperides; or the Works both
+Human and Divine of Robert Herrick_. The "divine works" bore the title
+of _Noble Numbers_ and the date 1647. That he was reduced to great
+poverty in London has been stated, but there is no evidence of the fact.
+In August 1662 Herrick returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own
+supplanter, Dr John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was
+buried at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his
+memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a descendant
+of a collateral branch of the family. The _Hesperides_ (and _Noble
+Numbers_) is the only volume which Herrick published, but he contributed
+poems to _Lachrymae Musarum_ (1649) and to _Wit's Recreations_.
+
+As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets. His
+genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious, but in its
+own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems--and of the thirteen hundred
+that he has left behind him not one is long--are like jewels of various
+value, heaped together in a casket. Some are of the purest water,
+radiant with light and colour, some were originally set in false metal
+that has tarnished, some were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of
+the unarranged, heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not
+worth reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is
+astonished at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains.
+Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his sylvan
+muse when he says:--
+
+  "I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers,
+   Of April, May, of June and July flowers,
+   I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes,
+   Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes."
+
+He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no one before him
+had seen it, and he described it in his verse with a certain purple glow
+of Arcadian romance over it, in tones of immortal vigour and freshness.
+His love poems are still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour
+and tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of modern
+lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace and in the
+poets of the Greek anthology.
+
+  After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the fame
+  of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his poems to
+  the readers of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ of 1796 and 1797. Dr Drake
+  followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810 interest had so
+  far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured to print a
+  selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable notice of the
+  _Quarterly Review_. In 1823 the _Hesperides_ and the _Noble Numbers_
+  were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland, afterwards Lord
+  Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick's have been too
+  numerous to be mentioned here; there are few English poets of the 17th
+  century whose writings are now more accessible. See F. W. Moorman,
+  _Robert Herrick_ (1910).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES (1778-1855), English politician, son of a London
+merchant, began his career as a junior clerk in the treasury, and became
+known for his financial abilities as private secretary to successive
+ministers. He was appointed commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the
+abolition of that office (1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he
+entered parliament as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became
+chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of
+internal differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries,
+the ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master of the
+mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade, and for the
+earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war. From 1841 to 1847 he was
+out of parliament, but during 1852 he was president of the board of
+control under Lord Derby. He was a consistent and upright Tory of the
+old school, who carried weight as an authority on financial subjects.
+His eldest son, SIR CHARLES JOHN HERRIES (1815-1882), was chairman of
+the board of inland revenue.
+
+  See the _Life_ by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL, 4TH LORD (c. 1512-1583), Scottish politician, was
+the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he
+married Agnes (d. 1594), daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries
+(d. 1543), a grandson of Herbert Herries (d. c. 1500) of Terregles,
+Kirkcudbrightshire, who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament
+about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries. But
+before this event Maxwell had become prominent among the men who rallied
+round Mary queen of Scots, although during the earlier part of his
+public life he had been associated with the religious reformers and had
+been imprisoned by the regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover--at
+least until 1563--very friendly with John Knox, who calls him "a man
+zealous and stout in God's cause." But the transition from one party to
+the other was gradually accomplished, and from March 1566, when Maxwell
+joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder of David Rizzio and her escape
+from Holyrood, he remained one of her staunchest friends, although he
+disliked her marriage with Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and
+after this battle she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with
+the queen into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of
+Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York. He
+continued to labour in Mary's cause after returning to Scotland, and was
+imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also incurred Elizabeth's
+displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard Dacres, but he soon made his
+peace with the English queen. He showed himself in general hostile to
+the regent Morton, but he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox
+until his death on the 20th of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord
+Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches.
+
+William's grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became 3rd earl of
+Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell, the 2nd earl, in
+1667. John's grandson was William, 5th earl of Nithsdale, the Jacobite
+(see NITHSDALE). William was deprived of his honours in 1716, but in
+1858 the House of Lords decided that his descendant William
+Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In
+1876 William's son Marmaduke Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became 12th
+Lord Herries, and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+HERRING (_Clupea harengus_, _Haring_ in German, _le hareng_ in French,
+_sill_ in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus _Clupea_, of which
+more than sixty different species are known in various parts of the
+globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad are species of the same
+genus. Of all sea-fishes _Clupeae_ are the most abundant; for although
+other genera may comprise a greater variety of species, they are far
+surpassed by _Clupea_ with regard to the number of individuals. The
+majority of the species of _Clupea_ are of greater or less utility to
+man; it is only a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their
+food, highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons
+eating them. But no other species equals the common herring in
+importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in incredible
+numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the Atlantic and the seas
+north of Asia. The herring inhabiting the corresponding latitudes of the
+North Pacific is another species, but most closely allied to that of the
+eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was the general belief that the herring
+inhabits the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates
+at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and America.
+This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we know now that this
+fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity of our shores, but at a
+greater depth, and at a greater distance from the coast, than at the
+time when it approaches land for the purpose of spawning.
+
+Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the other species
+of _Clupea_ by having an ovate patch of very small teeth on the vomer
+(that is, the centre of the palate). In the dorsal fin they have from 17
+to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from 16 to 18; there are from 53 to 59
+scales in the lateral line and 54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral
+column. They have a smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of
+bone which are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other _Clupeae_. The
+sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth on the
+vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line.
+
+The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on rough
+gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and always in
+comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning is different in
+different places, and even in the same district, e.g. the east coast of
+Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring and others in autumn.
+These are not the same fish but different races. Those which breed in
+winter or spring deposit their spawn near the coast at the mouths of
+estuaries, and ascend the estuaries to a considerable distance at
+certain times, as in the Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which
+spawn in summer or autumn belong more to the open sea, e.g. the great
+shoals that visit the North Sea annually.
+
+Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer's observations,
+they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during the first month after
+hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second, 45 to 50 mm. during the third,
+55 to 61 mm. during the fourth, and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The
+size which they finally attain and their general condition depend
+chiefly on the abundance of food (which consists of crustaceans and
+other small marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the
+season at which they have been hatched, &c. Their usual size is about 12
+in., but in some particularly suitable localities they grow to a length
+of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring 17 in. are on record. In
+the Baltic, where the water is gradually losing its saline constituents,
+thus becoming less adapted for the development of marine species, the
+herring continues to exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not
+growing either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring.
+The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically
+identical with that of Europe. A second species (_Clupea leachii_) has
+been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises only
+individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or late spawn.
+Also the so-called "white-bait" is not a distinct species, but consists
+chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings and sprats, and is obtained
+"in perfection" at localities where these small fishes find an abundance
+of food, as in the estuary of the Thames.
+
+  Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published, as by
+  Valenciennes in the 20th vol. of the _Histoire naturelle des
+  poissons_, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, _The Herring, its
+  Natural History and National Importance_ (Edinburgh, 1864). Recent
+  investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery _Board for
+  Scotland_, and in the reports of the German _Kommission zur
+  Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere_ (published at Kiel).     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERRING-BONE, a term in architecture applied to alternate courses of
+bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding courses above
+and below: this is said to give a better bond to the wall, especially
+when the stone employed is stratified, such as Stonefield stone, and too
+thin to be laid in horizontal courses. Although it is only occasionally
+found in modern buildings, it was a type of construction constantly
+employed in Roman, Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is
+regarded as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the
+Byzantine walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed
+decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the diagonal
+courses are reversed one above the other. Examples in France exist in
+the churches at Querqueville in Normandy and St Christophe at Suevres
+(Loir et Cher), both dating from the 10th century, and in England
+herring-bone masonry is found in the walls of castles, such as at
+Guildford, Colchester and Tamworth. The term is also applied to the
+paving of stable yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating
+so that the head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the
+effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses.
+
+
+
+
+HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE, the name applied to the action of Rouvray,
+fought in 1429 between the French (and Scots) and the English, who,
+under Sir John Falstolfe (or Falstaff), were convoying Lenten
+provisions, chiefly herrings, to the besiegers of Orleans. (See ORLEANS
+and HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+HERRNHUT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 18 m. S.E. of
+Bautzen, and situated on the Lobau-Zittau railway. Pop. 1200. It is
+chiefly known as the principal seat of the Moravian or Bohemian
+brotherhood, the members of which are called _Herrnhuter_. A colony of
+these people, fleeing from persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut
+in 1722 on a site presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the
+society include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the
+sisters and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an
+ethnographical museum and other collections of interest. The town is
+remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous cleanliness.
+Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives its name), tobacco
+and various minor articles are manufactured. The Hutberg, at the foot of
+which the town lies, commands a pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village
+about a mile distant, has been the seat of the directorate of the
+community since about 1789.
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848), English astronomer, sister of
+Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and fourth daughter of her
+parents, was born at Hanover on the 16th of March 1750. On account of
+the prejudices of her mother, who did not desire her to know more than
+was necessary for being useful in the family, she received, in youth
+only the first elements of education. After the death of her father in
+1767 she obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a
+view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother in the
+management of the household until the autumn of 1772, when she joined
+her brother William, who had established himself as a teacher of music
+at Bath. At once she became a valuable co-operator with him both in his
+professional duties and in the astronomical researches to which he had
+already begun to devote all his spare time. She was the principal singer
+at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist
+that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which,
+however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office of
+astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant in his
+observations, and also executed the laborious calculations which were
+connected with them. For these services she received from the king in
+1787 a salary of L50 a year. Her chief amusement during her leisure
+hours was sweeping the heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this
+means she detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the
+eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with unquestioned
+priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal Society an Index to
+Flamsteed's observations, together with a catalogue of 561 stars
+accidentally omitted from the "British Catalogue," and a list of the
+errata in that publication. Though she returned to Hanover in 1822 she
+did not abandon her astronomical studies, and in 1828 she completed the
+reduction, to January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother.
+In 1828 the Astronomical Society, to mark their sense of the benefits
+conferred on science by such a series of laborious exertions,
+unanimously resolved to present her with their gold medal, and in 1835
+elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846 she received a
+gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on the 9th of January
+1848.
+
+  See _The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel_, by Mrs John
+  Herschel (1876).
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822), generally known as Sir
+William Herschel, English astronomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th of
+November 1738. His father was a musician employed as hautboy player in
+the Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony in the
+early part of the 17th century on account of religious troubles, they
+themselves being Protestants. Herschel's earlier education was
+necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly owing to the warlike
+commotions of his country; but being at all times an indomitable
+student, he, by his own exertions, more than repaired this deficiency.
+He became a very skilful musician, both theoretical and practical; while
+his attainments as a self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to
+the prosecution of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently
+advanced and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and
+thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret of what
+Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific success.
+
+
+In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the Hanoverian
+guard, and with his detachment visited England in 1755, accompanied by
+his father and eldest brother; in the following year he returned to his
+native country; but the hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years'
+War imperilling his health, his parents privately removed him from the
+regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to England. There,
+as might have been expected, the earlier part of his career was attended
+with formidable difficulties and much privation. We find him engaged in
+several towns in the north of England as organist and teacher of music,
+which were not lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began
+to flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to the
+Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth and
+fashion of the city.
+
+During the next five or six years he became the leading musical
+authority, and the director of all the chief public musical
+entertainments at Bath. His circumstances having thus become easier, he
+revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back with him his sister
+Caroline, whose services he much needed in his multifarious
+undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August 1772, being at that time in
+her twenty-third year. She thus describes her brother's life soon after
+her arrival: "He used to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass
+of water, with Smith's _Harmonics_ and Ferguson's _Astronomy_, &c., and
+so went to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first
+thoughts on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those
+objects himself of which he had been reading." It is not without
+significance that we find him thus reading Smith's _Harmonics_; to that
+study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a reward for his
+thoroughness this led him to Smith's _Optics_; and this, by a natural
+sequence, again led him to astronomy, for the purposes of which the
+chief optical instruments were devised. It was in this way that he was
+introduced to the writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to
+those of Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer of
+undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very expensive
+and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet perfected even
+their beautiful little achromatics of 2(3/4) in. aperture. So Herschel
+was obliged to content himself with hiring a small Gregorian reflector
+of about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen exposed for loan in a
+tradesman's shop. Not satisfied with this implement, he procured a small
+lens of about 18 ft. focal length, and set his sister to work on a
+pasteboard tube to match it, so as to make him a telescope. This
+unsatisfactory material was soon replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort
+of vision was obtained of Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought
+in London for a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such
+instrument was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a
+reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too
+exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own. So he
+was driven to the only alternative that remained; he must himself build
+a large telescope. His first step in this direction was to purchase the
+debris of an amateur's implements for grinding and polishing small
+mirrors; and thus, by slow degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he
+in 1774 had, as he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a
+Newtonian telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he
+was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary, he had from
+the very first conceived the gigantic project of surveying the entire
+heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining the plan of their general
+structure by a settled mode of procedure, if only he could provide
+himself with adequate instrumental means. For this purpose he, his
+brother and his sister toiled for many years at the grinding and
+polishing of hundreds of specula, always retaining the best and
+recasting the others, until the most perfect of the earlier products had
+been surpassed. This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of
+the year when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place,
+and had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774 every
+available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped-for scrutiny
+of the skies. In those days no machinery had been invented for the
+construction of telescopic mirrors; the man who had the hardihood to
+undertake polishing them doomed himself to walk leisurely and uniformly
+round an upright post for many hours, without removing his hands from
+the mirror, until his work was done. On these occasions Herschel
+received his food from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward
+was nigh.
+
+In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his
+observations on the variable star "Mira" and the mountains of the moon
+were communicated to the Royal Society through the influential
+introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel had made his acquaintance in
+a characteristic manner. In order to obtain a sight of the moon the
+astronomer had taken his telescope into the street opposite his house;
+the celebrated physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his
+eye removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission to
+take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversation which
+ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a solid and enduring
+regard.
+
+The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel as a guide to
+what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun, he knew, rotated on its
+axis, and he knew that dark spots often exist on its photosphere; the
+questions that he put to himself were--Are there dark spots also on
+variable stars? Do the stars also rotate on their axes? or are they
+sometimes partially eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And
+he went on to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and
+have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet? To
+these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts; and he
+communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less than six
+memoirs, occupying very many pages in the _Philosophical Transactions_,
+and extending in date from 1780 to 1801. It was in the latter year that
+these remarkable papers culminated in the inquiry whether any relation
+could be traced in the recurrence of sun-spots, regarded as evidences of
+solar activity, and the varying seasons of our planet, as exhibited by
+the varying price of corn. Herschel's reply was inconclusive; nor has a
+final solution of the related problems yet been obtained.
+
+In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a series of
+papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several satellites.
+The object which he had in view was not so much to ascertain the times
+of their rotation as to discover whether those rotations are strictly
+uniform. From the result he expected to gather, by analogy, the
+probability of an alteration in the length of our own day. These
+inquiries occupy the greater part of seven memoirs extending from 1781
+to 1797. While engaged on them he noticed the curious appearance of a
+white spot near to each of the poles of the planet Mars. On
+investigating the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and
+finding that it differed little from that of the earth, he concluded
+that its changes of climate also would resemble our own, and that these
+white patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have confirmed
+his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his observations
+extended, the times of the rotations of the various satellites round
+their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by equalling the times of
+their revolution round their primaries. Here again we perceive that his
+discoveries arose out of the systematic and comprehensive nature of his
+investigation. Nothing with such a man is accidental.
+
+In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which completely
+altered the character of his professional life. In the course of a
+methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an object which at first
+he supposed to be a comet, but which, by its subsequent motions and
+appearance, averred itself to be a new planet, moving outside the orbit
+of Saturn. The name of Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has
+by general consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was
+detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 6(1/2) in.;
+subsequently, when he had provided himself with a much more powerful
+telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he believed, no
+less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations, while abolishing
+four of these supposed attendants, have added two others apparently not
+observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs on the subject were communicated by
+him to the Royal Society, extending from the date of the discovery in
+1781 to 1815. A noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel's mode of observation
+led to the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious
+diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magnifying
+powers, but that the case is different with other celestial objects;
+hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as unusual in
+aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power in order to decide
+its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered; and had a similar method been
+applied to Neptune, that planet would have been found at Cambridge some
+months before it was recognized at Berlin.
+
+We now come to the beginning of Herschel's most important series of
+observations, culminating in what ought probably to be regarded as his
+capital discovery. A material part of the task which he had set himself
+embraced the determination of the relative distances of the stars from
+our sun and from each other. Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the
+heavens, he had observed many stars in apparently very close contiguity,
+but often differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that,
+on the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the smaller
+enormously more distant; and considering that an astronomer on the
+earth, in consequence of its immense orbital displacement of some 180
+millions of miles every six months, would see such a pair of stars under
+different perspective aspects, he perceived that the measurement of
+these changes should lead to an approximate determination of the stars'
+relative distances. He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of
+all the double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and 1785
+very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very last
+scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in the year
+1822, when he was its first president and already in the eighty-fourth
+year of his age, related to these investigations. In the memoir of 1782
+he threw out the hint that these apparently contiguous stars might be
+genuine pairs in mutual revolution; but he significantly added that the
+time had not yet arrived for settling the question. Eleven years
+afterwards (1793), he remeasured the relative positions of many such
+couples, and we may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding
+his prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars
+circulated round each other, after the manner required by the laws of
+gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the distant members
+of the starry firmament of the same mechanical laws which bind together
+the harmonious motions of our solar system. This sublime discovery,
+announced in 1802, would of itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If
+only he had lived long enough to learn the approximate distances of some
+of these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to
+calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the
+quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would have
+found another of his analogical conjectures realized.
+
+In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by George III., and
+accepted the king's offer to become his private astronomer, and
+henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific career. His salary was
+fixed at L200 per annum, to which an addition of L50 per annum was
+subsequently made for the astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr
+Watson, to whom alone the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark,
+"Never before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate." In
+this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to Datchet and
+soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy access of his royal
+patron at Windsor.
+
+The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but with renewed
+vigour and without the former professional interruptions. The greater
+part, in fact, of the papers already referred to are dated from Datchet
+and Slough; for the magnificent astronomical speculations in which he
+was engaged, though for the most part conceived in the earlier portion
+of his philosophical career, required years of patient observation
+before they could be fully examined and realized.
+
+It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable paper on the
+"Motion of the Solar System in Space,"--a sublime speculation, yet
+through his genius realized by considerations of the utmost simplicity.
+He returned to the same subject with fuller details in 1805. It was also
+after his removal to Slough that he published his first memoir on the
+construction of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring
+idea of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers,
+addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from the year
+1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demonstrated the fact
+that our sun is a star situated not far from the bifurcation of the
+Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to us lie more or less in
+clusters scattered throughout a comparatively thin, but immensely
+extended stratum. At one time he imagined that his powerful instruments
+had pierced through this stellar stratum, and that he had approximately
+determined the form of some of its boundaries. In the last of his
+memoirs, having convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his
+telescopes the Milky Way was "fathomless." On either side of this
+assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their common
+centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of discrete nebulous
+masses, such as those from the condensation of which he supposed the
+whole stellar universe to have been formed,--a magnificent conception,
+pursued with a force of genius and put to the practical test of
+observation with an industry almost incredible.
+
+Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting telescope, of
+40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction of which is
+often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief performance. The full
+description of this celebrated instrument will be found in the 85th
+volume of the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society. On the day that it
+was finished (August 28, 1789) Herschel saw at the first view, in a
+grandeur not witnessed before, the Saturnian system with six satellites,
+five of which had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D.
+Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had, two
+years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little telescope of
+6(1/2) in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable brightness with the
+towering giant he had just completed. On the 17th of September he
+discovered a seventh, which proved to be the nearest to the globe of
+Saturn. It has since received the name of Mimas. It is somewhat
+remarkable that, notwithstanding his long and repeated scrutinies of
+this planet, the eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should
+have escaped him.
+
+Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr John Pitt, a
+wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an only son, John Frederick
+William. The prince regent conferred a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in
+1816. But a far more valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley
+medal assigned to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781.
+
+He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-fourth year
+of his age, and was buried under the tower of St Laurence's Church,
+Upton, within a few hundred yards of the old site of the 40-ft.
+telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of the church bears a Latin
+inscription from the pen of the late Dr Goodall, provost of Eton
+College.
+
+  See Mrs John Herschel, _Memoir of Caroline Herschel_ (1876); E. S.
+  Holden, _Herschel, his Life and Works_ (1881); A. M. Clerke, _The
+  Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895); E. S. Holden and C. S.
+  Hastings, _Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William
+  Herschel_ (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, _Eloge historique_, Paris
+  Memoirs (1823), p. lxi.; F. Arago, _Analyse historique, Annuaire du
+  Bureau des Longitudes_ (1842), p. 249; Arago, _Biographies of
+  Scientific Men_, p. 167; Madame d'Arblay's _Diary, passim; Public
+  Characters_ (1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, _William
+  Herschel and his Work_ (1900). Herschel's photometric Star Catalogues
+  were discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in _Harvard Annals_,
+  vols. xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv.     (C. P.; A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BART. (1792-1871), English
+astronomer, the only son of Sir William Herschel, was born at Slough,
+Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792. His scholastic education commenced at
+Eton, but maternal fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of
+a private tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to
+St John's College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the
+mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material
+influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In due time
+the young student won the highest academical distinction of his year,
+graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was during his
+undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow-students who
+subsequently attained to very high eminence, Dean Peacock and Charles
+Babbage, entered into a compact that they would "do their best to leave
+the world wiser than they found it,"--a compact loyally and successfully
+carried out by all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable
+attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in the
+production of a work on the differential calculus, and on cognate
+branches of mathematical science, which changed the style and aspect of
+mathematical learning in England, and brought it up to the level of the
+Continental methods. Two or three memoirs communicated to the Royal
+Society on new applications of mathematical analysis at once placed him
+in the front rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of
+these his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the
+others were presented in his own right as a fellow.
+
+With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his name at
+Lincoln's Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed himself under the
+guidance of an eminent special pleader. Probably this temporary choice
+of a profession was inspired by the extraordinary success in legal
+pursuits which had attended the efforts of some noted Cambridge
+mathematicians. Be that as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr
+Wollaston in London soon changed the direction of his studies. He
+experimented in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820,
+assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a mirror
+of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subsequently improved
+by his own hands, became the instrument which enabled him to effect the
+astronomical observations forming the chief basis of his fame. In
+1821-1823 we find him associated with Sir James South in the
+re-examination of his father's double stars, by the aid of two excellent
+refractors, of 7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he
+was presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society's gold medal; and
+with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825; while the Royal
+Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the Copley medal for his
+mathematical contributions to their _Transactions_. From 1824 to 1827 he
+held the responsible post of secretary to that society; and was in 1827
+elected to the chair of the Astronomical Society, which office he also
+filled on two subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to
+the last-named society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote
+obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their combination of
+eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of knighthood was conferred on
+him by William IV., and two years later he again received the
+recognition of the Royal Society by the award of one of their medals for
+his memoir "On the Investigation of the Orbits of Revolving Double
+Stars." The award significantly commemorated his completion of his
+father's discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of
+a graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the two
+component stars of the binary system revolving under the prescription of
+the Newtonian law.
+
+Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years of age,
+Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father's double stars and
+nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his own lists; thus
+accomplishing, under the conditions then prevailing, the full work of a
+lifetime. For it should be remembered that astronomers were not as yet
+provided with those valuable automatic contrivances which at present
+materially abridge the labour and increase the accuracy of their
+determinations. Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork,
+electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena
+observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had no
+assistant.
+
+His scientific life now entered upon another and very characteristic
+phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was wont to declare, was
+towards chemistry and the phenomena of light, rather than towards
+astronomy. Indeed, very shortly after taking his degree at Cambridge, he
+proposed himself as a candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in
+that university; but, as he said with some humour, the result of the
+election was to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact
+Herschel had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by
+filial loyalty to his father's memory that he was now impelled to
+undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough. William
+Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John Herschel determined to
+explore the southern, besides re-exploring northern skies. "I resolved,"
+he said, "to attempt the completion of a survey of the whole surface of
+the heavens; and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere
+the same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give a
+unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to render them
+comparable with each other." In accordance with this resolution, he and
+his family embarked for the Cape on the 13th November 1833; they arrived
+in Table Bay on the 15th January 1834; and proceedings, he says, "were
+pushed forward with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was
+enabled to gratify my curiosity by a view of [kappa] Crucis, the nebula
+about [eta] Argus, and some other remarkable objects in the 20-ft.
+reflector, and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular
+course of sweeping."
+
+  To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour completed
+  during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen would
+  require the transcription of a considerable portion of the _Cape
+  Observations_, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance;
+  although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from
+  Sir William's "Memoirs," now scattered through some thirty volumes of
+  the _Philosophical Transactions_. It was published, at the sole
+  expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till 1847, nine
+  years after the author's return to England, for the cogent reason,
+  that as he said, "The whole of the observations, as well as the entire
+  work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for the press, have
+  been executed by myself." There are 164 pages of catalogues of
+  southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then careful and
+  elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of the region
+  surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour and the thought
+  bestowed upon some of these objects are almost incredible; several
+  months were spent upon a minute spot in the heavens containing 1216
+  stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held at a distance of an arm's
+  length, would eclipse. These catalogues and charts being completed, he
+  proceeded to discuss their significance. He confirmed his father's
+  hypothesis that these wonderful masses of glowing vapours are not
+  irregularly scattered over the visible heavens, but are collected in a
+  sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of that vast stratum of
+  stars in which our solar system finds itself buried, as Herschel
+  supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average distance
+  from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his catalogue of
+  the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern double stars, to
+  one of which, [gamma] Virginis, he applied the beautiful method of
+  orbital determination invented by himself, and he had the satisfaction
+  of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the components
+  would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up into a
+  single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next chapter
+  he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying and relative
+  brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed how his father
+  began his scientific career by similar observations on stellar
+  light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years afterwards in
+  the question whether the radiative changes of our sun, due to the
+  presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests and the price
+  of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther, pointing out that
+  variations to the extent of half a magnitude in the sun's brightness
+  would account for those strange alternations of semi-arctic and
+  semi-tropical climates which geological researches show to have
+  occurred in various regions of our globe.
+
+Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838. As was
+natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic greeting. By the
+queen at her coronation he was created a baronet; and, what to him was
+better than all such rewards, other men caught the contagion of his
+example, and laboured in fields similar to his own, with an adequate
+portion of his success.
+
+Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery in 1819 of the
+solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the otherwise insoluble salts
+of silver was the prelude to its use as a fixing agent in photography;
+and he invented in 1839, independently of Fox Talbot, the process of
+photography on sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the
+now well-known terms _positive_ and _negative_ to photographic images,
+and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a sensitive
+film. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes's discovery of
+fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to the spectrum, and
+by his announcement in 1845 of "epipolic dispersion," as exhibited by
+sulphate of quinine. Several other important researches connected with
+the undulatory theory of light are embodied in his treatise on "Light"
+published in the _Encyclopaedia metropolitana_.
+
+Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or philosopher if
+devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel possessed this endowment to a
+large extent; and he solaced his declining years with the translation of
+the _Iliad_ into verse, having earlier executed a similar version of
+Schiller's _Walk_. But the main work of his later life was the
+collection of all his father's catalogues of nebulae and double stars
+combined with his own observations and those of other astronomers each
+into a single volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to
+the Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_, vol. cliv. The latter work he left
+unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astronomical
+Society. That society printed a portion of it, which serves as an index
+to the observations of various astronomers on double stars up to the
+year 1866.
+
+A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will be found
+in the Royal Society's great catalogue, and from them may be gathered
+most of the records of his busy scientific life. Sir John Herschel met
+with an amount of public recognition which was unusual in the time of
+his illustrious father. Naturally he was a member of almost every
+important learned society in both hemispheres. For five years he held
+the same office of master of the mint, which more than a century before
+had belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose
+him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of parliament
+for the university of Cambridge, but neither position was desired by
+him.
+
+In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active friend; he
+had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds; he gladly lent a
+helping hand to those who consulted him in scientific difficulties; he
+never discouraged, and still less disparaged, men younger than or
+inferior to himself; he was pleased by appreciation of his work without
+being solicitous for applause; it was said of him by a discriminating
+critic, and without extravagance, that "his was a life full of serenity
+of the sage and the docile innocence of a child."
+
+He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in Kent, on the
+11th of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his age, and his remains
+are interred in Westminster Abbey close to the grave of Sir Isaac
+Newton.
+
+  Besides the laborious _Cape Observations_, Sir John Herschel was the
+  author of several books, one of which at least, _On the Study of
+  Natural Philosophy_ (1830), possesses an interest which no future
+  advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In 1849
+  came the _Outlines of Astronomy_, a volume still replete with charm
+  and instruction. His articles, "Meteorology," "Physical Geography,"
+  and "Telescope," contributed to the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+  Britannica_, were afterwards published separately. When he was at the
+  Cape he was more than once assisted in the attempts there made to
+  diffuse a love of knowledge among men not engaged in literary
+  pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his return to England,
+  published, in _Good Words_ and elsewhere, a series of papers on
+  interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently collected in a
+  volume called _Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects_. Another less
+  widely known volume is his _Collected Addresses_, in which he is seen
+  in his happiest and most instructive mood.
+
+  See also Mrs John Herschel, "Memoir of Caroline Herschel," _Month.
+  Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); _Proceedings
+  Roy. Society_, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson); _Proceedings Roy.
+  Society of Edinburgh_ vii. 543 (P. G. Tait); _Nature_ iv. 69; E.
+  Dunkin, _Obituary Notices_, p. 47; _Report Brit. Association_ (1871),
+  p. lxxxv. (Lord Kelvin); _The Times_. (May 13, 1871); R. Grant,
+  _History of Phys. Astronomy_; A. M. Clerke, _Popular Hist. of
+  Astronomy_; A. M. Clerke, _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_; J. H.
+  Madler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, Bd. ii.; _Memoires de la
+  Societe Physique de Geneve_, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions, based
+  on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by Herschel in
+  sequences of relative brightness, were published by W. Doberck in the
+  _Astrophysical Journal_, xi. 192, 270, and in _Harvard Annals_, vol.
+  xli., No. viii.     (C. P.; A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+
+HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL, 1ST BARON (1837-1899), lord chancellor of
+England, was born on the 2nd of November 1837. His father was the Rev.
+Ridley Haim Herschell, a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who,
+when a young man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a
+leading part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the
+Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled down to the
+charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware Road, in London, where
+he ministered to a large congregation. His mother was a daughter of
+William Mowbray, a merchant of Leith. He was educated at a private
+school and at University College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A.
+degree at the University of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in
+the school debating society, and he displayed there the same command of
+language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics during
+his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed during his
+school days was maintained after he became a law-student at Lincoln's
+Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of Thomas Chitty, the famous common
+law pleader, father of the late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils,
+amongst whom were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and
+Arthur Charles, afterwards judge of the queen's bench division, gave him
+the sobriquet of "the chief baron" in recognition of his superiority. He
+subsequently read with James Hannen, afterwards Lord Hannen. In 1860 he
+was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy
+days of undividedness. For four or five years he did not obtain much
+work. Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced into
+journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a living. Two
+of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved great eminence, found
+themselves in like case. One of these, Charles Russell, became lord
+chief justice of England; the other, William Court Gully, speaker of the
+House of Commons. It is said that these three friends, dining together
+during a Liverpool assize some years after they had been called, agreed
+that their prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that
+about this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and
+practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon made
+himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the northern circuit,
+and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff-gownsman. For the latter he
+was content to note briefs and draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain
+donned "silk," it was on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle
+descended.
+
+In 1872 Herschell was made a queen's counsel. He had all the necessary
+qualifications for a leader--a clear, though not resonant voice; a calm,
+logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal principles; and (greatest gift
+of all) an abundance of common sense. He never wearied the judges by
+arguing at undue length, and he knew how to retire with dignity from a
+hopeless cause. His only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a
+hostile witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins
+nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he made up for
+all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts as told in his
+client's favour with the most consummate skill. He very seldom made use
+of notes, but trusted to his memory, which he had carefully trained. By
+this means he was able to conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid
+advocate than as an outsider interested in the case anxious to assist
+the jury in arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell's business had
+become so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February of
+that year there was a general election, with the result that the
+Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty. The usual
+crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson and Henderson)
+who had been returned for Durham city were unseated, and an attack was
+then made on the seats of two other Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had
+been returned for Durham county. For one of these last Herschell was
+briefed. He made so excellent an impression on the local Radical leaders
+that they asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight's
+electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874 and 1880
+Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the House of Commons.
+He was not a frequent speaker, but a few great efforts sufficed in his
+case to gain for him a reputation as a debater. The best examples of his
+style as a private member will be found in _Hansard_ under the dates
+18th February 1876, 23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879. On the last occasion he
+carried a resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of
+promise of marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the
+damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such loss. The
+grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he acquitted himself
+during these displays obtained for him the notice of Gladstone, who in
+1880 appointed Herschell solicitor-general.
+
+Herschell's public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great value,
+particularly in dealing with the "cases for opinion" submitted by the
+Foreign Office and other departments. He was also very helpful in
+speeding government measures through the House, notably the Irish Land
+Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County
+Franchise Act 1884 and the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last
+was a bitter pill for Herschell, since it halved the representation of
+Durham city, and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the
+local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North Lonsdale
+division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful influence of Lord
+Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll, though Mr Gladstone again
+obtained a majority in the country. Herschell now thought he saw the
+solicitor-generalship slipping away from him, and along with it all
+prospect of high promotion. Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however,
+successively declined Gladstone's offer of the Woolsack, and in 1886
+Herschell, by a sudden turn of fortune's wheel, found himself in his
+forty-ninth year lord chancellor.
+
+Herschell's chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in August 1886
+Gladstone's Home Rule Bill was rejected in the Commons and his
+administration fell. In August 1892, when Gladstone returned to power,
+Herschell again became lord chancellor. In September 1893, when the
+second Home Rule Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords,
+Herschell took advantage of the opportunity to justify the "sudden
+conversion" to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by
+comparing it to the duke of Wellington's conversion to Catholic
+Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free Trade in
+1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship came to an end with
+the defeat of the Rosebery ministry.
+
+Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the judicial
+committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords, Lord
+Herschell's judgments were distinguished for their acute and subtle
+reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and, whenever the
+occasion arose, for their broad treatment of constitutional and social
+questions. He was not a profound lawyer, but his quickness of
+apprehension was such that it was an excellent substitute for great
+learning. In construing a real property will or any other document, his
+first impulse was to read it by the light of nature, and to decline to
+be influenced by the construction put by the judges on similar phrases
+occurring elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had
+acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed without
+fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield to the
+established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He was perhaps
+seen at his judicial best in _Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (1891) and
+_Allen_ v. _Flood_ (1898). Latterly he showed a tendency, which seems to
+grow on some judges, to interrupt counsel overmuch. The case last
+mentioned furnishes an example of this. The question involved was what
+constituted a molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling.
+At the close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently
+interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit, observed
+that although there might be a doubt as to what amounted to such
+molestation in point of law, the House could well understand, after that
+day's proceedings, what it was in actual practice. In addition to his
+political and judicial work, Herschell rendered many public services. In
+1888 he presided over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with
+regard to the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two
+royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccination. He
+took a great interest in the National Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts of 1889 and 1894, but
+also bestowing a good deal of time in sifting the truth of certain
+allegations which had been brought against the management of that
+society. In June 1893 he was appointed chancellor of the university of
+London in succession to the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new
+duties with the usual thoroughness. "His views of reform," according to
+Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university, "were
+always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at first they were
+not altogether popular with an important section of university opinion.
+He disarmed opposition by his intellectual power, rather than
+conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes was perhaps a little
+masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his treatment of the various
+burning questions that agitated the university during his tenure of
+office. His characteristic power of detachment was well illustrated by
+his treatment of the proposal to remove the university to the site of
+the Imperial Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time
+chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the
+removal never questioned his absolute impartiality." With the Imperial
+Institute Herschell had been officially connected from its inception. He
+was chairman of the provisional committee appointed by the prince of
+Wales to formulate a scheme for its organization, and he took an active
+part in the preparation of its charter and constitution in conjunction
+with Lord Thring, Lord James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He
+was the first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in
+India in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the
+Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting. For his
+special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in 1893, this
+being the only instance of a lord chancellor being decorated with an
+order.
+
+In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to
+represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission, which
+assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a business
+involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study of maps and
+historic documents. Not content with this, he accepted in 1898 a seat on
+the joint high commission appointed to adjust certain boundary and other
+important questions pending between Great Britain and Canada on the one
+hand and the United States on the other hand. He started for America in
+July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington. His
+fellow commissioners elected him their president. In February 1899,
+while the commission was in full swing, he had the misfortune to slip in
+the street and in falling to fracture a hip bone. His constitution,
+which at one time was a robust one, had been undermined by constant hard
+work, and proved unequal to sustaining the shock. On the 1st of March,
+only a fortnight after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel,
+Washington, a _post-mortem_ examination revealing disease of the heart.
+Mr Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the United
+States ambassador in London, the "deep sorrow" felt by President
+McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day, in the parliament
+chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell's death "as a misfortune
+to Canada and to the British Empire." A funeral service held in St
+John's Episcopal Church, Washington, was attended by the president and
+vice-president of the United States, by the cabinet ministers, the
+judges of the Supreme Court, the members of the joint high commission,
+and a large number of senators and other representative men. The body
+was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second funeral
+service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was conveyed to its
+final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the parish church of which
+he had been married. Herschell left a widow, granddaughter of
+Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son, Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who
+succeeded him as second baron; and two daughters.
+
+  A "reminiscence" of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (Lord Selby) will be
+  found in _The Law Quarterly Review_ for April 1899. _The Journal of
+  the Society of Comparative Legislation_ (of which he had been
+  president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July
+  of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord
+  Davey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend), and
+  also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks (both of
+  the United States).     (M. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERSENT, LOUIS (1777-1860), French painter, was born at Paris on the
+10th of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David, obtained the Prix de
+Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802 appeared his "Metamorphosis of
+Narcissus," and he continued to exhibit with rare interruptions up to
+1831. His most considerable works under the empire were "Achilles
+parting from Briseis," and "Atala dying in the arms of Chactas" (both
+engraved in Landon's _Annales du Musee_); an "Incident of the life of
+Fenelon," painted in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and "Passage of
+the Bridge at Landshut," which belongs to the same date, is now at
+Versailles. Hersent's typical works, however, belong to the period of
+the Restoration; "Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted" (Versailles) and
+"Daphnis and Chloe" (engraved by Langier and by Gelee) were both in the
+Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the "Abdication of Gustavus Vasa" brought
+to Hersent a medal of honour, but the picture, purchased by the duke of
+Orleans, was destroyed at the Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by
+Henriquel-Dupont is now its sole record. "Ruth," produced in 1822,
+became the property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent
+rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him officer of
+the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the Institute, where he
+replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in favour under Charles X., for
+whom was executed "Monks of Mount St Gotthard," exhibited in 1824. In
+1831 Hersent made his last appearance at the Salon with portraits of
+Louis Philippe, Marie-Amelie and the duke of Montpensier; that of the
+king though good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Berlin),
+which is probably Hersent's _chef-d'oeuvre_. After this date Hersent
+ceased to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an
+excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to the
+rooms of the Societe d'Artistes, he could not be tempted from his usual
+reserve even by the international contest of 1855. He died on the 2nd of
+October 1860.
+
+
+
+
+HERSFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the Geis and Haun with the
+Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of
+Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688. Some of the old fortifications of the town
+remain, but the ramparts and ditches have been laid out as promenades.
+The principal buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic
+building, erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and
+a large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the ruins
+of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of the
+cathedral in the beginning of the 12th century; it was built in the
+Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761. Outside the
+town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on both of which are
+monastic ruins. Among the public institutions are a gymnasium and a
+military school. The town has important manufactures of cloth, leather
+and machinery; it has also dye-works, worsted mills and soap-boiling
+works.
+
+Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see below). It
+became a town in the 12th century and in 1370 the burghers, having
+meanwhile shaken off the authority of the abbots, placed themselves
+under the protection of the landgraves of Hesse. It was taken and
+retaken during the Thirty Years' War and later it suffered from the
+attacks of the French.
+
+The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus, afterwards
+archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly endowed by Charlemagne and
+became an ecclesiastical principality in the 12th century, passing under
+the protection of the landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in
+1648, having been previously administered for some years by a member of
+the ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed to
+Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in 1866. In the
+middle ages the abbey was famous for its library.
+
+  See Vigelius, _Denkwurdigkeiten von Hersfeld_ (Hersfeld, 1888); Demme,
+  _Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld_ (Hersfeld,
+  1891-1901), and P. Hafner, _Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte des
+  13ten Jahrhunderts_ (Hersfeld, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+
+HERSTAL, or HERISTAL, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N. of Liege and
+practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed to be derived from
+_Heerstelle_, i.e. "Permanent Camp." The second Pippin was born here,
+and this mayor of the palace acquired the control of the kingdom of the
+Franks. His grandson, Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in A.D. 768, and
+it disputes with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of
+Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and steel
+manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and cannon foundry
+are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114.
+
+
+
+
+HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The English earldom of Hertford was
+held by members of the powerful family of Clare from about 1138, when
+Gilbert de Clare was created earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl
+Gilbert was killed at Bannockburn. In 1537 EDWARD SEYMOUR, viscount
+Beauchamp, a brother of Henry VIII.'s queen, Jane Seymour, was created
+earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the dignity of duke
+of Somerset and becoming protector of England. His son EDWARD (c.
+1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from 1547 until the protector's
+attainder and death in January 1552, when the title was forfeited; in
+1559, however, he was created earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly
+married to Lady Catherine Grey (c. 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey,
+duke of Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth greatly
+disliked this union, and both husband and wife were imprisoned, while
+the validity of their marriage was questioned. Catherine died on the
+27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the 6th of April 1621. Their son
+Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561-1612), who inherited his mother's title to
+the English throne, predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded
+in the earldom by his grandson WILLIAM SEYMOUR (1588-1660), who was
+created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his ancestor's
+dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess of Hertford became
+extinct when JOHN, 4th duke of Somerset, died in 1675, and the earldom
+when ALGERNON, the 7th duke, died in February 1750.
+
+In August 1750 FRANCIS SEYMOUR CONWAY, 2nd Baron Conway (1718-1794), who
+was a direct descendant of the protector Somerset, was created earl of
+Hertford; this nobleman was the son of Francis Seymour Conway
+(1679-1732), who had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of
+Seymour, and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway.
+Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of the household from
+1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his "decorum and piety" and
+refers to him as a "perfect courtier," but says that he had "too great
+propensity to heap emoluments on his children." In 1793 he became earl
+of Yarmouth and marquess of Hertford, and he died on the 14th of June
+1794. His son, FRANCIS INGRAM SEYMOUR CONWAY (1743-1822), who was known
+during his father's lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a prominent part in
+the debates of the House of Commons from 1766 until he succeeded to the
+marquessate in 1794. He was sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in
+1793 and from 1812 to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son FRANCIS
+CHARLES, the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the
+prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the
+"Marquis of Steyne" in Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_ and of "Lord Monmouth"
+in Disraeli's _Coningsby_. The 4th marquess was his son, RICHARD
+(1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress, Maria Emily Fagniani,
+and whose brother was Lord Henry Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the
+Jockey Club at Paris. When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August
+1870 his title passed to his kinsman, FRANCIS HUGH GEORGE SEYMOUR
+(1812-1884), a descendant of the 1st marquess, whose son, HUGH DE GREY
+(b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th marquess left his great
+wealth and his priceless collection of art treasures to Sir Richard
+Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half-brother, and Wallace's widow, who
+died in 1897, bequeathed the collection to the British nation. It is now
+in Hertford House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of
+Hertford.
+
+
+
+
+
+HERTFORD, a market-town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parliamentary division of the
+county, 24 m. N. from London, the terminus of branch lines of the Great
+Eastern and Great Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly
+situated in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the
+modern churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old
+ones, a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and the
+old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating from the
+Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque Jacobean building of
+brick, largely modernized. There are several educational establishments,
+including the preparatory school for Christ's Hospital, a picturesque
+building (in great part, however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town,
+Hale's grammar school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat
+school for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of
+the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the East
+India Company for their civil service students, who were then
+temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies high above the
+Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a stretch of
+finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable agricultural trade,
+and there are maltings, breweries, iron foundries, and oriental printing
+works. The town is governed by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors.
+Area, 1134 acres.
+
+Hertford (_Herutford_, _Heorotford_, _Hurtford_) was the scene of a
+synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the Lea and the
+Thames gave it strategic importance during the Danish occupation of East
+Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a royal garrison and burgh. It made
+separate payments for aids to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331
+was governed by a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter
+incorporated the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed under
+Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor, aldermen and
+commonalty was effective until the Municipal Corporation Act. Hertford
+returned two burgesses to the parliament of 1298, and to others until,
+after 1375/6, such right became abeyant, to be restored by order of
+parliament in 1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation
+Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution Act in
+1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or confirmed those
+held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and of St Simon and St
+Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs were confirmed by Elizabeth
+and Charles II. Another on the vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity
+of the Virgin was granted by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day
+under James I. Modern fairs are on the third Saturday before Easter, the
+12th of May, the 5th of July and the 8th of November. Markets were held
+in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on Thursday and Saturday;
+and they returned to Wednesdays and Saturdays in 1680.
+
+
+
+
+HERTFORDSHIRE [HERTS], a county of England, bounded N. by
+Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex, S. by Middlesex, and
+S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 634.6 sq. m., the county being the
+sixth smallest in England. Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface
+generally undulating, while in some parts, where these undulations form
+a quick succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes
+very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood of
+Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and north
+considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing
+north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of the
+county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and
+Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills under the
+name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft. near Dunstable,
+sinking gradually north-eastward. These uplands are generally bare, and
+in parts remarkably sparsely populated as compared with the home
+counties at large. In the greater part of the county, however, rich
+arable lands are intermingled with the parks and woodlands of numerous
+fine country seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of
+the principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire,
+enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield, then
+E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and passing along the
+eastern boundary of the county falls into the Thames below London. It
+receives in its course the Maran, or Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the
+Stort, all joining on the north side; the Stort for some distance
+forming the county boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the
+south-western part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines. It
+receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel, rising in the
+N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the Great Ouse. To the south
+of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two streams of moderate size are lost in
+pot-holes, except in the highest floods. The New River, one of the water
+supplies of London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel
+with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout in
+the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are carefully
+preserved.
+
+  _Geology._--The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow syncline
+  known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-easterly
+  direction. The two most important formations are the Chalk, which
+  forms the high ground in the north and west; and the Eocene Reading
+  beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part of the
+  county. On the northern boundary, at the foot of the chalk hills, a
+  small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand above it falls just
+  within the county. The lowest subdivision of the chalk is the Chalk
+  Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it, lies at the base of
+  the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and Miswell to Tring. Above
+  these beds, the Lower Chalk, without flints, rises up sharply to form
+  the downs which are the easterly continuation of the Chiltern Hills.
+  Next comes the Chalk Rock, which being a hard bed, lies near the
+  hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk
+  slopes southward towards the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The
+  Reading beds consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter
+  are frequently hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous
+  cement, known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay,
+  a stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon
+  the Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at
+  Micklefield Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by
+  the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of
+  Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a
+  great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been
+  disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was formerly
+  used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime. Reading beds
+  and London clay are dug for brick-making at Watford, Hertford and
+  Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated from the base of the
+  Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop; the Marl is worked for
+  cement.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is mild, dry and generally
+healthy. On this account London physicians were formerly accustomed to
+recommend the county to persons in weak health, and it was so much
+coveted by the noble and wealthy as a place of residence that it was a
+common saying that "he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years'
+purchase for the air." Of the total area about four-fifths is under
+cultivation, and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture.
+The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of the
+area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties mostly grown
+are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of any English county.
+Wheathampstead on the upper Lea receives its name from the fine quality
+of the wheat grown in that district. Barley is largely used in the
+county for malting purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables,
+and the greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are
+some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near
+Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area occupied by
+green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds, many cows being kept
+for the supply of milk and butter to London. The quantity of stock is
+generally small, but increasing except in the case of sheep, of which
+the numbers have greatly decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the
+Suffolk variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between
+Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities of
+cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London market; and
+on the best soils near London vegetables are forced by the aid of
+manure, and more than one crop is sometimes obtained in a year. A
+considerable industry lies in the growth of watercresses in the pure
+water of the upper parts of the rivers and the smaller streams. There
+are a number of rose-gardens and nurseries.
+
+_Other Industries._--The manufacturing industries are slight; though the
+great brewing establishments at Watford may be mentioned, and
+straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building, tanning and brick-making
+are carried on in various towns.
+
+_Communications._--Owing to its proximity to the metropolis,
+Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the eastern
+border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line) with branches to
+Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line of the Great Northern passes
+through the centre by Hatfield, Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches
+from Hatfield to Hertford, to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and
+from Hitchin to Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes
+through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel Hempstead. The
+London & North-Western traverses the south-west by Watford,
+Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to Rickmansworth and to St
+Albans. The Metropolitan & Great Central joint line serves
+Rickmansworth, and suburban lines of the Great Northern the Barnet
+district. The existence of these communications has combined with the
+natural attractions of the county to cause many villages to become large
+residential centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford,
+Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the Lea and Stort
+Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from London to the north-west
+traverses the south-western corner of the county by Rickmansworth and
+Berkhampstead. Three great highways from London to the north traverse
+the county. The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and St
+Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great North Road
+branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and passes Potter's Bar,
+Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a branch from Welwyn to Hitchin
+and beyond. Another road follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs
+to Royston, being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known
+as the Old North Road.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162, and in 1901 of
+250,152. The area of the administrative county is 404,518 acres. The
+county comprises eight hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Hemel
+Hempstead (11,264), Hertford (9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The
+other urban districts are: Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead
+(Great Berkhampstead, 5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564),
+Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden (4725),
+Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711), Rickmansworth (5627), Royston
+(3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957), Tring (4349), Ware
+(5573) and Watford (29,327). The county is in the home circuit, and
+assizes are held at Hertford. It has two courts of quarter-sessions, and
+is divided into 15 petty-sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hertford
+and St Albans have separate commissions of the peace. The total number
+of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of, or in
+which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, London, are
+included in the metropolitan police district. The county contains 170
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part; it is nearly
+all in the diocese of St Albans, but small parts are in the dioceses of
+Ely, Oxford and London. It is divided into four parliamentary
+divisions--Northern or Hitchin, Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans,
+Western or Watford, each returning one member. There is no parliamentary
+borough within the county.
+
+_History._--Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in Hertfordshire
+for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin. The diocesan limits show
+that part of the shire was included in the West Saxon kingdom. The East
+Saxons, as early as the 6th century, were settled about Hertford, which
+in 673 was sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod
+convened by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the
+Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with
+Hatfield. In the 9th century the district was frequently visited by the
+Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east of the Lea was
+included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the Elder erected forts on both
+sides of the river at Hertford.
+
+After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertfordshire and
+ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest received its formal
+ratification. In the sweeping confiscation of estates which followed,
+the church was generously endowed, the abbey of St Albans alone holding
+172 hides, while Count Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a
+vast fief in the north-east of the county. Large estates were held by
+Geoffrey de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of
+the county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east of
+England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony. Berkhampstead
+was the head of an honour carved from the fief of Robert of Mortain. The
+Hertfordshire estates, however, for the most part changed hands very
+frequently and the county is noticeably lacking in historic families.
+Edmund Langley, fifth son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in
+this county.
+
+During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of Salisbury
+and Falkes de Breaute had the king's orders to ravage Hertfordshire, and
+in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and Berkhampstead Castle besieged
+by Louis of France, who had come over by invitation of the barons. At
+the time of the rising of 1381 the abbot's tenants broke into the abbey
+of St Albans and forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the
+Wars of the Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the
+second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen
+Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the earl at Barnet. On
+the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, Hertfordshire joined
+with Bedfordshire and Essex in petitioning for peace, and St Albans
+again played an important part in the struggle, being at different times
+the headquarters of Essex and Fairfax.
+
+As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the
+district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected at
+Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1011. At the
+time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were approximately those of
+the present day, but part of Meppershall in Bedfordshire formed a
+detached portion of the shire and is still assessed for land and income
+tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and
+Tring were consolidated about 1200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern
+hundred of Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known
+as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond approximately
+both in name and extent with those of the present day.
+
+Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of London and
+Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln diocese formed part
+of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and comprised the deaneries of
+Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and Baldock, and the archdeaconry and
+deanery of St Albans; while that part within the London diocese formed
+the deanery of Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535
+the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London
+diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the whole
+county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and archdeaconry of St
+Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of Welwyn, Bennington,
+Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware were created, and that of
+Braughing abolished. In 1864 the archdeaconries of Rochester and St
+Albans were united under the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and
+St Albans. In 1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of
+St Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries being
+unchanged.
+
+Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time of its
+first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and were united
+under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held at Hertford.
+The hundred of St Albans was at an early date constituted a separate
+liberty, with independent courts and coroners under the control of the
+abbot; it preserved a separate commission of the peace until 1874, when
+by act of parliament the county was arranged in two divisions, the
+eastern division being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of
+St Albans. These divisions have since been abolished.
+
+Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few
+manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth was
+derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their water meadows,
+woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and water-mills, the shire on
+its eastern side being noticeably free from waste land. In Norman times
+the woollen trade was considerable, and the great corn market at Royston
+has been famous since the reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil
+War the malting industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was
+produced in the county. In the 17th century Hertfordshire was famous for
+its horses, and the 18th century saw the introduction of several minor
+industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making and silk weaving.
+
+In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament, and in 1298
+the borough of Hertford was represented. St Albans, Bishop Stortford and
+Berkhampstead acquired representation in the 14th century, but from 1375
+to 1553 no returns were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained
+representation in 1553 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of
+1832 the county returned three members. St Albans was disfranchised on
+account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one member in 1868, and was
+disfranchised by the act of 1885.
+
+_Antiquities._--Among the objects of antiquarian interest may be
+mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a hermitage;
+Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where rested the body of
+Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to Westminster for interment;
+and the Great Bed of Ware referred to in Shakespeare's _Twelfth Night_
+and preserved at Rye House. The principal monastic buildings are the
+noble pile of St Albans abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine
+nunnery near St Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of
+Ware, dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of
+St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory at Hitchin
+built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the more interesting
+churches may be mentioned those of Abbots Langley and Hemel Hempstead,
+both of Late Norman architecture; Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic
+building supposed to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the
+reign of Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons
+regular; Hitchin of the 15th century; Hatfield, dating from the 13th
+century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in the
+Perpendicular style, with a tower of the 16th century. Sandridge church
+shows good Norman work with the use of Roman bricks; Wheathampstead
+church, mainly very fine Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains
+of secular buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle,
+Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight
+traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey. Among the
+numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in the reign of Henry
+VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the principal agents in the plot to
+assassinate Charles II. Moor Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of
+St Albans abbey, was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of
+Oxford, and was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who
+built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently cased with
+Portland stone and received various other additions. Knebworth, the seat
+of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman fortress, rebuilt in the time of
+Elizabeth in the Tudor style and restored in the 19th century. Hatfield
+House is the seat of the marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history
+is of great interest, as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger
+House, until recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid
+mansion in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the 19th century.
+The manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was
+formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was rebuilt in
+the beginning of the 19th century from designs by Wyatt. Gorhambury
+House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl of Verulam, formerly the
+seat of the Bacons, and the residence of the great chancellor, was
+rebuilt at the close of the 18th century. At Kings Langley and Hunsdon
+were also former royal residences.
+
+  See Sir H. Chauncy, _Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire_ (London,
+  1700, 2nd ed., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, _History of
+  Hertfordshire_ (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, _History and
+  Antiquities of the County of Hertford_ (London, 1815-1827); W. Berry,
+  _Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families_ (London, 1844); J. E.
+  Cussans, _History of Hertfordshire_ (London, 1870-1881); _Victoria
+  County History, Hertfordshire_ (London, 1902, &c.); see also
+  "Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634," in _Harleian Society's
+  Publ._ vol. xvii., and various papers in _Middlesex and Hertfordshire
+  Notes and Queries_ (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incorporated
+  in the _Home Counties_ Magazine.
+
+
+
+
+HERTHA, or NERTHUS, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess of fertility,
+"Mother Earth." Tacitus states that many Teutonic tribes worshipped her
+with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated at night. The chief seat of
+her cult was an island which has not been identified. A single priest
+performed the service. Her veiled statue was moved from place to place
+by sacred cows on which none but the priest might lay hands. At the
+conclusion of the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were
+bathed in a lake.
+
+
+
+
+HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857-1894), German physicist, was born at
+Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving school he determined to
+adopt the profession of engineering, and in the pursuance of this
+decision went to study in Munich in 1877. But soon coming to the
+conclusion that engineering was not his vocation he abandoned it in
+favour of physical science, and in October 1878 began to attend the
+lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In
+preparation for these he spent the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up
+original treatises like those of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and
+mechanics, and in attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von
+Jolly and J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few
+days of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into
+original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best
+solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the
+University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper which was
+published in 1880 on the "Kinetic Energy of Electricity in Motion." His
+next investigation, on "Induction in Rotating Spheres," he offered in
+1880 as his dissertation for his doctor's degree, which he obtained with
+the rare distinction of _summa cum laude_. Later in the same year he
+became assistant to Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin
+Institute. During the three years he held this position he carried out
+researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation and
+the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the special
+commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel, becoming
+_Privatdozent_, and there he began the studies in Maxwell's
+electromagnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the
+discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually made
+between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics in the Carlsruhe
+Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their origin is to be sought in a
+prize problem proposed by the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1879, having
+reference to the experimental establishment of some relation between
+electromagnetic forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators.
+Imagining that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by
+him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised him the
+assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the subject; but
+Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time, because he could not
+think of any procedure likely to prove effective. It was of course well
+known, as a necessity of Maxwell's mathematical theory, that the
+polarization and depolarization of an insulator must give rise to the
+same electromagnetic effects in the neighbourhood as a voltaic current
+in a conductor. The experimental proof, however, was still lacking, and
+though several experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was
+the first who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing
+his inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the
+progressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to
+measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to show
+that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their
+susceptibility to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in
+complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The result,
+was in Helmholtz's words, to establish beyond doubt that ordinary light
+consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading ether which
+possesses the properties of an insulator and of a magnetic medium. Hertz
+himself gave an admirable account of the significance of his discoveries
+in a lecture on the relations between light and electricity, delivered
+before the German Society for the Advancement of Natural Science and
+Medicine at Heidelberg in September 1889. Since the time of these early
+experiments, various other modes of detecting the existence of electric
+waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which he first
+employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest interest of
+which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of an abstruse
+mathematical theory, have been applied to the practical purposes of
+signalling over considerable distances (see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). In
+1889 Hertz was appointed to succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary
+professor of physics in the university of Bonn. There he continued his
+researches on the discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just
+missing the discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Rontgen a few
+years later, and produced his treatise on the _Principles of Mechanics_.
+This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on the
+1st of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one of her most
+promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one of all his pupils who
+had penetrated farthest into his own circle of scientific thought, and
+looked to him with the greatest confidence for the further extension and
+development of his work.
+
+  Hertz's scientific papers were translated into English by Professor D.
+  E. Jones, and published in three volumes: _Electric Waves_ (1893),
+  _Miscellaneous Papers_ (1896), and _Principles of Mechanics_ (1899).
+  The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the
+  introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard
+  and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with
+  statements of the scope and significance of his investigations.
+
+
+
+
+HERTZ, HENRIK (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of Jewish parents in
+Copenhagen on the 25th of August 1798. In 1817 he was sent to the
+university. His father died in his infancy, and the family property was
+destroyed in the bombardment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his
+relative, M. L. Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz
+passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for polite
+literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, _Mr
+Burchardt and his Family_ and _Love and Policy_; in 1828 followed the
+comedy of _Flyttedagen_. In 1830 he brought out what was a complete
+novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in rhymed verse, _Amor's Strokes
+of Genius_. In the same year Hertz published anonymously
+_Gengangerbrevene_, or Letters from a Ghost, which he pretended were
+written by Baggesen, who had died in 1826. The book was written in
+defence of J. L. Heiberg, and was full of satirical humour and fine
+critical insight. Its success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his
+anonymity, and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832
+he published a didactic poem, _Nature and Art_, and _Four Poetical
+Epistles_. _A Day on the Island of Als_ was his next comedy, followed in
+1835 by _The Only Fault_. Hertz passed through Germany and Switzerland
+into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and returned the
+following autumn through France to Denmark. In 1836 his comedy of _The
+Savings Bank_ enjoyed a great success. But it was not till 1837 that he
+gave the full measure of his genius in the romantic national drama of
+_Svend Dyrings Hus_, a beautiful and original piece. His historical
+tragedy _Valdemar Atterdag_ was not so well received in 1839; but in
+1845 he achieved an immense success with his lyrical drama _Kong Rene's
+Datter_ (King Rene's Daughter), which has been translated into almost
+every European language. To this succeeded the tragedy of _Ninon_ in
+1848, the romantic comedy of _Tonietta_ in 1849, _A Sacrifice_ in 1853,
+_The Youngest_ in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive
+collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he edited a
+literary journal entitled _Weekly Leaves_. His last drama, _Three Days
+in Padua_, was produced in 1869, and he died on the 25th of February of
+the next year.
+
+Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems are full of
+colour and passion, his versification has more witchcraft in it than any
+other poet's of his age, and his style is grace itself. He has all the
+sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity to the antique. As a
+romantic dramatist he is scarcely less original. He has bequeathed to
+the Danish theatre, in _Svend Dyrings Hus_ and _King Rene's Daughter_,
+two pieces which have become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he
+has little or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best
+when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing south.
+
+  His _Dramatic Works_ (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in
+  1854-1873; and his _Poems_ (4 vols.) in 1851-1862.
+
+
+
+
+HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH, COUNT VON (1725-1795), Prussian statesman,
+who came of a noble family which had been settled in Pomerania since the
+13th century, was born at Lottin, in that province, on the 2nd of
+September 1725. After 1739 he studied, chiefly classics and history at
+the gymnasium at Stettin, and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as
+a student of jurisprudence, becoming in due course a doctor of laws in
+1745. In addition to this principal study, he was also interested while
+at the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff)
+studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled _Jus publicum
+Brandenburgicum_, was not printed, because it contained a criticism of
+the existing condition of the state. Shortly afterwards Hertzberg
+entered the government service, in which he was first employed in the
+department of the state archives (of which he became director in 1750),
+soon after in the foreign office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister
+(_Cabinetsminister_). In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen,
+a marriage which was happy, but childless.
+
+For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part in the
+Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive influence on
+Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and Frederick William
+II. At the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756) he took part as a
+political writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg quarrel, both in his
+_Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, sich wider die
+Absichten des Wienerischen Hofes zu setzen und deren Ausfuhrung
+zuvorzukommen_ ("Motives which have induced the king of Prussia to
+oppose the intentions of the court of Vienna, and to prevent them from
+being carried into effect"), and in his _Memoire raisonne sur la
+conduite des cours de Vienne et de Saxe_, based on the secret papers
+taken by Frederick the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the
+defeat at Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the
+national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the
+protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the same year he
+conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden, and was of great service
+in bringing about the peace of Hubertsburg (1763), on the conclusion of
+which the king received him with the words, "I congratulate you. You
+have made peace as I made war, one against many."
+
+In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great's reign, Hertzberg
+played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a memoir based
+upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended the Prussian claims
+to certain provinces of Poland. He also took part successfully as a
+publicist in the negotiations concerning the question of the Bavarian
+succession (1778) and those of the peace of Teschen (1779). But in 1780
+he failed to uphold Prussian interests at the election of the bishop of
+Munster. In 1784 appeared Hertzberg's memoir containing a thorough study
+of the _Furstenbund_. He championed this latest creation of Frederick
+the Great's mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the empire,
+though the idea of German unity was naturally still far from his mind.
+In 1785 followed "An explanation of the motives which have led the king
+of Prussia to propose to the other high estates of the empire an
+association for the maintenance of the system of the empire" (_Erklarung
+der Ursachen, welche S.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen
+Mitstanden des Reichs eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems
+anzutragen_). By upholding the Furstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies,
+prominent among whom was the king's brother, Prince Henry. Though the
+_Furstenbund_ failed to effect a reform of the empire, it at any rate
+prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II.'s old desire for the
+incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of state in which
+Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great was the commercial treaty
+concluded in 1785 between Prussia and the United States.
+
+With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood in very
+intimate personal relations and was often the king's guest at
+Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential position at the
+court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king at once received him
+with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertzberg's elevation to the rank
+of count in 1786; and Mirabeau would never have attacked him with such
+violence in his _Secret History of the Court of Berlin_, which appeared
+in 1788, if he had not seen in him the most powerful man after the king.
+In this attack Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg's
+personal enemies at the court. Hertzberg's political system remained on
+the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had been under his
+predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a sharp opposition to the
+house of Habsburg and by a desire to win for Prussia the support of
+England, a policy supported by him in important memoirs of the years
+1786 and 1787. His diplomacy was directed also against Austria's old
+ally, France. Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in
+spite of the king's unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in
+Holland in support of the stadtholder William V. against the democratic
+French party (see HOLLAND: _History_). The success of this intervention,
+which was the practical realization of a plan very characteristic of
+Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in his career.
+
+But the opposition between him and the new king, which had already
+appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple alliance between
+Holland, England and Prussia, became more marked in the following years,
+when Hertzberg, relying upon this alliance, and in conscious imitation
+of Frederick II.'s policy at the time of the first partition of Poland,
+sought to take advantage of the entanglement of Austria with Russia in
+the war with Turkey to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by
+diplomatic intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her
+mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments
+that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and Thorn as her
+portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the restoration of the
+hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and secretly cherished the hope of
+restoring Frederick the Great's Russian alliance.
+
+With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims even when,
+owing to military and diplomatic events, they were already partly out of
+date. His personal position became increasingly difficult, as
+deep-rooted differences between him and the king were revealed during
+these diplomatic campaigns. Hertzberg wished to effect everything by
+peaceful means, while Frederick William II. was for a time determined on
+war with Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into
+conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the total
+annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the attitude of
+king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences at
+Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition became more and more
+acute, and Hertzberg was only with difficulty persuaded to come to an
+agreement merely on the basis of the _status_ quo, as demanded by Pitt.
+The king's renunciation of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's
+eyes impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. A
+letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which Hertzberg severely
+criticized the king's foreign policy, and especially his plans for
+attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on the 5th of July 1791. He
+afterwards made several attempts to exert an influence over foreign
+affairs, but in vain. The king showed himself more and more personally
+hostile to the ex-minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now
+quite embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering
+his letters to be opened.
+
+Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in the
+ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, made it so
+difficult for him to use the archives that in the end Hertzberg entirely
+gave up the attempt. He found, however, some recompense for all his
+disillusionment and discouragement in learning, and, Wilhelm von
+Humboldt excepted, he was the most learned of all the Prussian
+ministers. As a member of the Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786
+onwards, as its curator, Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable
+activity in the world of learning. His yearly reports dealt with
+history, statistics and political science. The most interesting is that
+of 1784: _Sur la forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure_.
+This is directed exclusively against the absolute system (following
+Montesquieu), upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending
+to the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke for
+the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages of
+monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation, since
+Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the financial situation,
+which in the days of absolutism seemed an unprecedented innovation.
+Besides this, Hertzberg exerted himself as an academician to change the
+strongly French character of the Academy and make it into a truly German
+institution. He showed a keen interest in the old German language and
+literature. A special "German deputation" was set aside at the Academy
+and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and dictionary. He
+also stood in very close relations with many of the German poets of the
+time, and especially with Daniel Schubart. Among the German historians
+in whom he took a great interest, he had the greatest esteem for
+Pufendorf. He was equally concerned in the improvement of the state of
+education. In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature,
+which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous writing
+_De la litterature allemande_.
+
+Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be a
+successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified many of
+his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is honoured. He died at
+Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(1) By Hertzberg himself: The _Memoires de l'Academie_
+  from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most noteworthy of
+  them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: _Histoire de la
+  dissertation [du roi] sur la litterature allemande_; see also _Recueil
+  des deductions, &c., qui ont ete rediges ... pour la cour de Prusse
+  par le ministre_ (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Autobiographical
+  Sketch" published by Hopke in Schmidt's _Zeitschrift fur
+  Geschichtswissenschaft_, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with
+  Hertzberg: Mirabeau, _Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin_ (1788);
+  P. F. Weddigen, _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt,
+  _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Tubingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in _Neustettiner
+  Programm_ (1862); E. Fischer, in _Staatsanzeiger_ (1873); M. Duncker,
+  in _Historische Zeitschrift_ (1877); Paul Bailleu, in _Historische
+  Zeitschrift_ (1879); and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880); H.
+  Petrich, _Pommersche Lebensbilder_ i. (1880); G. Dressler, _Friedrich
+  II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den hollandischen Wirren_,
+  Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, _Hertzberg als Minister
+  Friedrich Wilhelms II_. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in
+  _Historische Vierteljahrschrift_, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, _Ewald
+  Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg_ (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F.
+  K. Wittichen, _Preussen und England, 1785-1788_ (Heidelberg, 1902); F.
+  Luckwaldt, _Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den
+  Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte_, Bd. 15, and
+  in the _Delbruckfestschrift_ (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, _System der
+  preussischen Geheimpolitik_ 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation,
+  1903); P. Wittichen, _Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790_
+  (Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, _Preussische und russische Politik in
+  Polen_ 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck,
+  _Deutschland vor 100 Jahren_ (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack,
+  _Geschichte der preussischen Akademie_ (4 vols., 1899); Consentius,
+  _Preussische Jahrbucher_ (1904); J. Hashagen, "Hertzbergs Verhaltnis
+  zur deutschen Literatur," in _Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie_ for
+  1903.     (J. Hn.)
+
+
+
+
+HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was born at Moscow, a
+very short time before the occupation of that city by the French. His
+father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal interview with Napoleon, was
+allowed to leave, when the invaders arrived, as the bearer of a letter
+from the French to the Russian emperor. His family attended him to the
+Russian lines. Then the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German
+Protestant of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von
+Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak Russian,
+was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's hut. A year
+later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen passed his
+youth--remaining there, after completing his studies at the university,
+till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a charge of having
+assisted, with some other youths, at a festival during which verses by
+Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary to the emperor, were sung. The
+special commission appointed to try the youthful culprits found him
+guilty, and in 1835 he was banished to Viatka. There he remained till
+the visit to that city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards
+Alexander II.), accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being
+allowed to quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of
+the official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the
+ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of having
+spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's violence, he
+was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, with the title of
+"state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father died, leaving him by
+his will a very large property. Early in 1847 he left Russia, never to
+return. From Italy, on hearing of the revolution of 1848, he hastened to
+Paris, whence he afterwards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted
+Geneva for London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned
+to Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the 21st
+of January 1870.
+
+His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an essay, in
+Russian, on _Dilettantism in Science_, under the pseudonym of
+"Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name--convicts, even when
+pardoned, not being allowed in those days to publish under their own
+names. His second work, also in Russian, was his _Letters on the Study
+of Nature_ (1845-1846). In 1847 appeared, his novel _Kto Vinovat?_
+(Whose Fault?), and about the same time were published in Russian
+periodicals the stories which were afterwards collected and printed in
+London in 1854, under the title of _Prervannuie Razskazui_ (Interrupted
+Tales). In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian
+manuscript, _Vom anderen Ufer_ (From another Shore) and _Lettres de
+France et d'Italie_. In French appeared also his essay _Du Developpement
+des idees revolutionnaires en Russie_, and his _Memoirs_, which, after
+being printed in Russian, were translated under the title of _Le Monde
+russe et la Revolution_ (3 vols., 1860-1862), and were in part
+translated into English as _My Exile to Siberia_ (2 vols., 1855). From a
+literary point of view his most important work is _Kto Vinovat?_ a story
+describing how the domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the
+unacknowledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull,
+ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the new
+school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there being any
+possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the tragic
+termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen gained the
+vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having founded in London
+his "Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of which, during ten years, he
+gave an interesting account in a book published (in Russian) in 1863, he
+issued from it a great number of Russian works, all levelled against the
+system of government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays,
+such as his _Baptized Property_, an attack on serfdom; others were
+periodical publications, the _Polyarnaya Zvyezda_ (or Polar Star), the
+_Kolokol_ (or Bell), and the _Golosa iz Rossii_ (or Voices from Russia).
+The _Kolokol_ soon obtained an immense circulation, and exercised an
+extraordinary influence. For three years, it is true, the founders of
+the "Free Press" went on printing, "not only without selling a single
+copy, but scarcely being able to get a single copy introduced into
+Russia"; so that when at last a bookseller bought ten shillings' worth
+of _Baptized Property_, the half-sovereign was set aside by the
+surprised editors in a special place of honour. But the death of the
+emperor Nicholas in 1855 produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings,
+and the journals he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and
+their words resounded throughout that country, as well as all over
+Europe. Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden,
+evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into light and
+disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly expressed the thoughts
+which had long been secretly stirring Russian minds, and were now
+beginning to find a timid utterance at home. For some years his
+influence in Russia was a living force, the circulation of his writings
+was a vocation zealously pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a
+merchant, who had bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod,
+found that they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at
+another time a supposititious copy of the _Kolokol_ was printed for the
+emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading
+statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was omitted. At
+length the sweeping changes introduced by Alexander II. greatly
+diminished the need for and appreciation of Hertzen's assistance in the
+work of reform. The freedom he had demanded for the serfs was granted,
+the law-courts he had so long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury
+was established, liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It
+became clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish
+insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents' cause,
+his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From that time it was
+only with the revolutionary party that he was in full accord.
+
+  In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in Paris. A
+  volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published at Geneva in
+  1870. His _Memoirs_ supply the principal information about his life, a
+  sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's _Zeitgenossen_, pt.
+  7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the _Revue des deux mondes_ for July 15 and
+  Sept. 1, 1854. _Kto Vinovat?_ has been translated into German under
+  the title of _Wer ist schuld?_ in Wolffsohn's _Russlands
+  Novellendichter_, vol. iii. The title of _My Exile in Siberia_ is
+  misleading; he was never in that country.     (W. R. S.-R.)
+
+
+
+
+HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the history of the
+migration period. The name does not occur in writings of the first two
+centuries A.D. Where the original home of the Heruli was situated is
+never clearly stated. Jordanes says that they had been expelled from
+their territories by the Danes, from which it may be inferred that they
+belonged either to what is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern
+portion of the Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign
+of Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths
+ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly afterwards,
+in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth of the Rhine.
+During the 4th century they frequently served together with the Batavi
+in the Roman armies. In the 5th century we again hear of piratical
+incursions by the Heruli in the western seas. At the same time they had
+a kingdom in central Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the
+Elbe. Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by
+Theodoric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form
+an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly
+afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. A
+portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the Gotar,
+while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, where
+they are frequently mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars.
+After the middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely
+disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian
+works they are never mentioned, and there can be little doubt that they
+were known, especially among the western Teutonic peoples, by some other
+name. Probably they are identical either with the North Suabi or with
+the Iuti. The name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S.
+_eorlas_ (nobles), O.S. _erlos_ (men), the singular of which (_erilaz_)
+frequently occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a
+title of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of
+their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. When
+threatened with death by disease or old age, they were required to call
+in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. Suttee was also
+customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare and served not only in
+the Roman armies, but also in those of all the surrounding nations. They
+disdained the use of helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves
+only with shields.
+
+  See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus _Paneg. Maximi_; Ammianus
+  Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, _Chronica_; Jordanes, _De origine
+  Getarum_; Procopius, esp. _Bellum Goticum_, ii. 14 f.; _Bellum
+  Persicum_, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, i. 20; K.
+  Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_, pp. 476 ff. (Munich,
+  1837).     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish philologist, was born at
+Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May 1735. He joined the Jesuits on the
+29th of September 1745 and in course of time became successively
+professor of philosophy and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and
+Murcia. When the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervas
+settled at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his _Idea
+dell' Universo_ (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, he
+published his famous _Catalogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas_
+(6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological
+peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up grammars of forty
+languages. In 1802 he was appointed librarian of the Quirinal Palace in
+Rome, where he died on the 24th of August 1809. Max Muller credits him
+with having anticipated Humboldt, and with making "one of the most
+brilliant discoveries in the history of the science of language" by
+establishing the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of
+speech.
+
+
+
+
+HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at Hardingstone,
+near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, and was educated at the
+grammar school of Northampton, and at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he
+came under the influence of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists;
+ultimately, however, while retaining his regard for the men and his
+sympathy with their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic
+creed, and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken
+orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded his
+father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. He was
+never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous writer. His
+style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare appreciation of natural
+beauty, and his simple piety made him many friends. His earliest work,
+_Meditations and Contemplations_, said to have been modelled on Robert
+Boyle's _Occasional Reflexions on various Subjects_, within fourteen
+years passed through as many editions. _Theron and Aspasio, or a series
+of Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects_, which
+appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some
+adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies which
+were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly objected to
+by Wesley in his _Preservative against unsettled Notions in Religion_.
+Besides carrying into England the theological disputes to which the
+_Marrow of Modern Divinity_ had given rise in Scotland, it also led to
+what is known as the Sandemanian controversy as to the nature of saving
+faith. Hervey died on the 25th of December 1758.
+
+  A "new and complete" edition of his _Works_, with a memoir, appeared
+  in 1797. See also _Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, to which
+  is prefixed an account of his Life and Death_, by Dr Birch (1760).
+
+
+
+
+HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LEON, MARQUIS D' (1823-1892), French
+Orientalist and man of letters, was born in Paris in 1823. He devoted
+himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1851 published his _Recherches
+sur l'agriculture et l'horticulture des Chinois_, in which he dealt with
+the plants and animals that might be acclimatized in the West. At the
+Paris Exhibition of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese
+exhibits; in 1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese
+at the College de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of the
+Academie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works include
+_Poesies de l'epoque des T'ang_ (1862), translated from the Chinese;
+_Ethnographie des peuples etrangers a la Chine_, translated from
+Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); _Li-Sao_ (1870), from the Chinese; _Memoires
+sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius et de l'ecole des lettres_
+(1887); and translations of some Chinese stories not of classical
+interest but valuable for the light they throw on oriental custom.
+Hervey de Saint Denys also translated some works from the Spanish, and
+wrote a history of the Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of
+November 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696-1743), English statesman
+and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl of Bristol, by his second
+marriage, was born on the 13th of October 1696. He was educated at
+Westminster school and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A.
+degree in 1715. In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to
+Hanover to pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the
+court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in 1720 he
+married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's ladies-in-waiting,
+and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received the courtesy title of Lord
+Hervey on the death of his half-brother Carr, and in 1725 he was elected
+M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He had been at one time on very friendly terms
+with Frederick, prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him,
+apparently because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These
+differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws of the
+prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William
+Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole, but in 1730 he
+definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he was thenceforward a
+faithful adherent. He was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of
+_Sedition and Defamation display'd with a Dedication to the patrons of
+The Craftsman_ (1731). Pulteney, who, up to this time, had been a firm
+friend of Hervey, replied with _A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous
+Libel_, and the quarrel resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly
+escaped with his life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of
+both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth,
+apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He was able
+to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence over the queen.
+Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George
+II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of
+the privy council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ
+in virtue of his father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he
+received no further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord
+privy seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed (July
+1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, _Miscellaneous
+Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and Domestic Affairs_, shows
+that he still retained his mental vigour, but he was liable to epilepsy,
+and his weak appearance and rigid diet were a constant source of
+ridicule to his enemies. He died on the 5th of August 1743. He
+predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively earls
+of Bristol.
+
+Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George
+II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the king,
+and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their family squabbles. For the
+queen and her daughter, Princess Caroline, he had a genuine respect and
+attachment, and the princess's affection for him was commonly said to be
+the reason for the close retirement in which she lived after his death.
+The MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son,
+Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that they
+should not be published until after the death of George III. In 1848
+they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, but the MS.
+had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into
+his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the
+original. Hervey's bitter account of court life and intrigues resembles
+in many points the memoirs of Horace Walpole, and the two books
+corroborate one another in many statements that might otherwise have
+been received with suspicion.
+
+Until the publication of the _Memoirs_ Hervey was chiefly known as the
+object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works he figured
+as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally
+put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's friendship with Lady Mary
+Wortley Montagu. In the first of the _Imitations of Horace_, addressed
+to William Fortescue, "Lord Fanny" and "Sappho" were generally
+identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal
+intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the _Dunciad_ and the
+_Bathos_, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a share
+in the _Verses to the Imitator of Horace_ (1732) and it is possible that
+he was the sole author. In the _Letter from a nobleman at Hampton Court
+to a Doctor of Divinity_ (1733), he scoffed at Pope's deformity and
+humble birth. Pope's reply was a _Letter to a Noble Lord_, dated
+November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the _Epistle to Dr
+Arbuthnot_ (1735), which forms the prologue to the satires. Many of the
+insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteney's
+libel. The malicious caricature of Sporus does Hervey great injustice,
+and he is not much better treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting
+his death in a letter (14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had
+outlived his last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him
+to have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics and
+distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the weapons of
+which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost adroitness. His wife
+Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), of whom an account is to be
+found in Lady Louisa Stuart's _Anecdotes_, was a warm partisan of the
+Stuarts. She retained her wit and charm throughout her life, and has the
+distinction of being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.
+
+  See Hervey's _Memoirs of the Court of George II._, edited by J. W.
+  Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the _Dict.
+  Nat. Biog._ (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the _Memoirs_ he wrote
+  numerous political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.
+
+
+
+
+HERVIEU, PAUL (1857-   ), French dramatist and novelist, was born at
+Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He was called to the bar in
+1877, and, after serving some time in the office of the president of the
+council, he qualified for the diplomatic service, but resigned on his
+nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship in the French legation in Mexico.
+He contributed novels, tales and essays to the chief Parisian papers and
+reviews, and published a series of clever novels, including _L'Inconnu_
+(1887), _Flirt_ (1890), _L'Exorcisee_ (1891), _Peints par eux-memes_
+(1893), an ironical study written in the form of letters, and
+_L'Armature_ (1895), dramatized in 1905 by Eugene Brieux. But his most
+important work consists of a series of plays: _Les Paroles restent_
+(Vaudeville, 17th of November 1892); _Les Tenailles_ (Theatre Francais,
+28th of September 1895); _La Loi de l'homme_ (Theatre Francais, 15th of
+February 1897); _La Course du flambeau_ (Vaudeville, 17th of April
+1901); _Point de lendemain_ (Odeon, 18th of October 1901), a dramatic
+version of a story by Vivaut Denon; _L'Enigme_ (Theatre Francais, 5th of
+November 1901); _Theroigne de Mericourt_ (Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd
+of September 1902); _Le Dedale_ (Theatre Francais, 19th of December
+1903), and _Le Reveil_ (Theatre Francais, 18th of December 1905). These
+plays are built upon a severely logical method, the mechanism of which
+is sometimes so evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion.
+The closing words of _La Course du flambeau_--"_Pour ma fille, j'ai tue
+ma mere_"--are an example of his selection of a plot representing an
+extreme theory. The riddle in _L'Engime_ (staged at Wyndham's Theatre,
+London, March 1st 1902, as _Caesar's Wife_) is, however, worked out with
+great art, and _Le Dedale_, dealing with the obstacles to the remarriage
+of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces of the modern
+French stage. He was elected to the French Academy in 1900.
+
+  See A. Binet, in _L'Annee psychologique_, vol. x. Hervieu's _Theatre_
+  was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904).
+
+
+
+
+HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796-1884), Prussian general
+field-marshal, came of an aristocratic family which had supplied many
+distinguished officers to the Prussian army. He entered the Guard
+infantry in 1811, and served through the War of Liberation (1813-15),
+distinguishing himself at Lutzen and Paris. During the years of peace he
+rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 he was on
+duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. Major-general in
+1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general
+of infantry and the command of the VIIth (Westphalian) Army Corps in
+1860. In the Danish War of 1864 he succeeded to the command of the
+Prussians when Prince Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the
+Allies, and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the
+passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 Herwarth
+commanded the "Army of the Elbe" which overran Saxony and invaded
+Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. His troops won the actions
+of Huhnerwasser and Munchengratz, and at Koniggratz formed the right
+wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against
+the Austrian left flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but
+was in charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing and
+forwarding all the reserves and material required for the armies in
+France. In 1871 his great services were recognized by promotion to the
+rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at
+Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since 1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian)
+Infantry has borne his name.
+
+  See _G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld_ (Munster, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HERWEGH, GEORG (1817-1875), German political poet, was born at Stuttgart
+on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant keeper. He was educated
+at the gymnasium of his native city, and in 1835 proceeded to the
+university of Tubingen as a theological student, where, with a view to
+entering the ministry, he entered the protestant theological seminary.
+But the strict discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was
+expelled in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest of
+August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned to
+Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic post. Called out
+for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment when he
+committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled to Switzerland to
+avoid punishment. Here he published his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_
+(1841), a volume of political poems, which gave expression to the
+fervent aspirations of the German youth of the day. The work immediately
+rendered him famous, and although confiscated, it soon ran through
+several editions. The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions
+of Prince Puckler-Muskau (q.v.) in his _Briefe eines Verstorbenen_. He
+next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, visiting Jena,
+Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin--a journey which was described as being a
+"veritable triumphal progress." His military insubordination appears to
+have been forgiven and forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William
+IV. had him introduced to him and used the memorable words: "_ich liebe
+eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition_" ("I admire an opposition, when
+dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned to Paris, where he
+published in 1844 the second volume of his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_,
+which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the German police. At
+the head of a revolutionary column of German working men, recruited in
+Paris, Herwegh took an active part in the South German rising in 1848;
+but his raw troops were defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in
+Baden and, after a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to
+escape to Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of
+his literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to
+Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th of April
+1875. A monument was erected to his memory there in 1904. Besides the
+above-mentioned works, Herwegh published _Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der
+Schweiz_ (1843), and translations into German of A. de Lamartine's works
+and of seven of Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared _Neue
+Gedichte_ (1877).
+
+  Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in 1898. See
+  also Johannes Scherr, _Georg Herwegh; literarische und politische
+  Blatter_ (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in the _Allgemeine
+  deutsche Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, on the Sieber,
+25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop.
+(1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and
+a botanical garden, and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and
+weaving and dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively
+carried on here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the
+town lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession
+of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of the
+residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.
+
+
+
+
+HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the
+Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Juterbog by the railway
+Berlin-Roderau-Dresden. It has a church (Evangelical) dating from the
+13th century and a medieval town hall. Its industries include the
+founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making.
+Pop. (1905) 4043.
+
+
+
+
+HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political Zionism (q.v.),
+was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860, and died at Edlach on the
+3rd of July 1904. The greater part of his career was associated with
+Vienna, where he acquired high repute as a literary journalist. He was
+also a dramatist, and apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist
+would have found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to
+renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his work as
+the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political autonomy.
+Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of Jews under persecution,
+but he was even more powerfully moved by the difficulties experienced
+under conditions of assimilation. Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was
+both like and unlike the medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews
+continued in Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several
+national groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl
+believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the end of
+the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries had failed.
+The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but the Jews could find no
+entry into the comity of nations. The new nationalism of 1848 did not
+deprive the Jews of political rights, but it denied them both the
+amenities of friendly intercourse and the opportunity of distinction in
+the university, the army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this
+diagnosis, and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (q.v.) which
+spread over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against
+the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl published
+his famous pamphlet "Der Judenstaat." Holding that the only alternatives
+for the Jews were complete merging by intermarriage or self-preservation
+by a national re-union, he boldly advocated the second course. He did
+not at first insist on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he
+attach himself to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic
+restoration to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent, in
+the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject entirely on
+its secular side, and his solution was economic and political rather
+than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for the complete separation
+of Church and State. The influence of Herzl's pamphlet, the progress of
+the movement he initiated, the subsequent modifications of his plans,
+are told at length in the article ZIONISM.
+
+His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm, and though
+he almost completely failed to win to his cause the classes, he rallied
+the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly gained the
+accession of many Jews by race who were indifferent to the religious
+aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed to convince the leaders of Jewish
+thought, who from first to last remained (with such conspicuous
+exceptions as Nordau and Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox
+were at first cool because they had always dreamed of a nationalism
+inspired by messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to
+dissociate those universalistic ideals from all national limitations.
+Herzl, however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel
+(beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable
+scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader. At all
+these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: "the establishing for
+the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine."
+Herzl's personal charm was irresistible. Among his political opponents
+he had some close personal friends. His sincerity, his eloquence, his
+tact, his devotion, his power, were recognized on all hands. He spent
+his whole strength in the furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic
+interviews, exhausting journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant
+literary propaganda--all these methods were employed by him to the
+utmost limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the
+pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The British
+government was ready to grant land for an autonomous settlement in East
+Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl's peace of mind. Even as a
+temporary measure, the choice of an extra-Palestinian site for the
+Jewish state was bitterly opposed by many Zionists; others (with whom
+Herzl appears to have sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all
+events momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement
+elsewhere. Herzl's health had been failing and he did not long survive
+the initiation of the somewhat embittered "territorial" controversy. He
+died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation of supporters and the
+deep grief of opponents of his Zionistic aims.
+
+Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality of the
+19th century. He had no profound insight into the problem of Judaism,
+and there was no lasting validity in his view that the problem--the
+thousands of years' old mystery--could be solved by a retrogression to
+local nationality. But he brought home to Jews the perils that
+confronted them; he compelled many a "semi-detached" son of Israel to
+rejoin the camp; he forced the "assimilationists" to realize their
+position and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to "Jewish
+culture," including the popularization of Hebrew as a living speech; and
+he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an earnest and vital
+interest in their present and their future. Herzl thus left an indelible
+mark on his time, and his renown is assured whatever be the fate in
+store for the political Zionism which he founded and for which he gave
+his life.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HERZOG, HANS (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at Aarau. He became a
+Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then spent six years in
+travelling (visiting England among other countries), before he became a
+partner in his father's business in 1846. In 1847 he saw his first
+active service (as artillery captain) in the short Swiss _Sonderbund_
+war. In 1860 he abandoned mercantile pursuits for a purely military
+career, becoming colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery.
+In 1870 he was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the
+Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and in
+February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrieres with
+General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the remains of
+Bourbaki's army, when it took refuge in Switzerland. In 1875 he became
+the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery, which he did much to
+reorganize, helping also in the re-organization of the other branches of
+the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at his native town of Aarau.
+     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882), German Protestant theologian, was born
+at Basel on the 12th of September 1805. He studied at Basel and Berlin,
+and eventually (1854) settled at Erlangen as professor of church
+history. He died there on the 30th of September 1882, having retired in
+1877. His most noteworthy achievement was the publication of the
+_Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche_ (1853-1868,
+22 vols.), of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt
+(1836-1880) in 1877, and after Plitt's death with Albert Hauck (b.
+1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in 1896
+(completed in 22 vols., 1909).
+
+  His other works include _Joh. Calvin_ (1843), _Leben Okolampads_
+  (1843), _Die romanischen Waldenser_ (1853), _Abriss der gesamten
+  Kirchengeschichte_ (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig,
+  1890-1892).
+
+
+
+
+HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG (1819-1874), German author, was born on
+the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his father, distinguished as a
+writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran pastor. Hesekiel studied history
+and philosophy in Halle, Jena and Berlin, and devoted himself in early
+life to journalism and literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where
+he lived until his death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a
+considerable reputation as a writer and as editor of the _Neue
+Preussische Zeitung_. He attempted many different kinds of literary
+work, the most ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs
+_Preussenlieder_, of which he published a volume during the
+revolutionary excitement of 1848-1849. Another collection--_Neue
+Preussenlieder_--appeared in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in
+1870--_Gegen die Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Konigslieder_. Among
+his novels may be mentioned _Unter dem Eisenzahn_ (1864) and _Der
+Schultheiss vom Zeyst_ (1875). The best known of his works is his
+biography of Prince Bismarck (_Das Buch vom Fursten Bismarck_) (3rd ed.,
+1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie).
+
+
+
+
+HESILRIGE (or HESELRIG), SIR ARTHUR, 2nd Bart. (d. 1661), English
+parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Hesilrige, 1st baronet
+(c. 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a member of a very ancient
+family settled in Northumberland and Leicestershire, and of Frances,
+daughter of Sir William Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early
+imbibed strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism
+to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long Parliaments in
+1640, and took a principal part in Strafford's attainder, the Root and
+Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the 7th of December 1641, and was
+one of the five members impeached on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed
+much activity in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex,
+fought at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed
+his _fidus Achates_, and distinguished himself at the head of his
+cuirassiers, "The Lobsters," at Lansdown on the 5th of July 1643, at
+Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both of which battles he was
+wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th 1644. On the occasion of the breach
+between the army and the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former,
+took Cromwell's part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on
+the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and
+became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament. On the
+30th of December 1647 he was appointed governor of Newcastle, which he
+successfully defended, besides defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of
+July 1648 and regaining Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to
+Scotland, and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in
+1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king's execution, had
+declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the leading men in
+the Commonwealth, but Cromwell's expulsion of the Long Parliament threw
+him into antagonism, and he opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay
+taxes. He was returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656
+and 1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a seat in the
+Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him, and succeeded in again
+obtaining admission to the Commons in January 1658. On Cromwell's death
+Hesilrige refused support to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting
+his downfall. He was now one of the most influential men in the council
+and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican parliamentary
+administration, "to keep the sword subservient to the civil magistrate,"
+and opposed Lambert's schemes. On the latter succeeding in expelling the
+parliament, Hesilrige turned to Monk for support, and assisted his
+movements by securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched
+to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the 2nd of
+January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner for the army.
+He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting to his assurance of
+fidelity to "the good old cause" consented to the retirement of his
+regiment from London. At the Restoration his life was saved by Monk's
+intervention, but he was imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the
+7th of January 1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as "an absurd, bold
+man." He was rash, "hare-brained," devoid of tact and had little claim
+to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field and in
+parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary cause. He
+exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his exactions and
+appropriations of confiscated landed property, though the accusation
+brought against him by John Lilburne was examined by a parliamentary
+committee and adjudged to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances,
+daughter of Thomas Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had
+two sons and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville,
+2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters. The
+family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur Grey
+Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the _Dict. of
+  Nat. Biography_, and authorities there quoted; _Early History of the
+  Family of Hesilrige_, by W. G. D. Fletcher; _Cal. of State Papers,
+  Domestic_, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important
+  references, as also in _Hist. MSS._, _Comm. Series_, _MSS. of Earl
+  Cowper_, _Duke of Leeds_ and _Duke of Portland_; _Egerton MSS._ 2618,
+  _Harleian_ 7001 f. 198, and in the _Sloane_, _Stowe_ and _Additional_
+  collections in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, _Hist. of
+  England_, _Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth_; Clarendon's
+  _History, State Papers and Cal. of State Papers_, J. L. Sanford's
+  _Studies of the Great Rebellion_. His life is written by Noble in the
+  _House of Cromwell_, i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in
+  parliament see the catalogue of the British Museum.
+
+
+
+
+HESIOD, the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably flourished during
+the 8th century B.C. His father had migrated from the Aeolic Cyme in
+Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod and his brother Perses were born at
+Ascra, near mount Helicon (_Works and Days_, 635). Here, as he fed his
+father's flocks, he received his commission from the Muses to be their
+prophet and poet--a commission which he recognized by dedicating to them
+a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at some funeral
+games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at Helicon in the age of
+Pausanias (_Theogony_, 20-34, _W. and D._, 656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3).
+After the death of his father Hesiod is said to have left his native
+land in disgust at the result of a law-suit with his brother and to have
+migrated to Naupactus. There was a tradition that he was murdered by the
+sons of his host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in
+Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains were removed
+for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to Orchomenus in Boeotia,
+where the Ascraeans settled after the destruction of their town by the
+Thespians, and where, according to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.
+
+Hesiod's earliest poem, the famous _Works and Days_, and according to
+Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the experiences of his
+daily life and work, and, interwoven with episodes of fable, allegory,
+and personal history, forms a sort of Boeotian shepherd's calendar. The
+first portion is an ethical enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive
+of strife and idleness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules
+as to husbandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the
+months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary for rural or
+nautical employments. The connecting link of the whole poem is the
+author's advice to his brother, who appears to have bribed the corrupt
+judges to deprive Hesiod of his already scantier inheritance, and to
+whom, as he wasted his substance lounging in the agora, the poet more
+than once returned good for evil, though he tells him there will be a
+limit to this unmerited kindness. In the _Works and Days_ the episodes
+which rise above an even didactic level are the "Creation and Equipment
+of Pandora," the "Five Ages of the World" and the much-admired
+"Description of Winter" (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic). The poem
+also contains the earliest known fable in Greek literature, that of "The
+Hawk and the Nightingale." It is in the _Works and Days_ especially that
+we glean indications of Hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a
+stay-at-home farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea
+was a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned
+bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony have been
+conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having a wife as extravagant
+as himself.
+
+The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which has come down in
+great part to modern times is _The Theogony_, a work of grander scope,
+inspired alike by older traditions and abundant local associations. It
+is an attempt to work into system, as none had essayed to do before, the
+floating legends of the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This
+task Herodotus (ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato
+in the _Symposium_ (178 B) as the author of the _Theogony_. The first to
+question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias, the geographer
+(A.D. 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had no doubt on the subject; and
+indications of the hand that wrote the _Works and Days_ may be found in
+the severe strictures on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver
+Plutus and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt, of
+Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different
+recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. The
+_Theogony_ consists of three divisions--(1) a cosmogony, or creation;
+(2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of the dynasties of Zeus
+and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly terminated heroogony, the
+starting-point not improbably of the supplementary poem, the [Greek:
+katalogos], or "Lists of Women" who wedded immortals, of which all but
+a few fragments are lost.[1] The proem (1-116) addressed to the
+Heliconian and Pierian muses, is considered to have been variously
+enlarged, altered and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has
+interwoven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of Zeus
+and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description of the
+prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined, with the
+Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors (735 seq.).
+
+The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod's name is the
+_Shield of Heracles_, the opening verses of which are attributed by a
+nameless grammarian to the fourth book of _Eoiai_. The theme of the
+piece is the expedition of Heracles and Iolaus against the robber
+Cycnus; but its main object apparently is to describe the shield of
+Heracles (141-317). It is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of
+the shield of Achilles (_Iliad_, xviii. 479) and is now generally
+considered spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod
+have come down to us: didactic, as the _Maxims of Cheiron_;
+genealogical, as the _Aegimius_, describing the contest of that mythical
+ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and mythical, as the
+_Marriage of Ceyx_ and the _Descent of Theseus to Hades_.
+
+Recent editions of Hesiod include the [Greek: Agon Homerou kai
+Hesiodou], the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the funeral
+games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. This little tract
+belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been
+present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by
+the sophist Alcidamas (q.v.). Quotations (old and new) are made from the
+works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience,
+the judge decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of
+Homer and Hesiod are also given.
+
+A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious and
+proverbial philosophy (as in _Works and Days_, 24-25, 40, 218, 345,
+371). There is naturally less of this in the _Theogony_, yet there too
+not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. He has undying
+fame as the first of didactic poets (see DIDACTIC POETRY), the
+accredited systematizer of Greek mythology and the rough but not
+unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which Virgil wrought out his
+exquisitely finished Georgics.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: _Editio princeps_ (Milan, 1493);
+  Gottling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of
+  publication; C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and
+  explanatory notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902),
+  including the fragments. Separate works: _Works and Days_: Van Lennep
+  (1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, _Die Werke und Tage des
+  Hesiodos_ (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement
+  of the poem; G. Wlastoff, _Promethee, Pandore, et la legende des
+  siecles_ (1883). _Theogony_: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker (1865),
+  valuable edition; G. F. Schomann (1868), with text, critical notes and
+  exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, _Die Hesiodische Theogonie_ (1873),
+  with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma in Hesiod, _System
+  der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie_ (1874), and _Glossen und Scholien zur
+  Theogonie_ (1876); Meyer, _De compositione Theogoniae_ (1887). _Shield
+  of Heracles_: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van Lennep-Hullemann (1854); F.
+  Stegemann, _De scuti Herculis Hesiodei poeta Homeri carminum
+  imitatore_ (1904); the fragments were published by W. Marckscheffel in
+  1840; for the [Greek: Agon Homerou] (ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F.
+  Nietzsche in _Rheinisches Museum_ (new series), xxv. p. 528. For
+  papyrus fragments of the "Catalogue," some 50 lines on the wooing of
+  Helen, and a shorter fragment in praise of Peleus, see
+  Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in _Sitzungsber. der konigl. preuss. Akad. der
+  Wissenschaften_, for 26th of July 1900; for fragments relating to
+  Meleager and the suitors of Helen, _Berliner Klassikertexte_, v.
+  (1907); of the _Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap._ vi. (1908).
+
+  On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schomann, _Opuscula_, ii.
+  (1857); H. Flach, _Die Hesiodischen Gedichte_ (1874); A. Rzach, _Der
+  Dialekt des Hesiodos_ (1876); P. O. Gruppe, _Die griechischen Kulte
+  und Mythen_, i. (1887); O. Friedel, _Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods_
+  (1879), from _Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie_ (10th suppl. Band,
+  1879); J. Adam, _Religious Teachers of Greece_ (1908). There is a full
+  bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898) by A.
+  Rzach in Bursian's _Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der
+  klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, xxvii. (1900).
+
+  There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke
+  (1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W.
+  Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of
+  Translations, 1908); in German (metrical version) with valuable
+  introductions and notes by R. Peppmuller (1896) and in other modern
+  languages.     (J. Da.; J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of
+    each heroine began with [Greek: e oie], "or like as." (See
+    Bibliography.)
+
+
+
+HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded the golden apples
+which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to Zeus. According to Hesiod
+(_Theogony_, 215) they were the daughters of Erebus and Night; in later
+accounts, of Atlas and Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on
+Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to
+be three in number--Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa);
+according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away in the west
+at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence the sun (according to
+Mimnermus _ap._ Athenaeum xi. p. 470) sails in the golden bowl made by
+Hephaestus from the abode of the Hesperides to the land where he rises
+again. According to other accounts their home was among the
+Hyperboreans. The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the
+ever-watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian legends
+described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the nightly heaven,
+while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the light back from men till
+some beneficent power takes it from him. Heracles is the hero who brings
+back the golden apples to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies
+to the Nymphs, who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there
+he slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, like
+Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, like the Sirens,
+possessed of the gift of delightful song. The apples appear to have been
+the symbol of love and fruitfulness, and are introduced at the marriages
+of Cadmus and Harmonia and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the
+gift of Aphrodite to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also
+plucked from the garden of the Hesperides.
+
+
+
+
+HESPERUS (Gr. [Greek: Hesperos], Lat. Vesper), the evening star, son or
+brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii. 60, iv. 27), he
+ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of the stars, and was
+suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever afterwards he was honoured as a
+god, and the most brilliant star in the heavens was called by his name.
+Although as a mythological personality he is regarded as distinct from
+Phosphoros or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of
+light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars were
+early identified by the Greeks.
+
+  Diog. Laert. viii. 1. 14; Cicero, _De nat. deorum_, ii. 20; Pliny,
+  _Nat. Hist._ ii. 6 [8].
+
+
+
+
+HESS, the name of a family of German artists.
+
+HEINRICH MARIA HESS (1798-1863)--von Hess, after he received a patent of
+personal nobility--was born at Dusseldorf and brought up to the
+profession of art by his father, the engraver Karl Ernst Christoph Hess
+(1755-1828). Karl Hess had already acquired a name when in 1806 the
+elector of Bavaria, having been raised to a kingship by Napoleon,
+transferred the Dusseldorf academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess
+accompanied the academy to its new home, and there continued the
+education of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently
+master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian. He was
+sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made of Raphael's
+Parnassus, and the study of great examples of monumental design,
+probably caused him to become a painter of ecclesiastical subjects on a
+large scale. In 1828 he was made professor of painting and director of
+all the art collections at Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the
+Glyptothek and the Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his
+cartoons were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne
+and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the basilica of
+St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture of the Virgin and
+Child enthroned between the four doctors, and receiving the homage of
+the four patrons of the Munich churches (now in the Pinakothek). His
+last work, the "Lord's Supper," was found unfinished in his atelier
+after his death in 1863. Before testing his strength as a composer
+Heinrich Hess tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering
+Rome, now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and twice
+had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack collections). But
+his fame rests on the frescoes representing scenes from the Old and New
+Testaments in the Allerheiligencapelle, and the episodes from the life
+of St Boniface and other German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here
+he holds rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting, being
+always true to nature though mindful of the traditions of Christian art,
+earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and powerful in expression.
+Through him and his pupils the sentiment of religious art was preserved
+and extended in the Munich school.
+
+PETER HESS (1792-1871)--afterwards von Hess--was born at Dusseldorf and
+accompanied his younger brother Heinrich Maria to Munich in 1806. Being
+of an age to receive vivid impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of
+the time and became a painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he
+was allowed to join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the
+Bavarians in the military operations which led to the abdication of
+Napoleon; and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for
+extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited
+Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho's election to the Greek
+throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather materials for
+pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches which he then made were
+placed, forty in number, in the Pinakothek, after being copied in wax on
+a large scale (and little to the edification of German feeling) by
+Nilsen, in the northern arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho's
+entrance into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now
+in the Pinakothek, which Hess executed in person. From these, and from
+battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal Palace, as well as
+from military episodes executed for the czar Nicholas, and the battle of
+Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery, we gather that Hess was a clever
+painter of horses. His conception of subject was lifelike, and his
+drawing invariably correct, but his style is not so congenial to modern
+taste as that of the painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully
+with thin medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a
+certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was not unaptly
+compared. He died suddenly, full of honours, at Munich, in April 1871.
+Several of his genre pictures, horse hunts, and brigand scenes may be
+found in the gallery of Munich.
+
+KARL HESS (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess, born at
+Dusseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped that he would
+obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however, after engraving one
+plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting under the guidance of
+Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied under his elder brother Peter.
+But historical composition proved to be as contrary to his taste as
+engraving, and he gave himself exclusively at last to illustrations of
+peasant life in the hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in
+representing the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and
+with constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood of
+Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced anything that
+was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly realism. Some of his
+pictures in the museum of Munich will serve as examples of his manner.
+He died at Reichenhall on the 16th of November 1874.
+
+
+
+
+HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF, FREIHERR VON (1788-1870), Austrian
+soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was soon employed as a staff
+officer on survey work. He distinguished himself as a subaltern at
+Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a captain, again served on the staff.
+In 1815 he was with Schwarzenberg. He had in the interval between the
+two wars been employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at
+the peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved
+invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky became
+commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as his
+chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two famous soldiers
+which, like that of Blucher and Gneisenau, is a classical example of
+harmonious co-operation of commander and chief-of-staff. Hess put into
+shape Radetzky's military ideas, in the form of new drill for each arm,
+and, under their guidance, the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a
+war footing, became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was
+employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of revolution
+and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to Radetzky as
+chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King Charles Albert which
+followed, culminating in the victory of Novara, Hess's assistance to his
+chief was made still more valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and
+the old field-marshal acknowledged his services in general orders.
+Lieut.-Fieldmarshal Hess was at once promoted _Feldzeugmeister_, made a
+member of the emperor's council, and _Freiherr_, assuming at the same
+time the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became chief
+of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in missions to
+various capitals, and he appeared in the field in 1854 at the head of
+the Austrian army which intervened so effectually in the Crimean war. In
+1859 he was sent to Italy after the early defeats. He became
+field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on resigning his position as
+chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the Trabant guard. He died in
+Vienna in 1870.
+
+  See "General Hess" in _Lebensgeschichtlichen Hinrissen_ (Vienna,
+  1855).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE (Lat. _Hessia_, Ger. _Hessen_), a grand duchy forming a state of
+the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-Darmstadt, the
+history of which is given under a separate heading below. It consists of
+two main parts, separated from each other by a narrow strip of Prussian
+territory. The northern part is the province of Oberhessen; the southern
+consists of the contiguous provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen.
+There are also eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg
+to the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on the
+north-west frontier of Wurttemberg. Oberhessen is hilly; though of no
+great elevation it extends over the water-parting between the basins of
+the Rhine and the Weser, and in the Vogelsberg it has as its culminating
+point the Taufstein (2533 ft.). In the north-west it includes spurs of
+the Taunus. Between these two systems of hills lies the fertile
+undulating tract known as the Wetterau, watered by the Wetter, a
+tributary of the Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main
+and the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the ranges
+of the Odenwald, the highest part being the Seidenbucher Hohe (1965
+ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by the Rhine, and has
+that river as its northern as well as its eastern frontier, though it
+extends across it at the north-east corner, where the Rhine, on
+receiving the Main, changes its course abruptly from south to west. The
+territory consists of a fertile tract of low hills, rising towards the
+south-west into the northern extremity of the Hardt range, but at no
+point reaching a height of more than 1050 ft.
+
+The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are as follow:
+
+  +-------------+------+---------------------+
+  |             | Area.|     Population.     |
+  |             +------+----------+----------+
+  |             |sq. m.|   1895.  |   1905.  |
+  |             +------+----------+----------+
+  | Oberhessen  | 1267 |  271,524 |  296,755 |
+  | Starkenburg | 1169 |  444,562 |  542,996 |
+  | Rheinhessen |  530 |  322,934 |  369,424 |
+  +-------------+------+----------+----------+
+  |    Total    | 2966 |1,039,020 |1,209,175 |
+  +-------------+------+----------+----------+
+
+The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the capital) and
+Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in Rheinhessen and Giessen in
+Oberhessen. More than two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants; the
+majority of the remainder are Roman Catholics, and there are about
+25,000 Jews. The grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education
+is compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by state
+grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical high school at
+Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than three-fifths of the total
+area being under cultivation. The largest grain crops are rye and
+barley, and nearly 40,000 acres are under vines. Minerals, in which
+Oberhessen is much richer than the two other provinces, include iron,
+manganese, salt and some coal.
+
+The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856, 1862, 1872
+and 1900. There are two legislative chambers. The upper consists of
+princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of mediatized houses, the head
+of the Roman Catholic and the superintendent of the Protestant church,
+the chancellor of the university, two elected representatives of the
+land-owning nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke.
+The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large towns and forty
+from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly elected, by
+deputy electors (_Wahlmanner_) nominated by the electors, who must be
+Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying direct taxes. The executive
+ministry of state is divided into the departments of the interior,
+justice and finance. The three provinces are divided for local
+administration into 18 circles and 989 communes. The ordinary revenue
+and expenditure amount each to about L4,000,000 annually, the chief
+taxes being an income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public
+debt, practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to
+L19,097,468 in 1907.
+
+_History_.--The name of Hesse, now used principally for the grand duchy
+formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a country which has had
+different boundaries and areas at different times. The name is derived
+from that of a Frankish tribe, the Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants
+of the country were the Chatti, who lived here during the 1st century
+A.D. (Tacitus, _Germania_, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the
+Eder, was burned by the Romans about A.D. 15. "Alike both in race and
+language," says Walther Schultze, "the Chatti and the Hessi are
+identical." During the period of the _Volkerwanderung_ many of these
+people moved westward, but some remained behind to give their name to
+the country, although it was not until the 8th century that the word
+Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was the district around the Fulda, the
+Werra, the Eder and the Lahn, and was part of the Frankish kingdom both
+during Merovingian and during Carolingian times. Soon _Hessegau_ is
+mentioned, and this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during
+his campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 it fell
+to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly in the duchy
+of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The Hessians were converted
+to Christianity mainly through the efforts of St Boniface; their land
+was included in the archbishopric of Mainz; and religion and culture
+were kept alive among them largely owing to the foundation of the
+Benedictine abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany
+during the 9th century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central power,
+and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great, several counts,
+among whom were Giso and Werner, had made themselves practically
+independent; but after the accession of Otto in 936 the land quietly
+accepted the yoke of the medieval emperors. About 1120 another Giso,
+count of Gudensberg, secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on
+his death in 1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis,
+landgrave of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the
+Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of Thuringia.
+The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of Thuringia, in 1247,
+caused a long war over the disposal of his lands, and this dispute was
+not settled until 1264 when Hesse, separated again from Thuringia, was
+secured by his niece Sophia (d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of
+Brabant. In the following year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry
+(1244-1308), who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took
+the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent rulers
+of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the Empire, and with
+him the history of Hesse properly begins.
+
+For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively uneventful.
+The land, which fell into two main portions, upper Hesse round Marburg,
+and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice divided between two members of
+the ruling family, but no permanent partition took place before the
+Reformation. A _Landtag_ was first called together in 1387, and the
+landgraves were constantly at variance with the electors of Mainz, who
+had large temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however,
+to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden,
+Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen were
+acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself under the
+protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the landgraves were perhaps
+Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the German throne in 1440, and
+William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of the German king, Maximilian I. In
+1509 William's young son, Philip (q.v.), became landgrave, and by his
+vigorous personality brought his country into prominence during the
+religious troubles of the 16th century. Following the example of his
+ancestors Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his
+land, and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes to
+him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided between his four
+sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Marburg and
+Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Marburg,
+or upper Hesse, became extinct in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these
+lands passed to the two remaining branches of the family. The small
+landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt.
+After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by Prussia in
+1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent part of Hesse, and it
+generally receives the common name.
+
+Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was founded in
+1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave William VI. In 1909 the
+representative of this family was the Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846).
+Hesse-Barchfeld was founded in 1721 by Philip's son, William (d. 1761),
+and in 1909 its representative was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The
+lands of both these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a
+province of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of
+the duchy of Nassau.
+
+  See H. B. Wenck, _Hessische Landesgeschichte_ (Frankfort, 1783-1803);
+  C. von Rommel, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Cassel, 1820-1858); F.
+  Munscher, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach, _Hesse
+  und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde_ (Marburg, 1899); Walther, _Literarisches
+  Handbuch fur Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse_ (Darmstadt, 1841;
+  Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann, _Bibliotheca Hessiaca_ (Cassel,
+  1884-1899); Hoffmeister, _Historischgenealogisches Handbuch uber alle
+  Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse_ (Marburg, 1874), and the _Zeitschrift
+  des Vereins fur hessische Geschichte_ (1837-1904).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-CASSEL (in German _Kurhessen_, i.e. Electoral Hesse), now the
+government district of Cassel in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.
+It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate of Germany, consisting of
+several detached masses of territory, to the N.E. of
+Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial area of 3699 sq. m.,
+and its population in 1864 was 745,063.
+
+_History._--The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William IV.,
+surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous. On his father's
+death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with Cassel as his capital;
+and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel. Additions were made to
+it by inheritance from his brother's possessions. His son, Maurice the
+Learned (1592-1627), turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in
+the Thirty Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his
+territories to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son
+William V. (1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which
+created several cadet lines of the house, of which that of
+Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg survived till 1834. On the death of William
+V., whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his widow
+Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI. (1637-1663),
+reconquered the country and, with the aid of the French and Swedes, held
+it, together with part of Westphalia. At the peace of Westphalia (1648),
+accordingly, Hesse-Cassel was augmented by the larger part of the
+countship of Schaumburg and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a
+principality of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced
+the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650, was an
+enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son
+William VII., an infant, who died in 1670, and was succeeded by his
+brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles's chief claim to remembrance is
+that he was the first ruler to adopt the system of hiring his soldiers
+out to foreign powers as mercenaries, as a means of improving the
+national finances. Frederick I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had
+become by marriage king of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the
+landgraviate by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an
+ally of England during the Seven Years' War. From his successor
+Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic, 22,000
+Hessian troops were hired by England for about L3,191,000, to assist in
+the war against the North American colonies. This action, often bitterly
+criticized, has of late years found apologists (cf. v. Werthern, _Die
+hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerikanischen Unabhangigkeitskriege_,
+Cassel, 1895). It is argued that the troops were in any case
+mercenaries, and that the practice was quite common. Whatever opinion
+may be held as to this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money
+well: he did much for the development of the economic and intellectual
+improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave, William IX.
+(1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history of Hesse-Cassel.
+Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part in the war against France a
+few years later, but in 1795 peace was arranged by the treaty of Basel.
+For the loss in 1801 of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he
+was in 1803 compensated by some of the former French territory round
+Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector
+(_Kurfurst_) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality with
+Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspecting William's
+designs, occupied his country, and expelled him. Hesse-Cassel was then
+added to Jerome Bonaparte's new kingdom of Westphalia; but after the
+battle of Leipzig in 1813 the French were driven out and on the 21st of
+November the elector returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty
+concluded by him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to
+receive back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the
+same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country. This
+treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried out by the
+powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused, however, the elector's
+request to be recognized as "King of the Chatti" (_Konig der Katten_), a
+request which was again rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(1818). He therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with
+the predicate of "royal highness."
+
+The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing with a stroke
+of the pen all the reforms introduced under the French regime,
+repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring null and void the sale of
+the crown domains. Everything was set back to its condition on the 1st
+of November 1806; even the officials had to descend to their former
+rank, and the army to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails.
+The estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt to
+devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal diet at
+Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of the debt and the
+domains came to nothing owing to the intervention of Metternich; and in
+May 1816 they were dissolved, never to meet again. William I. died on
+the 27th of February 1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II.
+Under him the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He
+was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover shocked
+public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular Prussian
+princess, and his relations with his mistress, one Emilie Ortlopp,
+created countess of Reichenbach, whom he loaded with wealth. The July
+revolution in Paris gave the signal for disturbances; the elector was
+forced to summon the estates; and on the 5th of January 1831 a
+constitution on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now
+retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent, and took
+no further part in public affairs.
+
+The regent, without his father's coarseness, had a full share of his
+arbitrary and avaricious temper. Constitutional restrictions were
+intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with the diet was
+aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (q.v.) was placed at the head of
+the administration. The whole efforts of the elector and his minister
+were directed to nullifying the constitutional control vested in the
+diet; and the Opposition was fought by manipulating the elections,
+packing the judicial bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of
+political "suspects," and this policy continued after the retirement of
+Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the
+revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public discontent;
+and Frederick William, who had become elector on his father's death
+(November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss his reactionary ministry and
+to agree to a comprehensive programme of democratic reform. This,
+however, was but short-lived. After the breakdown of the Frankfort
+National Parliament, Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern
+Union, and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt
+parliament. But as Austria recovered strength, the elector's policy
+changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again placed at
+the head of the administration and threw himself with renewed zeal into
+the struggle against the constitution and into opposition to Prussia. On
+the 2nd of September the diet was dissolved; the taxes were continued by
+electoral ordinance; and the country was placed under martial law. It
+was at once clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his
+officers or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the
+constitution. Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly
+with him, and on the 15th of October appealed for aid to the
+reconstituted federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of
+"intervention." On the 1st of November an Austrian and Bavarian force
+marched into the electorate.
+
+This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions with the
+elector had the right to the use of the military roads through Hesse
+that were her sole means of communication with her Rhine provinces. War
+seemed imminent; Prussian troops also entered the country, and shots
+were actually exchanged between the outposts. But Prussia was in no
+condition to take up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that
+followed issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmutz (1851). Hesse was
+surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the federal
+forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new order were
+dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished the constitution of
+1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and in April issued a new
+provisional constitution. The new diet had, under this, very narrow
+powers; and the elector was free to carry out his policy of amassing
+money, forbidding the construction of railways and manufactories, and
+imposing strict orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however,
+Hassenpflug--who had returned with the elector--was dismissed; and five
+years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new constitution was
+granted with the consent of the federal diet (May 30, 1860). The new
+chambers, however, demanded the constitution of 1831; and, after several
+dissolutions which always resulted in the return of the same members,
+the federal diet decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24,
+1862). This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it
+needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble the
+chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposition; and he
+revenged himself by refusing to transact any public business. In 1866
+the end came. The elector, full of grievances against Prussia, threw in
+his lot with Austria; the electorate was at once overrun with Prussian
+troops; Cassel was occupied (June 20); and the elector was carried a
+prisoner to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed to
+Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been, by the terms
+of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed property of his house.
+This was, however, sequestered in 1868 owing to his intrigues against
+Prussia; part of the income was paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the
+landgrave Frederick (d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles
+and palaces, was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and
+Philippsthal-Barchfeld.
+
+  See K. W. Wippermann, _Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen_ (Cassel,
+  1850); Roth, _Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel_ (Cassel, 1856; 2nd ed.
+  continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Grafe, _Der Verfassungskampf in
+  Kurhessen_ (Leipzig, 1851) and works under HESSE.
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-DARMSTADT, a grand-duchy in Germany, the history of which begins
+with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I. (1547-1597), the youngest
+son of the landgrave Philip, received the upper county of
+Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt as his residence, became the
+founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt line. Additions to the landgraviate were
+made both in the reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V.
+(1577-1626), but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage
+for George's youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis V., who
+founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran, he and his
+son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the imperialists in the Thirty
+Years' War, during which Hesse-Darmstadt suffered very severely from the
+ravages of the Swedes. In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other
+side, and the rivalry between the two landgraviates was increased by a
+dispute over Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become
+extinct in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread of
+the Thirty Years' War, and was not finally settled until 1648, when the
+disputed territory was divided between the two claimants. Louis VI. (d.
+1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed the policy of the three
+previous landgraves, but the anxiety of his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739),
+to emulate the French court under Louis XIV. led his country into debt.
+Under Ernest Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768),
+another dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time it was
+over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was eventually
+divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg. During the 18th century
+the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War dealt heavy
+blows at the prosperity of the landgraviate, which was always loyal to
+the house of Austria. Louis IX. (1719-1790), who served in the Prussian
+army under Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of
+Caroline (1721-1774), "the great landgravine," who counted Goethe,
+Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by Frederick the
+Great as _femina sexu, ingenio vir_. In April 1790, just after the
+outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X. (1753-1830), an educated
+prince who shared the tastes and friendships of his mother, Caroline,
+became landgrave. In 1792 he joined the allies against France, but in
+1799 he was compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having
+formally surrendered the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine
+which had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution, Louis
+received in return a much larger district which had formerly belonged to
+the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz and the bishopric of
+Worms. In 1806, being a member of the confederation of the Rhine, he
+took the title of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse; he supported Napoleon
+with troops from 1805 to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined
+the allies. In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the
+area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again a district
+on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of Mainz and Worms,
+but he made cessions of territory to Prussia and to Bavaria and he
+recognized the independence of Hesse-Homburg, which had recently been
+incorporated with his lands. However, his title of grand-duke was
+confirmed, and as grand-duke of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the
+Germanic confederation. Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself
+felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land;
+various forms were carried through; the system of government was
+reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the Prussian
+_Zollverein_. Louis I., who did a great deal for the welfare of his
+country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was followed on the throne
+by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This grand-duke had some trouble with
+his _Landtag_, but, dying on the 16th of June 1848, he left his son,
+Louis III. (1806-1877), to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848.
+Many concessions were made to the popular will, but during the
+subsequent reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850
+and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk
+(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of
+Hesse-Darmstadt, was one of repression, although some benefits were
+conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia's enemies, and
+during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on the Austrian side, the
+result being that he was compelled to pay a heavy indemnity and to cede
+certain districts, including Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just
+acquired, to Prussia. In 1867 Louis entered the North German
+Confederation, but only for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871
+Hesse-Darmstadt became one of the states of the new German empire. After
+the withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more liberal
+policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesiastical,
+educational, financial and administrative matters were introduced, and
+in general the grand-duchy may be said to have passed largely under the
+influence of Prussia, which, by an arrangement made in 1896, controls
+the Hessian railway system. The constitution of 1820, subject to four
+subsequent modifications, is still the law of the land, the legislative
+power being vested in two chambers and the executive power being
+exercised by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the
+annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy has been
+known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the 13th of June 1877, and was
+succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV. (1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen
+Victoria; he died on the 13th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his
+son, Ernest Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke's marriage with Victoria
+(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was
+dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently in 1902 a
+law regulating the succession was passed. By this the landgrave
+Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative of the family which
+ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared the heir to Hesse in case
+the grand-duke died without sons. However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married
+Elenore, princess of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a
+son George (b. 1906).
+
+  See L. Baur, _Urkunden zur hessischen Landes-, Orts- und
+  Familiengeschichte_ (Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, _Geschichte des
+  Grossherzogtums Hesse_n (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, _Das
+  Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, _Historische Ubersicht
+  der Territorialveranderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des
+  Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, _Geschichte des
+  Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, _Kirchengeschichte
+  beider Hessen_ (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, _Geschichte von
+  Hessen_ (Cassel, 1891), and _Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde_
+  (Marburg, 1904-1906); F. Kuchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber,
+  _Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen_
+  (Darmstadt, 1894-1897); H. Kunzel, _Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Giessen,
+  1893); and W. Zeller, _Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung im
+  Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also _Archiv fur
+  hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde_ (Darmstadt, 1894 fol.) and
+  _Hessisches Urkundenbuch_ (Leipzig, 1879 fol.).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-HOMBURG, formerly a small landgraviate in Germany. It consisted of
+two parts, the district of Homburg on the right side of the Rhine, and the
+district of Meisenheim, which was added in 1815, on the left side of the
+same river. Its area was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was
+27,374. Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-Homburg was formed into
+a separate landgraviate in 1622 by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George
+I., landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, although it did not become independent
+of Hesse-Darmstadt until 1768. By two of Frederick's sons it was divided
+into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but these parts were
+again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick's third son, Frederick
+II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign of the landgrave Frederick
+V., which extended from 1751 to 1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and
+incorporated with Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna
+the latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of
+Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisenheim.
+Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a sovereign prince in
+1817, and after his death his five sons in succession filled the throne.
+The last of these, Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal
+constitution to his people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852.
+When he died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited by
+Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim fell to
+Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis was forced to cede
+his new possession to Prussia, as he had supported Austria during the war
+between these two powers.
+
+  See R. Schwartz, _Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und seine
+  Familie_ (1878); and von Herget, _Das landgrafliche Haus Homburg_
+  (Homburg, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-NASSAU (Ger. _Hessen-Nassau_), a province of Prussia, bounded,
+from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia, Waldeck, Hanover,
+the province of Saxony, the Thuringian States, Bavaria, Hesse and the
+Rhine Province. There are small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia,
+&c.; on the other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen
+belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar
+belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed in 1867-1868
+out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after the war of 1866,
+namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and the duchy of Nassau, in
+addition to the greater part of the territory of Frankfort-on-Main,
+parts of the grand-duchy of Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the
+countship of Hesse-Homburg, together with certain small districts which
+belonged to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel
+and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former
+territory of Nassau (q.v.).
+
+The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population in 1905 of
+2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated province in Prussia,
+after Berlin, the Rhine Province and Westphalia. The east and north
+parts lie in the basin of the river Fulda, which near the north-eastern
+boundary joins with the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of
+the southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the western part
+of the province lies mostly in the basin of the Lahn, a tributary of the
+Rhine. The province is generally hilly, the highest hills occurring in
+the east and west. The Fulda rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an
+eminence of the Rhongebirge, the highest in the province. In the
+south-west are the Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west
+of the Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser
+Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The congeries of
+small groups of lower hills in the north are known as the Hessische
+Bergland.
+
+The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but in forests
+it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is large. The chief
+trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-breeding is extensively
+practised. The vine is cultivated chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus,
+in the south-west, where the names of several towns are well known for
+their wines--Schierstein, Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg,
+Geisenheim, Rudesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese
+are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those at
+Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlangenbad and Soden.
+The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel, Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort,
+Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and Hersfeld. The province is divided for
+administration into 42 circles (_Kreise_), 24 in the government of
+Cassel and 18 in that of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the
+Reichstag. Marburg is the seat of a university.
+
+
+
+
+HESSE-ROTENBURG, a German landgraviate which was broken up in 1834. In
+1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son of Maurice, landgrave of
+Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheinsfels and lower Katzenelnbogen as
+his inheritance, and some years later, on the deaths of two of his
+brothers, he added Eschwege, Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to
+his possessions. Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church,
+was a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two sons,
+William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their territories, and
+founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and Hesse-Wanfried. The latter
+family died out in 1755, when William's grandson, Constantine (d. 1778),
+reunited the lands except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by
+Hesse-Cassel in 1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At
+the peace of Luneville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on the left
+bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in 1815 other parts
+were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor Amadeus being compensated
+by the abbey of Corvey and the Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the
+last male member of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he
+bequeathed his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and
+Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst (see HOHENLOHE). When
+the landgrave died on the 12th of November 1834 the remaining parts of
+Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-Cassel according to the
+arrangement of 1627. It may be noted that Hesse-Rotenburg was never
+completely independent of Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated
+member of this family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son
+of the landgrave Constantine, who was called "citoyen Hesse," and who
+took part in the French Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, in various
+degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, or standard, hessian
+is 40 in. wide, weighs 10(1/2) oz. per yd., and in the finished state
+contains about 12 threads and 12(1/2) picks per in. The name is probably
+of German origin, and the fabric was originally made from flax and tow.
+Small quantities of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but
+the jute fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost
+supplanted all others.
+
+This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for packing
+all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different qualities,
+are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, ore, manure,
+sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made from one or other quality
+of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging or tarpaulin, form the most
+convenient, and at the same time the cheapest covering for any kind of
+goods which are not damaged by being crushed.
+
+Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other colour, or
+left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for paddings and
+linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags and other articles. When
+dyed in art shades the cloth forms an attractive decoration for stages
+and platforms, and generally for any temporary erection, and in many
+cases it is stencilled and then used for wall decoration.
+
+The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this fabric
+for the foundation of its products, while large quantities are used for
+the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the upholstery of
+furniture.
+
+The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are Dundee and
+Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all kinds of hand- and
+machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are made in the former city. The
+American name for hessian is burlap; this particular kind is 40 in.
+wide, and is now largely made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other
+places.
+
+
+
+
+HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (1488-1540), German Latin poet, was born at
+Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of January 1488. His family name
+is said to have been Koch; Eoban was the name of a local saint; Hessus
+indicates the land of his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on
+Sunday. In 1504 he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his
+graduation was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post
+he soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop
+of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great straits
+owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length (in 1517) he was
+appointed professor of Latin in the university. He was prominently
+associated with the distinguished men of the time (Johann Reuchlin,
+Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten, Conrad Mutianus), and took part in
+the political, religious and literary quarrels of the period, finally
+declaring in favour of Luther and the Reformation, although his
+subsequent conduct showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The
+university was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new
+university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without success)
+to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through the influence of
+Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post at Nuremberg (1526), but,
+finding a regular life distasteful, he again went back to Erfurt (1533).
+But It was not the Erfurt he had known; his old friends were dead or had
+left the place; the university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him
+the favour of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536
+as professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the 5th
+of October 1540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost Latin poet of
+his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true poet. He wrote what he
+thought was likely to pay or secure him the favour of some important
+person. He wrote local, historical and military poems, idylls, epigrams
+and occasional pieces, collected under the title of _Sylvae_. His most
+popular works were translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which
+reached forty editions) and of the _Iliad_ into hexameters. His most
+original poem was the _Heroides_ in imitation of Ovid, consisting of
+letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to Kunigunde, wife of
+the emperor Henry II.
+
+  His _Epistolae_ were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote
+  his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860),
+  G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss,
+  _Ulrich von Hutten_ (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg and
+  other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-century
+  illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and S.
+  Szamatolski's _Lateinische Literaturdenkmaler des XV. u. XVI.
+  Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HESTIA, in Greek mythology, the "fire-goddess," daughter of Cronus and
+Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is not mentioned in Homer,
+although the hearth is recognized as a place of refuge for suppliants;
+this seems to show that her worship was not universally acknowledged at
+the time of the Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of
+the twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the
+household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and Poseidon became
+suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a maiden for ever; whereupon
+Zeus bestowed upon her the honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To
+her the opening sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal
+the first and last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always
+kept burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred
+fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from the
+sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of the family
+union, the personification of the idea of home; and as the city union is
+only the family union on a large scale, she was regarded as the goddess
+of the state. In this character her special sanctuary was in the
+prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire round which the magistrates meet
+is ever burning, and where the sacred rites that sanctify the concord of
+city life are performed. From this fire, as the representative of the
+life of the city, intending colonists took the fire which was to be
+kindled on the hearth of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected
+with Zeus, the god of the family both in its external relation of
+hospitality and its internal unity round its own hearth; in the
+_Odyssey_ a form of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again,
+Hestia is often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and
+domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on the
+other; or, according to others, the association is local--that of the
+god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In later philosophy
+Hestia became the hearth of the universe--the personification of the
+earth as the centre of the universe, identified with Cybele and Demeter.
+As Hestia had her home in the prytaneum, special temples dedicated to
+her are of rare occurrence. She is seldom represented in works of art,
+and plays no important part in legend. It is not certain that any really
+Greek statues of Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta
+in the Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is
+represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her head, the
+left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman deity corresponding to
+the Greek Hestia is Vesta (q.v.).
+
+  See A. Preuner, _Hestia-Vesta_ (1864), the standard treatise on the
+  subject, and his article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; J. G.
+  Frazer, "The Prytaneum," &c., in _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885);
+  G. Hagemann, _De Graecorum prytaneis_ (1881), with bibliography and
+  notes; _Homeric Hymns_, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes (1904);
+  Farnell, _Cults, the Greek States_, v. (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HESYCHASTS ([Greek: hesychastai] or [Greek: hesychazontes], from [Greek:
+hesychos], quiet, also called [Greek: omphalopsychoi], Umbilicanimi, and
+sometimes referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a
+quietistic sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine
+empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at Mount Athos,
+then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of
+Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. Owing to various
+adventitious circumstances the sect came into great prominence
+politically and ecclesiastically for a few years about the middle of the
+14th century. Their opinion and practice will be best represented in the
+words of one of their early teachers (quoted by Gibbon, _Decline and
+Fall_, c. 63): "When thou art alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat
+thyself in a corner; raise thy mind above all things vain and
+transitory; recline thy beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes
+and thy thought towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel
+([Greek: omphalos]); and search the place of the heart, the seat of the
+soul. At first all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere
+day and night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the
+soul discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic
+and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which is
+obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental mysticism,
+attracted the attention of the learned and versatile Barlaam, a
+Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of abbot in the
+Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople, and who had
+visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of inspection. Amid
+much that he disapproved, what he specially took exception to as
+heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine entertained as to the nature
+of this divine light, the fruition of which was the supposed reward of
+hesychastic contemplation. It was maintained to be the pure and perfect
+essence of God Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to
+the disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam held
+to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a
+visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic side the controversy
+was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards archbishop of Thessalonica,
+who laboured to establish a distinction between eternal [Greek: ousia]
+and eternal [Greek: energeia]. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod
+held at Constantinople and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the
+assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the
+pseudo-Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, who
+recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop of Hierace
+in the Latin communion. One of his friends, Gregory Acindynus, continued
+the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the
+second of which the Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351
+under the presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated
+light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for the
+Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an additional
+ground of separation from the Roman Church. The contemporary historians
+Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this
+subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. It may
+be mentioned that in the time of Justinian the word hesychast was
+applied to monks in general simply as descriptive of the quiet and
+contemplative character of their pursuits.
+
+  See article "Hesychasten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd
+  ed., 1900), where further references are given.
+
+
+
+
+HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished in the 5th
+century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the explanations of words from
+Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian writers (_glossae sacrae_) are
+interpolations of a later time. He has left a Greek dictionary,
+containing a copious list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an
+explanation of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author
+who used them or to the district of Greece where they were current.
+Hence the book is of great value to the student of the Greek dialects;
+while in the restoration of the text of the classical authors generally,
+and particularly of such writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used
+many unusual words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The
+explanations of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts
+about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory
+letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of
+Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), but
+that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, Heliodorus
+and others.
+
+  The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been
+  disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the
+  Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to us from a
+  single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the editio
+  princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt (1858-1868);
+  in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish the additions
+  made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.
+
+
+
+
+HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed
+_Illustrius_, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople in the
+5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian. According to Photius
+(cod. 69) he was the author of three important works, (1) _A Compendium
+of Universal History_ in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of
+the Assyrian empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment
+has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled [Greek: Patria
+Konstantinoupoleos], a history of Byzantium from its earliest beginnings
+till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) _A Biographical Dictionary_
+([Greek: Onomatologos] or [Greek: Pinax]) _of Learned Men_, arranged
+according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief sources of which
+were the [Greek: Mousike historia] of Aelius Dionysius and the works of
+Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated in the lexicon of
+Suidas, as we learn from that author. It is disputed, however, whether
+the words in Suidas ("of which this book is an epitome") mean that
+Suidas himself epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are
+part of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas. The
+second view is more generally held. The epitome referred to, in which
+alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement in classes and some
+articles on Christian writers added as a concession to the times, is
+assigned from internal indications to the years 829-837. Both it and the
+original work are lost, with the exception of the excerpts in Photius
+and Suidas. A smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laertius and
+Suidas, with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the
+11th or 12th century. (3) A _History_ of the Reign of Justin I.
+(518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost. Photius
+praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with being a veracious
+historian.
+
+  Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in C. W.
+  Muller, _Frag. hist. Graec._ iv. 143 and in T. Preger's _Scriptores
+  originis Constantinopolitanae_, i. (1901); _Pseudo-Hesychius_, by J.
+  Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der
+  byzantinischen Literatur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+HETAERISM (Gr. [Greek: hetaira] mistress), the term employed by
+anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man in his sexual
+relations. The earliest social organization of the human race was
+characterized by the absence of the institution of marriage in any form.
+Women were the common property of their tribe, and the children never
+knew their fathers.
+
+
+
+
+HETEROKARYOTA, a zoological name proposed by S. J. Hickson for the
+Infusoria (q.v.) on the ground of the differentiation of their nuclear
+apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus (or nuclei).
+
+  See Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903).
+
+
+
+
+HETERONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: heteros] and [Greek: nomos], the rule of
+another), the state of being under the rule of another person. In ethics
+the term is specially used as the antithesis of "autonomy," which,
+especially in Kantian terminology, treats of the true self as will,
+determining itself by its own law, the moral law. "Heteronomy" is
+therefore applied by Kant to all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they
+place the individual in subjection to external laws of conduct.
+
+
+
+
+HETMAN (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger. _Hauptmann_,
+head-man or captain; the Russian form is _ataman_), a military title
+formerly in use in Poland; the _Hetman Wielki_, or Great Hetman, was the
+chief of the armed forces of the nation, and commanded in the field,
+except when the king was present in person. The office was abolished in
+1792. From Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form
+_ataman_, and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head,
+who was practically an independent prince, when under the suzerainty of
+Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule by the Cossacks in 1654,
+the post was shorn of its power. The title of "ataman" or "hetman of all
+the Cossacks" is held by the Cesarevitch. "Ataman" or "hetman" is also
+the name of the elected elder of the _stanitsa_, the unit of Cossack
+administration. (See COSSACKS.)
+
+
+
+
+HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882), German literary historian and
+writer on the history of art, was born at Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in
+Silesia, on the 12th of March 1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle
+and Heidelberg he devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but
+in 1843 turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a
+view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy, and, on
+his return, published a _Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten_ (1848)
+and an essay on _Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen_. He became
+_Privatdozent_ for aesthetics and the history of art at Heidelberg and,
+after the publication of his suggestive volume on _Die romantische Schule
+in ihrem Zusammenhang mit Goethe und Schiller_ (1850), accepted a call as
+professor to Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and
+literature. In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of
+antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which posts
+were subsequently added that of director of the historical museum and a
+professorship at the royal _Polytechnikum_. He died in Dresden on the
+29th of May 1882. Hettner's chief work is his _Literaturgeschichte des
+18ten Jahrhunderts_, which appeared in three parts, devoted respectively
+to English, French and German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed.
+of I. and II., revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III.,
+revised by O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the
+political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, since
+Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times losing sight of
+the main issues of literary development over questions of social
+evolution, this work belongs to the best histories that the 19th century
+produced. Hettner's judgment is sound and his point of view always
+original and stimulating. His other works include _Griechische
+Reiseskizzen_ (1853), _Das moderne Drama_ (1852)--a book that arose from
+a correspondence with Gottfried Keller--_Italienische Studien_ (1879),
+and several works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His _Kleine
+Schriften_ were collected and published in 1884.
+
+  See A. Stern, _Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild_ (1885); H. Spitzer,
+  _H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfange und Literaturasthetik_
+  (1903).
+
+
+
+
+HETTSTEDT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Wipper, and at
+the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim and Hettstedt-Halle, 23
+m. N.W. of the last town. Pop. (1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and
+four Evangelical churches, and has manufactures of machinery,
+pianofortes and artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of
+argentiferous copper, and the surrounding district and villages are
+occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric acid are
+the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found in small
+quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the first
+steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August 1785.
+Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it possessed a castle;
+and in 1380 it received civic privileges. When the countship of Mansfeld
+was sequestrated, Hettstedt came into the possession of Saxony, passing
+to Prussia in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON (1824-1876), German traveller in north-east Africa,
+was born on the 20th of March 1824 at Hirschlanden near Leonberg in
+Wurttemberg. His father was a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to
+be a mining engineer. He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific
+investigator of unknown regions, and with that object studied the
+natural sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where he
+learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852 he
+accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a journey to
+Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed Dr Reitz's successor in
+the consulate. While he held this post he travelled in Abyssinia and
+Kordofan, making a valuable collection of natural history specimens. In
+1857 he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the Red
+Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen leader of an
+expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions including Werner
+Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the
+party landed at Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and
+thence to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin,
+accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide detour through
+Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence the leadership of
+the expedition was taken from him. He and Steudner reached Khartum in
+1862 and there joined the party organized by Miss Tinne. With her or on
+their own account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and
+explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner died of
+fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to Europe at the end
+of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable series of explorations in
+Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but 1875 found him again in north-east
+Africa, in the country of the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was
+preparing for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at
+Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by his
+zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours that Heuglin
+has taken rank as an independent authority.
+
+  His chief works are _Systematische Ubersicht der Vogel
+  Nordost-Afrikas_ (1855); _Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853_ (Gotha,
+  1857); _Syst. Ubersicht der Saugetiere Nordost-Afrikas_ (Vienna,
+  1867); _Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Landern_, &c., _1861-1862_
+  (Jena, 1868); _Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil_, &c. _1862-1864_
+  (Leipzig, 1869); _Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871_
+  (Brunswick, 1872-1874); _Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika_ (Cassel,
+  1869-1875); _Reise in Nordost-Afrika_ (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A
+  list of the more important of his numerous contributions to
+  _Petermann's Mitteilungen_ will be found in that serial for 1877 at
+  the close of the necrological notice.
+
+
+
+
+HEULANDITE, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous
+calcium and aluminium silicate, H4CaAl2(SiO3)6 + 3H20. Small amounts of
+sodium and potassium are usually present replacing part of the calcium.
+Crystals are monoclinic, and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit.
+They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (M in the
+figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces the
+lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is usually colourless or
+white, sometimes brick-red, and varies from transparent to translucent.
+The hardness is 3(1/2)-4, and the specific gravity 2.2.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (q.v.) in appearance, and differs
+from it chemically only in containing rather less water of
+crystallization. The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished
+by the fact that in heulandite the acute positive bisectrix of the optic
+axes emerges perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was first
+separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and named by him
+euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently, in 1822, H. J.
+Brooke arrived at the same result, giving the name heulandite, after the
+mineral collector, Henry Heuland.
+
+Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the amygdaloidal
+cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally in gneiss and
+metalliferous veins. The best specimens are from the basalts of
+Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, and the
+Deccan traps of the Sahyadri mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a
+brick-red colour are from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the
+Fassathal in Tirol. A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small
+yellow crystals on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.
+
+Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and barium zeolite
+brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster. The greyish monoclinic
+crystals have the composition H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(SiO3)6 + 3H2O, and are
+found in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with
+harmotome in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HEUSCH, WILLEM, or GUILLIAM DE, a Dutch landscape painter in the 17th
+century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist's birth and death are
+unknown. Nothing certain is recorded of him except that he presided over
+the gild of Utrecht, whilst Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix
+formed the council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of
+historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan Both. But
+each of these statements seems open to doubt; and although it is obvious
+that the style of Heusch is identical with that of Both, it may be that
+the two masters during their travels in Italy fell under the influence
+of Claude Lorraine, whose "Arcadian" art they imitated. Heusch certainly
+painted the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied
+by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both. There is
+little to distinguish one master from the other, except that of the two
+Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist. The gild of Utrecht in the
+middle of the 17th century was composed of artists who clung faithfully
+to each other. Poelemburg, who painted figures for Jan Both, did the
+same duty for Heusch. Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the
+battlepieces of Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in
+the galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at Vienna,
+the Stadel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures are signed with the
+full name, beginning with a monogram combining a G (for Guilliam), D and
+H. Heusch's etchings, of which thirteen are known, are also in the
+character of those of Both.
+
+After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew, Jacob de
+Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an initial J for the
+initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657, learnt drawing from his
+uncle, and travelled early to Rome, where he acquired friends and
+patrons for whom he executed pictures after his return. He settled for a
+time at Berlin, but finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701.
+Jacob was an "Arcadian," like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and
+he chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now
+scarce. Two of his canvases, the "Ponte Rotto" at Rome, in the Brunswick
+Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the Lichtenstein collection
+at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour with a tower and distant mountains,
+in the Belvedere at Vienna, was executed in 1699. Other examples may be
+found in English private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg
+and the museums of Rouen and Montpellier.
+
+
+
+
+HEVELIUS [HEVEL or HOWELCKE], JOHANN (1611-1687), German astronomer, was
+born at Danzig on the 28th of January 1611. He studied jurisprudence at
+Leiden in 1630; travelled in England and France; and in 1634 settled in
+his native town as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief
+interest became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his
+life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an
+observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental outfit,
+including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal length,
+constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th of January 1660, by
+John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and queen of Poland. Hevelius made
+observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645, devoted four years to charting the
+lunar surface, discovered the moon's libration in longitude, and
+published his results in _Selenographia_ (1647), a work which entitles
+him to be called the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four
+comets in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested the
+revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun. On the 26th
+of September 1679, his observatory, instruments and books were
+maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe being described in the
+preface to his _Annus climactericus_ (1685). He promptly repaired the
+damage, so far as to enable him to observe the great comet of December
+1680; but his health suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of
+January 1687. Among his works were: _Prodromus cometicus_ (1665);
+_Cometographia_ (1668); _Machina coelestis_ (first part, 1673),
+containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is
+extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the
+conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius on the variable
+star named by him "Mira" are included in _Annus climactericus_. His
+catalogue of 1564 stars appeared posthumously in _Prodromus astronomiae_
+(1690). Its value was much impaired by his preference of the antique
+"pinnules" to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an
+acrimonious controversy with Robert Hooke. In an _Atlas_ of 56 sheets,
+corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled _Firmamentum Sobiescianum_
+(1690), he delineated seven new constellations, still in use. Hevelius
+had his book printed in his own house, at lavish expense, and himself
+not only designed but engraved many of the plates.
+
+  See J. H. Westphal, _Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen
+  Johann Hevelius_ (1820); C. B. Lengnich, _Anekdoten und Nachrichten_
+  (1780); _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns); J. B. J.
+  Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler,
+  _Historia astronomiae_, p. 486; F. Baily's edition of the Catalogue of
+  Hevelius, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf,
+  _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit.
+  Handworterbuch_. For an account of the epistolary remains of Hevelius,
+  see C. G. Hecker, _Monatl. Correspondenz_, viii. 30; also _Astr.
+  Nachrichten_, vols. xxiii., xxiv.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER, Bart. (1812-1891), British surgeon, was
+born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son of a Yorkshire country
+gentleman. He lived for some years in early life in Paris, and started
+on a career as an artist, but abandoned it for surgery. He entered St
+George's Hospital, London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett,
+was physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy and
+curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate friend of Sir B. C.
+Brodie, and helped him in much of his work. Eventually he rose to be
+anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon and surgeon to the hospital. In
+1876 he was president of the College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made
+serjeant-surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884
+serjeant-surgeon, and in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very
+good lecturer, but shrank from authorship; his lectures on _Surgical
+Affections of the Head_ were, however, embodied in his treatise on the
+subject in Holmes's _System of Surgery_. As a surgeon he was always
+extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however severe,
+when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect operator, and one of
+the most trustworthy of counsellors. He died on the 19th of June 1891.
+
+
+
+
+HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS (1822-1903), American manufacturer and political
+leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York, on the 31st of July 1822. His
+father, John, a Staffordshire man, was one of a party of four mechanics
+who were sent by Boulton and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a
+steam engine for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at
+Belleville, N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America;
+he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it by the
+burning of his factories. The boy's mother was of Huguenot descent. He
+graduated with high rank from Columbia College in 1842, having supported
+himself through his course. He taught mathematics at Columbia, and in
+1845 was admitted to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never
+practised. With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt greatly
+assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter he married) he
+went into the manufacture of iron girders and beams under the firm name
+of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study of the making of gun-barrel iron in
+England enabled him to be of great assistance to the United States
+government during the Civil War, when he refused any profit on such
+orders. The men in his works never struck--indeed in 1873-1878 his plant
+was run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat. In
+1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany after the fall
+of the "Tweed Ring"; from 1875 until the end of 1886 (except in
+1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress; in 1876 he left Tammany
+for the County Democracy; in the Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he
+was chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and in Congress he
+was one of the House members of the joint committee which drew up the
+famous Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission. In
+1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination having been
+forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength of the other nominees,
+Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt; his administration (1887-1888) was
+thoroughly efficient and creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not
+renominated, ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In
+1896 and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself
+with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of January
+1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of sound money and civil
+service reform; in municipal politics he was in favour of business
+administrations and opposed to partisan nominations. He was a leader of
+those who contended for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous
+for his public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only
+in New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous speech was
+that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883. He was a terse,
+able and lucid speaker, master of wit and sarcasm, and a fearless
+critic. He gave liberally to Cooper Union, of which he was trustee and
+secretary, and which owes much of its success to him; was a trustee of
+Columbia University from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of
+trustees of Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first
+chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive
+committee of the Carnegie Institution.
+
+
+
+
+HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY (1861-   ), English novelist, was born on the 22nd
+of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall,
+Addington, Kent. He was educated at the London International College,
+Spring Grove, Isleworth, and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to
+1900 he was keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He
+published in 1895 two books on Italy, _Earthwork out of Tuscany_, and
+(in verse) _The Masque of Dead Florentines_. _Songs and Meditations_
+followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate reputation by his
+_Forest Lovers_, a romance of medieval England, full of rapid movement
+and passion. In the same year he printed the pastoral and pagan drama of
+_Pan and the Young Shepherd_, shortened for purposes of representation
+and produced at the Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by
+the _Youngest of the Angels_, dramatized from a chapter in his _Fool
+Errant_. In _Little Novels of Italy_ (1899), a collection of brilliant
+short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression together
+with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and vivid portraits of
+Richard Coeur de Lion in his _Richard Yea-and-Nay_ (1900), and of Mary,
+queen of Scots, in _The Queen's Quair_ (1904) showed the combination of
+fiction with real history at its best. _The New Canterbury Tales_ (1901)
+was another volume of stories of English life, but he returned to
+Italian subjects with _The Road in Tuscany_ (1904); in _Fond Adventures,
+Tales of the Youth of the World_ (1905), two are Italian tales, and _The
+Fool Errant_ (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis Antony
+Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel _The Stooping
+Lady_ (1907), and a volume of poems, _Artemision_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HEXAMETER, the name of the earliest and most important form of classical
+verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due to each line containing six
+feet or measures ([Greek: metra]), the last of which must be a spondee
+and the penultimate a dactyl, though occasionally, for some special
+effect, a spondee may be allowed in the fifth foot, when the line is
+said to be spondaic. The four other feet may be either spondees or
+dactyls. All the great heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman
+poets is in this metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in
+Homer and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential to
+this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the ear. The
+most usual places for the caesura are at the middle of the third, or the
+middle of the fourth foot: the former is known as the penthemimeral and
+the latter as hepthemimeral caesura. There are several more or less
+successful examples of English poems in this metre, for example
+Longfellow's _Evangeline_, Kingsley's _Andromeda_ and Clough's _Bothie
+of Tober-na-Vuoilich_, but it does not really suit the genius of the
+English language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely felt,
+even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek and Latin, on
+the distinction between long and short syllables, but on that between
+accented and unaccented syllables. The accent must always (or it sounds
+very ugly) fall on the first syllable, whatever may have been the case
+in Greek and Latin--Voss, Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter
+poems of varying merit and the metre suits the German language
+distinctly better than the English. The customary form of hexameter in
+English verse is exemplified by Coleridge's descriptive line:--
+
+  "In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column."
+
+Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning, and Lord Bowen
+(1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated hexameter consisting of
+the usual verse deprived of its last syllable. Thus Browning:--
+
+  "Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared."
+
+It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek poets
+introduced considerable variations into their treatment of the
+hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in G. Hermann's _De
+aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum_. The differences in the hexameters of
+the Latin poets were not so remarkable, but even these varied, in
+various epochs, their treatment of the separate feet, and the position
+of the caesura. The satirists in particular allowed themselves an
+extraordinary licence: these hexameters, from Persius, are as far
+removed from the rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if
+they are to remain hexameters:--
+
+  "Mane piger stertis. 'Surge!' inquit Avaritia, 'heia
+   Surge!' negas; instat 'Surge!' inquit 'Non queo.' 'Surge!'
+  'Et quid agam?' 'Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.'"
+
+It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally
+to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed and
+repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived in later ages,
+by writers who slavishly copied the most antique examples of the art of
+verse.
+
+  See Wilhelm Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und Romer_, 2te Aufl. (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HEXAPLA (Gr. for "sixfold"), the term for an edition of the Bible in six
+versions, and especially the edition of the Old Testament compiled by
+Origen, which placed side by side (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek
+character, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion.
+See BIBLE: _Old Testament, Texts and Versions_.
+
+
+
+
+HEXAPODA (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: pous], foot), a term used
+in systematic zoology for that class of the ARTHROPODA, popularly known
+as insects. Linnaeus in his _Systema naturae_ (1735) grouped under the
+class Insecta all segmented animals with firm exoskeleton and jointed
+limbs--that is to say, the insects, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans,
+spiders, scorpions and their allies. This assemblage is now generally
+regarded as a great division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal
+kingdom and known by K. T. E. von Siebold's (1848) name of Arthropoda.
+For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus's
+old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J. Brisson
+(1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others prefer the
+name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its modern sense by P. A.
+Latreille in 1825 (_Familles naturelles du regne animal_), since it has
+the advantage of expressing, in a single word, an important
+characteristic of the group. The terms "Hexapoda" and "hexapod" had
+already been used by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th
+century to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice,
+fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.
+
+
+_Characters._
+
+A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be known by the
+grouping of its body-segments in three distinct regions--a head, a
+thorax and an abdomen--each of which consists of a definite number of
+segments. In the terminology proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement
+is "nomomeristic" and "nomotagmic." The head of an insect carries
+usually four pairs of conspicuous appendages--feelers, mandibles and two
+pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive somites is
+immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects resemble so closely
+the similar organs in Crustaceans that there can hardly be reasonable
+doubt of their homology, and the primitively appendicular nature of the
+eyes in the latter class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they
+represent the appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind
+the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an "intercalary" or
+tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M. Wheeler (1893) and
+others in various insect embryos, while in the lowest insect order--the
+Aptera--a pair of minute jaws--the maxillulae--in close association with
+the tongue are present, as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J.
+W. Folsom (1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the
+earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Borner (1904),
+and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The number of
+limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus seen to be seven. All
+of these are to be regarded as primitively post-oral, but in the course
+of development the mouth moves back to the mandibular segment, so that
+the first three somites--ocular, antennal and intercalary--lie in front
+of it. In Lankester's terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is
+"triprosthomerous." The maxillae of the hinder pair become more or less
+fused together to form a "lower lip" or labium, and the segment of these
+appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly united with the
+head-capsule.
+
+The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair of jointed
+legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost bear each a
+pair of wings. From these three pairs of thoracic legs comes the
+name--Hexapoda--which distinguishes the class. And the wings, though not
+always present, are highly characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no
+other group of the Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the
+more generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments,
+the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers, (cerci or
+cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases, however, it can
+be shown that the cerci really belong to an eleventh abdominal segment
+which usually becomes fused with the tenth. With very few exceptions the
+abdomen is without locomotor limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and
+ninth abdominal segments may be specialized as external organs of
+reproduction, but these are probably not appendages. The female genital
+opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the male
+duct opens on the ninth.
+
+In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda agree with
+other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the class, however, is the
+presence of a complex system of air-tubes (tracheae) for respiration,
+usually opening to the exterior by a series of paired spiracles on
+certain of the body segments. The possession of a variable number of
+excretory tubes (Malpighian tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of
+the hind-gut and pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a
+distinctive character of the Hexapoda.
+
+The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching, the
+younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in other
+respects. In such cases the development of wings and the attainment of
+the adult form depend upon a more or less profound transformation or
+metamorphosis.
+
+With this brief summary of the essential characters of the Hexapoda, we
+may pass to a more detailed account of their structure.
+
+
+  EXOSKELETON
+
+  The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or "hypodermis") of insects as of
+  other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be
+  periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal. The
+  regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement, and the
+  definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are in close
+  contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united by
+  regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membranous,
+  so as to permit freedom of movement.
+
+  _Head._--The head-capsule of an insect (figs. 1, 2) is composed of a
+  number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive
+  segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (_vertex_ or _epicranium_),
+  on which or on the "front" may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli).
+  Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a
+  very distinct upper lip (_labrum_) is usually jointed. Behind the
+  labrum arises a process--the _epipharynx_--which in some blood-sucking
+  insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a variable
+  amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye; in many insects
+  of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are very large and
+  sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the head. Below
+  each eye is a cheek area (_gena_), often divided into an anterior and
+  a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (_gula_) is often
+  developed behind the mouth.
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 1.--Head and Jaws of Cockroach (_Blatta_). Magnified 10 times. A,
+  Front; B, side; C, back; v, vertex; f, frons; cl, clypeus; lbr,
+  labrum; oc, compound eye; ge, gena; mn, mandible; ca, st, pa, ga, la,
+  cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; sm, m, pa', pg,
+  sub-mentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.]
+
+  _Feelers._--Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are the
+  feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers
+  (antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are long
+  and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory and tactile
+  nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers, often a
+  secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from a distal
+  broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes serrate, or
+  from the development of processes bearing sensory organs, so that the
+  structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other hand, the number of
+  segments may be reduced, certain of them often becoming highly
+  modified in form.
+
+  [Illustration: After Marlatt, _Entom. Bull._ 14, n. s. (U.S. Dept.
+  Agric.).
+
+  FIG. 2.--Head of Cicad, front view. Ia, frons; b, clypeus (the pointed
+  labrum beneath it); II, mandible; III, first maxilla; (a, base; b,
+  sheath; c, piercer), III', inner view of sheath; IV, second maxillae
+  forming rostrum (b, mentum; c, ligula).]
+
+  _Jaws._--The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws with
+  one or more teeth at the apex (fig. 1, A, B, mn), articulating at
+  their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles, and
+  provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which they can
+  be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or seize
+  objects which have to be carried about. They never bear segmented
+  limbs (palps) and only exceptionally (as in the chafers) is the
+  skeleton composed of more than one sclerite. The mandibles often
+  furnish a good example of "secondary sexual characters," being more
+  strongly developed in the male than in the female of the same species.
+  In most insects that feed by suction the mandibles are modified. In
+  bugs (Heteroptera) and many flies, for example, they are changed into
+  needle-like piercers (fig. 2, II), while in moths and caddis-flies
+  they are reduced to mere vestiges or altogether suppressed.
+
+  As previously mentioned, a pair of minute jaws--the _maxillulae_--are
+  present in the lowest order of insects, between the mandibles and the
+  first maxillae. They usually consist of an inner and an outer lobe
+  arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a small
+  palp (see APTERA).
+
+  In their typical state of development, the _first maxillae_ offer a
+  striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented
+  basal piece (_cardo_ and _stipes_, fig. 1, C, ca, st) bearing a
+  distinct inner and outer lobe (_lacinia_ and _galea_, fig. 1, C, la,
+  ga) and externally a jointed limb or palp (fig. 1, C, pa). Such
+  maxillae are found in most biting insects. In insects whose mouths are
+  adapted for sucking and piercing, remarkable modifications may occur.
+  In many blood-sucking flies, for example, the galea is absent, while
+  the lacinia becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well
+  developed. In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a slender needle-like
+  piercer (fig. 2, III), while the palp is wanting. In butterflies and
+  moths the lacinia is absent while the galea becomes a flexible
+  process, grooved on its inner face, so as to make with its fellow a
+  hollow sucking-trunk, and the palp is usually very small.
+
+  The _second pair of maxillae_ are more or less completely fused
+  together to form what is known as the _labium_ or "lower lip." In
+  generalized biting insects, such as cockroaches and locusts
+  (Orthoptera), the parts of a typical maxilla can be easily recognized
+  in the labium. The fused cardines form a broad basal plate
+  (_sub-mentum_) and the stipites a smaller plate (_mentum_)--see fig.
+  1, C, sm, m--jointed on to the sub-mentum, while the galeae, laciniae
+  and palps remain distinct. In specialized biting insects, such as
+  beetles (Coleoptera), the labium tends to become a hard transverse
+  plate bearing the pair of palps, a median structure--known as the
+  _ligula_--formed of the conjoined laciniae, and a pair of small
+  rounded processes--the reduced galeae--often called the "paraglossae,"
+  a term better avoided since it has been applied also to the maxillulae
+  of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long sucking "tongue" of
+  bees is probably a modification of the ligula. In bugs and aphids
+  (Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form a jointed grooved beak or
+  rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender piercers (mandibles and
+  first maxillae) work to and fro.
+
+  This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder or lower
+  boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth is bounded by the
+  labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae lie on either side of
+  it. A median process, known as the _hypopharynx_ or tongue, arises
+  from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium, and becomes most
+  variously developed or specialized in different insects. The salivary
+  duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not appear to represent a
+  pair of appendages, but the maxillulae of the Aptera become closely
+  associated with it. According to the view of R. Heymons, the
+  hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the jaw-bearing somites, but
+  other students consider that it belongs to the mandibular and first
+  maxillary segments, or entirely to the segment of the first maxillae.
+
+  _Neck._--The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct
+  membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with
+  small chitinous plates (_cervical sclerites_). These have been
+  interpreted as indicating one or more primitive segments between the
+  head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H. Huxley
+  (_Anat. Invert. Animals_, 1877), they really belong to the labial
+  segment which has not become completely fused with the head-capsule.
+  It has been shown by C. Janet (1889), from careful studies of the
+  musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built up of
+  the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has the
+  mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main
+  supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock
+  and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904).
+
+  _Thorax._--The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-trunk
+  are known as the _prothorax_, _mesothorax_ and _metathorax_ (see fig.
+  3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single sclerite,
+  the _pronotum_ (fig. 3, d), which is large and conspicuous in those
+  insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles, which
+  have the prothorax free--i.e. readily movable on the segment
+  (mesothorax) immediately behind--smaller and of less importance where
+  the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies. The
+  dorsal area of the mesothorax, and also of the metathorax, may be made
+  up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the
+  other--_prescutum_, _scutum_, _scutellum_ and _post-scutellum_ (fig.
+  3, e, f, g, h), the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially
+  conspicuous. Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a _sternum_
+  with which a median _pre-sternum_ and paired _episterna_ and _epimera_
+  are often associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W.
+  Verhoeff (1904) that the hexapodan thorax in reality contains six
+  primitive segments is entirely without embryological support.
+
+  _Legs._--Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In most
+  insects the leg is built up of nine segments: (1) a broad triangular,
+  sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (_coxa_); (2) a small
+  _trochanter_; (3) an elongate stout thigh (_femur_); (4) a more
+  slender shin (_tibia_); and (5-9) a foot consisting of five _tarsal
+  segments_. The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive
+  pad--the _pulvillus_--on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus
+  is probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the
+  leg, while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles
+  are usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of
+  them so delicate as to be termed "hairs," others so stout and hard
+  that they are named "spines" or "spurs." In the relative development
+  and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless
+  variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and the
+  special function--walking, running, climbing, digging or swimming--for
+  which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects has been carefully
+  studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890), who find that the
+  legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first and third legs
+  of one side moving with the second leg of the other. One tripod thus
+  affords a firm base of support while the legs of the other tripod are
+  brought forward to their new positions.
+
+  [Illustration: After Marlat, _Ent. Bull._ 3, n.s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+  FIG. 3.--Thorax of Saw-Fly (_Pachynematus_).
+
+      I, Dorsal view.
+     II, Ventral view.
+    III, Lateral view.
+     IV, Lateral view with segments separated. _Prothorax_:
+      a, Episternum.
+      b, Sternum.
+      c, Coxa of fore-leg.
+      d, Pronotum. _Mesothorax_:
+      e, Prescutum.
+      f, Scutum.
+      g, Scutellum.
+      h, Post-scutellum.
+      i, Mesophragma.
+      j, _Epimeron_.
+      k, _Episternum_.
+      l, Coxa of middle leg. _Metathorax_:
+      m, Scutum.
+      o, Epimeron.
+      p, Coxa of hind leg.
+      n, _First Abdominal Segment_.
+      t, Tegula at base of fore-wing.]
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach
+
+  (_Blatta_).
+
+    I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the ventral
+       cervical sclerites (c).
+      cx, Coxa.              tr, Trochanter.
+      fe, Thigh.             tb, Shin.
+      ta, Tarsal segments.
+    II, Middle leg and mesosternum.
+    III, Hind-leg and metasternum.
+    In IIIA, the episternum (a) and epimeron (b) are slightly separated.]
+
+  _Wings._--Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of
+  insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax. At the
+  base of the wing, i.e. its attachment to the trunk, we find a highly
+  complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied movements
+  necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata) have been
+  described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long axis of the
+  wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this position
+  the outer margin of the wing is the _costa_, the inner the _dorsum_,
+  and the hind-margin the _termen_. The angle between the costa and
+  termen is the _apex_. When the wing is spread, its long axis is more
+  or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth from
+  the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment that bears it,
+  and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a double layer of
+  cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact except where they
+  are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular nervures, which
+  serve as a supporting framework for the wing membrane, enclose
+  air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures consist of a series of
+  trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually branching as they
+  approach the wing-margins, the branches being often connected by short
+  transverse nervures, so that the wing-area is marked off into a number
+  of "cells" or areolets.
+
+  [Illustration: After Quail, _Natural Science_, vol. xiii., J. M. Dent
+  & Co.
+
+  FIG. 5.--Wing-Neuration in a Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3, radial; 4,
+  median; 5, cubital; 6, 7, 8, anal nervures.]
+
+  The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders,
+  but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899) shown
+  that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal or
+  radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see fig. 5).
+  Along the costa runs a costal nervure. This is followed by a
+  sub-costal which sometimes shows two main branches. Then comes the
+  radial--usually the most important nervure of the wing--typically with
+  five branches, and the median with four. These sets arise from a main
+  trunk towards the front region of the wing-base. From another hinder
+  trunk arise the two-branched cubital nervure and three separate anal
+  nervures. In the hind-wing of many insects the number of radial
+  branches becomes reduced, while the anal area is especially well
+  developed and undergoes a fan-like folding when the wings are closed.
+  Great diversity exists in the texture and functions of fore and
+  hind-wings in different insects; these differences are discussed in
+  the descriptions of the various orders. The wings often afford
+  secondary sexual characters, being not infrequently absent or reduced
+  in the female when well developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the
+  male is the wingless sex.
+
+  In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the
+  thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on
+  the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and
+  other insects there are small plates (tegulae)--see Fig. 3, t--on the
+  mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.
+
+  _Abdomen._--In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure is
+  very clearly marked, a series of sclerites--dorsal terga and abdominal
+  sterna--being connected by pale, feebly chitinized cuticle, so that
+  considerable freedom of movement between the segments is possible. The
+  first and second abdominal sterna are often suppressed or reduced, on
+  account of the strong development of the hind-legs. In many insects
+  ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal segments can be clearly
+  distinguished in addition to a small terminal anal segment. The female
+  genital opening usually lies between the seventh and eighth segments,
+  the male on the ninth. Prominent paired limbs are often borne on the
+  tenth segment, the elongate tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and
+  may-flies, or the forceps of earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a
+  family of Isoptera, it has been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that
+  these cerci clearly belong to a partially suppressed eleventh segment,
+  and R. Heymons (1895-1896) has proved by embryological study that in
+  all cases they really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the
+  course of development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages
+  (such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth
+  segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments
+  often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see
+  fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification
+  of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects, the
+  sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those of
+  the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments may
+  be altogether suppressed.
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 6.--Outline of Male ([Male sign]) and Female ([Female sign])
+  Cockroaches (_Blatta_) from the side, showing Abdominal Segments
+  (numbered 1-10).]
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny (after Newton), _The Cockroach_,
+  Lovell Reeve & Co.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Brain of Cockroach from side. oe, Gullet; op, optic nerve;
+  sb, sub-oesophageal ganglion; mn, mx, mx', nerves to jaws; t,
+  tentorium.]
+
+
+  INTERNAL ORGANS
+
+  _Nervous System._--The nervous system in the Hexapoda is built up on
+  the typical arthropodan plan of a double ventral nerve-cord with a
+  pair of ganglia in each segment, the cords passing on either side of
+  the gullet and connecting with an anterior nerve-centre or brain (fig.
+  7) in the head. The brain innervates the eyes and feelers, and must be
+  regarded as a "syncerebrum" representing the ganglia of the three
+  foremost limb-bearing somites united with the primitive cephalic
+  lobes. Behind the gullet lies the sub-oesophageal nerve-centre (fig.
+  7, sb), composed of the ganglia of the four hinder head-somites and
+  sending nerves to the jaws. A pair of ganglia in each thoracic segment
+  is usual (fig. 8), and as many as eight distinct pairs of abdominal
+  ganglia may often be distinguished, the hindmost of which represents
+  the fused ganglia of the last four segments. But in many highly
+  organized insects a remarkable concentration of the trunk-ganglia
+  takes place, all the nerve-centres of the thorax and abdomen in the
+  chafers and in the Hemiptera, for instance, being represented by a
+  single mass situated in the thorax. The legs, wings and other organs
+  of the trunk receive their nerves from the thoracic and abdominal
+  ganglia, and the fusion of several pairs of these ganglia may be
+  regarded as corresponding to a centralization of individuality. A
+  special "sympathetic" system arises by paired nerves from the
+  oesophageal connectives; these nerves unite, and send back a median
+  recurrent nerve associated with ganglia on the gullet and crop, whence
+  proceed cords to various parts of the digestive system.
+
+  In connexion with the central nervous system there are usually
+  numerous organs of special sense. Most insects possess a pair of
+  compound eyes, and many have, in addition, three simple eyes or ocelli
+  on the vertex. The nature of these organs is described in the article
+  ARTHROPODA. The surface of a compound eye is seen to be covered with a
+  large number of hexagonal corneal facets, each of which overlies an
+  ommatidium or series of cell elements (fig. 9, A, B). There are over
+  25,000 ommatidia in the eye of a hawk moth.
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 8.--Ventral Muscles and Nerve Cord of Cockroach.]
+
+  Auditory organs of a simple type are present in most insects. These
+  consist of fine rods suspended between two points of the cuticle, and
+  connected with nerve-fibres; they are known as chordotonal organs. In
+  many cases a more complex ear is developed, which may be situated in
+  strangely diverse regions of the insect's body. In locusts
+  (_Acridiidae_) a large ovate, tympanic membrane (fig. 9, G) is
+  conspicuous on either side of the first abdominal segment; on the
+  inner surface of this membrane are two horn-like processes in contact
+  with a delicate sac containing fluid, connected with which are the
+  actual nerve-endings. In the nearly-related crickets and long-horned
+  grasshoppers (_Locustidae_) the ears are situated in the shins of the
+  fore-legs (see fig. 9, F). Just below the knee-joint there is a
+  swelling, along which two narrow slits run lengthwise. They lead into
+  chambers, formed by inpushing of the cuticle, whose delicate inner
+  walls are in contact with air-tubes; on the outer surface of these
+  latter are ridges, along which the special nerve-endings are arranged.
+  An ear of another type is found in the swollen second segment of the
+  feeler in many male gnats and midges, the cuticle between this segment
+  and the third forming an annular drum which is connected with numerous
+  nerve-endings, while the fine bristles on the more distal segments
+  vibrate in response to the note produced by the humming of the female.
+
+  [Illustration: From Ridley, _Insect Life_, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+  FIG. 9.--Single Ommatidium of Cockroach's Eye (after Grenacher). B,
+  Section through compound eye (after Miall and Denny); C, organs of
+  smell in cockchafer (after Kraepelin); D, a, b, sensory pits on
+  cercopods of golden-eye fly; c, sensory pit on palp of stone-fly
+  (after Packard); E, sensory hair (after Miall and Denny); F, ear of
+  long-horned grasshopper; a, Front shin showing outer opening and
+  air-tube; b, section (after Graber); G, ear of locust from within
+  (after Graber). All highly magnified.]
+
+  Many of the numerous hairs (fig. 9, E) that cover the body of an
+  insect have a tactile function. The sense of smell resides chiefly in
+  the feelers, on whose segments occur tiny pits, often guarded by
+  peg-like or tooth-like structures and containing rod-like cells (fig.
+  9, C) in connexion with large nerve-cells. It is said that 13,000 such
+  olfactory organs are present on the feeler of a wasp, and 40,000 on
+  the complex antennae of a male cockchafer. Organs of similar type on
+  the maxillae and epipharynx appear to exercise the function of taste.
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 10.--Dorsal Muscles, Heart and Pericardial Tendons of Cockroach.]
+
+  _Muscular System._--The muscles in the Hexapoda are striated, as in
+  Arthropods generally, the large fibres being associated in bundles
+  which are attached from point to point of the cuticle, so as to move
+  adjacent sclerites with respect to one another (see figs. 8, 10). For
+  example, the contraction of the tergo-sternal muscles, connecting the
+  dorsal with the ventral sclerites of the abdomen, lessens the capacity
+  of the abdominal region, while the contraction of the powerful muscles
+  arising from the thoracic walls, and inserted into the proximal ends
+  of the thighs, flexes or extends the legs.
+
+  _Circulatory System._--Insects afford an excellent illustration of the
+  remarkable type of blood-system characterizing the Arthropoda. The
+  dorsal vessel is an elongate tube, whose abdominal portion is usually
+  chambered, forming a contractile heart (fig. 10). At the constrictions
+  between the chambers are paired slits, through which the blood passes
+  from the surrounding pericardial sinus. The dorsal vessel is prolonged
+  anteriorly into an aorta, through which the blood is propelled into
+  the great body-cavity or haemocoel. After bathing the various tissues
+  and organs, the blood returns dorsalwards into the pericardial sinus
+  through fine perforations of its floor, and so makes its way into the
+  heart again. Some water-bugs, e.g. of the families _Belostomatidae_,
+  _Nepidae_, _Corixidae_ and _Hydrometridae_ have a pulsating sac at
+  each knee-joint to assist the flow of blood through the legs, while in
+  dragon-flies and locusts (_Acridiidae_) there is a ventral pulsating
+  diaphragm, which forms the roof of a sinus enclosing the nerve-cords.
+
+  [Illustration: After Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 11.--Ventral Portion of Air-Tubes in Cockroach.]
+
+  _Respiratory System._--As mentioned above, respiration by means of
+  air-tubes (tracheae) is a most characteristic feature of the Hexapoda.
+  An air-tube consists of an epithelium of large polygonal cells with a
+  thin basement-membrane externally and a chitinous layer internally,
+  the last-named being continuous with the outer cuticle. The chitinous
+  layer is usually strengthened by thread-like thickenings which, in the
+  region close to the outer opening of the tube, form a network
+  enclosing polygonal areas, but which, through most of the tracheal
+  system, are arranged spirally, the strengthening thread not forming a
+  continuous spiral, but being interrupted after a few turns around the
+  tube. The tracheal system in Hexapods is very complex, forming a
+  series of longitudinal trunks with transverse anastomosing connexions
+  (fig. 11), and extending by the finest sub-division and by repeated
+  branching into all parts of the body. In insects of active flight the
+  tubes swell out into numerous air-sacs, by which the breathing
+  capacity is much increased.
+
+  Atmospheric air gains access to the air-tubes through paired
+  _spiracles_ or _stigmata_, which usually occur laterally on most of
+  the body-segments. These spiracles have firm chitinous edges, and can
+  be closed by valves moved by special muscles. When the spiracles are
+  open and the body contracts, air is expired. The subsequent expansion
+  of the body causes fresh air to enter the tracheal system, and if the
+  spiracles be then closed and the body again contracted, this air is
+  driven to the finest branches of the air-tubes, where a direct
+  oxygenation of the tissues takes place. The physiology of respiration
+  has been carefully studied by F. Plateau (1884). In aquatic insects
+  various devices for obtaining or entangling air are found; these
+  modifications are described in the special articles on the various
+  orders of insects (COLEOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, &c.). Many insects have
+  aquatic larvae, some of which take in atmospheric air at intervals,
+  while others breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills. These
+  modifications are mentioned below in the section on metamorphosis.
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 12.--Food Canal of Cockroach.
+
+    s,   Salivary glands and reservoir.
+    c,   Crop (the gizzard below it).
+    coe, Caecal tubes (below them the stomach).
+    k,   Kidney tubes.
+    i,   Intestine.
+    r,   Rectum.]
+
+  _Digestive System._--A striking feature in the food-canal of the
+  Hexapoda, as in other Arthropods, is the great extent of the
+  "fore-gut" and "hind-gut," lined with a chitinous cuticle, continuous
+  with the exoskeleton. The fore-gut is composed of a tubular gullet, a
+  large sac-like crop (fig. 12, c) and a proventriculus or "gizzard,"
+  whose function is to strain the food-substances before they pass on
+  into the tubular stomach, which has no chitinous lining. This organ,
+  usually regarded as a "mid-gut," gives off a number of secretory
+  caecal tubes (fig. 12, coe). At its hinder end it is continuous with
+  the hind-gut, which is usually differentiated into a tubular coiled
+  intestine (fig. 12, i) and a swollen rectum (fig. 12, r). From the
+  fore-end of the hind-gut arise the slender Malpighian tubes (fig. 12,
+  k), which have a renal function.
+
+  On either side of the gullet are from one to ten pairs of salivary
+  glands (fig. 12, s) whose ducts open into the mouth. Some of these
+  glands may be modified for special purposes--as silk-producing glands
+  in caterpillars or as poison-glands in blood-sucking flies and bugs.
+  The food passing into the crop is there acted on by the saliva and
+  also by an acid gastric juice which passes forwards from the stomach
+  through the proventriculus. As the various portions of the food
+  undergo digestion, they are allowed to pass through the proventriculus
+  into the stomach, where the nutrient substances are absorbed.
+
+  _Excretory System._--Nitrogenous waste-matter is removed from the body
+  by the Malpighian tubes which open into the food-canal, usually where
+  the hind-gut joins the stomach. These tubes vary in number from four
+  to over a hundred in different orders of insects. The cells which line
+  them and also the cavities of the tubes contain urates, which are
+  excreted from the blood in the surrounding body-cavity. This cavity
+  contains an irregular mass of whitish tissue, the fat-body, consisting
+  of fat-cells which undergo degradation and become more or less filled
+  with urates. When the worn-out cells are broken down, the urates are
+  carried dissolved in the blood to the Malpighian tubes for excretion.
+  The fat-body is therefore the seat of important metabolic processes in
+  the hexapod body.
+
+  _Reproductive System._--All the Hexapoda are of separate sexes. The
+  ovaries (fig. 13) in the female are paired, each ovary consisting of a
+  variable number of tubes (one in the bristle-tail _Campodea_ and
+  fifteen hundred in a queen termite) in which the eggs are developed.
+  From each ovary an oviduct (fig. 13, od) leads, and in some of the
+  more primitive insects (bristle-tails, earwigs, may-flies) the two
+  oviducts open separately direct to the exterior. Usually they open
+  into a median vagina, formed by an ectodermal inpushing and lined with
+  chitin. The vagina usually opens in front of the eighth abdominal
+  sternite. Behind it is situated a spermatheca (fig. 14, sp) and the
+  ovipositor previously mentioned, with its three pairs of processes
+  (Fig. 14, G, g).
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 13.--Ovaries of Cockroach, with Oviducts Od and Colleterial
+  Glands CG.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_, Lovell Reeve &
+  Co.
+
+  FIG. 14.--Hinder Abdominal Segment and Ovipositor of Female Cockroach.
+  Magnified.
+
+    T^8 &c. Tergites.
+    S^7, 7th Sternite.
+    S^8, Sclerite between 7th and 8th sterna.
+    S^9, 8th Sclerite.
+    Od, Vagina.
+    sp, Spermatheca.
+    G, Anterior, and g, posterior gonapophyses.]
+
+  The paired testes of the male consist of a variable number of seminal
+  tubes, those of each testis opening into a _vas deferens_. In some
+  bristle-tails and may-flies, the two _vasa deferentia_ open
+  separately, but usually they lead into a sperm-reservoir, whence
+  issues a median ejaculatory duet. The male opening is on the ninth
+  abdominal segment, to which belong the processes that form the
+  claspers or genital armature. Accessory glands are commonly present in
+  connexion both with the male and the female reproductive organs. The
+  poison-glands of the sting in wasps and bees are well-known examples
+  of these.
+
+
+  EMBRYOLOGY
+
+  _The Egg._--Among the Hexapoda, as in Arthropods generally, the egg is
+  large, containing an accumulation of yolk for the nourishment of the
+  growing embryo. Most insect eggs are of an elongate oval shape; some
+  are globular, others flattened, while others again are flask-shaped,
+  and the outer envelope (_chorion_) is often beautifully sculptured
+  (figs. 20, d; 21, a, b). Various devices are adopted for the
+  protection of the eggs from mechanical injury or from the attacks of
+  enemies, and for fixing them in appropriate situations. For example,
+  the egg may be raised above the surface on which it is laid by an
+  elongate stalk; the eggs may be protected by a secretion, which in
+  some cases forms a hard protective capsule or "purse"; or they may be
+  covered with shed hairs of the mother, while among water-insects a
+  gelatinous envelope, often of rope-like form, is common. In various
+  groups of the Hexapoda--aphids and some flesh-flies (_Sarcophaga_),
+  for example--the egg undergoes development within the body of the
+  mother, and the young insect is born in an active state; such insects
+  are said to be "viviparous."
+
+  _Parthenogenesis._--A number of cases are known among the Hexapoda of
+  the development of young from the eggs of virgin females. In insects
+  so widely separated as bristle-tails and moths this occurs
+  occasionally. In certain gall-flies (_Cynipidae_) no males are known
+  to exist at all, and the species seems to be preserved entirely by
+  successive parthenogenetic generations. In other gall-flies and in
+  aphids we find that a sexual generation alternates with one or with
+  many virgin generations. The offspring of the virgin females are in
+  most of these instances females; but among the bees and wasps
+  parthenogenesis occurs normally and always results in the development
+  of males, the "queen" insect laying either a fertilized or
+  unfertilized egg at will.
+
+  _Maturation, Fertilization and Segmentation._--Polar bodies were first
+  observed in the eggs of Hexapoda by F. Blochmann in 1887. The two
+  nuclei are successively divided from the egg nucleus in the usual way,
+  but they frequently become absorbed in the peripheral protoplasm
+  instead of being extruded from the egg-cell altogether. It appears
+  that in parthenogenetic eggs two polar nuclei are formed. According to
+  A. Petrunkevich (1901-1903), the second polar nucleus uniting with one
+  daughter-nucleus of the first polar body gives rise to the germ-cells
+  of the parthenogenetically-produced male. There is no reunion of the
+  second polar nucleus with the female pronucleus, but, according to the
+  recent work of L. Doncaster (1906-1907) on the eggs of sawflies, the
+  number of chromosomes is not reduced in parthenogenetic egg-nuclei,
+  while, in eggs capable of fertilization, the usual reduction-divisions
+  occur. Fertilization takes place as the egg is laid, the spermatozoa
+  being ejected from the spermatheca of the female and making their way
+  to the protoplasm of the egg through openings (micropyles) in its firm
+  envelope. The segmentation of the fertilized nucleus results in the
+  formation of a number of nuclei which arrange themselves around the
+  periphery of the egg and, the protoplasm surrounding them becoming
+  constricted, a blastoderm or layer of cells, enclosing the central
+  yolk, is formed. Within the yolk the nuclei of some "yolk cells" can
+  be distinguished.
+
+  [Illustration: From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny's, _Cockroach_,
+  Lovell, Reeve & Co.
+
+  FIG. 15.--Diagram showing Formation of Germinal Layers. E, ectoderm;
+  M, inner layer. Magnified.]
+
+  _Germinal Layers and Food-Canal._--The embryo begins to develop as an
+  elongate, thickened, ventral region of the blastoderm which is known
+  as the ventral plate or germ band. Along this band a median furrow
+  appears, and a mass of cells sinks within, the one-layered germ band
+  thus becoming transformed into a band of two cell-layers (fig. 15). In
+  some cases the inner layer is formed not by invagination but by
+  proliferation or by delamination. The outer of these two layers (fig.
+  15, E) is the ectoderm. With regard to the inner layer (_endoblast_ of
+  some authors, fig. 15, M) much difference of opinion has prevailed. It
+  has usually been regarded as representing both endoderm and mesoderm,
+  and the groove which usually leads to its formation has been compared
+  to the abnormally elongated blastopore of a typical gastrula. No doubt
+  can be entertained that the greater part of the inner layer
+  corresponds to the mesoderm of more ordinary embryos, for the coelomic
+  pouches, the germ-cells, the musculature and the vascular system all
+  arise from it. Further, there is general agreement that the
+  chitin-lined fore-gut and hind-gut, which form the greater part of
+  the digestive tract, arise from ectodermal invaginations (stomodaeum
+  and proctodaeum respectively) at the positions of the future mouth and
+  anus. The origin of the mid-gut (mesenteron), that has no chitinous
+  lining in the developed insect, is the disputed point. According to
+  the classical researches of A. Kowalevsky (1871 and 1887) on the
+  embryology of the water-beetle _Hydrophilus_ and of the muscid flies,
+  an anterior and a posterior endoderm-rudiment both derived from the
+  "endoblast" become apparent at an early stage, in close association
+  with the stomodaeum and the proctodaeum respectively. These two
+  endoderm-rudiments ultimately grow together and give rise to the
+  epithelium of the mid-gut. These results were confirmed by the
+  observations of K. Heider and W. M. Wheeler (1889) on the embryos of
+  two beetles--_Hydrophilus_ and _Doryphora_ respectively. V. Graber,
+  however (1889), stated that in the _Muscidae_, while the anterior
+  endoderm-rudiment arises as Kowalevsky had observed, the posterior
+  part of the "mid-gut" has its origin as a direct outgrowth from the
+  proctodaeum. The recent researches of R. Heymons (1895) on the
+  Orthoptera, and of A. Lecaillon (1898) on various leaf beetles, tend
+  to show that the whole of the "mid-gut" arises from the proliferation
+  of cells at the extremity of the stomodaeum and of the proctodaeum. On
+  this view the entire food-canal in most Hexapoda must be regarded as
+  of ectodermal origin, the "endoblast" represents mesoderm only, and
+  the median furrow whence it arises can be no longer compared with the
+  blastopore. According to Heymons, the yolk-cells must be regarded as
+  the true endoderm in the hexapod embryo, for he states (1897) that in
+  the bristle-tail _Lepisma_ and in dragon-flies they give rise to the
+  mid-gut. These views are not, however, supported by other recent
+  observers. J. Carriere's researches (1897) on the embryology of the
+  mason bee (_Chalicodoma_) agree entirely with the interpretations of
+  Kowalevsky and Heider, and so on the whole do those of F. Schwangart,
+  who has studied (1904) the embryonic development of Lepidoptera. He
+  finds that the endoderm arises from an anterior and a posterior
+  rudiment derived from the "endoblast," that many of the cells of these
+  rudiments wander into the yolk, and that the mesenteric epithelium
+  becomes reinforced by cells that migrate from the yolk. K. Escherich
+  (1901), after a new research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera,
+  claims that the fore and hind endodermal rudiments arise from the
+  blastoderm by invagination, and are from their origin distinct from
+  the mesoderm. On the whole it seems likely that the endoderm is
+  represented in part by the yolk, and in part by those anterior and
+  posterior rudiments which usually form the mesenteron, but that in
+  some Hexapoda the whole digestive tract may be ectodermal. It must be
+  admitted that some or the later work on insect embryology has
+  justified the growing scepticism in the universal applicability of the
+  "germ-layer theory." Heider has suggested, however, that the apparent
+  origin of the mid-gut from the stomodaeum and proctodaeum may be
+  explained by the presence of a "latent endoderm-group" in those
+  invaginations.
+
+  [Illustration: From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny, _The Cockroach_,
+  Lovell Reeve & Co.
+
+  FIG. 16.--Cross section of Embryo of German Cockroach
+  (_Phyllodromia_). S, serosa; A, amnion; E, ectoderm; N, rudiment of
+  nerve-cord; M, mesodermal pouches.]
+
+  _Embryonic Membranes._--A remarkable feature in the embryonic
+  development of most Hexapoda is the formation of a protective membrane
+  analogous to the amnion of higher Vertebrates and known by the same
+  term. Usually there arises around the edge of the germ band a double
+  fold in the undifferentiated blastoderm, which grows over the surface
+  of the embryo, so that its inner and outer layers become continuous,
+  forming respectively the _amnion_ and the _serosa_ (fig. 16, A, S).
+  The embryo of a moth, a dragon-fly or a bug is invaginated into the
+  yolk at the head end, the portion of the blastoderm necessarily pushed
+  in with it forming the amnion. The embryo thus becomes transferred to
+  the dorsal face of the egg, but at a later stage it undergoes
+  reversion to its original ventral position. In some parasitic
+  Hymenoptera there is only a single embryonic membrane formed by
+  delamination from the blastoderm, while in a few insects, including
+  the wingless spring-tails, the embryonic membranes are vestigial or
+  entirely wanting. In the bristle-tails _Lepisma_ and _Machilis_, an
+  interesting transitional condition of the embryonic membranes has
+  lately been shown by Heymons. The embryo is invaginated into the yolk,
+  but the surface edges of the blastoderm do not close over, so that a
+  groove or pore puts the insunken space that represents the amniotic
+  cavity into communication with the outside. Heymons believes that the
+  "dorsal organ" in the embryos of the lower Arthropoda corresponds with
+  the region invaginated to form the serosa of the hexapod embryo.
+  Wheeler, however, compares with the "dorsal organ" the peculiar extra
+  embryonic membrane or indusium which he has observed between serosa
+  and amnion in the embryo of the grasshopper _Xiphidium_.
+
+  _Metameric Segmentation._--The segments are perceptible at a very
+  early stage of the development as a number of transverse bands
+  arranged in a linear sequence. The first segmentation of the ventral
+  plate is not, however, very definite, and the segmentation does not
+  make its appearance simultaneously throughout the whole length of the
+  plate; the anterior parts are segmented before the posterior. In
+  Orthoptera and Thysanura, as well as some others of the lower insects,
+  twenty-one of these divisions--not, however, all similar--may be
+  readily distinguished, six of which subsequently enter into the
+  formation of the head, three going to the thorax and twelve to the
+  abdomen. In Hemiptera only eleven and in Collembola only six abdominal
+  segments have been detected. The first and last of these twenty-one
+  divisions are so different from the others that they can scarcely be
+  considered true segments.
+
+  _Head Segments._--In the adult insect the head is insignificant in
+  size compared with the thorax or abdomen, but in the embryo it forms a
+  much larger portion of the body than it does in the adult. Its
+  composition has been the subject of prolonged difference of opinion.
+  Formerly it was said that the head consisted of four divisions, viz.
+  three segments and the procephalic or prae-oral lobes. It is now
+  ascertained that the procephalic lobes consist of three divisions, so
+  that the head must certainly be formed from at least six segments. The
+  first of these, according to the nomenclature of Heymons (see fig.
+  17), is the mouth or oral piece; the second, the antennal segment; the
+  third, the intercalary or prae-mandibular segment; while the fourth,
+  fifth, and sixth are respectively the segments of the mandibles and of
+  the first and second maxillae. These six divisions of the head are
+  diverse in kind, and subsequently undergo so much change that the part
+  each of them takes in the formation of the head-capsule is not finally
+  determined. The labrum and clypeus are developed as a single
+  prolongation of the oral piece, not as a pair of appendages. The
+  antennal segment apparently entirely disappears, with the exception of
+  a pair of appendages it bears; these become the antennae; it is
+  possible that the original segment, or some part of it, may even
+  become a portion of the actual antennae. The intercalary segment has
+  no appendages, nor rudiments thereof, except, according to H. Uzel
+  (1897), in the thysanuran _Campodea_, and probably entirely
+  disappears, though J. H. Comstock and C. Kochi believe that the labrum
+  belongs to it. The appendages of the posterior three or trophal
+  segments become the parts of the mouth. The appendages of the two
+  maxillary segments arise as treble instead of single projections, thus
+  differing from other appendages. From these facts it appears that the
+  anterior three divisions of the head differ strongly from the
+  posterior three, which greatly resemble thoracic segments; hence it
+  has been thought possible that the anterior divisions may represent a
+  primitive head, to which three segments and their leg-like appendages
+  were subsequently added to form the head as it now exists. This is,
+  however, very doubtful, and an entirely different inference is
+  possible. Besides the five limb-bearing somites just enumerated, two
+  others must now be recognized in the head. One of these is the ocular
+  segment, in front of the antennal, and behind the primitive pre-oral
+  segment. The other is the segment of the maxillulae (see above, under
+  _Jaws_), behind the mandibular somite; the presence of this in the
+  embryo of the collembolan _Anurida_ has been lately shown (1900) by J.
+  W. Folsom (fig. 18, v. 5), who terms the maxillulae "superlinguae" on
+  account of their close association with the hypopharynx or lingua. In
+  reference to the structure of the head-capsule in the imago, it
+  appears that the clypeus and labrum represent, as already said, an
+  unpaired median outgrowth of the oral piece. According to W. A. Riley
+  (1904) the epicranium or "vertex," the compound eyes and the front
+  divisions of the genae are formed by the cephalic lobes of the embryo
+  (belonging to the ocular segment), while the mandibular and maxillary
+  segments form the hinder parts of the genae and the hypopharynx.
+
+  [Illustration: After Heymons.
+
+  FIG. 17.--Morphology of an Insect: the embryo of _Gryllotalpa_,
+  somewhat diagrammatic. The longitudinal segmented band along the
+  middle line represents the early segmentation of the nervous system
+  and the subsequent median field of each sternite; the lateral
+  transverse unshaded bands are the lateral fields of each segment; the
+  shaded areas indicate the more internally placed mesoderm layer. The
+  segments are numbered 1-21; 1-6 will form the head, 7-9 the thorax,
+  10-21 the abdomen. A, anus; Abx1 Abx11, appendage of 1st and of 11th
+  abdominal segments; Ans, anal piece = telson or 12th abdominal
+  segment; Ant, antenna; De, deuterencephalon; Md, mandible; Mx1, first
+  maxilla; Mx2, second maxilla or labium; O, mouth; Obcl, rudimentary
+  labrum and clypeus; Pre, protencephalon; St1 St10, stigmata 1 and 10;
+  Terg, tergite; Thx1, appendage of first thoracic segment; Tre,
+  tritencephalon; Ul, a thickening at hinder margin of the mouth.]
+
+  Great difference of opinion exists as to the hypopharynx, which has
+  even been thought to represent a distinct segment, or the pair of
+  appendages of a distinct segment. Heymons considers that it represents
+  the sternites of the three trophal segments, and that the gula is
+  merely a secondary development. Folsom looks on the hypopharynx as a
+  secondary development. Riley holds that the hypopharynx belongs to the
+  mandibular and maxillary segments, while the cervical sclerites or
+  gula represent the sternum of the labial segment. The ganglia of the
+  nervous system offer some important evidence as to the morphology of
+  the head, and are alluded to below.
+
+  _Thoracic Segments._--These are always three in number. The three
+  pairs of legs appear very early as rudiments. Though the thoracic
+  segments bear the wings, no trace of these appendages exists till the
+  close of the embryonic life, nor even, in many cases, till much later.
+  The thoracic segments, as seen in an early stage of the ventral plate,
+  display in a well-marked manner the essential elements of the insect
+  segment. These elements are a central piece or sternite, and a lateral
+  field on each side bearing the leg-rudiment. The external part of the
+  lateral field subsequently grows up, and by coalescence with its
+  fellow forms the tergite or dorsal part of the segment.
+
+  _Abdominal Segments and Appendages._--We have already seen that in
+  numerous lower insects the abdomen is formed from twelve divisions
+  placed in linear fashion. Eleven of these may perhaps be considered as
+  true segments, but the twelfth or terminal one is different, and is
+  called by Heymons a telson; in it is placed the anal orifice, and the
+  mass subsequently becomes the upper and lower laminae anales. In
+  Hemiptera this telson is absent, and the anal orifice is placed quite
+  at the termination of the eleventh segment. Moreover, in this order
+  the abdomen shows at first a division into only nine segments and a
+  terminal mass, which last subsequently becomes divided into two. The
+  appendages of the abdomen are called cerci, stylets and gonapophyses.
+  They differ much according to the kind of insect, and in the adult
+  according to sex. Difference of opinion as to the nature of the
+  abdominal appendages prevails. The cerci, when present, appear in the
+  mature insect to be attached to the tenth segment, but according to
+  Heymons they are really appendages of the eleventh segment, their
+  connexion with the tenth being secondary and the result of
+  considerable changes that take place in the terminal segments. It has
+  been disputed whether any true cerci exist in the higher insects, but
+  they are probably represented in the Diptera and in the scorpion-flies
+  (Mecaptera). In those insects in which a median terminal appendage
+  exists between the two cerci this is considered to be a prolongation
+  of the eleventh tergite. The stylets, when present, are placed on the
+  ninth segment, and in some Thysanura exist also on the eighth segment;
+  their development takes place later in life than that of the cerci.
+  The gonapophyses are the projections near the extremity of the body
+  that surround the sexual orifices, and vary extremely according to the
+  kind of insect. They have chiefly been studied in the female, and form
+  the sting and ovipositor, organs peculiar to this sex. They are
+  developed on the ventral surface of the body and are six in number,
+  one pair arising from the eighth ventral plate and two pairs from the
+  ninth. This has been found to be the case in insects so widely
+  different as Orthoptera and Aculeate Hymenoptera. The genital armature
+  of the male is formed to a considerable extent by modifications of the
+  segments themselves. The development of the armature has been little
+  studied, and the question whether there may be present gonapophyses
+  homologous with those of the female is open.
+
+  [Illustration: A. After Wheeler, _Journ. Morph._ vol. viii., and
+  Folsom, _Bull. Mus. Harvard_, xxxvi.
+
+  B. After Folsom.
+
+  FIG. 18.--Embryos of Springtail (_Anuridamaritima_). Magnified. A,
+  Head-region of germ band. B, Section through head and thorax. The
+  neuromeres are shown in Arabic, the appendages in Roman numerals.
+
+    1, Ocular segment.
+    2, Antennal.
+    3, Trito-cerebral.
+    4, Mandibular.
+    5, Maxillular.
+    6, Maxillary.
+    7, Labial.
+    8, Prothoracic.
+    9, Mesothoracic.
+    10, Metathoracic.]
+
+  In the adult state no insect possesses more than six legs, and they
+  are always attached to the thorax; in many Thysanura there are,
+  however, processes on the abdomen that, as to their position, are
+  similar to legs. In the embryos of many insects there are projections
+  from the segments of the abdomen similar, to a considerable extent, to
+  the rudimentary thoracic legs. The question whether these projections
+  can be considered an indication of former polypody in insects has been
+  raised. They do not long persist in the embryo, but disappear, and the
+  area each one occupied becomes part of the sternite. In some embryos
+  there is but a single pair of these rudiments (or vestiges) situate on
+  the first abdominal segment, and in some cases they become
+  invaginations of a glandular nature. Whether cerci, stylets and
+  gonapophyses are developed from these rudiments has been much debated.
+  It appears that it is possible to accept cerci and stylets as
+  modifications of the temporary pseudopods, but it is more difficult to
+  believe that this is the case with the gonapophyses, for they
+  apparently commence their development considerably later than cerci
+  and stylets and only after the apparently complete disappearance of
+  the embryonic pseudopods. The fact that there are two pairs of
+  gonapophyses on the ninth abdominal segment would be fatal to the view
+  that they are in any way homologous with legs, were it not that there
+  is some evidence that the division into two pairs is secondary and
+  incomplete. But another and apparently insuperable objection may be
+  raised--that the appendages of the ninth segment are the stylets, and
+  that the gonapophyses cannot therefore be appendicular. The pseudopods
+  that exist on the abdomen of numerous caterpillars may possibly arise
+  from the embryonic pseudopods, but this also is far from being
+  established.
+
+  _Nervous System._--The nervous system is ectodermal in origin, and is
+  developed and segmented to a large extent in connexion with the outer
+  part of the body, so that it affords important evidence as to the
+  segmentation thereof. The continuous layer of cells from which the
+  nervous system is developed undergoes a segmentation analogous with
+  that we have described as occurring in the ventral plate; there is
+  thus formed a pair of contiguous ganglia for each segment of the body,
+  but there is no ganglion for the telson. The ganglia become greatly
+  changed in position during the later life, and it is usually said that
+  there are only ten pairs of abdominal ganglia even in the embryo. In
+  Orthoptera, Heymons has demonstrated the existence of eleven pairs,
+  the terminal pair becoming, however, soon united with the tenth. The
+  nervous system of the embryonic head exhibits three ganglionic masses,
+  anterior to the thoracic ganglionic masses; these three masses
+  subsequently amalgamate and form the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which
+  supplies the trophal segments. In front of the three masses that will
+  form the sub-oesophageal ganglion the mass of cells that is to form
+  the nervous system is very large, and projects on each side; this
+  anterior or "brain" mass consists of three lobes (the prot-, deut-,
+  and tritencephalon of Viallanes and others), each of which might be
+  thought to represent a segmental ganglion. But the protocerebrum
+  contains the ganglia of the ocular segment in addition to those of the
+  procephalic lobes. These three divisions subsequently form the
+  supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain proper. There are other ganglia in
+  addition to those of the ventral chain, and Janet supposes that the
+  ganglia of the sympathetic system indicate the existence of three
+  anterior head-segments; the remains of the segments themselves are, in
+  accordance with this view, to be sought in the stomodaeum. Folsom has
+  detected in the embryo of _Anurida_ a pair of ganglia (fig. 18, 5)
+  belonging to the maxillular (or superlingual) segment, thus
+  establishing seven sets of cephalic ganglia, and supporting his view
+  as to the composition of the head.
+
+  _Air-tubes._--The air-tubes, like the food-canal, are formed by
+  invaginations of the ectoderm, which arise close to the developing
+  appendages, the rudimentary spiracles appearing soon after the budding
+  limbs. The pits leading from these lengthen into tubes, and undergo
+  repeated branching as development proceeds.
+
+  _Dorsal Closure._--The germ band evidently marks the ventral aspect of
+  the developing insect, whose body must be completed by the extension
+  of the embryo so as to enclose the yolk dorsally. The method of this
+  dorsal closure varies in different insects. In the Colorado beetle
+  (_Doryphora_), whose development has been studied by W. M. Wheeler,
+  the amnion is ruptured and turned back from covering the germ band,
+  enclosing the yolk dorsally and becoming finally absorbed, as the
+  ectoderm of the germ band itself spreads to form the dorsal wall. In
+  some midges and in caddis-flies the serosa becomes ruptured and
+  absorbed, while the germ band, still clothed with the amnion, grows
+  around the yolk. In moths and certain saw-flies there is no rupture of
+  the membranes; the Russian zoologists Tichomirov and Kovalevsky have
+  described the growth of both amnion and embryonic ectoderm around the
+  yolk, the embryo being thus completely enclosed until hatching time by
+  both amnion and serosa. V. Graber has described a similar method of
+  dorsal closure in the saw-fly _Hylotoma_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Heymons, _Zeit. Wiss. Zoolog._ vol. 53.
+
+  FIG. 19.--Cross sections through Abdomen of German Cockroach Embryo. A
+  (later than fig. 16) magnified. B (still more advanced, dorsal closure
+  complete) magnified.
+
+    ec, Ectoderm.
+    en, Endoderm.
+    sp, Splanchnic layer of mesoderm.
+    y,  Yolk.
+    h,  Heart.
+    p,  Pericardial septum.
+    c,  Coelom.
+    g,  Germ-cells surrounded by rudiment-cells of ovarian tubes.
+    m,  Muscle-rudiment.
+    n,  Nerve-chain.
+    f,  Fat body.
+    s,  Inpushing of ectoderm to form air-tubes.
+    x,  Secondary body-cavity.]
+
+  _Mesoderm, Coelom and Blood-System._--From the mesoderm most of the
+  organs of the body--muscular, circulatory, reproductive--take their
+  origin. The mass of cells undergoes segmentation corresponding with
+  the outer segmentation of the embryo, and a pair of cavities--the
+  coelomic pouches (fig. 16, M)--are formed in each segment. Each
+  coelomic pouch--as traced by Heymons in his study on the development
+  of the cockroach (_Phyllodromia_)--divides into three parts, of which
+  the most dorsal contains the primitive germ-cells, the median
+  disappears, and the ventral loses its boundaries as it becomes filled
+  up with the growing fat body (fig. 19). This latter, as well as the
+  heart and the walls of the blood spaces, arises by the modification of
+  mesodermal cells, and the body cavity is formed by the enlargement and
+  coalescence of the blood channels and by the splitting of the fat
+  body. It is therefore a haemocoel, the coelom of the developed insect
+  being represented only by the cavities of the genital glands and their
+  ducts.
+
+  _Reproductive Organs._--In the cockroach embryo, before the
+  segmentation of the germ-band has begun, the primitive germ-cells can
+  be recognized at the hinder end of the mesoderm, from whose ordinary
+  cells they can be distinguished by their larger size. At a later stage
+  further germ-cells arise from the epithelium of the coelomic pouches
+  from the second to the seventh abdominal segments, and become
+  surrounded by other mesoderm cells which form the ovarian or
+  testicular tubes and ducts (fig. 19, g). In the male of _Phyllodromia_
+  the rudiment of a vestigial ovary becomes separated from the
+  developing testis, indicating perhaps an originally hermaphrodite
+  condition. An exceedingly early differentiation of the primitive
+  germ-cells occurs in certain Diptera. E. Metchnikoff observed (1866)
+  in the development of the parthenogenetic eggs produced by the
+  precocious larva of the gall-midge _Cecidomyia_ that a large
+  "polar-cell" appeared at one extremity during the primitive
+  cell-segmentation. This by successive divisions forms a group of four
+  to eight cells, which subsequently pass through the blastoderm, and
+  dividing into two groups become symmetrically arranged and surrounded
+  by the rudiments of the ovarian tubes. E. G. Balbiani and R. Ritter
+  (1890) have since observed a similar early origin for the germ-cells
+  in the midge _Chironomus_ and in the _Aphidae_.
+
+  The paired oviducts and vasa deferentia are, as we have seen,
+  mesodermal in origin. The median vagina, spermatheca and ejaculatory
+  duct are, on the other hand, formed by ectodermal inpushings. The
+  classical researches of J. A. Palmen (1884) on these ducts have shown
+  that in may-flies and in female earwigs the paired mesodermal ducts
+  open directly to the exterior, while in male earwigs there is a single
+  mesodermal duct, due either to the coalescence of the two or to the
+  suppression of one. In the absence of the external ectodermal ducts
+  usual in winged insects, these two groups resemble therefore the
+  primitive Aptera. The presence of rudiments of the genital ducts of
+  both sexes in the embryo of either sex is interesting and suggestive.
+  The ejaculatory duct which opens on the ninth abdominal sternum in the
+  adult male arises in the tenth abdominal embryonic segment and
+  subsequently moves forward.
+
+
+GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Ent. Bull._ 4, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+FIG. 20.--a, Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularis_, Linn.); newly hatched young
+from beneath; b, from above; d, egg, magnified; c, foot with claws; e,
+serrate spine, more highly magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: From Mally, _Ent. Bull._ 24 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
+
+FIG. 21.--e, f, Owl moth (_Heliothis armigera_); a, b, egg, highly
+magnified; c, larva or caterpillar; d, pupa in earthen cell.]
+
+After hatching or birth an insect undergoes a process of growth and
+change until the adult condition is reached. The varied details of this
+post-embryonic development furnish some of the most interesting facts
+and problems to the students of the Hexapoda. Wingless insects, such as
+spring-tails and lice, make their appearance in the form of miniature
+adults. Some winged insects--cockroaches, bugs (fig. 20) and earwigs,
+for example--when young closely resemble their parents, except for the
+absence of wings. On the other hand, we find in the vast majority of the
+Hexapoda a very marked difference between the perfect insect (imago) and
+the young animal when newly hatched and for some time after hatching.
+From the moth's egg comes a crawling caterpillar (fig. 21, c), from the
+fly's a legless maggot (fig. 25, a). Such a young insect is a _larva_--a
+term used by zoologists for young animals generally that are decidedly
+unlike their parents. It is obvious that the hatching of the young as a
+larva necessitates a more or less profound transformation or
+metamorphosis before the perfect state is attained. Usually this
+transformation comes with apparent suddenness, at the penultimate stage
+of the insect's life-history, when the passive pupa (fig. 21, d) is
+revealed, exhibiting the wings and other imaginal structures, which have
+been developed unseen beneath the cuticle of the larva. Hexapoda with
+this resting pupal stage in their life-history are said to undergo "a
+complete transformation," to be metabolic, or holometabolic, whereas
+those insects in which the young form resembles the parent are said to
+be ametabolic. Such insects as dragon-flies and may-flies, whose young,
+though unlike the parent, develop into the adult form without a resting
+pupal stage are said to undergo an "incomplete transformation" or to be
+hemimetabolic. The absence of the pupal stage depends upon the fact that
+in the ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda the wing-rudiments appear
+as lateral outgrowths (fig. 22) of the two hinder thoracic segments and
+are visible externally throughout the life-history, becoming larger
+after each moult or casting of the cuticle. Hence, as has been pointed
+out by D. Sharp (1898), the marked divergence among the Hexapoda, as
+regards life-history, is between insects whose wings develop outside the
+cuticle (Exopterygota) and those whose wings develop inside the cuticle
+(Endopterygota), becoming visible only when the casting of the last
+larval cuticle reveals the pupa. Metamorphosis among the Hexapoda
+depends upon the universal acquisition of wings during post-embryonic
+development--no insect being hatched with the smallest external
+rudiments of those organs--and on the necessity for successive castings
+or "moults" (ecdyses) of the cuticle.
+
+[Illustration: After Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. vii.
+
+FIG. 22.--Nymph of Locust (_Schistocera americana_), showing
+wing-rudiments.]
+
+_Ecdysis._--The embryonic ectoderm of an insect consists of a layer of
+cells forming a continuous structure, the orifices in it--mouth,
+spiracles, anus and terminal portions of the genital ducts--being
+invaginations of the outer wall. This cellular layer is called the
+hypodermis; it is protected externally by a cuticle, a layer of matter
+it itself excretes, or in the excretion of which it plays, at any rate,
+an important part. The cuticle is a dead substance, and is composed in
+large part of chitin. The cuticle contrasts strongly in its nature with
+the hypodermis it protects. It is different in its details in different
+insects and in different stages of the life of the same insect. The
+"sclerites" that make up the skeleton of the insect (which skeleton, it
+should be remembered, is entirely external) are composed of this
+chitinous excretion. The growth of an insect is usually rapid, and as
+the cuticle does not share therein, it is from time to time cast off by
+moulting or ecdysis. Before a moult actually occurs the cuticle becomes
+separated from its connexion with the underlying hypodermis. Concomitant
+with this separation there is commencement of the formation of a new
+cuticle within the old one, so that when the latter is cast off the
+insect appears with a partly completed new cuticle. The new instar--or
+temporary form--is often very different from the old one, and this is
+the essential fact of metamorphosis. Metamorphosis is, from this point
+of view, the sum of the changes that take place under the cuticle of an
+insect between the ecdyses, which changes only become externally
+displayed when the cuticle is cast off. The hypodermis is the immediate
+agent in effecting the external changes.
+
+[Illustration: Adapted from Koerschelt and Herder and Lowne.
+
+FIG. 23.--Diagram showing position of imaginal buds in larva of fly. I.,
+II., III., the three thoracic segments of the larva; 1, 2, 3, buds of
+the legs of the imago; h, bud of head-lobes; f, of feeler; e of eye; b,
+brain.]
+
+  The study of the physiology of ecdysis in its simpler forms has
+  unfortunately been somewhat neglected, investigators having directed
+  their attention chiefly to the cases that are most striking, such as
+  the transformation of a maggot into a fly, or of a caterpillar into a
+  butterfly. The changes have been found to be made up of two sets of
+  processes: histolysis, by which the whole or part of a structure
+  disappears: and histogenesis, or the formation of the new structure.
+  By histolysis certain parts of the hypodermis are destroyed, while
+  other portions of it develop into the new structures. The hypodermis
+  is composed of parts of two different kinds, viz. (1) the larger part
+  of the hypodermis that exists in the maggot or caterpillar and is
+  dissolved at the metamorphosis; (2) parts that remain comparatively
+  quiescent previously, and that grow and develop when the other parts
+  degenerate. These centres of renovation are called imaginal disks or
+  folds. The adult caterpillar may be described as a creature the
+  hypodermis of which is studded with buds that expand and form the
+  butterfly, while the parts around them degenerate. In some insects
+  (e.g. the maggots of the blowfly, _Calliphora vomitoria_) the imaginal
+  disks are to all appearance completely separated from the hypodermis,
+  with which they are, however, really organically connected by strings
+  or pedicels. This connexion was not at first recognized and the true
+  nature of imaginal disks was not at first perceived, even by Weismann,
+  to whom their discovery in Diptera is due. In other insects the
+  imaginal disks are less completely disconnected from the superficies
+  of the larval hypodermis, and may indeed be merely patches thereof.
+  The number of imaginal disks in an individual is large, upwards of
+  sixty having been discovered to take part in the formation of the
+  outer body of a fly. With regard to the internal organs, we need only
+  say that transformation occurs in an essentially similar manner, by
+  means of a development from centres distributed in the various organs.
+  The imaginal disks for the outer wall of the body, some of them, at
+  any rate, include mesodermal rudiments (from which the muscles are
+  developed) as well as hypodermis. The imaginal disks make their
+  appearance (that is, have been first detected) at very different
+  epochs in the life; their absolute origin has been but little
+  investigated. Pratt has traced them in the sheep-tick (_Melophagus_)
+  to an early stage of the embryonic life.
+
+  _Histolysis and Histogenesis._--The process of destruction of the
+  larval tissues was first studied in the forms where metamorphosis is
+  greatest and most abrupt, viz. in the Muscid Diptera. It was found
+  that the tissues were attacked by phagocytic cells that became
+  enlarged and carried away fragments of the tissue; the cells were
+  subsequently identified as leucocytes or blood-cells. Hence the
+  opinion arose that histolysis is a process of phagocytosis. It has,
+  however, since been found that in other kinds of insects the tissues
+  degenerate and break down without the intervention of phagocytes. It
+  has, moreover, been noticed that even in cases where phagocytosis
+  exists a greater or less extent of degeneration of the tissue may be
+  observed before phagocytosis occurs. This process can therefore only
+  be looked on as a secondary one that hastens and perfects the
+  destruction necessary to permit of the accompanying histogenesis. This
+  view is confirmed by the fate of the phagocytic cells. These do not
+  take a direct part in the formation of the new tissue, but it is
+  believed merely yield their surplus acquisitions, becoming ordinary
+  blood-cells or disappearing altogether. As to the nature of
+  histogenesis, nothing more can be said than that it appears to be a
+  phenomenon similar to embryonic growth, though limited to certain
+  spots. Hence we are inclined to look on the imaginal disks as cellular
+  areas that possess in a latent condition the powers of growth and
+  development that exist in the embryo, powers that only become evident
+  in certain special conditions of the organism. What the more essential
+  of these conditions may be is a question on which very little light
+  has been thrown, though it has been widely discussed.
+
+Much consideration has been given to the nature of metamorphosis in
+insects, to its value to the creatures and to the mode of its origin.
+Insect metamorphosis may be briefly described as phenomena of
+development characterized by abrupt changes of appearance and of
+structure, occurring during the period subsequent to embryonic
+development and antecedent to the reproductive state. It is, in short, a
+peculiar mode of growth and adolescence. The differences in appearance
+between the caterpillar and the butterfly, striking as they are to the
+eye, do not sufficiently represent the phenomena of metamorphosis to the
+intelligence. The changes that take place involve a revolution in the
+being, and may be summarized under three headings: (1) The
+food-relations of the individual are profoundly changed, an entirely
+different set of mouth-organs appears and the kind and quantity of the
+food taken is often radically different. (2) A wingless, sedentary
+creature is turned into a winged one with superlative powers of aerial
+movement. (3) An individual in which the reproductive organs and powers
+are functionally absent becomes one in which these structures and powers
+are the only reason for existence, for the great majority of insects die
+after a brief period of reproduction. These changes are in the higher
+insects so extreme that it is difficult to imagine how they could be
+increased. In the case of the common drone-fly, _Eristalis tenax_, the
+individual, from a sedentary maggot living in filth, without any
+relations of sex, and with only unimportant organs for the ingestion of
+its foul nutriment, changes to a creature of extreme alertness, with
+magnificent powers of flight, living on the products of the flowers it
+frequents, and endowed with highly complex sexual structures.
+
+[Illustration: After Westwood, _Modern Classification_.
+
+FIG. 24.--Campodeiform Larva of a Ground-Beetle (_Aepus marinus_).
+Magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: After Howard, _Ent. Bull._ 4, n. s. (_U.S. Dept. Agr._).
+
+FIG. 25.--Vermiform Larva (maggot) of House-fly (_Musca domestica_).
+Magnified. b, spiracle on prothorax; c, protruded head region; d,
+tail-end with functional spiracles; e, f, head region with mouth hooks
+protruded; g, hooks retracted; h, eggs. All magnified.]
+
+_Forms of Larva._--The unlikeness of the young insect to its parent is
+one of the factors that necessitates metamorphosis. It is instructive,
+further, to trace among metabolic insects an increase in the degree of
+this dissimilarity. An adult Hexapod is provided with a firm,
+well-chitinized cuticle and six conspicuous jointed legs. Many larval
+Hexapods might be defined in similar general terms, unlike as they are
+to their parents in most points of detail. Examples of such are to be
+seen in the grubs of may-flies, dragon-flies, lacewing-flies and
+ground-beetles (fig. 24). This type of active, armoured larva--often
+bearing conspicuous feelers on the head and long jointed cercopods on
+the tenth abdominal segment--was styled campodeiform by F. Brauer
+(1869), on account of its likeness in shape to the bristle-tail
+_Campodea_. As an extreme contrast to this campodeiform type, we take
+the maggot of the house-fly (fig. 25)--a vermiform larva, with soft,
+white, feebly-chitinized cuticle and without either head-capsule or
+legs. Between these two extremes, numerous intermediate forms can be
+traced: the grub (wireworm) of a click-beetle, with narrow elongate
+well-armoured body, but with the legs very short; the grub of a chafer,
+with the legs fairly developed, but with the cuticle of all the
+trunk-segments soft and feebly chitinized; the well-known caterpillar of
+a moth (fig. 21, e) or saw-fly, with its long cylindrical body, bearing
+the six shortened thoracic legs and a variable number of pairs of
+"pro-legs" on the abdomen (this being the eruciform type of larva); the
+soft, white, wood-boring grub of a longhorn-beetle or of the saw-fly
+_Sirex_, with its stumpy vestiges of thoracic legs; the large-headed but
+entirely legless, fleshy grub of a weevil; and the legless larva, with
+greatly reduced head, of a bee. The various larvae of the above series,
+however, have all a distinct head-capsule, which is altogether wanting
+in the degraded fly maggot. These differences in larval form depend in
+part on the surroundings among which the larva finds itself after
+hatching; the active, armoured grub has to seek food for itself and to
+fight its own battles, while the soft, defenceless maggot is provided
+with abundant nourishment. But in general we find that elaboration of
+imaginal structure is associated with degradation in the nature of the
+larva, eruciform and vermiform larvae being characteristic of the
+highest orders of the Hexapoda, so that unlikeness between parent and
+offspring has increased with the evolution of the class.
+
+_Hypermetamorphosis._--Among a few of the beetles or Coleoptera (q.v.),
+and also in the neuropterous genus _Mantispa_, are found life-histories
+in which the earliest instar is campodeiform and the succeeding larval
+stages eruciform. These later stages, comprising the greater part of the
+larval history, are adapted for an inquiline or a parasitic life, where
+shelter is assured and food abundant, while the short-lived, active
+condition enables the newly-hatched insect to make its way to the spot
+favourable for its future development, clinging, for example, in the
+case of an oil-beetle's larva, to the hairs of a bee as she flies
+towards her nest. The presence of the two successive larval forms in the
+life-history constitutes what is called hypermetamorphosis. Most
+significant is the precedence of the eruciform by the campodeiform type.
+In conjunction with the association mentioned above of the most highly
+developed imaginal with the most degraded larval structure, it indicates
+clearly that the active, armoured grub preceded the sluggish
+soft-skinned caterpillar or maggot in the evolution of the Hexapoda.
+
+_Nymph._--The term nymph is applied by many writers on the Hexapoda to
+all young forms of insects that are not sufficiently unlike their
+parents to be called larvae. Other writers apply the term to a "free"
+pupa (see _infra_). It is in wellnigh universal use for those instars of
+ametabolous and hemimetabolous insects in which the external
+wing-rudiments have become conspicuous (fig. 27). The mature dragon-fly
+nymph, for example, makes its way out of the water in which the early
+stages have been passed and, clinging to some water-plant, undergoes the
+final ecdysis that the imago may emerge into the air. Like most
+ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda, such nymphs continue to move and
+feed throughout their lives. But examples are not wanting of a more or
+less complete resting habit during the latest nymphal instar. In some
+cicads the mature nymph ceases to feed and remains quiescent within a
+pillar-shaped earthen chamber. The nymph of a thrips-insect
+(Thysanoptera) is sluggish, its legs and wings being sheathed by a
+delicate membrane, while the nymph of the male scale-insect rests
+enclosed beneath a waxy covering.
+
+_Sub-imago._--Among the Hexapoda generally there is no subsequent
+ecdysis nor any further growth after the assumption of the winged state.
+The may-flies, however, offer a remarkable exception to this rule. After
+a prolonged aquatic larval and nymphal life-history, the winged insect
+appears as a sub-imago, whence, after the casting of a delicate cuticle,
+the true imago emerges.
+
+_Pupa._--In the metabolic Hexapoda the resting pupal instar shows
+externally the wings and other characteristic imaginal organs which have
+been gradually elaborated beneath the larval cuticle. It is usual to
+distinguish between the free pupae (fig. 26, b)--of Coleoptera and
+Hymenoptera, for example--in which the wings, legs and other appendages
+are not fixed to the trunk, and the obtect pupae (fig. 21, d)--such as
+may be noticed in the majority of the Lepidoptera--whose appendages are
+closely and immovably pressed to the body by a general hardening and
+fusion of the cuticle. In the degree of mobility there is great
+diversity among pupae. A gnat pupa swims through the water by powerful
+strokes of its abdomen, while the caddis-fly pupa, in preparation for
+its final ecdysis, bites its way out of its subaqueous protective case
+and rises through the water, so that the fly may emerge into the air.
+Some pupae are thus more active than some nymphs; the essential
+character of a pupa is not therefore its passivity, but that it is the
+instar in which the wings first become evident externally. The division
+of the winged Hexapoda into Exopteryga and Endopteryga is thus again
+justified.
+
+[Illustration: From Chittenden, _Bull._ 4 (n.s.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 26.--a, Saw-toothed Grain-Beetle (_Silvanus surinamensis_); b,
+pupa; c, larva, magnified--; d, feeler of larva.]
+
+  If we admit that the larva has, in the phylogeny of insects, gradually
+  diverged from the imago, and if we recollect that in the ontogeny the
+  larva has always to become the imago (and of course still does so)
+  notwithstanding the increased difficulty of the transformation, we
+  cannot but recognize that a period of helplessness in which the
+  transformation may take place is to be expected. It is generally
+  considered that this is sufficient as an explanation of the existence
+  of the pupa. This, however, is not the case, because the greater part
+  of the transformation precedes the disclosure of the pupa, which, as
+  L. C. Miall remarks, is structurally little other "than the fly
+  enclosed in a temporary skin." Moreover, in many insects with
+  imperfect metamorphosis the change from larva or (as the later stage
+  of the larva is called in these cases) nymph to imago is about as
+  great as the corresponding change in the Holometabola, as the student
+  will recognize if he recalls the histories of _Ephemeridae_, Odonata
+  and male _Coccidae_. But in none of these latter cases have the wings
+  to be changed from a position inside the body to become external and
+  actively functional organs. The difference between the nymph or false
+  pupa and the true pupa is that in the latter a whole stage is devoted
+  to the perfecting of the wings and body-wall after the wings have
+  become external organs; the stage is one in which no food is or can be
+  taken, however prolonged may be its existence. Amongst insects with
+  imperfect metamorphosis the nearest approximations to the true pupa of
+  the Holometabola are to be found in the sub-imago of _Ephemeridae_ and
+  in the quiescent or resting stages of Thysanoptera, _Aleurodidae_ and
+  _Coccidae_. A much more thorough appreciation than we yet possess of
+  the phenomena in these cases is necessary in order completely to
+  demonstrate the special characteristics of the holometabolous
+  transformation. But even at present we can correctly state that the
+  true pupa is invariably connected with the transference of the wings
+  from the interior to the exterior of the body. It cannot but suggest
+  itself that this transference was induced by some peculiarity as to
+  formation of cuticle, causing the growth of the wings to be directed
+  inwards instead of outwards. We may remark that fleas possess no
+  wings, but are understood to possess a true pupa. This is a most
+  remarkable case, but unfortunately very little information exists as
+  to the details of metamorphosis in this group.
+
+_Life-Relations._--Only a brief reference can be made here to the
+fascinating subject of the life-relations of the larva, nymph and pupa,
+as compared with those of the imago. For details, the reader may consult
+the special articles on the various orders and groups of insects. A
+common result of metamorphosis is that the larva and imago differ
+markedly in their habitat and mode of feeding. The larva may be aquatic,
+or subterranean, or a burrower in wood, while the imago is aerial. It
+may bite and devour solid food, while the imago sucks liquids. It may
+eat roots or refuse, while the imago lives on leaves and flowers. The
+aquatic habit of many larvae is associated with endless beautiful
+adaptations for respiration. The series of paired spiracles on most of
+the trunk-segments is well displayed, as a rule, in terrestrial
+larvae--caterpillars and the grubs of most beetles, for example. In many
+aquatic larvae we find that all the spiracles are closed up, or become
+functionless, except a pair at the hinder end which are associated with
+some arrangement--such as the valvular flaps of the gnat larva or the
+telescopic "tail" of the drone-fly larva--for piercing the surface film
+and drawing periodical supplies of atmospheric air. A similar
+restriction of the functional spiracles to the tail-end (fig. 25, d) is
+seen in many larvae of flies (Diptera) that live and feed buried in
+carrion or excrement. Other aquatic larvae have the tracheal system
+entirely closed, and are able to breathe dissolved air by means of
+tubular or leaf-like gills. Such are the grubs of stone-flies, may-flies
+(fig. 27) and some dragon-flies and midges. An interesting feature is
+the difference often to be observed between an aquatic larva and pupa of
+the same insect in the matter of breathing. The gnat larva, for example,
+breathes at the tail-end, hanging head-downwards from the surface-film.
+But the pupa hangs from the surface by means of paired respiratory
+trumpets on the prothorax, the dorsal thoracic surface, where the
+cuticle splits to allow the emergence of the fly, being thus directed
+towards the upper air.
+
+[Illustration: From Miall and Denny (after Vayssiere), _The Cockroach_,
+Lovell Reeve & Co.
+
+FIG. 27.--Nymph of May-fly (_Chloeon dipterum_), with wing rudiments (a)
+and tracheal gill-plates (b, b). Magnified--. (The feelers and legs are
+cut short.)]
+
+A marked disproportion between the life-term of larva and imago is
+common; the former often lives for months or years, while the latter
+only survives for weeks or days or hours. Generally the larval is the
+feeding, the imaginal the breeding, stage of the life-cycle. The extreme
+of this "division of labour" is seen in those insects whose jaws are
+vestigial in the winged state, when, the need for feeding all behind
+them, they have but to pair, to lay eggs and to die. The acquisition of
+wings is the sign of developed reproductive power.
+
+_Paedogenesis._--Nevertheless, the function of reproduction is
+occasionally exercised by larvae. In 1865 N. Wagner made his classical
+observations on the production of larvae from unfertilized eggs
+developed in the precociously-formed ovaries of a larval gall-midge
+(Cecidomyid), and subsequent observers have confirmed his results by
+studies on insects of the same family and of the related _Chironomidae_.
+The larvae produced by this remarkable method (paedogenesis) of
+virgin-reproduction are hatched within the parent larva, and in some
+cases escape by the rupture of its body.
+
+_Polyembryony._--Occasionally the power of reproduction is thrown still
+farther back in the life-history, and it is found that from a single egg
+a large number of embryos may be formed. P. Marchal has (1904) described
+this power in two small parasitic Hymenoptera--a Chalcid (_Encyrtus_)
+which lays eggs in the developing eggs of the small moth _Hyponomeuta_,
+and a Proctotrypid (_Polygnotus_) which infests a gall-midge
+(Cecidomyid) larva. In the egg of these insects a small number of nuclei
+are formed by the division of the nucleus, and each of these nuclei
+originates by division the cell-layers of a separate embryo. Thus a mass
+or chain of embryos is produced, lying in a common cyst, and developing
+as their larval host develops. In this way over a hundred embryos may
+result from a single egg. Marchal points out the analogy of this
+phenomenon to the artificial polyembryony that has been induced in
+Echinoderm and other eggs by separating the blastomeres, and suggests
+that the abundant food-supply afforded by the host-larva is favourable
+for this multiplication of embryos, which may be, in the first instance,
+incited by the abnormal osmotic pressure on the egg.
+
+_Duration of Life._--The flour-moth (_Ephestia kuhniella_) sometimes
+passes through five or six generations in a single year. Although one of
+the characteristics of insects is the brevity of their adult lives, a
+considerable number of exceptions to the general rule have been
+discovered. These exceptions may be briefly summarized as follows: (1)
+Certain larvae, provided with food that may be adequate in quantity but
+deficient in nutriment, may live and go on feeding for many years;
+(2) certain stages of the life that are naturally "resting stages" may
+be in exceptional cases prolonged, and that to a very great extent; in
+this case no food is taken, and the activity of the individual is almost
+_nil_; (3) the life of certain insects in the adult state may be much
+prolonged if celibacy be maintained; a female of _Cybister roeselii_ (a
+large water-beetle) has lived five and a half years in the adult state
+in captivity. In addition to these abnormal cases, the life of certain
+insects is naturally more prolonged than usual. The females of some
+social insects have been known to live for many years. In _Tibicen
+septemdecim_ the life of the larva extends over from thirteen to
+seventeen years. The eggs of locusts may remain for years in the ground
+before hatching; and there may thus arise the peculiar phenomenon of
+some species of insect appearing in vast numbers in a locality where it
+has not been seen for several years.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION
+
+_Number of Species._--It is now considered that 2,000,000 is a moderate
+estimate of the species of insects actually existing. Some authorities
+consider this total to be too small, and extend the number to
+10,000,000. Upwards of 300,000 species have been collected and
+described, and at present the number of named forms increases at the
+rate of about 8000 species per annum. The greater part by far of the
+insects existing in the world is still quite unknown to science. Many of
+the species are in process of extinction, owing to the extensive changes
+that are taking place in the natural conditions of the world by the
+extension of human population and of cultivation, and by the destruction
+of forests; hence it is probable that a considerable proportion of the
+species at present existing will disappear from the face of the earth
+before we have discovered or preserved any specimens of them.
+Nevertheless, the constant increase of our knowledge of insect forms
+renders classification increasingly difficult, for gaps in the series
+become filled, and while the number of genera and families increases,
+the distinctions between these groups become dependent on characters
+that must seem trivial to the naturalist who is not a specialist.
+
+_Orders of Hexapoda._--In the present article it is only possible to
+treat of the division of the Hexapoda into orders and sub-orders and of
+the relations of these orders to each other. For further classificatory
+details, reference must be made to the special articles on the various
+orders. As regards the vast majority of insects, the orders proposed by
+Linnaeus are acknowledged by modern zoologists. His classification was
+founded mainly on the nature of the wings, and five of his orders--the
+Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps, &c.), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera
+(two-winged flies), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), and Hemiptera
+(bugs, cicads, &c.)--are recognized to-day with nearly the same limits
+as he laid down. His order of wingless insects (Aptera) included
+Crustacea, spiders, centipedes and other creatures that now form classes
+of the Arthropoda distinct from the Hexapoda; it also included Hexapoda
+of parasitic and evidently degraded structure, that are now regarded as
+allied more or less closely to various winged insects. Consequently the
+modern order Aptera comprises only a very small proportion of Linnaeus's
+"Aptera"--the spring-tails and bristle-tails, wingless Hexapoda that
+stand evidently at a lower grade of development than the bulk of the
+class. The earwigs, cockroaches and locusts, which Linnaeus included
+among the Coleoptera, were early grouped into a distinct order, the
+Orthoptera. The great advance in modern zoology as regards the
+classification of the Hexapoda lies in the treatment of a heterogeneous
+assembly which formed Linnaeus's order Neuroptera. The characters of the
+wings are doubtless important as indications of relationship, but the
+nature of the jaws and the course of the life-history must be considered
+of greater value. Linnaeus's Neuroptera exhibit great diversity in these
+respects, and the insects included in it are now therefore distributed
+into a number of distinct orders. The many different arrangements that
+have been proposed can hardly be referred to in this article. Of special
+importance in the history of systematic entomology was the scheme of F.
+Brauer (1885), who separated the spring tails and bristle-tails as a
+sub-class Apterygogenea from all the other Hexapoda, these forming the
+sub-class Pterygogenea distributed into sixteen orders. Brauer in his
+arrangement of these orders laid special stress on the nature of the
+metamorphosis, and was the first to draw attention to the number of
+Malpighian tubes as of importance in classification. Subsequent writers
+have, for the most part, increased the number of recognized orders; and
+during the last few years several schemes of classification have been
+published, in the most revolutionary of which--that of A. Handlirsch
+(1903-1904)--the Hexapoda are divided into four classes and thirty-four
+orders! Such excessive multiplication of the larger taxonomic divisions
+shows an imperfect sense of proportion, for if the term "class" be
+allowed its usual zoological value, no student can fail to recognize
+that the Hexapoda form a single well-defined class, from which few
+entomologists would wish to exclude even the Apterygogenea. In several
+recent attempts to group the orders into sub-classes, stress has been
+laid upon a few characters in the imago. C. Borner (1904), for example,
+considers the presence or absence of cerci of great importance, while F.
+Klapalek (1904) lays stress on a supposed distinction between
+appendicular and non-appendicular genital processes. A natural system
+must take into account the nature of the larva and of the metamorphosis
+in conjunction with the general characters of the imago. Hence the
+grouping of the orders of winged Hexapoda into the divisions
+Exopterygota and Endopterygota, as suggested by D. Sharp, is unlikely to
+be superseded by the result of any researches into minute imaginal
+structure. Sharp's proposed association of the parasitic wingless
+insects in a group Anapterygota cannot, however, be defended as natural;
+and recent researches into the structure of these forms enables us to
+associate them confidently with related winged orders. The
+classification here adopted is based on Sharp's scheme, with the
+addition of suggestions from some of the most recent authors--especially
+Borner and Enderlein.
+
+    Class: HEXAPODA.
+
+    Sub-class: APTERYGOTA.
+
+  Primitively (?) wingless Hexapods with cumacean mandibles, distinct
+  maxillulae, and locomotor abdominal appendages. Without ectodermal
+  genital ducts. Young closely resemble adults.
+
+  The sub-class contains a single
+
+    Order: _Aptera_,
+
+  which is divided into two sub-orders:
+
+  1. _Thysanura_ (Bristle-tails): with ten abdominal segments; number of
+  abdominal appendages variable. Cerci prominent. Developed tracheal
+  system.
+
+  2. _Collembola_ (Spring-tails): with six abdominal segments;
+  appendages of the first forming an adherent ventral tube, those of the
+  third a minute "catch," those of the fourth (fused basally) a
+  "spring." Tracheal system reduced or absent.
+
+    Sub-class: EXOPTERYGOTA.
+
+  Hexapoda mostly with wings, the wingless forms clearly degraded.
+  Maxillulae rarely distinct. No locomotor abdominal appendages. The
+  wing-rudiments develop visibly outside the cuticle. Young like or
+  unlike parents.
+
+    Order: _Dermaptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; minute but distinct-maxillulae; second maxillae
+  incompletely fused. When wings are present, the fore-wings are small
+  firm elytra, beneath which the delicate hind-wings are complexly
+  folded. Many forms wingless. Genital ducts entirely mesodermal. Cerci
+  always present; usually modified into unjointed forceps. Numerous (30
+  or more) Malpighian tubes. Young resembling parents.
+
+  Includes two families--the _Forficulidae_ or _earwigs_ (q.v.) and the
+  _Hemimeridae_.
+
+    Order: _Orthoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; vestigial maxillulae; second maxillae incompletely
+  fused. Wings usually well developed, net-veined; the fore-wings of
+  firmer texture than the hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise
+  beneath them. Jointed cerci always present; ovipositor well developed.
+  Malpighian tubes numerous (100-150). Young resemble parents.
+
+  Includes stick and leaf insects, cockroaches, mantids, grasshoppers,
+  locusts and crickets (see ORTHOPTERA).
+
+    Order: _Plecoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings
+  similar in texture to hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise.
+  Jointed, often elongate, cerci. Numerous (50-60) Malpighian tubes.
+  Young resembling parents, but aquatic in habit, breathing dissolved
+  air by thoracic tracheal gills.
+
+  Includes the single family of the _Perlidae_ (Stone-flies), formerly
+  grouped with the Neuroptera.
+
+    Order: _Isoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings
+  similar in shape and texture to hind-wings, which do not fold. In most
+  species the majority of individuals are wingless. Short, jointed
+  cerci. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Young resembling adults;
+  terrestrial throughout life.
+
+  Includes two families, formerly reckoned among the Neuroptera--the
+  _Embiidae_ and the _Termitidae_ or "White Ants" (see TERMITE).
+
+    Order: _Corrodentia_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused; maxillulae often
+  distinct. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes.
+
+  Includes two sub-orders, formerly regarded as Neuroptera:--
+
+  1. _Copeognatha_: Corrodentia with delicate cuticle. Wings usually
+  developed; the fore-wings much larger than the hind-wings. One family,
+  the _Psocidae_ (Book-lice). These minute insects are found amongst old
+  books and furniture.
+
+  2. _Mallophaga_: Parasitic wingless Corrodentia (Bird-lice).
+
+    Order: _Ephemeroptera_.
+
+  Jaws vestigial. Fore-wings much larger than hind-wings. Elongate,
+  jointed cerci. Genital ducts paired and entirely mesodermal.
+  Malpighian tubes numerous (40). Aquatic larvae with distinct
+  maxillulae, breathing dissolved air by abdominal tracheal gills.
+  Penultimate instar a flying sub-imago. [Includes the single family of
+  the _Ephemeridae_ or may-flies. See also NEUROPTERA, in which this
+  order was formerly comprised.]
+
+    Order: _Odonata_.
+
+  Biting mandibles. Wings of both pairs closely alike; firm and glassy
+  in texture. Prominent, unjointed cerci, male with genital armature on
+  second abdominal segment. Malpighian tubes numerous (50-60). Aquatic
+  larvae with caudal leaf-gills or with rectal tracheal system.
+
+  Includes the three families of dragon-flies. Formerly comprised among
+  the Neuroptera.
+
+    Order: _Thysanoptera_.
+
+  Piercing mandibles, retracted within the head-capsule. First maxillae
+  also modified as piercers; maxillae of both pairs with distinct palps.
+  Both pairs of wings similar, narrow and fringed. Four Malpighian
+  tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor usually present. Young resembling
+  parents, but penultimate instar passive and enclosed in a filmy
+  pellicle.
+
+  Includes three families of Thrips (see THYSANOPTERA).
+
+    Order: _Hemiptera_.
+
+  Mandibles and first maxillae modified as piercers; second maxillae
+  fused to form a jointed, grooved rostrum. Wings usually present. Four
+  Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor developed.
+
+  Includes two sub-orders:--
+
+  1. _Heteroptera_: Rostrum not in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
+  Fore-wings partly coriaceous. Young resembling adults.
+
+  Includes the bugs, terrestrial and aquatic.
+
+  2. _Homoptera_: Rostrum in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
+  Fore-wings uniform in texture. Young often larvae. Penultimate instar
+  passive in some cases.
+
+  Includes the cicads, aphides and scale-insects (see HEMIPTERA).
+
+    Order: _Anoplura_.
+
+  Piercing jaws modified and reduced, a tubular, protrusible
+  sucking-trunk being developed; mouth with hooks. Wingless, parasitic
+  forms. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. Young resembling adults.
+
+  Includes the family of the Lice (_Pediculidae_), often reckoned as
+  Hemiptera (q.v.). See also LOUSE.
+
+    Sub-class: ENDOPTERYGOTA.
+
+  Hexapoda mostly with wings; the wingless forms clearly degraded or
+  modified. Maxillulae vestigial or absent. No locomotor abdominal
+  appendages (except in certain larvae). Young animals always unlike
+  parents, the wing-rudiments developing beneath the larval cuticle and
+  only appearing in a penultimate pupal instar, which takes no food and
+  is usually passive.
+
+    Order: _Neuroptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae completely fused. Prothorax large
+  and free. Membranous, net-veined wings, those of the two pairs closely
+  alike. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Larva
+  campodeiform, usually feeding by suction (exceptionally
+  hypermetamorphic with subsequent eruciform instars). Pupa free.
+
+  Includes the alder-flies, ant-lions and lacewing-flies. See
+  NEUROPTERA.
+
+    Order: _Coleoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae very intimately fused. Prothorax
+  large and free. Fore-wings modified into firm elytra, beneath which
+  the membranous hind-wings (when present) can be folded. Cerci absent.
+  Four or six Malpighian tubes. Larva campodeiform or eruciform. Pupa
+  free.
+
+  Includes the beetles and the parasitic _Stylopidae_, often regarded as
+  a distinct order (_Strepsiptera_). (See COLEOPTERA.)
+
+    Order: _Mecaptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; first maxillae elongate; second maxillae completely
+  fused. Prothorax small. Two pairs of similar, membranous wings, with
+  predominantly longitudinal neuration. Six Malpighian tubes. Larva
+  eruciform. Pupa free. Cerci present.
+
+  Includes the single family of _Panorpidae_ (scorpion-flies), often
+  comprised among the Neuroptera.
+
+    Order: _Trichoptera_.
+
+  Mandibles present in pupa, vestigial in imago; maxillae suctorial
+  without specialization; first maxillae with lacinia, galea and palp.
+  Prothorax small. Two pairs of membranous, hair-covered wings, with
+  predominantly longitudinal neuration. Larvae aquatic and eruciform.
+  Pupa free. Six Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.
+
+  Includes the caddis-flies. See NEUROPTERA, among which these insects
+  were formerly comprised.
+
+    Order: _Lepidoptera_.
+
+  Mandibles absent in imago, very exceptionally present in pupa; first
+  maxillae nearly always without laciniae and often without palps, or
+  only with vestigial palps, their galeae elongated and grooved inwardly
+  so as to form a sucking trunk. Prothorax small. Wings with
+  predominantly longitudinal neuration, covered with flattened scales.
+  Fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Cerci absent. Four (rarely 6 or 8)
+  Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform, with rarely more than five pairs
+  of abdominal prolegs. Pupa free in the lowest families, in most cases
+  incompletely or completely obtect.
+
+  Includes the moths and butterflies. See LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+    Order: _Diptera_.
+
+  Mandibles rarely present, adapted for piercing; first maxillae with
+  palps; second maxillae forming with hypopharynx a suctorial proboscis.
+  Prothorax small, intimately united to mesothorax. Fore-wings well
+  developed; hind-wings reduced to stalked knobs ("halteres"). Cerci
+  present but usually reduced. Four Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform
+  without thoracic legs, or vermiform without head-capsule. Pupa
+  incompletely obtect or free, and enclosed in the hardened cuticle of
+  the last larval instar (puparium).
+
+  Includes the two-winged flies (see DIPTERA), which may be divided into
+  two sub-orders:--
+
+  1. _Orthorrhapha_: Larva eruciform. Cuticle of pupa or puparium
+  splitting longitudinally down the back, to allow escape of imago.
+
+  Comprises the midges, gnats, crane-flies, gad-flies, &c.
+
+  2. _Cyclorrhapha_: Larva vermiform (no head-capsule). Puparium opening
+  by an anterior "lid."
+
+  Comprises the hover-flies, flesh-flies, bot-flies, &c.
+
+    Order: _Siphonaptera_.
+
+  Mandibles fused into a piercer; first maxillae developed as piercers;
+  palps of both pairs of maxillae present; hypopharynx wanting.
+  Prothorax large. Wings absent or vestigial. Larva eruciform, limbless.
+
+  Includes the fleas.
+
+    Order: _Hymenoptera_.
+
+  Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely or completely fused;
+  often forming a suctorial proboscis. Prothorax small, and united to
+  mesothorax. First abdominal segment united to metathorax. Wings
+  membranous, fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Ovipositor always well
+  developed, and often modified into a sting. Numerous (20-150)
+  Malpighian tubes (in rare cases, 6-12 only). Larva eruciform, with
+  seven or eight pairs of abdominal prolegs, or entirely legless. Pupa
+  free.
+
+  Includes two sub-orders:--
+
+  1. _Symphyta_: Abdomen not basally constricted. Larvae caterpillars
+  with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs.
+
+  Comprises the saw-flies.
+
+  2. _Apocrita_: Abdomen markedly constricted at second segment. Larvae
+  legless grubs.
+
+  Comprises gall-flies, ichneumon-flies, ants, wasps, bees. See
+  HYMENOPTERA.
+
+
+GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
+
+The classification just given has been drawn up with reference to
+existing insects, but the great majority of the extinct forms that have
+been discovered can be referred with some confidence to the same orders,
+and in many cases to recent families. The Hexapoda, being aerial,
+terrestrial and fresh-water animals, are but occasionally preserved in
+stratified rocks, and our knowledge of extinct members of the class is
+therefore fragmentary, while the description, as insects, of various
+obscure fossils, which are perhaps not even Arthropods, has not tended
+to the advancement of this branch of zoology. Nevertheless, much
+progress has been made. Several Silurian fossils have been identified as
+insects, including a Thysanuran from North America, but upon these
+considerable doubt has been cast.
+
+The Devonian rocks of Canada (New Brunswick) have yielded several
+fossils which are undoubtedly wings of Hexapods. These have been
+described by S. H. Scudder, and include gigantic forms related to the
+Ephemeroptera.
+
+In the Carboniferous strata (Coal measures) remains of Hexapods become
+numerous and quite indisputable. Many European forms of this age have
+been described by C. Brongniart, and American by S. H. Scudder. The
+latter has established, for all the Palaeozoic insects, an order
+Palaeodictyoptera, there being a closer similarity between the
+fore-wings and the hind-wings than is to be seen in most living orders
+of Hexapoda, while affinities are shown to several of these
+orders--notably the Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Hemiptera. It
+is probable that many of these Carboniferous insects might be referred
+to the Isoptera, while others would fall into the existing orders to
+which they are allied, with some modification of our present diagnoses.
+Of special interest are cockroach-like forms, with two pairs of similar
+membranous wings and a long ovipositor, and gigantic insects allied to
+the Odonata, that measured 2 ft. across the outspread wings. A
+remarkable fossil from the Scottish Coal-measures (_Lithomantis_) had
+apparently small wing-like structures on the prothorax, and in allied
+genera small veined outgrowths--like tracheal gills--occurred on the
+abdominal segments. To the Permian period belongs a remarkable genus
+_Eugereon_, that combines hemipteroid jaws with orthopteroid
+wing-neuration. With the dawn of the Mesozoic epoch we reach Hexapods
+that can be unhesitatingly referred to existing orders. From the Trias
+of Colorado, Scudder has described cockroaches intermediate between
+their Carboniferous precursors and their present-day descendants, while
+the existence of endopterygotous Hexapods is shown by the remains of
+Coleoptera of several families. In the Jurassic rocks are found
+Ephemeroptera and Odonata, as well as Hemiptera, referable to existing
+families, some representatives of which had already appeared in the
+oldest of the Jurassic ages--the Lias. To the Lias also can be traced
+back the Neuroptera, the Trichoptera, the orthorrhaphous Diptera and,
+according to the determination of certain obscure fossils, also the
+Hymenoptera (ants). The Lithographic stone of Kimmeridgian age, at
+Solenhofen in Bavaria, is especially rich in insect remains,
+cyclorrhaphous Diptera appearing here for the first time. In Tertiary
+times the higher Diptera, besides Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, referable
+to existing families, become fairly abundant. Numerous fossil insects
+preserved in the amber of the Baltic Oligocene have been described by G.
+L. Mayr and others, while Scudder has studied the rich Oligocene faunas
+of Colorado (Florissant) and Wyoming (Green River). The Oeningen beds of
+Baden, of Miocene age, have also yielded an extensive insect fauna,
+described fifty years ago by O. Heer. Further details of the geological
+history of the Hexapoda will be found in the special articles on the
+various orders. Fragmentary as the records are, they show that the
+Exopterygota preceded the Endopterygota in the evolution of the class,
+and that among the Endopterygota those orders in which the greatest
+difference exists between imago and larva--the Lepidoptera, Diptera and
+Hymenoptera--were the latest to take their rise.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
+
+The class Hexapoda has a world-wide range, and so have most of its
+component orders. The Aptera have perhaps the most extensive
+distribution of all animals, being found in Franz Josef Land and South
+Victoria Land, on the snows of Alpine glaciers, and in the depths of the
+most extensive caves. Most of the families and a large proportion of the
+genera of insects are exceedingly widespread, but a study of the genera
+and species in any of the more important families shows that faunas can
+be distinguished whose headquarters agree fairly with the regions that
+have been proposed to express the distribution of the higher
+vertebrates. Many insects, however, can readily extend their range, and
+a careful study of their distribution leads us to discriminate between
+faunas rather than definitely to map regions. A large and dominant
+Holoarctic fauna, with numerous subdivisions, ranges over the great
+northern continents, and is characterized by the abundance of certain
+families like the _Carabidae_ and _Staphylinidae_ among the Coleoptera
+and the _Tenthredinidae_ among the Hymenoptera. The southern territory
+held by this fauna is invaded by genera and species distinctly tropical.
+Oriental types range far northwards into China and Japan. Ethiopian
+forms invade the Mediterranean area. Neotropical and distinctively
+Sonoran insects mingle with members of the Holoarctic fauna across a
+wide "transition zone" in North America. "Wallace's line" dividing the
+Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan sub-regions is frequently transgressed
+in the range of Malayan insects. The Australian fauna is rich in
+characteristic and peculiar genera, and New Zealand, while possessing
+some remarkable insects of its own, lacks entirely several families with
+an almost world-wide range--for example, the _Notodontidae_,
+_Lasiocampidae_, and other families of Lepidoptera. Interesting
+relationships between the Ethiopian and Oriental, the Neotropical and
+West African, the Patagonian and New Zealand faunas suggest great
+changes in the distribution of land and water, and throw doubt on the
+doctrine of the permanence of continental areas and oceanic basins.
+Holoarctic types reappear on the Andes and in South Africa, and even in
+New Zealand. The study of the Hexapoda of oceanic islands is full of
+interest. After the determination of a number of cosmopolitan insects
+that may well have been artificially introduced, there remains a large
+proportion of endemic species--sometimes referable to distinct
+genera--which suggest a high antiquity for the truly insular faunas.
+
+
+RELATIONSHIPS AND PHYLOGENY
+
+The Hexapoda form a very clearly defined class of the Arthropoda, and
+many recent writers have suggested that they must have arisen
+independently of other Arthropods from annelid worms, and that the
+Arthropoda must, therefore, be regarded as an "unnatural," polyphyletic
+assemblage. The cogent arguments against this view are set forth in the
+article on Arthropoda. A near relationship between the Apterygota and
+the Crustacea has been ably advocated by H. J. Hansen (1893). It is
+admitted on all hands that the Hexapoda are akin to the Chilopoda.
+Verhoeff has lately (1904) put forward the view that there are really
+six segments in the hexapodan thorax and twenty in the abdomen--the
+cerci belonging to the seventeenth abdominal segment thus showing a
+close agreement with the centipede _Scolopendra_. On the other hand, G.
+H. Carpenter (1899, 1902-1904) has lately endeavoured to show an exact
+numerical correspondence in segmentation between the Hexapoda, the
+Crustacea, the Arachnida, and the most primitive of the Diplopoda. On
+either view it may be believed that the Hexapoda arose with the allied
+classes from a primitive arthropod stock, while the relationships of the
+class are with the Crustacea, the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda, rather
+than with the Arachnida.
+
+_Nature of Primitive Hexapoda._--Two divergent views have been held as
+to the nature of the original hexapod stock. Some of those zoologists
+who look to _Peripatus_, or a similar worm-like form, as representing
+the direct ancestors of the Hexapoda have laid stress on a larva like
+the caterpillar of a moth or saw-fly as representing a primitive stage.
+On the other hand, the view of F. Muller and F. Brauer, that the
+Thysanura represent more nearly than any other existing insects the
+ancestors of the class, has been accepted by the great majority of
+students. And there can be little doubt that this belief is justified.
+The caterpillar, or the maggot, is a specialized larval form
+characteristic of the most highly developed orders, while the
+campodeiform larva is the starting-point for the more primitive insects.
+The occurrence in the hypermetamorphic Coleoptera (see _supra_) of a
+campodeiform preceding an eruciform stage in the life-history is most
+suggestive. Taken in connexion with the likeness of the young among the
+more generalized orders to the adults, it indicates clearly a
+thysanuroid starting-point for the evolution of the hexapod orders. And
+we must infer further that the specialization of the higher orders has
+been accompanied by an increase in the extent of the metamorphosis--a
+very exceptional condition among animals generally, as has been ably
+pointed out by L. C. Miall (1895).
+
+_Origin of Wings._--The post-embryonic growth of Hexapods with or
+without metamorphosis is accompanied in most cases by the acquisition of
+wings. These organs, thus acquired during the lifetime of the
+individual, must have been in some way acquired during the evolution of
+the class. Many students of the group, following Brauer, have regarded
+the Apterygota as representing the original wingless progenitors of the
+Pterygota, and the many primitive characters shown by the former group
+lend support to this view. On the other hand, it has been argued that
+the presence of wings in a vast majority of the Hexapoda suggests their
+presence in the ancestors of the whole class. It is most unlikely that
+wings have been acquired independently by various orders of Hexapoda,
+and if we regard the Thysanura as the slightly modified representatives
+of a primitively wingless stock, we must postulate the acquisition of
+wings by some early offshoot of that stock, an offshoot whence the whole
+group of the Pterygota took its rise. How wings were acquired by these
+primitive Pterygota must remain for the present a subject for
+speculation. Insect wings are specialized outgrowths of certain thoracic
+segments, and are quite unrepresented in any other class of Arthropods.
+They are not, therefore, like the wings of birds, modified from some
+pre-existing structures (the fore-limbs) common to their phylum; they
+are new and peculiar structures. Comparison of the tracheated wings with
+the paired tracheated outgrowths on the abdominal segments of the
+aquatic campodeiform larva of may-flies (see fig. 27) led C. Gegenbaur
+to the brilliant suggestion that wings might be regarded as specialized
+and transformed gills. But a survey of the Hexapoda as a whole, and
+especially a comparative study of the tracheal system, can hardly leave
+room for doubt that this system is primitively adapted for atmospheric
+breathing, and that the presence of tracheal gills in larvae must be
+regarded as a special adaptation for temporary aquatic life. The origin
+of insect wings remains, therefore, a mystery, deepened by the
+difficulty of imagining any probable use for thoracic outgrowths,
+comparable to the wing-rudiments of the Exopterygota, in the early
+stages of their evolution.
+
+_Origin of Metamorphosis._--In connexion with the question whether
+metamorphosis has been gradually acquired, we have to consider two
+aspects, viz. the bionomic nature of metamorphosis, and to what extent
+it existed in primitive insects. Bionomically, metamorphosis may be
+defined as the sum of adaptations that have gradually fitted the larva
+(caterpillar or maggot) for one kind of life, the fly for another. So
+that we may conclude that the factors of evolution would favour its
+development. With regard to its occurrence in primitive insects, our
+knowledge of the geological record is most imperfect, but so far as it
+goes it supports the conclusion that holometabolism (i.e. extreme
+metamorphosis) is a comparatively recent phenomenon of insect life. None
+of the groups of existing Endopterygota have been traced with certainty
+farther back than the Mesozoic epoch, and all the numerous Palaeozoic
+insect-fossils seem to belong to forms that possessed only imperfect
+metamorphosis. The only doubt arises from the existence of insect
+remains, referred to the order Coleoptera, in the Silesian Culm of
+Steinkunzendorf near Reichenbach. The oldest larva known, _Mormolucoides
+articulatus_, is from the New Red Sandstone of Connecticut; it belongs
+to the _Sialidae_, one of the lowest forms of Holometabola. It is now,
+in fact, generally admitted that metamorphosis has been acquired
+comparatively recently, and Scudder in his review of the earliest fossil
+insects states that "their metamorphoses were simple and incomplete, the
+young leaving the egg with the form of the parent, but without wings,
+the assumption of which required no quiescent stage before maturity."
+
+It has been previously remarked that the phenomena of holometabolism are
+connected with the development of wings inside the body (except in the
+case of the fleas, where there are no wings in the perfect insect). Of
+existing insects 90% belong to the Endopterygota. At the same time we
+have no evidence that any Endopterygota existed amongst Palaeozoic
+insects, so that the phenomena of endopterygotism are comparatively
+recent, and we are led to infer that the Endopterygota owe their origin
+to the older Exopterygota. In Endopterygota the wings commence their
+development as invaginations of the hypodermis, while in Exopterygota
+the wings begin--and always remain--as external folds or evaginations.
+The two modes of growth are directly opposed, and at first sight it
+appears that this fact negatives the view that Endopterygota have been
+derived from Exopterygota.
+
+Only three hypotheses as to the origin of Endopterygota can be suggested
+as possible, viz.:--(1) That some of the Palaeozoic insects, though we
+infer them to have been exopterygotous, were really endopterygotous, and
+were the actual ancestors of the existing Endopterygota; (2) that
+Endopterygota are not descended from Exopterygota, but were derived
+directly from ancestors that were never winged; (3) that the predominant
+division--i.e. Endopterygota--of insects of the present epoch are
+descended from the predominant--if not the sole--group that existed in
+the Palaeozoic epoch, viz. the Exopterygota. The first hypothesis is not
+negatived by direct evidence, for we do not actually know the ontogeny
+of any of the Palaeozoic insects; it is, however, rendered highly
+improbable by the modern views as to the nature and origin of wings in
+insects, and by the fact that the Endopterygota include none of the
+lower existing forms of insects. The second hypothesis--to the effect
+that Endopterygota are the descendants of apterous insects that had
+never possessed wings (i.e. the Apterygogenea of Brauer and others,
+though we prefer the shorter term Apterygota)--is rendered improbable
+from the fact that existing Apterygota are related to Exopterygota, not
+to Endopterygota, and by the knowledge that has been gained as to the
+morphology and development of wings, which suggest that--if we may so
+phrase it--were an apterygotous insect gradually to develop wings, it
+would be on the exopterygotous system. From all points of view it
+appears, therefore, probable that Endopterygota are descended from
+Exopterygota, and we are brought to the question as to the way in which
+this has occurred.
+
+It is almost impossible to believe that any species of insect that has
+for a long period developed the wings outside the body could change this
+mode of growth suddenly for an internal mode of development of the
+organs in question, for, as we have already explained, the two modes of
+growth are directly opposed. The explanation has to be sought in another
+direction. Now there are many forms of Exopterygota in which the
+creatures are almost or quite destitute of wings. This phenomenon occurs
+among species found at high elevations, among others found in arid or
+desert regions, and in some cases in the female sex only, the male being
+winged and the female wingless. This last state is very frequent in
+_Blattidae_, which were amongst the most abundant of Palaeozoic insects.
+The wingless forms in question are always allied to winged forms, and
+there is every reason to believe that they have been really derived from
+winged forms. There are also insects (fleas, &c.) in which metamorphosis
+of a "complete" character exists, though the insects never develop
+wings. These cases render it highly probable that insects may in some
+circumstances become wingless, though their ancestors were winged. Such
+insects have been styled anapterygotous. In these facts we have one
+possible clue to the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism,
+namely, by an intermediate period of anapterygotism.
+
+Although we cannot yet define the conditions under which exopterygotous
+wings are suppressed or unusually developed, yet we know that such
+fluctuations occur. There are, in fact, existing forms of Exopterygota
+that are usually wingless, and that nevertheless appear in certain
+seasons or localities with wings. We are therefore entitled to assume
+that the suppressed wings of Exopterygota tend to reappear; and,
+speaking of the past, we may say that if after a period of suppression
+the wings began to reappear as hypodermal buds while a more rigid
+pressure was exerted by the cuticle, the growth of the buds would
+necessarily be inwards, and we should have incipient endopterygotism.
+The change that is required to transform Exopterygota into Endopterygota
+is merely that a cell of hypodermis should proliferate inwards instead
+of outwards, or that a minute hypodermal evaginated bud should be forced
+to the interior of the body by the pressure of a contracted cuticle.
+
+If it should be objected that the wings so developed would be
+rudimentary, and that there would be nothing to encourage their
+development into perfect functional organs, we may remind the reader
+that we have already pointed out that imperfect wings of Exopterygota
+do, even at the present time under certain conditions, become perfect
+organs; and we may also add that there are, even among existing
+Endopterygota, species in which the wings are usually vestiges and yet
+sometimes become perfectly developed. In fact, almost every condition
+that is required for the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism
+exists among the insects that surround us.
+
+But it may perhaps be considered improbable that organs like the wings,
+having once been lost, should have been reacquired on the large scale
+suggested by the theory just put forward. If so, there is an alternative
+method by which the endopterygotous may have arisen from the
+exopterygotous condition. The sub-imago of the Ephemeroptera suggests
+that a moult, after the wings had become functional, was at one time
+general among the Hexapoda, and that the resting nymph of the
+Thysanoptera or the pupa of the Endopterygota represents a formerly
+active stage in the life-history. Further, although the wing-rudiments
+appear externally in an early instar of an exopterygotous insect, the
+earliest instars are wingless and wing-rudiments have been previously
+developing beneath the cuticle, growing however outwards, not inwards as
+in the larva of an endopterygote. The change from an exopterygote to an
+endopterygote development could, therefore, be brought about by the
+gradual postponement to a later and later instar of the appearance of
+the wing-rudiments outside the body, and their correlated growth inwards
+as imaginal disks. For in the post-embryonic development of the
+ancestors of the Endopterygota we may imagine two or three instars with
+wing-rudiments to have existed, the last represented by the sub-imago of
+the may-flies. As the life-conditions and feeding-habits of the larva
+and imago become constantly more divergent, the appearance of the
+wing-rudiments would be postponed to the pre-imaginal instar, and that
+instar would become predominantly passive.
+
+_Relationships of the Orders._--Reasons have been given for regarding
+the Thysanura as representing, more nearly than any other living group,
+the primitive stock of the Hexapoda. It is believed that insects of this
+group are represented among Silurian fossils. We may conclude,
+therefore, that they were preceded, in Cambrian times or earlier, by
+Arthropods possessing well developed appendages on all the
+trunk-segments. Of such Arthropods the living Symphyla--of which the
+delicate little _Scutigerella_ is a fairly well-known example--give us
+some representation.
+
+No indications beyond those furnished by comparative anatomy help us to
+unravel the phylogeny of the Collembola. In most respects, the shortened
+abdomen, for example, they are more specialized than the Thysanura, and
+most of the features in which they appear to be simple, such as the
+absence of a tracheal system and of compound eyes, can be explained as
+the result of degradation. In their insunken mouth and their jaws
+retracted within the head-capsule, the Collembola resemble the
+entotrophous division of the Thysanura (see APTERA), from which they are
+probably descended.
+
+From the thysanuroid stock of the Apterygota, the Exopterygota took
+their rise. We have undoubted fossil evidence that winged insects lived
+in the Devonian and became numerous in the Carboniferous period. These
+ancient Exopterygota were synthetic in type, and included insects that
+may, with probability, be regarded as ancestral to most of the existing
+orders. It is hard to arrange the Exopterygota in a linear series, for
+some of the orders that are remarkably primitive in some respects are
+rather highly specialized in others. As regards wing-structure, the
+Isoptera with the two pairs closely similar are the most primitive of
+all winged insects; while in the paired mesodermal genital ducts, the
+elongate cerci and the conspicuous maxillulae of their larvae the
+Ephemeroptera retain notable ancestral characters. But the vestigial
+jaws, numerous Malpighian tubes, and specialized wings of may-flies
+forbid us to consider the order as on the whole primitive. So the
+Dermaptera, which retain distinct maxillulae and have no ectodermal
+genital ducts, have either specialized or aborted wings and a large
+number of Malpighian tubes. The Corrodentia retain vestigial maxillulae
+and two pairs of Malpighian tubes, but the wings are somewhat
+specialized in the Copeognatha and absent in the degraded and parasitic
+Mallophaga. The Plecoptera and Orthoptera agree in their numerous
+Malpighian tubes and in the development of a folding anal area in the
+hind-wing. As shown by the number and variety of species, the Orthoptera
+are the most dominant order of this group. Eminently terrestrial in
+habit, the differentiation of their fore-wings and hind-wings can be
+traced from Carboniferous, isopteroid ancestors through intermediate
+Mesozoic forms. The Plecoptera resemble the Ephemeroptera and Odonata in
+the aquatic habits of their larvae, and by the occasional presence of
+tufted thoracic gills in the imago exhibit an aquatic character unknown
+in any other winged insects. The Odonata are in many imaginal and larval
+characters highly specialized; yet they probably arose with the
+Ephemeroptera as a divergent offshoot of the same primitive isopteroid
+stock which developed more directly into the living Isoptera,
+Plecoptera, Dermaptera and Orthoptera.
+
+All these orders agree in the possession of biting mandibles, while
+their second maxillae have the inner and outer lobes usually distinct.
+The Hemiptera, with their piercing mandibles and first maxillae and with
+their second maxillae fused to form a jointed beak, stand far apart from
+them. This order can be traced with certainty back to the early Jurassic
+epoch, while the Permian fossil _Eugereon_, and the living
+order--specially modified in many respects--of the Thysanoptera indicate
+steps by which the aberrant suctorial and piercing mouth of the
+Hemiptera may have been developed from the biting mouth of primitive
+Isopteroids, by the elongation of some parts and the suppression of
+others. The Anoplura may probably be regarded as a degraded offshoot of
+the Hemiptera.
+
+The importance of great cardinal features of the life-history as
+indicative of relationship leads us to consider the Endopterygota as a
+natural assemblage of orders. The occurrence of weevils--among the most
+specialized of the Coleoptera--in Triassic rocks shows us that this
+great order of metabolous insects had become differentiated into its
+leading families at the dawn of the Mesozoic era, and that we must go
+far back into the Palaeozoic for the origin of the Endopterygota. In
+this view we are confirmed by the impossibility of deriving the
+Endopterygota from any living order of Exopterygota. We conclude,
+therefore, that the primitive stock of the former sub-class became early
+differentiated from that of the latter. So widely have most of the
+higher orders of the Hexapoda now diverged from each other, that it is
+exceedingly difficult in most cases to trace their relationships with
+any confidence. The Neuroptera, with their similar fore- and hind-wings
+and their campodeiform larvae, seem to stand nearest to the presumed
+isopteroid ancestry, but the imago and larva are often specialized. The
+campodeiform larvae of many Coleoptera are indeed far more primitive
+than the neuropteran larvae, and suggest to us that the
+Coleoptera--modified as their wing-structure has become--arose very
+early from the primitive metabolous stock. The antiquity of the
+Coleoptera is further shown by the great diversity of larval form and
+habit that has arisen in the order, and the proof afforded by the
+hypermetamorphic beetles that the campodeiform preceded the eruciform
+larva has already been emphasized.
+
+In all the remaining orders of the Endopterygota the larva is eruciform
+or vermiform. The Mecaptera, with their predominantly longitudinal
+wing-nervuration, serve as a link between the Neuroptera and the
+Trichoptera, their retention of small cerci being an archaic character
+which stamps them as synthetic in type, but does not necessarily remove
+them from orders which agree with them in most points of structure but
+which have lost the cerci. The standing of the Trichoptera in a position
+almost ancestral to the Lepidoptera is one of the assured results of
+recent morphological study, the mobile mandibulate pupa and the
+imperfectly suctorial maxillae of the Trichoptera reappearing in the
+lowest families of the Lepidoptera. This latter order, which is not
+certainly known to have existed before Tertiary times, has become the
+most highly specialized of all insects in the structure of the pupa.
+Diptera of the sub-order Orthorrhapha occur in the Lias and Cyclorrhapha
+in the Kimmeridgian. The order must therefore be ancient, and as no
+evidence is forthcoming as to the mode of reduction of the hind-wings,
+nor as to the stages by which the suctorial mouth-organs became
+specialized, it is difficult to trace the exact relationship of the
+group, but the presence of cerci and a degree of correspondence in the
+nervuration of the fore-wings suggest the Mecaptera as possible allies.
+There seems no doubt that the suctorial mouth-organs of the Diptera have
+arisen quite independently from those of the Lepidoptera, for in the
+former order the sucker is formed from the second maxillae, in the
+latter from the first. The eruciform larva of the Orthorrhapha leads on
+to the headless vermiform maggot of the Cyclorrhapha, and in the latter
+sub-order we find metamorphosis carried to its extreme point, the muscid
+flies being the most highly specialized of all the Hexapoda as regards
+structure, while their maggots are the most degraded of all insect
+larvae. The Siphonaptera appear by the form of the larva and the nature
+of the metamorphosis to be akin to the Orthorrhapha--in which division
+they have indeed been included by many students. They differ from the
+Diptera, however, in the general presence of palps to both pairs of
+maxillae, and in the absence of a hypopharynx, so it is possible that
+their relationship to the Diptera is less close than has been supposed.
+The affinities of the Hymenoptera afford another problem of much
+difficulty. They differ from other Endopterygota in the multiplication
+of their Malpighian tubes, and from all other Hexapoda in the union of
+the first abdominal segment with the thorax. Specialized as they are in
+form, development and habit, they retain mandibles for biting, and in
+their lower sub-order--the Symphyta--the maxillae are hardly more
+modified than those of the Orthoptera. From the evidence of fossils it
+seems that the higher sub-order--Apocrita--can be traced back to the
+Lias, so that we believe the Hymenoptera to be more ancient than the
+Diptera, and far more ancient than the Lepidoptera. They afford an
+example--paralleled in other classes of the animal kingdom--of an order
+which, though specialized in some respects, retains many primitive
+characters, and has won its way to dominance rather by perfection of
+behaviour, and specially by the development of family life and helpful
+socialism, than by excessive elaboration of structure. We would trace
+the Hymenoptera back therefore to the primitive endopterygote stock. The
+specialization of form in the constricted abdomen and in the suctorial
+"tongue" that characterizes the higher families of the order is
+correlated with the habit of careful egg-laying and provision of food
+for the young. In some way it is assured among the highest of the
+Hexapoda--the Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera--that the larva finds
+itself amid a rich food-supply. And thus perfection of structure and
+instinct in the imago has been accompanied by degradation in the larva,
+and by an increase in the extent of transformation and in the degree of
+reconstruction before and during the pupal stage. The fascinating
+difficulties presented to the student by the metamorphosis of the
+Hexapoda are to some extent explained, as he ponders over the evolution
+of the class.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the older classical writings on the
+  Hexapoda are given in the article on Entomology. At present about a
+  thousand works and papers are published annually, and in this place it
+  is possible to enumerate only a few of the most important among
+  (mostly) recent memoirs that bear upon the Hexapoda generally. Further
+  references will be found appended to the special articles on the
+  orders (APTERA, COLEOPTERA, &c.).
+
+  General Works.--A. S. Packard, _Text-book of Entomology_ (London,
+  1898); V. Graber, _Die Insekten_ (Munich, 1877-1879); D. Sharp,
+  _Cambridge Natural History_, vols. v., vi. (London, 1895-1899); L. C.
+  Miall and A. Denny, _Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach_
+  (London, 1886); B. T. Lowne, _The Anatomy, Physiology, Morphology and
+  Development of the Blow-fly_ (2 vols., London, 1890-1895); G. H.
+  Carpenter, _Insects: their Structure and Life_ (London, 1899); L. F.
+  Henneguy, _Les Insectes_ (Paris, 1904); J. W. Folsom, _Entomology_
+  (New York and London, 1906); A. Berlese, _Gli Insetti_ (Milan, 1906),
+  &c. (Extensive bibliographies will be found in several of the above.)
+
+  Head and Appendages.--J. C. Savigny, _Memoires sur les animaux sans
+  vertebres_ (Paris, 1816); C. Janet, _Essai sur la constitution
+  morphologique de la tete de l'insecte_ (Paris, 1899); J. H. Comstock
+  and C. Kochi (_American Naturalist_, xxxvi., 1902); V. L. Kellogg
+  (ibid.); W. A. Riley (_American Naturalist_, xxxviii., 1904); F.
+  Meinert (_Entom. Tidsskr._ i., 1880); H. J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi.,
+  1893); J. B. Smith (_Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc._ xix., 1896); H. Holmgren
+  (_Zeitsch. wiss. Zoolog._ lxxvi., 1904); K. W. Verhoeff (_Abhandl. K.
+  Leop.-Carol. Akad._ lxxxiv., 1905).
+
+  Thorax, Legs and Wings.--K. W. Verhoeff (_Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol.
+  Akad._ lxxxii., 1903); F. Voss (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ lxxviii., 1905);
+  F. Dahl (_Arch. f. Naturgesch._ 1, 1884); J. Demoor (_Arch. de biol._
+  x., 1890); J. Redtenbacher (_Ann. Kais. naturhist. Museum, Wien_, i.,
+  1886); R. von Lendenfeld (_S. B. Akad. Wissens., Wien_, lxxxiii.,
+  1881); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham (_Amer. Nat._, xxxii.,
+  xxxiii., 1898-1899); C. W. Woodworth (_Univ. California Entom. Bull._
+  i., 1906).
+
+  Abdomen and Appendages.--E. Haase (_Morph. Jahrb._ xv., 1889); R.
+  Heymons (_Morph. Jahrb._ xxiv., 1896; _Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad._
+  lxxiv., 1899); K. W. Verhoeff (_Zool. Anz._ xix., xx., 1896-1897); S.
+  A. Peytoureau, _Contribution a l'etude de la morphologie de l'armure
+  genitale des insectes_ (Bordeaux, 1895); H. Dewitz (_Zeits. wiss.
+  Zool._ xxv., xxviii., 1874, 1877); E. Zander (ibid. lxvi., lxvii.,
+  1899-1900).
+
+  Nervous System.--H. Viallanes (_Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ [6], xvii.,
+  xviii., xix., [7] ii., iv., 1884-1887); S. J. Hickson (_Quart. Journ.
+  Micr. Sci._ xxv., 1885); W. Patten (_Journ. Morph._ i., ii.,
+  1887-1888); F. Plateau (_Mem. Acad. Belg._ xliii., 1888); V. Graber
+  (_Arch. mikr. Anat._ xx., xxi., 1882).
+
+  Respiratory System.--J. A. Palmen, _Zur Morphologie des
+  Tracheensystems_ (Leipzig, 1877); F. Plateau (_Mem. Acad. Belg._ xiv.,
+  1884); L. C. Miall, _Natural History of Aquatic Insects_ (London,
+  1895).
+
+  Digestive System, &c.--L. Dufour (_Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1824-1860); V.
+  Faussek (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlv., 1887).
+
+  Malpighian Tubes.--E. Schindler (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xxx., 1878); W.
+  M. Wheeler (_Psyche_ vi., 1893); L. Cuenot (_Arch. de biol._ xiv.,
+  1895).
+
+  Reproductive Organs.--H. V. Wielowiejski (Zool. Anz. ix., 1886); J. A.
+  Palmen, _Uber paarige Ausfuhrungsgange der Geschlechtsorgane bei
+  Insekten_ (Helsingfors, 1884); H. Henking (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlix.,
+  li., liv., 1890-1892); F. Leydig (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ iii., 1889).
+
+  Embryology.--F. Blochmann (_Morph. Jahrb._ xii., 1887); A. Kovalevsky
+  (_Mem. Acad. St-Petersbourg_, xvi., 1871; _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xlv.,
+  1887); V. Graber (_Denksch. Akad. Wissens., Wien_, lvi., 1889); K.
+  Heider, _Die Embryonalentwicklung von Hydrophilus piceus_ (Jena,
+  1889); W. M. Wheeler (_Journ. Morph._ iii., viii., 1889-1893); E.
+  Korschelt and K. Heider, _Handbook of the Comparative Embryology of
+  Invertebrates_ (trans. M. Bernard), (vol. iii., London, 1899); R.
+  Heymons, _Die Embryonalentwicklung von Dermapteren und Orthopteren_
+  (Jena, 1895) (also _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ liii., 1891, lxii., 1897;
+  _Anhang zu den Abhandl. K. Akad. d. Wissens., Berlin_, 1896); A.
+  Lecaillon (_Arch. d'anat. micr._ ii., 1898); J. Carriere and O. Burger
+  (_Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad._ lxix., 1897); K. Escherich (ibid.
+  lxxvii., 1901); F. Schwangart (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ lxxvi., 1904); R.
+  Ritter (_ib._ li., 1890); E. Metchnikoff (_ib._ xvi., 1866); H. Uzel
+  (_Zool. Anz._ xx., 1897); J. W. Folsom (_Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
+  Harvard_., xxxvi., 1900).
+
+  Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis.--T. H. Huxley (_Trans. Linn. Soc._
+  xxii., 1858); R. Leuckart, _Zur Kenntnis des Generationswechsels und
+  der Parthogenesis bei den Insekten_ (Frankfurt, 1858); N. Wagner
+  (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xv., 1865); L. F. Henneguy (_Bull. Soc.
+  Philomath._ [9], i. 1899); A. Petrunkevich (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xiv.,
+  xvii., 1901-1903); P. Marchal (_Arch. zool. exp. et gen._ [4], ii.,
+  1904); L. Doncaster (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlix., li.,
+  1906-1907).
+
+  Growth and Metamorphosis.--A. Weismann (_Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xiii.,
+  xiv., 1863-1864); F. Brauer (_Verh. zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Wien_,
+  xix., 1869); Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Origin and Metamorphosis
+  of Insects_ (London, 1874); L. C. Miall (_Nature_, liii., 1895); L. C.
+  Miall and A. R. Hammond, _Structure and Life-history of the
+  Harlequin-fly_ (Oxford, 1900); J. Gonin (_Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat._
+  xxx., 1894); C. de Bruyne (_Arch. de biol._ xv. (1898); D. Sharp
+  (_Proc. Inter. Zool. Congress_, 1898); E. B. Poulton (_Trans. Linn.
+  Soc._ v., 1891); T. A. Chapman (_Trans. Ent. Soc._, 1893).
+
+  Classification.--F. Brauer (_S. B. Akad. Wiss., Wien_, xci., 1885); A.
+  S. Packard (_Amer. Nat._ xx.; 1886); C. Borner, A. Handlirsch, F.
+  Klapalek (_Zool. Anz._ xxvii., 1904); G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._
+  xxvi., 1903).
+
+  Palaeontology.--S. H. Scudder, in Zittel's _Palaeontology_ (French
+  trans., vol. ii., Paris, 1887, and Eng. trans., vol. i., London,
+  1900); C. Brongniart, _Insectes fossiles des temps primaires_
+  (St-Etienne, 1894); A. Handlirsch, _Die fossilen Insekten und die
+  Phylogenie der rezenten Formen_ (Leipzig, 1906).
+
+  Phylogeny.--Brauer, Lubbock, Sharp, Borner, &c. (opp. cit.); P. Mayer
+  (_Jena, Zeits. Naturw._ x., 1876); B. Grassi (_Atti R. Accad. dei
+  Lincei, Roma_ [4], iv., 1888, and _Archiv ital. biol._ xi., 1889); F.
+  Muller, _Facts and Arguments for Darwin_ (trans. W. S. Dallas, London,
+  1869); N. Zograf (_Congr. Zool. Int._, 1892); E. R. Lankester (_Quart.
+  Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvii., 1904); G. H. Carpenter (_Proc. R. Irish
+  Acad._ xxiv., 1903; _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlix., 1905).
+       (D. S.*; G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HEXASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: stylos], column), an
+architectural term given to a temple in the portico of which there are
+six columns in front.
+
+
+
+
+HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the Old Testament
+(the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact that these form one
+literary whole, describing the early traditional history of the
+Israelites from the creation of the world to the conquest of Palestine
+and the origin of their national institutions. These books are the
+result of an intricate literary process, on which see BIBLE (Old
+Testament: _Canon_), and the articles on the separate books (GENESIS,
+EXODUS, LEVITICUS, NUMBERS, DEUTERONOMY and JOSHUA).
+
+
+
+
+HEXHAM, a market town in the Hexham parliamentary division of
+Northumberland, England, 21 m. W. from Newcastle by the Carlisle branch
+of the North-Eastern railway, served also from Scotland by a branch of
+the North British railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7107. It is
+pleasantly situated beneath the hills on the S. bank of the Tyne, and
+its market square and narrow streets bear many marks of antiquity. It is
+famous for its great abbey church of St Andrew. This building, as
+renovated in the 12th century, was to consist of nave and transepts,
+choir and aisles, and massive central tower. The Scots are believed to
+have destroyed the nave in 1296, but it may be doubted if it was ever
+completed. In 1536 the last prior was hanged for being concerned in the
+insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace. The church as it stands is
+a fine monument of Early English work, with Transitional details.
+Within, although it suffered much loss during a restoration c. 1858,
+there are several objects of interest. Among these are a Roman slab,
+carved with figures of a horseman trampling upon an enemy, several fine
+tombs and stones of the 13th and 14th centuries, the frith or fridstool
+of stone, believed to be the original bishop's throne, and the fine
+Perpendicular roodscreen of oak, retaining its loft. The crypt,
+discovered in 1726, is part of the Saxon church, and a noteworthy
+example of architecture of the period. Its material is Roman, some of
+the stones having Roman inscriptions. These were brought from the Roman
+settlement at Corbridge, 4 m. E. of Hexham on the N. bank of the Tyne;
+for Hexham itself was not a Roman station. In 1832 a vessel containing
+about 8000 Saxon coins was discovered in the churchyard. Fragments of
+the monastic buildings remain, and west of the churchyard is the monks'
+park, known as the Seal, and now a promenade, commanding beautiful
+views. In the town are two strong castellated towers of the 14th
+century, known as the Moot Hall and the Manor Office. Their names
+explain their use, but they were doubtless also intended as defensive
+works. In the interesting and beautiful neighbourhood of Hexham there
+should be noticed Aydon castle near Corbridge, a fortified house of the
+late 13th century; and Dilston or Dyvilston, a typical border fortress
+dating from Norman times, of which only a tower and small chapel remain.
+It is replete with memories of the last earl of Derwentwater, who was
+beheaded in 1716 for his part in the Stuart rising of the previous year,
+and was buried in the chapel. There is an Elizabethan grammar school.
+Hexham and Newcastle form a Roman Catholic bishopric, with the cathedral
+at Newcastle. There are manufactures of leather gloves and other goods,
+and in the neighbourhood barytes and coal mines and extensive market
+gardens.
+
+The church and monastery at Hexham (Hextoldesham) were founded about 673
+by Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who is said to have received a grant of
+the whole of Hexhamshire from Aethelhryth, queen of Northumbria, and a
+grant of sanctuary in his church from the king. The church in 678
+became the head of the new see of Bernicia, which was united to that of
+Lindisfarne about 821, when the bishop of Lindisfarne appears to have
+taken possession of the lordship which he and his successors held until
+it was restored to the archbishop of York by Henry II. The archbishops
+appear to have had almost royal power throughout the liberty, including
+the rights of trying all pleas of the crown in their court, of taking
+inquisitions and of taxation. In 1545 the archbishop exchanged
+Hexhamshire with the king for other property, and in 1572 all the
+separate privileges which had belonged to him were taken away, and the
+liberty was annexed to the county of Northumberland. Hexham was a
+borough by prescription, and governed by a bailiff at least as early as
+1276, and the same form of government continued until 1853. In 1343 the
+men of Hexham were accused of pretending to be Scots and imprisoning
+many people of Northumberland and Cumberland, killing some and extorting
+ransoms for others. The Lancastrians were defeated in 1464 near Hexham,
+and legend says that it was in the woods round the town that Queen
+Margaret and her son hid until their escape to Flanders. In 1522 the
+bishop of Carlisle complained to Cardinal Wolsey, then archbishop of
+York, that the English thieves committed more thefts than "all the Scots
+of Scotland," the men of Hexham being worst of all, and appearing 100
+strong at the markets held in Hexham, so that the men whom they had
+robbed dared not complain or "say one word to them." This state of
+affairs appears to have continued until the accession of James I., and
+in 1595 the bailiff and constables of Hexham were removed as being
+"infected with combination and toleration of thieves." Hexham was at one
+time the market town of a large agricultural district. In 1227 a market
+on Monday and a fair on the vigil and day of St Luke the Evangelist were
+granted to the archbishop, and in 1320 Archbishop Melton obtained the
+right of holding two new fairs on the feasts of St James the Apostle
+lasting five days and of SS. Simon and Jude lasting six days. The market
+day was altered to Tuesday in 1662, and Sir William Fenwick, then lord
+of the manor, received a grant of a cattle market on the Tuesday after
+the feast of St Cuthbert in March and every Tuesday fortnight until the
+feast of St Martin. The market rights were purchased from Wentworth B.
+Beaumont, lord of the manor, in 1886. During the 17th and 18th centuries
+Hexham was noted for the leather trade, especially for the manufacture
+of gloves, but in the 19th century the trade began to decline. Coal
+mines which had belonged to the archbishop, were sold to Sir John
+Fenwick, Kt., in 1628. Hexham has never been represented in parliament,
+but gives its name to one of the four parliamentary divisions of the
+county.
+
+  See Edward Bateson and A. B. Hinds, _A History of Northumberland_ vol.
+  iii. (1893-1896); A. B. Wright, _An Essay towards the History of
+  Hexham_ (1823); James Hewitt, _A Handbook to Hexham and its
+  Antiquities_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER (1637-1712), Dutch painter, was born at Gorcum in
+1637, and died at Amsterdam on the 12th of September 1712. He was an
+architectural landscape painter, a contemporary of Hobbema and Jacob
+Ruysdael, with the advantage, which they lacked, of a certain
+professional versatility; for, whilst they painted admirable pictures
+and starved, he varied the practice of art with the study of mechanics,
+improved the fire engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and
+director of the firemen's company at Amsterdam. Till 1672 he painted in
+partnership with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian's death, and
+probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him, he
+accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At no period
+of artistic activity had the system of division of labour been more
+fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in Holland towards
+the close of the 17th century. Van der Heyden, who was perfect as an
+architectural draughtsman in so far as he painted the outside of
+buildings and thoroughly mastered linear perspective, seldom turned his
+hand to the delineation of anything but brick houses and churches in
+streets and squares, or rows along canals, or "moated granges," common
+in his native country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent
+and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to Cologne, where
+he copied over and over again the tower and crane of the great
+cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or vale, or stream or wood. He
+could reproduce the rows of bricks in a square of Dutch houses sparkling
+in the sun, or stunted trees and lines of dwellings varied by steeples,
+all in light or thrown into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the
+art of painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping. But
+he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts; and this was
+his disadvantage. His good genius under these circumstances was Adrian
+van der Velde, who enlivened his compositions with spirited figures; and
+the joint labour of both is a delicate, minute, transparent work,
+radiant with glow and atmosphere.
+
+
+
+
+HEYLYN (or HEYLIN), PETER (1600-1662), English historian and
+controversialist, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire. Having made great
+progress in his studies, he entered Hart Hall, Oxford, in 1613,
+afterwards joining Magdalen College; and in 1618 he began to lecture on
+cosmography, being made fellow of Magdalen in the same year. His
+lectures, under the title of [Greek: Mikrokosmos], were published in
+1621, and many editions of this useful book, each somewhat enlarged,
+subsequently appeared. Having been ordained in 1624 Heylyn attracted the
+notice of William Laud, then bishop of Bath and Wells; and in 1628 he
+married Laetitia, daughter of Thomas Highgate, or Heygate, of Hayes,
+Middlesex; but he appears to have kept his marriage secret and did not
+resign his fellowship. After serving as chaplain to Danby in the Channel
+Islands, he became chaplain to Charles I. in 1630, and was appointed by
+the king to the rectory of Hemingford, Huntingdonshire. John Williams,
+bishop of Lincoln, however, refused to institute Heylyn to this living,
+owing to his friendship with Laud; and in return Charles appointed him a
+prebendary of Westminster, where he made himself very objectionable to
+Williams, who held the deanery _in commendam_. In 1633 he became rector
+of Alresford, soon afterwards vicar of South Warnborough, and he became
+treasurer of Westminster Abbey in 1637; but before this date he was
+widely known as one of the most prominent and able controversialists
+among the high-church party. Entering with great ardour into the
+religious controversies of the time he disputed with John Prideaux,
+regius professor of divinity at Oxford, replied to the arguments of
+Williams in his pamphlets, "A Coal from the Altar" and "Antidotum
+Lincolnense," and was hostile to the Puritan element both within and
+without the Church of England. He assisted William Noy to prepare the
+case against Prynne for the publication of his _Histriomastix_, and made
+himself useful to the Royalist party in other ways. However, when the
+Long Parliament met he was allowed to retire to Alresford, where he
+remained until he was disturbed by Sir William Waller's army in 1642,
+when he joined the king at Oxford. At Oxford Heylyn edited _Mercurius
+Aulicus_, a vivacious but virulent news-sheet, which greatly annoyed the
+Parliamentarians; and consequently his house at Alresford was plundered
+and his library dispersed. Subsequently he led for some years a
+wandering life of poverty, afterwards settling at Winchester and then at
+Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire; and he refers to his hardships in his
+pamphlet "Extraneus Vapulans," the cleverest of his controversial
+writings, which was written in answer to Hamon l'Estrange. In 1653 he
+settled at Lacy's Court, Abingdon, where he resided undisturbed by the
+government of the Commonwealth, and where he wrote several books and
+pamphlets, both against those of his own communion, like Thomas Fuller,
+whose opinions were less unyielding than his own, and against the
+Presbyterians and others, like Richard Baxter.
+
+His works, all of which are marred by political or theological rancour,
+number over fifty. Among the most important are: a legendary and learned
+_History of St. George of Cappadocia_, written in 1631; _Cyprianus
+Anglicus, or the history of the Life and Death of William Laud_, a
+defence of Laud and a valuable authority for his life; _Ecclesia
+restaurata, or the History of the Reformation of the Church of England_
+(1661; ed. J. C. Robertson, Cambridge, 1849); _Ecclesia vindicata, or
+the Church of England justified_; _Aerius redivivus, or History of the
+Presbyterians_; and _Help to English History_, an edition of which, with
+additions by P. Wright, was published in 1773. In 1636 he wrote a
+_History of the Sabbath_, by order of Charles I. to answer the Puritans;
+and in consequence of a journey through France in 1625 he wrote _A
+Survey of France_, a work, frequently reprinted, which was termed by
+Southey "one of the liveliest books of travel in its lighter parts, and
+one of the wisest and most replete with information that was ever
+written by a young man." Some verses of merit also came from his active
+pen, and his poetical memorial of William of Waynflete was published by
+the Caxton Society in 1851.
+
+Heylyn was a diligent writer and investigator, a good ecclesiastical
+lawyer, and had always learning at his command. His principles, to which
+he was honestly attached, were defended with ability; but his efforts to
+uphold the church passed unrecognized at the Restoration, probably owing
+to his physical infirmities. His sight had been very bad for several
+years; yet he rejoiced that his "bad old eyes" had seen the king's
+return, and upon this event he preached before a large audience in
+Westminster Abbey on the 29th of May 1661. He died on the 8th of May
+1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where he had been sub-dean for
+some years.
+
+  Lives of Heylyn were written by his son-in-law Dr John Barnard or
+  Bernard, and by George Vernon (1682). Bernard's work was reprinted
+  with Robertson's edition of Heylyn's _History of the Reformation_ in
+  1849.
+
+
+
+
+HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON [commonly abbreviated to PIET] (1578-1629),
+Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein,
+who was engaged in the herring fishery. The son went early to sea. In
+his youth he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row
+in the galleys during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an
+exchange of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant skipper
+with success. The then dangerous state of the seas at all times, and the
+continuous war with Spain, gave him ample opportunity to gain a
+reputation as a resolute fighting man. Wills which he made before 1623
+show that he had been able to acquire considerable property. When the
+Dutch West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotterdam
+Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of the fleet which
+took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos in Brazil. Till 1628 he
+continued to serve the Company, both on the coast of Brazil, and in the
+West Indies. In the month of September of that year he made himself
+famous, gained immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous
+loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was bringing
+the bullion from the American mines home to Spain. The Spanish ships
+were outnumbered chiefly because the convoy had become scattered by bad
+management and bad seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting
+of the four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king's share
+of the treasure was being carried, became separated from the rest, and
+on being chased by the superior force of Heyn endeavoured to take refuge
+at Matanzas in the island of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion
+in the bush before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de
+Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision, was
+overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before the silver could
+be discharged. The total loss was estimated by the Spaniards at four
+millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now returned home, and bought himself a
+house at Delft with the intention of retiring from the sea. In the
+following year, however, he was chosen at a crisis to take command of
+the naval force of the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of
+Holland, in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers,
+who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Netherlands.
+In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action, and they were
+severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live to enjoy his victory. He was
+struck early in the battle by a cannon shot on the shoulder and fell
+dead on the spot. His memory has been preserved by his capture of the
+Treasure Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also
+the traditional representative of the Dutch "sea dogs" of the 17th
+century.
+
+  See de Jonge, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen_; I. Duro,
+  _Armada espanola_, iv.; der Aa, _Biograph. Woordenboek der
+  Nederlanden_.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB (1729-1812), German classical scholar and
+archaeologist, was born on the 25th of September 1729, at Chemnitz in
+Saxony. His father was a poor weaver, and the expenses of his early
+education were paid by one of his godfathers. In 1748 he entered the
+university of Leipzig, where he was frequently in want of the
+necessaries of life. His distress had almost amounted to despair, when
+he procured the situation of tutor in the family of a French merchant in
+Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. After he had
+completed his university course, he was for many years in very
+straitened circumstances. An elegy written by him in Latin on the death
+of a friend attracted the attention of Count von Bruhl, the prime
+minister, who expressed a desire to see the author. Accordingly, in
+April 1752, Heyne journeyed to Dresden, believing that his fortune was
+made. He was well received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary,
+but nothing came of it. Another period of want followed, and it was only
+by persistent solicitation that Heyne was able to obtain the post of
+under-clerk in the count's library, with a salary of somewhat less than
+twenty pounds sterling. He increased his scanty pittance by translation;
+in addition to some French novels, he rendered into German the _Chaereas
+and Callirrhoe_ of Chariton, the Greek romance writer. He published his
+first edition of _Tibullus_ in 1755, and in 1756 his _Epictetus_. In the
+latter year the Seven Years' War broke out, and Heyne was once more in a
+state of destitution. In 1757 he was offered a tutorship in the
+household of Frau Von Schonberg, where he met his future wife. In
+January 1759 he accompanied his pupil to the university of Wittenberg,
+from which he was driven in 1760 by the Prussian cannon. The bombardment
+of Dresden (to which city he had meanwhile returned) on the 18th of July
+1760, destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished
+edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden Library. In
+the summer of 1761, although still without any fixed income, he married,
+and for some time he found it necessary to devote himself to the duties
+of land-steward to the Baron von Loben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762,
+however, he was enabled to return to Dresden, where he was commissioned
+by P. D. Lippert to prepare the Latin text of the third volume of his
+_Dactyliotheca_ (an account of a collection of gems). On the death of
+Johann Matthias Gesner at Gottingen in 1761, the vacant chair was
+refused first by Ernesti and then by Ruhnken, who persuaded Munchhausen,
+the Hanoverian minister and principal curator of the university, to
+bestow it on Heyne (1763). His emoluments were gradually augmented, and
+his growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from other
+German governments, which he persistently refused. After a long and
+useful career, he died on the 14th of July 1812. Unlike Gottfried
+Hermann, Heyne regarded the study of grammar and language only as the
+means to an end, not as the chief object of philology. But, although not
+a critical scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment
+of Greek mythology, and he gave an undoubted impulse to philological
+studies.
+
+  Of Heyne's numerous writings, the following may be mentioned.
+  Editions, with copious commentaries, of Tibullus (ed. E. C.
+  Wunderlich, 1817), Virgil (ed. G. P. Wagner, 1830-1841), Pindar (3rd
+  ed. by G. H. Schafer, 1817), Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (1803),
+  Homer, _Iliad_ (1802); _Opuscula academica_ (1785-1812), containing
+  more than a hundred academical dissertations, of which the most
+  valuable are those relating to the colonies of Greece and the
+  antiquities of Etruscan art and history. His _Antiquarische Aufsatze_
+  (1778-1779) is a valuable collection of essays connected with the
+  history of ancient art. His contributions to the _Gottingische
+  gelehrte Anzeigen_ are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in
+  number. See biography by A. H. Heeren (1813) which forms the basis of
+  the interesting essay by Carlyle (_Misc. Essays_, ii.); H. Sauppe,
+  _Gottinger Professoren_ (1872); C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_, xii.; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. 36-44.
+
+
+
+
+
+HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG (1830-   ), German novelist, dramatist and
+poet, was born at Berlin on the 15th of March 1830, the son of the
+distinguished philologist Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797-1855). After
+attending the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849,
+to Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in 1852
+took his doctor's degree. He had already given proof of great literary
+ability in the production in 1850 of _Der Jungbrunnen, Marchen eines
+fahrenden Schulers_ and of the tragedy _Francesca von Rimini_, when
+after a year's stay in Italy, he was summoned, early in 1854, by King
+Maximilian II. to Munich, where he subsequently lived. Here he turned
+his attention to novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four
+short stories in one volume, one of which, at least, _L'Arrabbiata_, was
+a masterpiece of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of
+similar volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole
+constituting such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as seldom
+before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer. Heyse works in the
+spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some picturesque incident or
+situation, and chisels and polishes until all the effect which it is
+capable of producing has been extracted from it. The success of the
+story usually depends upon the theme, for the artist's skill is
+generally much the same, and the situation usually leaves a deeper
+impression than the characters. Heyse is also the author of several
+novels on a larger scale, all of which have gained success and provoked
+abundant discussion. The more important are _Kinder der Welt_ (1873),
+_Im Paradiese_ (1875)--the one dealing with the religious and social
+problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich--_Der Roman
+der Stiftsdame_ (1888), and _Merlin_ (1892), a novel directed against
+the modern realistic movement of which Heyse had been the leading
+opponent in Germany. He has also been a prolific dramatist, but his
+plays are deficient in theatrical qualities and are rarely seen on the
+stage. Among the best of them are _Die Sabinerinnen_ (1859); _Hans
+Lange_ (1866), _Kolberg_ (1868), _Die Weisheit Salomos_ (1886), and
+_Maria von Magdala_ (1903). There are masterly translations by him of
+Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (_Italienische Dichter seit
+der Mitte des 18ten Jahrhundert_) (4 vols., 1889-1890).
+
+  Heyse's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 29 vols. (1897-1899); there is
+  also a popular edition of his _Romane_ (8 vols., 1902-1904) and
+  _Novellen_ (10 vols., 1904-1906). See his autobiography,
+  _Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse_ (1901); also O. Kraus, _Paul
+  Heyses Novellen und Romane_ (1888); E. Petzet, _Paul Heyse als
+  Dramatiker_ (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in _Studien und
+  Studienkopfe_, 1877), and G. Brandes (in _Moderne Geister_, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+HEYSHAM, a seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, on the south shore of Morecambe Bay, served by the
+Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3381. Under powers obtained from parliament
+in 1896, the Midland Railway Company constructed, and opened in 1904, a
+harbour, enclosed by breakwaters, for the development of traffic with
+Belfast and other Irish ports, a daily passenger-service of the first
+class being established to Belfast. The harbour has a depth at low tide
+of 17 ft., and extensive accommodation for live-stock and goods of all
+kinds is provided. Heysham is in some favour as a watering-place. The
+church of St Peter is mainly Norman, and has fragments of even earlier
+date. Ruins of a very ancient oratory stand near it. This was dedicated
+to St Patrick, and is traditionally said to have been erected as a place
+of prayer for those at sea.
+
+
+
+
+HEYWOOD, JOHN (b. 1497), English dramatist and epigrammatist, is
+generally said to have been a native of North Mimms, near St Albans,
+Hertfordshire, though Bale says he was born in London. A letter from a
+John Heywood, who may fairly be identified with him, is dated from
+Malines in 1575, when he called himself an old man of seventy-eight,
+which would fix his birth in 1497. He was a chorister of the Chapel
+Royal, and is said to have been educated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke
+College), Oxford. From 1521 onwards his name appears in the king's
+accounts as the recipient of an annuity of ten marks as player of the
+virginals, and in 1538 he received forty shillings for "playing an
+interlude with his children" before the Princess Mary. He is said to
+have owed his introduction to her to Sir Thomas More, at whose seat at
+Gobions near St Albans he wrote his Epigrams, according to Henry
+Peacham. More took a keen interest in the drama, and is represented by
+tradition as stepping on to the stage and taking an impromptu part in
+the dialogue. William Rastell, the printer of four of Heywood's plays,
+was the son of More's brother-in-law, John Rastell, who organized
+dramatic representations, and possibly wrote plays himself. Mr A. W.
+Pollard sees in Heywood's firm adherence to Catholicism and his free
+satire of legal and social abuses a reflection of the ideas of More and
+his friends, which counts for much in his dramatic development. His
+skill in music and his inexhaustible wit made him a favourite both with
+Henry VIII. and Mary. Under Edward VI. he was accused of denying the
+king's supremacy over the church, and had to make a public recantation
+in 1554; but with the accession of Mary his prospects brightened. He
+made a Latin speech to her in St Paul's Churchyard at her coronation,
+and wrote a poem to celebrate her marriage. Shortly before her death she
+granted him the lease of a manor and lands in Yorkshire. When Elizabeth
+succeeded to the throne he fled to Malines, and is said to have returned
+in 1577. In 1587 he is spoken of as "dead and gone" in Thomas Newton's
+epilogue to his works.
+
+John Heywood is important in the history of English drama as the first
+writer to turn the abstract characters of the morality plays into real
+persons. His interludes link the morality plays to the modern drama, and
+were very popular in their day. They represent ludicrous incidents of a
+homely kind in a style of the broadest farce, and approximate to the
+French dramatic renderings of the subjects of the _fabliaux_. The fun in
+them still survives in spite of the long arguments between the
+characters and what one of their editors calls his "humour of filth."
+Heywood's name was actually attached to four interludes. _The Playe
+called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a palmer, a
+pardoner, a potycary, a pedler_ (not dated) is a contest in lying,
+easily won by Palmer, who said he had never known a woman out of
+patience. _The Play of the Wether, a new and a very mery interlude of
+all maner of Wethers_ (printed 1533) describes the chaotic results of
+Jupiter's attempts to suit the weather to the desires of a number of
+different people. _The Play of Love_ (printed 1533) is an extreme
+instance of the author's love of wire-drawn argument. It is a double
+dispute between "Loving not Loved" and "Loved not Loving" as to which is
+the more wretched, and between "Both Loved and Loving" and "Neither
+Loving nor Loved" to decide which is the happier. The only action in
+this piece is indicated by the stage direction marking the entrance of
+"Neither loved nor loving," who is to run about the audience with a huge
+copper tank on his head full of lighted squibs, and is to cry "Water,
+water! Fire, fire!" _The Dialogue of Wit and Folly_ is more of an
+academic dispute than a play. But two pieces universally assigned to
+Heywood, although they were printed by Rastell without any author's
+name, combine action with dialogue, and are much more dramatic. In _The
+Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and Neybour
+Pratte_ (printed 1533, but probably written much earlier) the Pardoner
+and the Friar both try to preach at the same time, and, coming at last
+to blows, are separated by the other two personages of the piece. The
+_Mery Play betwene Johan Johan the Husbande, Tyb the Wyfe, and Syr Jhan
+the Preest_ (printed 1533) is the best constructed of all his pieces.
+Tyb and Syr Jhan eat the "Pye" which is the central "property" of the
+piece, while Johan Johan is made to chafe wax at the fire to stop a hole
+in a pail. This incident occurs in a French _Farce nouvelle tres bonne
+et fort joyeuse de Pernet qui va au vin_. Heywood has sometimes been
+credited with the authorship of the dialogue of _Gentylnes and Nobylyte_
+printed by Rastell without date, and Mr Pollard adduces some ground for
+attributing to him the anonymous _New Enterlude called Thersytes_
+(played 1538). Heywood's other works are a collection of proverbs and
+epigrams, the earliest extant edition of which is dated 1562; some
+ballads, one of them being the "Willow Garland," known to Desdemona;
+and a long verse allegory of over 7000 lines entitled _The Spider and
+the Flie_ (1556). A contemporary writer in Holinshed's _Chronicle_ said
+that neither its author nor any one else could "reach unto the meaning
+thereof." But the flies are generally taken to represent the Roman
+Catholics and the spiders the Protestants, while Queen Mary is
+represented by the housemaid who with her broom (the sword) executes the
+commands of her master (Christ) and her mistress (the church). Dr A. W.
+Ward speaks of its "general lucidity and relative variety of treatment."
+Heywood says that he laid it aside for twenty years before he finished
+it, and, whatever may be the final interpretation put upon it, it
+contains a very energetic statement of the social evils of the time, and
+especially of the deficiencies of English law.
+
+  The proverbs and epigrams were reprinted by the Spenser Society in
+  1867, the _Dialogue on Wit and Folly_ by the Percy Society from an MS.
+  in the British Museum in 1846, with an account of Heywood by F. W.
+  Fairholt, and there are modern reprints of _Johan Johan_ (Chiswick
+  Press, 1819), _The Foure PP_. (Dodsley's _Old Plays_, 1825, 1874), and
+  _The Pardoner and the Frere_ (Dodsley's _Old Plays_, 1874). _The
+  Spider and the Flie_ was edited by A. W. Ward for the Spenser Society
+  in 1894. For notes and strictures on that edition see J. Haber in
+  _Litterarhistorische Forschungen_, vol. xv. (1900). See also A. W.
+  Pollard's introduction to the reprint of the _Play of the Wether_ and
+  _Johan Johan in Representative English Comedies_ (1903), and _The
+  Dramatic Writings of John Heywood_, edited by John S. Farmer for the
+  Early English Drama Society (1905).
+
+His son, JASPER HEYWOOD (1535-1598), who translated into English three
+plays of Seneca, the _Troas_ (1559), the _Thyestes_ (1560) and _Hercules
+Furens_ (1561), was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, but was
+compelled to resign from that society in 1558. In the same year he was
+elected a fellow of All Souls College, but, refusing to conform to the
+changes in religion at the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, he gave
+up his fellowship and went to Rome, where he was received into the
+Society of Jesus. For seventeen years he was professor of moral theology
+and controversy in the Jesuit College at Dillingen, Bavaria. In 1581 he
+was sent to England as superior of the Jesuit mission, but his leniency
+in that position led to his recall. He was on his way back to the
+Continent when a violent storm drove him back to the English coast. He
+was arrested on the charge of being a priest, but, although
+extraordinary efforts were made to induce him to abjure his opinions, he
+remained firm. He was condemned to perpetual exile on pain of death, and
+died at Naples on the 9th of January 1598. His translations of Seneca
+were supplemented by other plays contributed by Alexander Neville,
+Thomas Nuce, John Studley and Thomas Newton. Newton collected these
+translations in one volume, _Seneca, his tenne tragedies translated into
+Englysh_ (1581). The importance of this work in the development of
+English drama can hardly be over-estimated.
+
+  See Dr J. W. Cunliffe, _On the Influence of Seneca upon Elizabethan
+  Tragedy_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+HEYWOOD, THOMAS (d. c. 1650), English dramatist and miscellaneous
+author, was a native of Lincolnshire, born about 1575, and said to have
+been educated at Cambridge and to have become a fellow of Peterhouse.
+Heywood is mentioned by Philip Henslowe as having written a book or play
+for the Lord Admiral's company of actors in October 1596; and in 1598 he
+was regularly engaged as a player in the company, in which he presumably
+had a share, as no wages are mentioned. He was also a member of other
+companies, of Lord Southampton's, of the earl of Derby's and of the earl
+of Worcester's players, afterwards known as the Queen's Servants. In his
+preface to the _English Traveller_ (1633) he describes himself as having
+had "an entire hand or at least a main finger in two hundred and twenty
+plays." Of this number, probably considerably increased before the close
+of his dramatic career, only twenty-three survive. He wrote for the
+stage, not for the press, and protested against the printing of his
+works, which he said he had no time to revise. He was, said Tieck, the
+"model of a light and rapid talent," and his plays, as might be expected
+from his rate of production, bear little trace of artistic elaboration.
+Charles Lamb called him a "prose Shakespeare"; Professor Ward, one of
+Heywood's most sympathetic editors, points out that this epigrammatic
+statement can only be accepted with reservations. Heywood had a keen eye
+for dramatic situations and great constructive skill, but his powers of
+characterization were not on a par with his stagecraft. He delighted in
+what he called "merry accidents," that is, in coarse, broad farce; his
+fancy and invention were inexhaustible. It was in the domestic drama of
+sentiment that he won his most distinctive success. For this he was
+especially fitted by his genuine tenderness and his freedom from
+affectation, by the sweetness and gentleness for which Lamb praised him.
+His masterpiece, _A Woman kilde with kindnesse_ (acted 1603; printed
+1607), is a type of the _comedie larmoyante_, and _The English
+Traveller_ (1633) is a domestic tragedy scarcely inferior to it in
+pathos and in the elevation of its moral tone. His first play was
+probably _The Foure Prentises of London: With the Conquest of Jerusalem_
+(printed 1615, but acted some fifteen years earlier). This may have been
+intended as a burlesque of the old romances, but it is more likely that
+it was meant seriously to attract the apprentice public to whom it was
+dedicated, and its popularity was no doubt aimed at in Beaumont and
+Fletcher's travesty of the City taste in drama in their _Knight of the
+Burning Pestle_. The two parts of _King Edward the Fourth_ (printed
+1600), and of _If you know not me, you know no bodie; Or, The Troubles
+of Queene Elizabeth_ (1605 and 1606) are chronicle histories. His other
+comedies include: _The Royall King, and the Loyall subject_ (acted c.
+1600; printed 1637); the two parts of _The Fair Maid of the West; Or, A
+Girle worth Gold_ (two parts, printed 1631); _The Fayre Maid of the
+Exchange_ (printed anonymously 1607); _The Late Lancashire Witches_
+(1634), written with Richard Brome, and prompted by an actual trial in
+the preceding year; _A Pleasant Comedy, called A Mayden-Head well lost_
+(1634); _A Challenge for Beautie_ (1636); _The Wise-Woman of Hogsdon_
+(printed 1638), the witchcraft in this case being matter for comedy, not
+seriously treated as in the Lancashire play; and _Fortune by Land and
+Sea_ (printed 1655), with William Rowley. The five plays called
+respectively _The Golden_, _The Silver_, _The Brazen_ and _The Iron Age_
+(the last in two parts), dated 1611, 1613, 1613, 1632, are series of
+classical stories strung together with no particular connexion except
+that "old Homer" introduces the performers of each act in turn. _Loves
+Maistresse; Or, The Queens Masque_ (printed 1636) is on the story of
+Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius; and the tragedy of the _Rape of
+Lucrece_ (1608) is varied by a "merry lord," Valerius, who lightens the
+gloom of the situation by singing comic songs. A series of pageants,
+most of them devised for the City of London, or its guilds, by Heywood,
+were printed in 1637. In vol. iv. of his _Collection of Old English
+Plays_ (1885), Mr A. H. Bullen printed for the first time a comedy by
+Heywood, _The Captives, or The Lost Recovered_ (licensed 1624), and in
+vol. ii. of the same series, _Dicke of Devonshire_, which he tentatively
+assigns to the same hand.
+
+Besides his dramatic works, twelve of which were reprinted by the
+"Shakespeare Society," and were published by Mr John Pearson in a
+complete edition of six vols. with notes and illustrations in 1874, he
+was the author of _Troia Britannica, or Great Britain's Troy_ (1609), a
+poem in seventeen cantos "intermixed with many pleasant poetical tales"
+and "concluding with an universal chronicle from the creation until the
+present time"; _An Apology for Actors, containing three brief treatises_
+(1612) edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1841; [Greek: Gynaikeion]
+_or nine books of various history concerning women_ (1624); _England's
+Elizabeth, her Life and Troubles during her minority from the Cradle to
+the Crown_ (1631); _The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels_ (1635), a
+didactic poem in nine books; _Pleasant Dialogue, and Dramas selected out
+of Lucian_, &c. (1637; ed. W. Bang, Louvain, 1903); and _The Life of
+Merlin surnamed Ambrosius_ (1641).
+
+  See A. W. Ward, _History of English Dram. Lit._ ii. 550 seq. (1899);
+  the same author's Introduction to _A woman killed with kindness_
+  ("Temple Dramatists," 1897); J. A. Symonds in the Introduction to
+  _Thomas Heywood_ in the "Mermaid" series (new issue, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HEYWOOD, a municipal borough in the Heywood parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 9 m. N. of Manchester on the Lancashire and
+Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,458. It is of modern growth and
+possesses several handsome churches, chapels and public buildings. The
+Queen's Park, purchased and laid out at a cost of L11,000 with money
+which devolved to Queen Victoria in right of her duchy and county
+palatine of Lancaster, was opened in 1879. Heywood Hall in the
+neighbourhood of the town was the residence of Peter Heywood, who
+contributed to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. Heywood owes its
+rise to the enterprise of the Peels, its first manufactures having been
+introduced by the father of the first Sir Robert Peel. It is an
+important seat of the cotton manufacture, and there are power-loom
+factories, iron foundries, chemical works, boiler-works and railway
+wagon works. Coal is worked extensively in the neighbourhood. Heywood
+was incorporated in 1881, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3660 acres.
+
+
+
+
+HEZEKIAH (Heb. for "[my] strength is [of] Yah"), in the Bible son of
+Ahaz, one of the greatest of the kings of Judah. He flourished at the
+end of the 8th and beginning of the 7th century B.C., when Palestine
+passed through one of the most eventful periods of its history. There is
+much that is uncertain in his reign, and with the exception of the great
+crisis of 701 B.C. its chronology has not been unanimously fixed.
+Whether he came to the throne before or after the fall of Samaria
+(722-721 B.C.) is disputed,[1] nor is it clear what share Judah took in
+the Assyrian conflicts down to 701.[2] Shortly before this date the
+whole of western Asia was in a ferment; Sargon had died and Sennacherib
+had come to the throne (in 705); vassal kings plotted to recover their
+independence and Assyrian puppets were removed by their opponents. Judah
+was in touch with a general rising in S.W. Palestine, in which Ekron,
+Lachish, Ascalon (Ashkelon) and other towns of the Philistines were
+supported by the kings of Musri and Meluhha.[3] Sennacherib completely
+routed them at Eltekeh (a Danite city), and thence turned against
+Hezekiah, who had been in league with Ekron and had imprisoned its king
+Padi, an Assyrian vassal. In this invasion of Judah the Assyrian claims
+entire success; 46 towns of Judah were captured, 200,150 men and many
+herds of cattle were carried off among the spoil, and Jerusalem itself
+was closely invested. Hezekiah was imprisoned "like a bird in a
+cage"[4]--to quote Sennacherib, and the Urbi (Arabian?) troops in
+Jerusalem laid down their arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred of
+silver, precious stones, couches and seats of ivory--"all kinds of
+valuable treasure",--the ladies of the court, male and female attendants
+(perhaps "singers") were carried away to Nineveh. Here the Assyrian
+record ends somewhat abruptly, for, in the meanwhile, Babylonia had
+again revolted (700 B.C.) and Sennacherib's presence was urgently needed
+nearer home.
+
+At what precise period the Babylonian Merodach (i.e. Marduk)-Baladan
+sent his embassy to Hezekiah is disputed. Although ostensibly to
+congratulate the king upon his recovery from a sickness, it was really
+sent in the hope of enlisting his support, and the excessive courtesy
+and complaisance with which it was received suggest that it found a
+ready ally in Judah (2 Kings xx. 12 sqq.; Isa. xxxix.). Merodach-Baladan
+was overthrown by Sargon in 710 B.C., but succeeded in making a fresh
+revolt some years later (704-703 B.C.), and opinion is much divided
+whether his embassy was to secure the friendship of the youthful
+Hezekiah at his succession or is to be associated with the later
+widespread attempt to remove the Assyrian yoke.[5]
+
+The brief account of the Assyrian invasion, Hezekiah's submission, and
+the payment of tribute in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16, supplements the Assyrian
+record by the statement that Sennacherib besieged Lachish, a fact which
+is confirmed by a bas-relief (now in the British Museum) depicting the
+king in the act of besieging that town.[6] This thoroughly historical
+fragment is followed by two narratives which tell how the king sent an
+official from Lachish to demand the submission of Hezekiah and conclude
+with the unexpected deliverance of Jerusalem. Both these stories appear
+to belong to a biography of Isaiah, and, like the similar biographies of
+Elijah and Elisha, are open to the suspicion that historical facts have
+been subordinated to idealize the work of the prophet. See KINGS, BOOKS
+OF.
+
+  The narratives are (a) 2 Kings xviii. 13, 17-xix. 8; cf. Isa. xxxvi.
+  1-xxxvii. 8, and (b) xix. 9b-35; cp. Isa. xxxvii. 9-36 (2 Chron.
+  xxxii. 9 sqq. is based on both), and Jerusalem's deliverance is
+  attributed to a certain rumour (xix. 7), to the advance of Tirhakah,
+  king of Ethiopia (v. 9), and to a remarkable pestilence (v. 35) which
+  finds an echo in a famous story related, not without some confusion of
+  essential facts, by Herodotus (ii. 141; cf. Josephus _Antiq._ x. i.
+  5).[7] It is difficult to decide whether xix. 9a belongs to the first
+  or second of these narratives; and whether the "rumour" refers to the
+  approach of Tirhakah, or rather to the serious troubles which had
+  arisen in Babylonia. It is equally difficult to determine whether
+  Tirhakah actually appeared on the scene in 701, and the precise
+  application of the term Musri (Mizraim) is much debated. Unless the
+  two narratives are duplicates of the same event, it may be urged that
+  Sennacherib's attack upon Arabia (apparently about 689) involved an
+  invasion of Judah, by which time Egypt was in a position to be of
+  material assistance (cf. Isa. xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-3?). This theory of a
+  second campaign (first suggested by Sir Henry Rawlinson) has been
+  contested, although it is pointed out that Sennacherib at all events
+  did not invade Egypt, and that 2 Kings xix. 24 (Isa. xxxvii. 25) can
+  only refer to his successor. The allusion to the murder of Sennacherib
+  (xix. 36 sq.)[8] points to the year 681, but it is uncertain to which
+  of the above narratives it belongs. On the whole, the question must be
+  left open, and with it both the problem of the extension of the name
+  Musri and Mizraim outside Egypt in the Assyrian and Hebrew records of
+  this period and the true historical background of a number of the
+  Isaianic prophecies. It is quite possible that later events which
+  belong to the time of the Egyptian supremacy and the wars of
+  Esarhaddon have been confused with the history of Sennacherib's
+  invasion.
+
+It is not certain whether Hezekiah's conflict with the Philistines as
+far as Gaza or his preparations to secure for Jerusalem a good water
+supply (xviii. 8, xx. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 30; Ecclus. xlviii. 17 sq.)[9]
+should precede or follow the events which have been discussed. On the
+other hand, the reforms which the compiler of the book has attributed to
+the early part of the reign were doubtless much later (2 Kings xviii.
+1-8). Not the fall of Samaria, but the crisis of 701, is the earliest
+date that could safely be chosen, and the extent of these reforms must
+not be overestimated. They are related in terms that imply an
+acquaintance with the great "Deuteronomic" movement (see DEUTERONOMY),
+and are magnified further with characteristic detail by the chronicler
+(2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi.). The most remarkable was the destruction of a
+brazen serpent, the cult of which was traditionally traced back to the
+time of Moses (Num. xxi. 9).[10] This persistence of serpent-cult, and
+the idolatry (necromancy, tree-worship) which the contemporary prophets
+denounce, do not support the view that the apparently radical reforms of
+Hezekiah were extensive or permanent, and Jer. xxvi. 17-19 (which
+suggests that Micah had a greater influence than Isaiah) throws another
+light upon the conditions during his reign. Hezekiah was succeeded by
+his son MANASSEH (q.v.).
+
+  See further W. R. Smith, _Prophets_, 359-364, and HEBREW RELIGION.
+  According to PROV. xxv. 1, Hezekiah was a patron of literature (see
+  PROVERBS). The hymn which is ascribed to the king (Isa. xxxviii. 9-20,
+  wanting in 2 Kings) is of post-exilic origin (see Cheyne, _Introd. to
+  Isaiah_, 222 sq.), but is further proof of the manner in which the
+  Judaean king was idealized in subsequent ages, partly, perhaps, in the
+  belief that the deliverance of Jerusalem was the reward for his piety.
+  For special discussions, see Stade, _Zeits. d. alttest. Wissenschaft_,
+  1886, pp. 173 sqq.; Winckler, _Alttest. Untersuch_., 26 sqq.;
+  Schrader, _Cuneiform Inscr. and Old Test_. (on 2 Kings, _l.c_.);
+  Driver, _Isaiah, his Life and Times_, pp. 43-83; A. Jeremias, _Alte
+  Test_. 304-310; Nagel, _Zug d. Sanherib gegen Jerus_. (Leipzig, 1903,
+  conservative); and especially Prasek, Sanherib's "Feldzuge gegen Juda"
+  (_Mitteil. d. Vorderasiat. Gesell_., 1903, pp. 113-158), K. Fullerton,
+  _Bibliotheca sacra_, 1906, pp. 577-634, A. Alt, _Israel u. Agypten_
+  (Leipzig, 1909); also the bibliography to ISAIAH.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel,[2] 415 sqq.; O. C.
+    Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, _Kings_, p. 43
+    seq.; T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2058, n. 1, and references.
+
+  [2] The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza and
+    Musri) at Karkar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine); 715, a
+    rising of Musri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture of
+    Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter occasion
+    is not improbable.
+
+  [3] Meluhha is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia; the
+    identification of Musri is uncertain, see below.
+
+  [4] The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal
+    (Byblus), in the 15th century B.C.; _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_ (ed.
+    Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &c. Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a
+    different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib's record, see Wilke,
+    _Jesaja u. Assur_ (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq.
+
+  [5] For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, _Alttest.
+    Unt._ 139 sqq., Burney, _Kings_, 350 sq.; Driver; Kuchler, &c.; for
+    the later, Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader,
+    Wellhausen, W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M'Curdy, Paton, &c.
+
+  [6] Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to
+    the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii.
+    12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18,
+    xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii.
+    9-11. But see further ISAIAH (BOOK).
+
+  [7] See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth's _Authority and
+    Archaeology_, p. 167, n. 1.
+
+  [8] The house of _Nisroch_ should probably be that of the god
+    _Nusku_; see also Driver in Hogarth, _op. cit._ p. 109; Winckler,
+    _op. cit._ p. 84.
+
+  [9] It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit of
+    Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see INSCRIPTIONS,
+    JERUSALEM). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool was
+    already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see _Pal.
+    Explor. Fund, Quart. Stat._ (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq.
+
+  [10] The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. _nahash_, "serpent")
+    is obscure: see the commentaries.
+
+
+
+
+HIATUS (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity, whether in
+speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy the term is used for an
+opening or foramen, as the _hiatus Fallopii_, a foramen of the temporal
+bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when a step or link in reasoning is
+wanting; and in grammar it is the pause made for the sake of euphony in
+pronouncing two successive vowels, which are not separated by a
+consonant.
+
+
+
+
+HIAWATHA ("he makes rivers"), a legendary chief (_c_. 1450) of the
+Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The formation of the League of
+Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is attributed to him by Indian
+tradition. In his miraculous character Hiawatha is the incarnation of
+human progress and civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation,
+medicine and the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature
+which war against man.
+
+  See J. N. B. Hewitt, in _Amer. Anthrop_. for April 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HIBBING, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., 75 m. N.W. of
+Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census) 6566, of whom 3537 were
+foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes, 498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and
+314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832. Hibbing is served by the Great Northern
+and the Duluth, Missabe & Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the
+great Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines
+were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and farming are
+also important industries. The village owns and operates the water-works
+and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing was settled in 1892 and was
+incorporated in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+HIBERNACULUM (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a term for a winter
+bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters for plants; in zoology, the
+winter bud of a polyzoan.
+
+
+
+
+HIBERNATION (winter sleep), the dormant condition in which certain
+animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestivation (summer sleep) is
+the similar condition in which other species pass periods of heat or
+drought in warm latitudes. The origins of these kindred phenomena are
+probably to be sought in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply
+or of other factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of
+cold in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other.
+They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are enabled to live
+through unfavourable climatic conditions which would end fatally in
+starvation or desiccation were the animals to maintain their normal
+state of activity.
+
+I. _The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestivation_.--The
+physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mammalia, has been worked
+out in detail by several observers in the case of some European species,
+notably bats, hedgehogs, dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of
+aestivation nothing definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems
+probable, however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the
+physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are to all
+intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation, for example,
+in the European hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_) is not distinguished by
+external signs from the state of aestivation of the allied Mascarene
+genus, the tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_). The lethargy in both cases
+appears to be directly due to fall in the temperature of the organisms;
+and the fall in temperature proceeds _pari passu_ with the slowing down
+and weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the circulation
+of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hibernation and aestivation
+is shown not only in their physiological accompaniments but also in the
+species of animals which become seasonally dormant. Birds neither
+hibernate nor aestivate. The tenrec (_Centetes_) of Madagascar, which
+aestivates, closely resembles the hedgehog (_Erinaceus_) in habits and
+belongs to the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and
+batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep the
+winter through in cold countries; and some species of these groups
+habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud in tropical latitudes
+where drought is of periodical occurrence. Terrestrial molluscs lie
+dormant in the winter in cold and temperate latitudes and their tropical
+allies aestivate in districts where conditions enforce the habit. Some
+fresh-water molluscs bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds
+when the surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way
+when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season in the
+tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries insects and
+arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters during the cold
+weather, and in the tropics they similarly disappear during times of
+drought.
+
+_Predisposing Causes of Hibernation._--The likeness between hibernation
+and aestivation and the coincidence of the one with cold and of the
+other with heat arrest the conclusion that the temperature of the
+surrounding medium, whether atmospheric or aquatic, is the prime, much
+less the sole, cause of either. The effect of extreme cold is to rouse
+the hibernating animal from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter
+brings about a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears
+to be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues is
+followed by death because the gases are expelled from the fluids as
+bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals. Some
+cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to 0 deg. C. Fish have been
+resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice, and frogs have been
+known to recover when ice has been formed in the blood and in the lymph
+of the peritoneal cavity (Landois).
+
+For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take precautions against
+exposure to extreme cold. They either bury themselves in the soil or
+under the snow or seek the shelter of hollow trees or of caves, not
+infrequently congregating in the same spot so that the temperature is
+kept up by corporeal contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be
+suspended unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon
+winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not hibernate
+unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during the summer and autumn
+to fatten them for their winter fast; and hedgehogs and dormice in
+captivity have been known to remain active in the cold until warm
+sleeping-quarters were insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their
+cages. Finally the wood-chucks (_Arctomys monax_) in the Adirondacks
+retire to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox,
+when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the vernal equinox
+before the snows of winter have vanished from the ground. These and
+other facts justify Marshall Hall's conclusion that cold is merely a
+predisposing cause of hibernation in the sense that it is a predisposing
+cause of ordinary sleep. It has also been shown that the state of
+hibernation cannot be forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to
+artificial cold even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper
+season they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37
+deg. to 77 deg. Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters
+in the autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than that
+of preceding days during which they retain their activity.
+
+Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer sleep depend to
+a considerable extent upon conditions of existence other than those of
+temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign of a living thing on his arrival
+at Bahia Blanca, Argentina, on the 7th of Sept., although by digging
+several insects, large spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid
+state. During the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean
+temperature was 51 deg., the thermometer seldom rising above 55 deg. at
+mid-day. But during the succeeding days when the mean temperature was 58
+deg. and that of the middle of the day between 60 deg. and 70 deg. both
+insect and reptilian life was in a state of activity. Nevertheless at
+Montevideo, lying only four degrees further north, between the 26th of
+July and the 19th of August when the mean temperature was 58.4 deg. and
+the mean highest temperature of mid-day 65.5 deg. almost every beetle,
+several genera of spiders, land molluscs, toads and lizards were all
+lying dormant beneath stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo
+remained dormant at a temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from
+its torpidity. Darwin unfortunately does not record whether the species
+observed were identical in the two localities.
+
+The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation is
+approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium or at most a
+degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature of the chosen
+hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as freezing point, life is
+endangered at least in the case of mammals.
+
+In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature is normally
+only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two rising and falling
+together. But, setting aside the young, especially of those species in
+which the offspring are born or hatched at a comparatively early stage
+of development, the majority of warm-blooded animals are able to
+maintain a high and approximately level temperature irrespective of
+decline in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty of
+temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or weakened in
+most if not in all hibernating mammals both in their normal nocturnal or
+diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep. In the case of European bats it
+has been shown that the ordinary day sleep in summer differs only in the
+matter of duration from the prolonged slumber of the same animals in
+winter. The temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration
+practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven minutes
+has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate temperatures ranging from
+45 deg. to 50 deg. F., dormice (_Muscardinus avellanarius_) and
+hedgehogs (_Erinaceus europaeus_) alternately wake to feed and sink into
+slumber. Dormice awake once in every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the
+hedgehogs may last for two or three days. The temperature of the
+hedgehog, when awake and active, rises to about 87 deg. F., that of the
+dormouse to 92 deg. or 94 deg. F.; but during sleep the temperature of
+both species falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all
+the phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these
+animals during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods of
+wakeful activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term "diurnation"
+has been proposed, because it has only been observed in nocturnal
+animals, lies phenomenally midway between the normal sleep of
+non-hibernating mammals and the dormant condition in winter of
+hibernating species. The stimulus of hunger appears to be the prime
+cause of its periodic cessation. Since then the faculty of temperature
+adjustment is in abeyance during the ordinary diurnal summer sleep in
+hibernating mammals, which in this physiological particular resemble
+reptiles, it seems probable that hibernation can only be practised by
+those species in which the power to maintain, when sleeping, a permanent
+average high temperature has been lost or perhaps never acquired. That
+there is no broad line of demarcation between the ordinary sleep of
+these hibernating mammals in which the temperature is known to drop
+considerably and that of non-hibernating species is indicated by the
+fact that the temperature of human beings and possibly of all
+non-hibernating species falls to a certain, though to a limited, extent
+in ordinary sleep.
+
+The relation between the internal body-temperature and the respiratory
+movements has been worked out in hibernating dormice, hedgehogs, marmots
+and bats. When the temperature is below 12 deg. C., the torpid animal
+exhibits long periods of apnoea of several minutes' duration and
+interrupted by a few respirations. With the temperature rising above 13
+deg. C., the periods of apnoea in the still inactive animal become
+shorter, the respiration suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot's type),
+or gradually waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes' type). When the
+temperature is at about 16 deg. C., the periods of apnoea in the
+gradually awaking animal are very short and infrequent. When the
+temperature is about 20 deg. and rising apace, respiration becomes
+continuous and rapid and the animal is awake. These stages have been
+especially recorded in the case of dormice. In the last stage the
+respiration of hedgehogs and marmots is somewhat different, there being
+a series of rapid respirations, often followed by a single deep sighing
+respiration.
+
+_Respiration_ appears to be totally suspended in animals in a complete
+state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may however, be readily
+re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and to this fact may perhaps be
+attributed the belief that breathing does not actually cease. If a
+hibernating hedgehog be lightly touched it draws a deep breath, and
+breathing is maintained for a longer or shorter time before again
+ceasing; but if at the same time the temperature of the atmosphere be
+raised, respiration becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by
+activity (Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally
+suspended is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and
+bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon dioxide,
+a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals in a state of
+normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which may be drowned in about
+three minutes when awake and active, has been removed from water
+uninjured when in deep winter sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes'
+submergence. A hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived
+sixteen minutes' immersion. Further proof of the suspension of
+respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat which while in
+a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was kept in a pneumatometer for
+ten hours without appreciably affecting the percentage of oxygen in the
+air. The same animal, when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in
+the space of one hour from the instrument.
+
+As in the case of respiration, _alimentation_ and _excretion_ are
+suspended during hibernation.
+
+The _circulation of the blood_, on the other hand, continues without
+interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact may be
+observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats in a state of
+winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog lethargic from
+hibernation, it was experimentally shown that when the spinal cord was
+severed behind the occipital foramen, the brain removed and the entire
+spinal cord gently destroyed, the heart continued to beat strongly and
+regularly for several hours, the contraction of the auricles and
+ventricles being quite perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse
+of ten hours. After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed
+its activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve hours
+both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the ventricles
+remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles gave no response.
+On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a hedgehog in a normal state
+of activity was severed at the occiput, the left ventricle ceased to
+beat almost at once, and the left auricle in less than fifteen minutes;
+the right auricle was the next to cease, whereas the right ventricle
+continued its contraction for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots
+have yielded very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in
+a state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The
+pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16 to 18 per
+minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent, until at the end of
+the third hour only 3 were recorded in the same length of time. Excised
+pieces of voluntary muscular tissue contracted vigorously three hours
+after death under electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did
+they cease to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same
+way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the number of
+pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen minutes, to 8 at
+the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing altogether at the end of fifty
+minutes. Similarly the response of the muscles to galvanic shock failed
+at a correspondingly rapid rate. It is evident, therefore, that during
+hibernation the irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked
+degree, and that the irritability of the left side of the organ is
+scarcely less pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction
+in the rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain
+hibernating mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that
+the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens with
+a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52 deg. F. the number was 22
+in the common garden snail (_Helix hortensis_), and 21 in the cellar
+slug (_Hyalinia cellaria_). At a temperature of 30 deg. F. the pulsation
+fell to 4 in the former and to 3 in the latter animal.
+
+The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation, and the
+principal physiological phenomena connected with them, may be briefly
+summarized as follows:--
+
+  1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the tissues
+  is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the case of
+  mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes in definite
+  parts of the body, during the weeks of activity immediately preceding
+  the period of winter sleep.
+
+  2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and
+  hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or nocturnal
+  sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their prolonged and
+  lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of degree,
+  differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration.
+
+  3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (a)
+  Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and
+  excretion; (b) lowering of the body temperature to that of the
+  surrounding medium or to within a few degrees of it; (c) total or
+  almost total cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive
+  immersion for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases,
+  which prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active;
+  (d) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially
+  of those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that
+  organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (e) a
+  slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the
+  cardio-pneumatic movement.
+
+  4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate,
+  devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the phenomenon of
+  hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence wherever the
+  conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought are
+  inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the contrary,
+  the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned;
+  aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation
+  is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in these
+  the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily at all
+  events in abeyance.
+
+II. _The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation._--Owing to the extreme
+difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in their natural
+haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost impossible to get accurate
+knowledge of the details of this state of existence. In a general way it
+is known, or assumed from their disappearance, that certain species
+retire to winter quarters in particular districts, but on such important
+points as whether the winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light
+or profound, assured information is for the most part not forthcoming.
+This is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North
+America, which have been objects of study for many years. It is still
+more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited and rarely
+visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested in such
+questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration of this truth.
+It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep of these animals in north
+and temperate Europe was complete and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for
+example, remarked that "perhaps the bat may be the only animal which
+sleeps profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food." It
+was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other winged
+insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats which feed upon
+them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees, caves, sheds or other
+places likely to afford them sufficient shelter. Here they hang
+suspended, solitary or in companies according to the species. But a mild
+spell of weather in mid-winter will sometimes entice a few to take wing
+while it lasts, although they never appear in any numbers until
+crepuscular and nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward
+has recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats
+(_Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), that during the
+early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hibernation, in
+the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that even later
+in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted, especially when the
+temperature of the air rises above 46 deg. F., and that during their
+wakeful intervals they crawl about and feed apparently upon the insects
+which live throughout the year in the caves. This is also true of the
+long-eared bat (_Plecotus auritus_), and probably of other species of
+this group. At Mussoorie in the Himalayas, and in other parts of
+northern India, insectivorous bats, such as _Rhinolophus luctus_ and
+_Rh. affinis_, pass the winter in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely
+seen abroad during the cold season. The fruit-eating bats, on the
+contrary (_Pteropidae_), which are more southern in their distribution
+and are restricted in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower
+slopes of the mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times
+of the year (Blanford).
+
+Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles and shrews
+do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction between two
+groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends upon the difference in
+their habitats and in those of the creatures they live upon. By
+tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer, moles are still able to find
+worms and various insects buried in the earth beyond the reach of frost;
+and shrews hunt out spiders, centipedes and insects which in their
+larval, pupal or sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in
+holes and crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or
+under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially active life of
+the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular fact that the
+common hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_)--the only member of this order
+besides genera referable to the moles (_Talpidae_) and shrews
+(_Soricidae_) that inhabits temperate and north-temperate latitudes in
+Europe and Asia--passes the winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in
+profundity by that of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly
+the explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the bionomial
+differences between the three animals. The subterranean feeding habits
+of the mole render hibernation unnecessary on his part. Therefore the
+shrew and the hedgehog, both surface feeders for the most part, need
+only be considered in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst
+the smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable
+size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult to
+find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike. Hence in winter
+when insects are scarce and demand active and diligent search, it is
+quite intelligible that the shrews, in virtue of their smallness and
+rapidity of movement, are able to procure sufficient food for their
+needs; whereas the hedgehogs, requiring a far larger quantity and
+handicapped by lack of activity, would probably starve under the same
+conditions. Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedgehog
+(_Erinaceus megalotis_) hibernates in Afghanistan from November till
+February. The tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_), a large insectivore from
+Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest weeks of the year; and
+specimens exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London preserved the
+habit although kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with
+food.
+
+Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha (hares, rabbits and
+picas) are known to hibernate, although some of the species, like the
+mountain hare (_Lepus timidus_), extend far to the north in the
+palaearctic region, and the picas (_Ochotona_) live at high altitudes in
+the Himalayas and Central Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive,
+and where the snow lies deep for many months. It is probable that the
+picas live in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores
+of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The Hystrico-morpha
+also are non-hibernators. It is true that the common porcupine (_Hystrix
+cristata_) of south Europe and north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the
+statement cannot, however, be accepted without confirmation, because the
+cold is seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens
+exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active throughout
+the year, although kept in enclosures without artificial heat of any
+kind. Even the most northerly representative of this group, the Canadian
+porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), which inhabits forest-covered tracts
+in the United States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter.
+Some members of this group, like capybaras (_Hydrochaerus capybara_) and
+coypus (_Myocastors coypus_) which live in tropical America, are
+unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries, and live in the
+open all the year round in parks and zoological gardens in England.
+Several of the genera of Myomorpha contain species inhabiting the
+northern hemisphere, which habitually hibernate. The three European
+genera of dormice (_Myoxidae_), namely _Muscardinus_, _Eliomys_ and
+_Glis_, sleep soundly practically throughout the winter; and examples of
+the South African genus _Graphiurus_ practise the same habit when
+imported to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from
+their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated during the
+autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed for shelter
+during the winter. According to the weather, the sleep lasts from about
+five to seven months. In the family _Muridae_, the true mice and rats
+(_Murinae_) and the voles and lemmings (_Arvicolinae_) seem to remain
+active through the winter, although some species, like the lemmings,
+range far to the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice
+(_Hesperomys_) of North America, belonging to the _Cricetinae_, spend
+the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food is laid up for
+consumption in the early spring. The Canadian jumping mouse (_Zapus
+hudsonianus_), one of the Jaculidae, also hibernates, although the sleep
+is frequently interrupted by milder days. Some of the most northerly
+species of jerboas (Jaculidae), namely _Alactaga decumana_ of the
+Kirghiz Steppes and _A. indica_ of Afghanistan, sleep from September or
+October till April; and the Egyptian species (_Jaculus jaculus_) and the
+Cape jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_), one of the Hystrico-morpha, remain
+in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous to winter
+sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains many hibernating
+species. None of the true squirrels, however, appear to sleep throughout
+the winter. Even the red squirrel (_Sciurus hudsonianus_) of North
+America retains its activity in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that
+prevail. The same is true of its European ally _Sc. vulgaris_. The North
+American grey squirrel (_Sc. cinereus_), although more southerly in its
+distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hibernates
+partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological Gardens in London
+disappear for a day or two when the cold is exceptionally keen, but for
+the most part they may be seen abroad throughout the season. On the
+other hand, ground squirrels like the chipmunks (_Tamias_) and the
+susliks or gophers (_Spermophilus_) of North America and Central Asia,
+at all events in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from
+the late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where
+they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of warmer
+weather in the winter which may rouse them from their slumbers. The
+North American flying squirrel (_Sciuropterus volucella_) and its ally
+_Pteromys inornatus_ are believed to hibernate in hollow trees. All the
+true marmots (_Arctomys_), a genus of which the species live at
+tolerably high altitudes in Central Europe, Asia and North America,
+appear to spend the winter in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their
+burrows. They apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a
+quantity of fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in
+the case of the woodchuck (_A. monax_) of the Adirondacks, retire to
+winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset of the winter cold.
+The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (_Cynomys ludovicianus_) of North
+America, which live in the plains, do not hibernate to the same extent
+as the true marmots, although they appear to remain in their burrows
+during the coldest portions of the winter. Beavers (_Castor_), although
+formerly at all events extending in North America from the tropic of
+Cancer up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground is
+deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able to feed on
+aquatic plants beneath the ice.
+
+Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be practised,
+with one possible exception, only by species belonging to the group
+Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in Europe and Asia, as well
+as in the Himalayas, brown bears (_Ursus arctos_) hibernate, so also
+does the North American grizzly bear (_U. horribilis_), at least in the
+more northern districts of its range. The smaller black bear of the
+Himalayas (_U. tibetanus_) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor
+during the winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when
+occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the American
+black bear (_U. americanus_) the female seeks winter quarters
+comparatively early in the season in preparation for the birth of her
+progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the males remain active so
+long as plenty of food is to be found. In the case of all bears, except
+the Polar bear (_U. maritimus_), the site chosen as the hibernaculum is
+either a cave or hole or some sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or
+the roots of large trees, more or less overgrown with brushwood which
+holds the snow until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where
+the sleeping animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the
+intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called "tappen" and composed
+principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated until the
+spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the subject of the
+hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during the winter from
+particular spots in the Arctic regions where icebound ships have spent
+the winter, and the occasional discovery of specimens buried beneath the
+snow, have led to the belief that these animals habitually retire to
+winter quarters through the cold sunless months of the year. This may
+possibly be the true explanation at least for certain districts. But it
+has been alleged that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen
+throughout the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury
+themselves in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without
+feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the following
+year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from the neighbourhood of
+icebound ships may be explained on the supposition that the adult
+females alone hibernate for breeding purposes, while the full-grown
+males and half-grown specimens of both sexes migrate in the winter to
+the edges of the ice-floes and to coast lines, where the water is open.
+Before retiring to winter quarters the pregnant females store up
+sufficient quantity of fat in their tissues not only to sustain
+themselves but also to supply milk for their cubs. In the Adirondack
+region and probably in other districts of the same or more northern
+latitudes in North America, raccoons (_Procyon lotor_) retire in the
+winter to some sheltered place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass
+the severest part of the season in sleep, emerging in February or March
+when the snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks
+(_Mephitis mephitica_), a member of the weasel family, also seek shelter
+during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam believes that the
+hibernation of this animal is determined by cold, and not by failure of
+food-supply, for he observes that skunks may frequently be seen in
+numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a time of the year when they feed
+almost entirely upon mice and shrews which do not hibernate even when
+the thermometer registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North
+America the badger (_Taxidea americana_) is said to hibernate from
+October till April; but the duration of the period probably depends, as
+in the case of its European ally (_Meles meles_), upon the length and
+severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the winter
+repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a break in the
+weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth in search of food.
+This interrupted hibernation takes place at least in England and even in
+Scandinavia; but in countries where frost is continuous throughout the
+winter it is probable that the badger's sleep is unbroken.
+
+The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the Carnivora
+is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the raccoon dog
+(_Nyctereutes procyonoides_) of Japan and north-eastern Asia, which is
+said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amurland if food has been
+sufficiently plentiful in late summer and autumn to enable the animal to
+lay on enough fat to resist the cold and sustain a long period of fast.
+If, however, food has been scarce, this dog is compelled to remain
+active all through the winter. The Arctic fox (_Vulpes lagopus_),
+although considerably more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does
+not hibernate. It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in
+winter, but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate
+southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in other
+districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings or hares, for
+food during the winter months. In Australia the porcupine ant-eater
+(_Echidna aculeata_) hibernates; and the habit is retained by specimens
+imported to Europe if exposed to the cold in outdoor cages.
+
+Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case of man.
+For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia, where food is scarce
+throughout the year and in danger of exhaustion during the winter, the
+peasants are said to resort to a practice closely akin to hibernation,
+spending at least one-half of the cold weather in sleep. From time
+immemorial it has been the custom when the first snows fall for families
+to shut themselves up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse
+into slumber, each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once
+a day only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little
+dry bread.
+
+Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the
+surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in a state of
+lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into northern
+latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue of their
+inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level than that of
+the atmosphere. The common land tortoise (_Testudo graeca_) of South
+Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter in its natural
+habitat, and even when imported to England is able, in some cases at
+least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by practising the same
+habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded. In Pennsylvania the
+box-tortoise (_Cistudo carolina_) passes the winter in a burrow; and
+_Testudo elegans_, which inhabits dry hilly districts in north India,
+takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or bushes as the cold weather
+approaches and remains in a semi-lethargic state until the return of the
+warmth. The European pond tortoise (_Emys orbicularis_) also hibernates
+buried in the soil; and the North American salt-water terrapin
+(_Malacoclemmys concentrica_), abundant in the salt-marshes round
+Charleston, S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold
+months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises protect
+themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into the soil which
+afterwards becomes indurated. When drought sets in with the dry season
+and the tanks become exhausted and food unobtainable, crocodiles and
+alligators sometimes wander across country in search of water, but more
+commonly bury themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence
+until the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large snakes,
+anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the Indians in South
+America buried in the same lethargic state. Snakes and lizards in all
+countries where there is any considerable seasonal variation in
+temperature become dormant or semi-dormant during the colder months.
+
+Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other countries
+situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury themselves in the mud at the
+bottom of tanks and ponds, often congregating in numbers in the same
+spot. Toads retire to burrows or other secluded places on the land, and
+newts either bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up
+beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to Mr G. A.
+Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not pass the winter in
+profound torpor, but merely in a state of sluggish quiescence. In
+tropical countries, where wet and dry seasons alternate, frogs which,
+like the rest of the batrachians, are for the most part intolerant of
+great heat, especially when accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury
+themselves deep in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from
+their retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains.
+
+This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud forming the
+bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised by several species of
+tropical freshwater fishes, belonging principally to the family
+_Siluridae_. The members of this group are able to exist and thrive in
+moist mud, and can even support life for a comparatively long time out
+of water altogether. The instinct is exhibited by species occurring both
+in the eastern and western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the
+case of species of _Callicthys_ and _Loricaria_ in Guiana and by
+_Clarias lazera_ in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to
+Tennent, in a species of climbing perch (_Anabas oligolepis_) found in
+Ceylon and belonging to the family _Anabantidae_, all the species of
+which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water, and
+may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of fresh pools.
+The habit is also common to some species of mud fishes of the order
+Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays the part of lungs.
+_Protopterus_, from tropical Africa, for instance, burrows into the mud
+and remains for nearly half the year coiled up at the bottom in a
+slightly enlarged chamber. The walls of this are lined with a layer of
+slime secreted from the fish's skin, and the orifice is closed with a
+lid the centre of which is perforated and forms an inturned tube by
+means of which air is conducted to the fish's mouth. The aestivating
+burrow of the Brazilian mudfish (_Lepidosiren_) is similar, except that
+the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian mudfish
+(_Ceratodus_) is not known to hibernate or aestivate.
+
+In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegetation
+terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or fallen tree
+trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of dead leaves, in
+moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent until the coming of spring.
+Amongst pulmonate gastropods, most species of snails (_Helix_,
+_Clausilia_) close the mouth of the shell at this period with a
+membranous or calcified plate, the epiphragm. Slugs (_Limax_, _Arion_),
+on the contrary, lie buried in the earth encysted in a coating of slime.
+Similarly in the tropics members of this group, such as _Achatina_ in
+tropical Africa and _Orthalicus_ in Brazil, aestivate during the dry
+season, the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and examples
+of two species of _Achatina_ from east and west Africa exhibited in the
+Zoological Gardens in London remained concealed in their shells during
+the winter, although kept in an artificially warmed house, and resumed
+their activity in the summer.
+
+Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such forms as _Limnaea_
+and _Planorbis_ having been frequently seen crawling about beneath the
+ice of frozen ponds. During periods of drought in England, however, they
+commonly bury themselves in the mud, a habit which is also practised
+during the dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate
+Gastropods belonging to the genera _Ampullaria_, _Melania_ and others,
+which lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy.
+Freshwater Pelecypoda (_Anodonta_, _Unio_) spend the European winter
+buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams.
+
+In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects pass the
+winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal or imaginal
+(reproductive) stages. In some the state of hibernation is complete in
+the sense that although the insects may be roused from their lethargy to
+the extent of movement by spells of warm weather, they do not leave
+their hibernacula to feed; in others it is incomplete in the sense that
+the insects emerge to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of
+_Euprepia fuliginosa_, or to take the wing as in the case of the midge
+_Trichocera hiemalis_. Others again, like _Podura nivalis_ and _Boreus
+hiemalis_, never appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects
+which hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more than
+one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (_Cossus ligniperda_),
+cockchafers (_Melolontha_), stagbeetles (_Lucanus_) and dragon-flies
+(_Libellula_), &c.; and to some species which, although they only live a
+few months in this immature state, are hatched in the autumn or summer
+and only reach the final stage of growth in the following spring, like
+the butterflies of the genus _Argynnis_ (_paphia_, _aglaia_, &c.) in
+England. As an instance of species which survive the winter in the
+pupal or chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of
+Europe (_Papilio machaon_); while to the category of species which
+hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera (Rhyncophora,
+_Coccinellidae_), &c., as well as some Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera
+and Lepidoptera (_Vanessa io_, _urticae_, &c.). In the case of the
+social Hymenoptera it is only the fertilized queen wasp out of the nest
+that survives the frost of winter, all the workers dying with the onset
+of cold in the autumn; the common hive bees (_Apis mellifica_), although
+they retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity of
+the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the
+temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively at work
+underground unless the temperature falls several degrees below zero.
+
+Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate latitudes.
+Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the family _Ctenizidae_ and
+some species of _Lycosidae_ seal the doors of their burrows with silk or
+close up the orifice with a sheet of that material. Other non-burrowing
+species, like some species of _Clubionidae_ and _Drassidae_, lie up in
+silken cases attached to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose
+bark, or buried under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls.
+Other species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state
+protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother for her
+eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the "garden spider"
+(_Aranea diadema_). Commonly, however, when the cocoons are later in the
+making, or the cold weather sets in early, the eggs of this and of
+allied species do not hatch until the spring; but in either case the
+young emerge in the warm weather, become adult during the summer and die
+in the autumn after pairing and oviposition. Some members of this
+family, nevertheless, like _Zilla x-notata_, which live in the corners
+of windows, or in outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree
+of protection from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage
+and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and tempted by the
+warmth to spin new webs. Typical members of the Opiliones or harvest
+spiders, belonging to the family _Phalangiidae_, do not hibernate in
+temperate and more northern latitudes in Europe and America, but perish
+in the autumn, leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the
+succeeding spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature
+individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging to the
+family _Trogulidae_, spend the winter in a dormant state under stones or
+buried in the soil. False scorpions (_Pseudo-scorpiones_) also hibernate
+in temperate latitudes, passing the cold months, like many spiders,
+enclosed in silken cases attached to the underside of stones or loosened
+pieces of bark. Centipedes and millipedes bury themselves in the earth,
+or lie up in some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks
+afford during the winter; and in the tropics millipedes lie dormant
+during seasons of drought.
+
+What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in the winter of
+the northern hemisphere is also true in a general way of that of the
+southern hemisphere at the same season of the year. This is proved--to
+mention no other cases--by the observations of Darwin on the hibernation
+of insects and spiders at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America,
+and by Distant's account of the paucity of insect life in the winter in
+South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating semi-torpid
+Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in the Transvaal, and of
+the gradual increase in the numbers of individuals and species of
+insects in that country as the spring advanced and the dry season came
+to an end.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Bell, _A History of British Reptiles (and
+  Amphibians)_ (1849); W. T. Blanford, _Fauna of British India:
+  Mammalia_ (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, _Monograph of the Tailless
+  Batrachians of Europe_, edited by the Ray Society; "Teleostei" in
+  _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 541-727 (1904); T. W. Bridge,
+  "Dipneustei" in _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 505-520 (1904); A.
+  H. Cooke, "Molluscs" in _Cambridge Natural History_, iii. 25-27
+  (1895); T. A. Coward, _P.Z.S._ pp. 849-855 (1906), and pp. 312-324
+  (1907); C. Darwin, _A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World_, pp.
+  97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant, _A Naturalist in the Transvaal_, ch.
+  iii. (1892); Marshall Hall, "Hibernation," in _Todd's Cyclopaedia of
+  Anatomy and Physiology_, pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); _Phil.
+  Trans. Roy. Soc._ (1832); John Hunter, _Observations on parts of the
+  Animal Economy_ (1837); _Index Catalogue of the Library of the
+  Surgeon-General's Office of the U.S. Army_, vii. (1902), Bibliography
+  relating to physiology of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, _An
+  Introduction to Entomology_, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois,
+  _A Text-book of Human Physiology_, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410
+  (1904); V. Laporte, "Suspension of Vitality in Animals," _Pop. Sci.
+  Monthly_, xxxvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, "Essai sur la
+  lethargie periodique," _Annales du Museum_, x. 453-456 (1807); C. Hart
+  Merriam, _North American Pocket Mice_ (Washington, 1889); W. Miller,
+  "Hibernation and Allied States in Animals," _Trans. Pan-Amer. Med.
+  Congr._ (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285 (Washington, 1895); M. S.
+  Pembrey and A. G. Pitts, "The Relation between the Internal
+  Temperature and the Respiratory Movements of Hibernating Animals,"
+  _Journ. Physiol._ (London, 1899), pp. 305-316; Prunelle, "Recherches
+  sur les phenomenes et sur les causes du sommeil hivernal," _Annales du
+  Museum_, xviii.; J. A. Saissy, _Recherches sur les animaux hivernans_
+  (1808); L. Spallanzani, _Memoires sur la respiration_ (1803); J.
+  Emerson Tennent, _Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon_, pp.
+  351-358 (1861); Volkov, "Le Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes,"
+  _Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol._ (Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in _Brit.
+  Med. Journ._ (1900), i. 1554.     (R. I. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HIBERNIA, in ancient geography, one of the names by which Ireland was
+known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names were Ierne, Iuverna,
+Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem from which also Erin is
+descended. The island was well known to the Romans through the reports
+of traders, so far at least as its coasts. But it never became part of
+the Roman empire. Agricola (about A.D. 80) planned its conquest, which
+he judged an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise.
+During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to have been
+an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may have settled
+occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration is that of the Scots
+into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman days that Roman civilization,
+brought perhaps by Christian missionaries like Patrick, entered the
+island.
+
+
+
+
+HICKERINGILL (or HICKHORNGILL), EDMUND (1631-1708), English divine,
+lived an eventful life in the days of the Commonwealth and the
+Restoration. After graduating at Caius College, Cambridge, where he was
+junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined Lilburne's regiment as chaplain,
+and afterwards served in the ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish
+service, ultimately becoming a captain in Fleetwood's regiment. He then
+lived for a time in Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661.
+In the same year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln,
+having already passed through such shades of belief as are connoted by
+the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662 until his death in 1708
+he was vicar of All Saints', Colchester. He was a vigorous pamphleteer,
+and came into collision with Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he
+had to pay heavy damages for slander in 1682. He made a public
+recantation in 1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and
+ended his career by being convicted for forgery in 1707.
+
+
+
+
+HICKES, GEORGE (1642-1715), English divine and scholar, was born at
+Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 20th of June 1642. In 1659 he
+entered St John's College, Oxford, whence after the Restoration he
+removed to Magdalen College and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was
+elected fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded
+M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was appointed
+rector of St Ebbe's, Oxford. In 1676, as private chaplain, he
+accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal commissioner, to Scotland,
+and shortly afterwards received the degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In
+1680 he became vicar of All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having
+been made chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the
+deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II.'s declaration of
+indulgence and Monmouth's rising, and he tried in vain to save from
+death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685), one of the
+Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the revolution of 1688,
+having declined to take the oath of allegiance, Hickes was first
+suspended and afterwards deprived of his deanery. When he heard of the
+appointment of a successor he affixed to the cathedral doors a
+"protestation and claim of right." After remaining some time in
+concealment in London, he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors
+to James II. in France on matters connected with the continuance of
+their episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself
+consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were largely
+occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he persuaded two
+Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald Campbell, to assist him
+in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as
+bishops among the nonjurors. He died on the 15th of December 1715.
+
+  The chief writings of Hickes are the _Institutiones Grammaticae
+  Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae_ (1689), and _Linguarum veterum
+  Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus_
+  (1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry.
+
+  Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious
+  author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested by
+  contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great satisfaction--the
+  execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having attempted to murder
+  Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and John King, Presbyterian
+  ministers, "for high treason and rebellion" (_Ravillac Redivivus_,
+  1678; _The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the Mouths of Phanatical
+  Protestant_s, 1680). In his _Jovian_ (an answer to S. Johnson's
+  _Julian the Apostate_, 1683), he endeavoured to show that the Roman
+  empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians under Julian had
+  recognized the duty of passive obedience. His two treatises, one _Of
+  the Christian Priesthood_ and the other _Of the Dignity of the
+  Episcopal Order_, originally published in 1707, have been more than
+  once reprinted, and form three volumes of the _Library of
+  Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were published
+  _Collections of Controversial Letters_, in 1711 a collection of
+  _Sermons_, and in 1726 a volume of _Posthumous Discourses_. Other
+  treatises, such as the _Apologetical Vindication of the Church of
+  England_, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson's _Preservative against
+  Popery_. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which sketches
+  his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant in
+  various collections. A posthumous publication of his _The Constitution
+  of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of Schism_
+  (1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.
+
+  See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the _Dictionary of
+  National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, _The
+  Nonjurors_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1798-1888), American philosopher and divine,
+was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1798. He took
+his degree at Union College in 1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in
+active pastoral work, and was then appointed professor of theology at
+the Western Reserve College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn
+(N.Y.) Theological Seminary. From this post he was elected
+vice-president of Union College and professor of mental and moral
+science. In 1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868
+retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to writing
+and study. A collected edition of his principal works was published at
+Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th of May 1888. He wrote
+_Rational Psychology_ (1848), _System of Moral Science_ (1853),
+_Empirical Psychology_ (1854), _Rational Cosmology_ (1858), _Creator and
+Creation, or the Knowledge in the Reason of God and His Work_ (1872),
+_Humanity Immortal_ (1872), _Logic of Reason_ (1874).
+
+
+
+
+HICKORY, a shortened form of the American Indian name _pohickery_.
+Hickory trees are natives of North America, and belong to the genus
+_Carya_. They are closely allied to the walnuts (_Juglans_), the chief
+or at least one very obvious difference being that, whilst in _Carya_
+the husk which covers the shell of the nut separates into four valves,
+in _Juglans_ it consists of but one piece, which bursts irregularly. The
+timber is both strong and heavy, and remarkable for its extreme
+elasticity, but it decays rapidly when exposed to heat and moisture, and
+is peculiarly subject to the attacks of worms. It is very extensively
+employed in manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth,
+the bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels,
+chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes requiring
+great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in America is for
+hoop-making; and it is the only American wood found perfectly fit for
+that purpose.
+
+The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of the
+brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it gives out,
+the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived. The species which
+furnish the best wood are _Carya alba_ (shell-bark hickory), _C.
+tomentosa_ (mockernut), _C. olivaeformis_ (pecan or pacane nut), and _C.
+porcina_ (pig-nut), that of the last named, on account of its extreme
+tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees and axle-handles. The wood of
+_C. alba_ splits very easily and is very elastic, so that it is much
+used for making whip-handles and baskets. The wood of this species is
+also used in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia for making
+the back bows of Windsor chairs. The timber of _C. amara_ and _C.
+aquatica_ is considered of inferior quality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Shell-bark Hickory (_Carya alba_) in flower.]
+
+Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to 90 ft.
+in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced ample heads,
+and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When confined in the forest they
+shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches, but when standing alone they
+expand into a fine head, and produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of
+foliage. They have all the qualities necessary to constitute fine
+graceful park trees. The most ornamental of the species are _C.
+olivaeformis_, _C. alba_ and _C. porcina_, the last two also producing
+delicious nuts, and being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Fruit of _Carya alba_; 2, Hickory Nut; 3,
+Cross Section of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed.]
+
+The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into four
+equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the upper part,
+while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface, but has four or
+more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The hickory nuts of the
+American markets are the produce of _C. alba_, called the shell-bark
+hickory because of the roughness of its bark, which becomes loosened
+from the trunk in long scales bending outwards at the extremities and
+adhering only by the middle. The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of
+the States, and are exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The
+pecan-nuts, which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to
+1(1/2) in. long, smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and
+thin-shelled, with the kernels full, not like those of most of the
+hickories divided by partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour.
+The thick-shelled fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground
+for swine, squirrels, &c., to devour. In _C. amara_ the kernel is so
+bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it.
+
+
+
+
+HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in Hempstead
+township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748. His parents were
+Friends, but he took little interest in religion until he was about
+twenty; soon after that time he gave up the carpenter's trade, to which
+he had been apprenticed when seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he
+had "openings leading to the ministry" and was "deeply engaged for the
+right administration of discipline and order in the church," and in 1779
+he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours between Vermont and
+Maryland. He attacked slavery, even when preaching in Maryland; wrote
+_Observations on the Slavery of the Africans and their Descendants_
+(1811); and was influential in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the
+act declaring free after 1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed
+by the Act of 1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of
+February 1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he
+was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition
+at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed which
+would make the Society in America approach the position of the English
+Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His _Doctrinal Epistle_ (1824)
+stated his position, and a break ensued in 1827-1828, Hicks's followers,
+who call themselves the "Liberal Branch," being called "Hicksites" by
+the "Orthodox" party, which they for a time outnumbered. The village of
+Hicksville, in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the
+centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named in honour of
+Elias Hicks.
+
+  See _A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks_
+  (Philadelphia, 1825); _The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias
+  Hicks_ (Philadelphia, 1828), and his _Letters_ (Philadelphia, 1834).
+
+
+
+
+HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899), British physician and geologist, was born on
+the 26th of May 1837 at St David's, in Pembrokeshire, where his father,
+Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He studied medicine at Guy's Hospital,
+London, qualifying as M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he
+commenced a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to
+Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases, took the
+degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued his medical work
+until the close of his life. In Wales he had been attracted to geology
+by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist to the Geological Survey), and his
+leisure time was given to the study of the older rocks and fossils of
+South Wales. In conjunction with Salter, he established in 1865 the
+Menevian group (Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite
+_Paradoxides_. Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important
+papers on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and
+described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the
+Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David's, describing the Dimetian (granitoid
+rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his views, though
+contested, have been generally accepted. At Hendon Dr Hicks gave much
+attention to the local geology and also to the Pleistocene deposits of
+the Denbighshire caves. For a few years before his death he had laboured
+at the Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected organic
+remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as unfossiliferous, and
+these he regarded as including representatives of Lower Devonian and
+Silurian. His papers were mostly published in the _Geol. Mag._ and
+_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ He was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president
+of the Geological Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the
+18th of November 1899.
+
+
+
+
+HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the Bombay army in
+1849, and served through the Indian mutiny, being mentioned in
+despatches for good conduct at the action of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In
+1861 he became captain, and in the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was
+a brigade major, being again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet
+majority. He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After
+the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive's service
+and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum as chief of the
+staff of the army there, then commanded by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was
+formed at Omdurman and a new force of some 8000 fighting men
+collected--mostly recruited from the fellahin of Arabi's disbanded
+troops, sent in chains from Egypt. After a month's vigorous drilling
+Hicks led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar,
+whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns of Sennar
+and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an immediate attack by
+the mahdists the Egyptian officials at Khartum intrigued against Hicks,
+who in July tendered his resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of
+Suliman Niazi and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an
+expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi, who in
+January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that province. Hicks,
+aware of the worthlessness of his force for the purpose contemplated,
+stated his opinion that it would be best to "wait for Kordofan to settle
+itself" (telegram of the 5th of August). The Egyptian ministry, however,
+did not then believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition
+started from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of 7000
+infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and included thirteen
+Europeans. On the 20th the force left the Nile at Duem and struck inland
+across the almost waterless wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of
+November the army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was
+ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid. With the
+exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed. According to the
+story of Hicks's cook, one of the survivors, the general was the last
+officer to fall, pierced by the spear of the khalifa Mahommed Sherif.
+After emptying his revolver, the pasha kept his assailants at bay for
+some time with his sword, a body of Baggara who fled before him being
+known afterwards as "Baggar Hicks" (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on
+the words _baggara_ and _baggar_, the former being the herdsmen and the
+latter the cows. Hicks's head was cut off and taken to the mahdi.
+
+  See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_, book iv., by Sir F. R. Wingate
+  (London, 1891), and _With Hicks Pasha in the Soudan_, by J. Colborne
+  (London, 1884), Also EGYPT: _Military Operations_.
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San Luis Potosi and
+Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala and Mexico
+(state), and W. by Queretaro. Pop. (1895) 551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area,
+8917 sq. m. The northern and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous,
+culminating in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of
+this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren,
+being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where the _maguey_
+(American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The southern and western
+parts of the state consist of rolling plains, in the midst of which is
+the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo produces cereals in the more
+elevated districts, sugar, maguey, coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco.
+Maguey is cultivated for the production of _pulque_, the national drink.
+The chief industry, however, is mining, the mineral districts of
+Pachuca, El Chico, Real del Monte, San Jose del Oro, and Zimapan being
+among the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver, gold,
+mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese and plumbago.
+Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway facilities are afforded
+by a branch of the Vera Cruz and Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco
+to Pachuca, the capital of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among
+the principal towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24
+m. E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpan (about 9000) with silver mines 80 m. N. by
+W. of the Federal Capital, and Actopan (2666), the chief town of the
+district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited principally by Indians of the
+Othomies nation.
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from _hijo d'algo_ or _hijo de
+algo_, son of something, or somewhat), originally a Spanish title of the
+lower nobility; the hidalgo being the lowest grade of nobility which was
+entitled to use the prefix "don." The term is now used generally to
+denote one of gentle birth. The Portuguese _fidalgo_ has a similar
+history and meaning.
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL (1753-1811), Mexican patriot, was born on the
+8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos, near Guanajuato. His mother's
+maiden name was Gallaga, but contrary to the usual custom of the
+Spaniards he used only the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y
+Costilla. He was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained
+priest in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life who
+exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry, including the
+cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at Dolores. But Napoleon's
+invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a widespread commotion. The colonists
+were indisposed to accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in
+proclaiming Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for their
+professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however, by the Spanish
+authorities with suspicion as being designed to prepare the independence
+of Mexico. Hidalgo and several of his friends, among whom was Miguel
+Dominguez, mayor of Queretaro, engaged in consultation and preparations
+which the authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested,
+but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred of his
+parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized the prison
+at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a revolt against the
+Spanish and Creole elements of the population. With what is known as the
+"_grito_" or cry of Dolores as their rallying shout, a multitude
+gathered round Hidalgo, who took for his banner a wonder-working picture
+of the Virgin belonging to a popular shrine. At first he met with some
+success. A regiment of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some
+small posts were stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of
+Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated. Hidalgo
+lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted, and on the
+march to Queretaro he was attacked at Aculco by General Felix Calleja on
+the 7th of November 1810, and routed. He endeavoured to continue the
+struggle, and did succeed in collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about
+Guadalajara. With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a
+position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On the 17th of
+January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja and a small force of
+soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other leaders, and soon afterwards
+all of them were betrayed to the Spaniards. They were tried at
+Chihuahua, and condemned. Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood
+and then shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August 1811.
+
+  See H. H. Bancroft, _The Pacific States_, vol. vii., which contains a
+  copious bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+HIDDENITE, a green transparent variety of spodumene, (q.v.) used as a
+gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b. 1853) about 1879
+at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina, and was at first taken
+for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence Smith proved it to be spodumene, and
+named it. Hiddenite occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of
+prismatic habit, often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic
+cleavage renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes
+from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly
+distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a marked
+degree, and shows much "fire" when properly cut. The composition of the
+mineral is represented by the formula LiAl(SiO3)2, the green colour
+being probably due to the presence of a small proportion of chromium.
+The presence of lithia in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate
+name of lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite was
+originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards
+worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association with beryl,
+quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c.
+
+
+
+
+HIDE[1] (Lat. _hida_, A.-S. _higid_, _hid_ or _hiwisc_, members of a
+household), a measure of land. The word was in general use in England in
+Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although its meaning seems to have
+varied somewhat from time to time. Among its Latin equivalents are
+_terra unius familiae_, _terra unius cassati_ and _mansio_; the first of
+these forms is used by Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no
+definite area. In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of
+the typical family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded
+as containing 120 "acres" (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each, but 120
+times the amount of land which a ploughteam of eight oxen could plough
+in a single day). This definition appears to have been very general in
+England before the Norman Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and
+80 acres are repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some
+historians, however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres
+or thereabouts.
+
+  "The question about the hide," says Professor Maitland in _Domesday
+  Book and Beyond_, "is 'pre-judicial' to all the great questions of
+  early English history." The main argument employed by J. M. Kemble
+  (_The Saxons in England_) in favour of the "small" hide is that the
+  number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts of England
+  gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these parts,
+  making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an allowance
+  necessary because the hide was only that part of the land which came
+  under the plough, and each hide must have carried with it a certain
+  amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support of Kemble's theory
+  must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight contained 1200 hides. Now
+  1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a total acreage of 144,000 acres,
+  while the total acreage of the island to-day is only 93,000 acres.
+  Again a document called _The Tribal Hidage_ puts the number of hides
+  in the whole of England at nearly a quarter of a million. This gives
+  in acres a figure about equal to the total acreage of England at the
+  present time, but it leaves no room for pasture and for the great
+  proportion of land which was still woodland. On these grounds Kemble
+  regarded the hide as containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40
+  acres, and thought that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., i.e.
+  that it was roughly equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought
+  forward is that 30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the
+  average family, in other words that it was the _terra unius familiae_
+  of Bede. Another Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at
+  48 acres.
+
+  But formidable arguments have been advanced against the "small" hide.
+  There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday the hide was equated
+  with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking the word _familia_ in its
+  proper sense, a household with many dependent members, and making an
+  allowance for primitive methods of agriculture, it is questionable
+  whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient for its support; and again if
+  the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected there is no serious
+  evidence in favour of any other. A possible explanation is that,
+  although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide consisted of 30 acres or
+  thereabouts, it had come before the time of Domesday to contain 120
+  acres. But no trace of such change can be found; there is no break in
+  the continuity of the land-charters which refer to hides and manses.
+  Reviewing the whole question Professor Maitland accepts the view that
+  the hide contained 120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they
+  are not insuperable. Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for
+  the most part of lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a
+  vague and general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean
+  120 times 4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of
+  Domesday the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for
+  purposes of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick (_Studies
+  on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_) says there is no evidence that the hide
+  contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests that possibly
+  the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at 40 acres, while
+  in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres. Dr Stubbs (_Const.
+  Hist._ i.) suggests that the confusion may have arisen because the
+  word was used "to express the whole share of one man in all the fields
+  of the village." Thus it might refer to 30 acres, his share in one
+  field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four fields. He adds,
+  however, that this explanation is not adequate for all cases. But
+  these differences about the size of the hide are not peculiar to
+  modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, _Hida Anglice vocatur terra
+  unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum_, while the _Dialogus de
+  scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be the long
+  hundred, or_ 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when he says,
+  "hides were of an incertain quantity." Certainly he gives a very good
+  description of the early hide when he says (_Titles of Honour_): "Now
+  a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as much land as might
+  be well manured with one plough, together with pasture, meadow and
+  wood competent for the maintenance of that plough, and the servants of
+  the family." The view that the size of the hide varied from district
+  to district is borne out by Professor Vinogradoff's more recent
+  researches. In his _English Society in the Eleventh Century_ he
+  mentions that there was a hide of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40
+  acres in Dorset. In addition some authorities distinguish between
+  English hides and Welsh hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained
+  8 virgates. Sometimes again in the 11th century hides were not merely
+  fiscal units; they were shares in the land itself.
+
+The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been established by
+Mr J. H. Round in his _Feudal England_, and is regarded as throwing a
+most valuable light upon the many problems which present themselves to
+the student of Domesday. The process which converted the hide from a
+unit of measurement to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as
+follows. Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such
+pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide was a
+useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates doubtless from
+the time of the Danegeld. For some time the two meanings were used side
+by side, but before the Norman Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation,
+had quite supplanted the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state
+of affairs when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made.
+The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county, but a single
+illustration may be given. _Huntedun Burg defendebat se ad geldum regis
+pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred pro L. hidis_. This does not
+mean that the town of Huntingdon contained a certain fixed number of
+square yards multiplied by 50, but that for purposes of taxation
+Huntingdon was regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.
+
+  This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton in _A
+  Key to Domesday_ and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof rests
+  primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By collating
+  various documents which formed part of the Domesday inquest Mr Round
+  has brought together for certain parts of England, especially for
+  Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the various lords in
+  the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total of 5 hides or
+  10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A similar result is
+  shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are almost universal, and
+  the total hidage for the county of Worcester is very near the round
+  figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously artificial; it must have
+  been imposed upon the counties or the hundreds by the central
+  authority and then divided among the vills. Another proof is found in
+  what is called "beneficial hidation." It is shown that in certain
+  cases the number of hides in a hundred has been reduced since the time
+  of Edward the Confessor, and that this reduction had been transferred
+  _pro rata_ to the vills in the hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that
+  the hide was fixed "independently of area or value." Some slight
+  criticism has been directed against the idea of "artificial hidation,"
+  but the most that can be said against it is that its proof rests upon
+  isolated cases, a reproach which further research will doubtless
+  remove. However, Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a
+  fiscal unit "which corresponds only in a very rough way to the
+  agrarian reality," and Maitland says the fiscal hide is "at its best a
+  lame compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value."
+
+What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures have been
+hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than the Danegeld. Rejecting
+the idea that it is of Roman or of British origin, and pointing to the
+serious difference in the rates at which the various counties were
+assessed, Mr Round thinks that it dates from the time when the various
+Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of
+assessment for military service, possibly it was the recognized
+endowment of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man's standing in
+society was dependent to a great extent upon the number of hides which
+he possessed; this statement is fully proved from the laws. Moreover, in
+the laws of the Wessex king, Ine, the value of a man's oath is expressed
+in hides, the oath for a king's thegn being probably worth 60 hides and
+that of a ceorl 5 hides.
+
+The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate being, after
+the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the villein with two oxen.
+Mr Round holds that in Domesday at all events the hide always consisted
+of four virgates; Mr F. Seebohm in _The English Village Community_,
+although thinking that the normal hide "consisted as a rule of four
+virgates of 30 acres each," says that the Hundred Rolls for
+Huntingdonshire show that "the hide did not always contain the same
+number of virgates." The virgate, it may be noted, consisted of a strip
+of land in _each_ acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly a strong
+case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates.
+
+Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions are rooted
+in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between the methods of
+taxation of land in Rome and in England; he sees some connexion between
+the Roman _centuria_ and the hide, and between the Roman system of
+taxation called _jugatio_ and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff
+(_Villainage in England_) summarizes the views of those who hold a
+contrary opinion thus: "The curious fact that the normal holding, the
+hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by its origin; it
+came full-formed from Germany and remained unchanged in spite of all
+diversities of geographical and economical conditions."
+
+  In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the "Five
+  Boroughs," the carucate takes the place of the hide as the unit of
+  value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of
+  assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide is
+  quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According to Mr
+  Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates; Mr W. H.
+  Stevenson (_English Historical Review_, vol. v.) argues that it
+  contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. Mr Seebohm
+  thinks there was a _solanda_ or double hide of 240 acres in Essex and
+  other southern counties, but Mr Round does not think that this word
+  refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all. For Kent, however,
+  the word _sullung_ or solin, is used in _Domesday Book_ and in the
+  charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere, and Vinogradoff
+  thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.
+
+Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two or more
+shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized method of
+raising money, royal and some other estates, however, as is seen from
+Domesday, not being hidated and not paying the tax. This geld, or tax,
+received several names, one of the most general being _hidage_ (Lat.
+_hidagium_). "Hidage," says Vinogradoff, "is historically connected with
+the old English Danegeld system," and as Danegeld and then hidage it was
+levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was during the
+11th century "the most sweeping and the heaviest of all the taxes."
+Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was 2s. on each hide of land,
+and this was evidently the rate at the time of the famous dispute
+between Henry II. and Becket at Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always
+kept at this figure, as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on
+each hide, an unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the
+hide. Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide for
+the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor Henry V., and in
+1194, when money was collected for the ransom of Richard I., some of the
+taxation for this purpose seems to have been assessed according to the
+hidage given in Domesday Book.
+
+By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax was
+disappearing, its place being taken by the word _carucage_. The carucate
+(Lat. _caruca_, a plough) was a measure of land which prevailed in the
+north of England, the district inhabited by people of Danish descent.
+Some authorities regard it as equivalent to the hide, others deny this
+identity. In 1198, however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each
+_carucata terrae sive hyda_, the two words were obviously
+interchangeable, and about the same time the size of the carucate was
+fixed at 100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time
+longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes on land.
+
+  One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain
+  unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and a
+  hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres to
+  make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage, a simple
+  process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound, makes
+  calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from the German
+  _hufe_ or _huba_?     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The homonym "hide," meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng. _hydan_;
+    the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages. The root
+    is probably seen in Gr. [Greek: keuthein] to hide, or may be the same
+    as in "hide," skin, O. Eng. _hyd_, which is also seen in Ger. _Haut_,
+    Dutch _huid_; the root appears in Lat. _cutis_, Gr. [Greek: kytos].
+    The Indo-European root _ku_-, weakened form of _sku_-, seen in "sky,"
+    and meaning "to cover," may be the ultimate source of both words. The
+    slang use of "to hide," to flog or whip, means "to take the skin off,
+    to flay."
+
+
+
+
+HIEL, EMMANUEL (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and prose writer, was
+born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May 1834. He acted in various
+functions, from teacher and government official to journalist and
+bookseller, busily writing all the time both for the theatre and the
+magazines of North and South Netherlands. His last posts were those of
+librarian at the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the
+Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic works may be
+cited _Looverkens_ ("Leaflets," 1857); _Nieuwe Liedekens_ ("New
+Poesies," 1861); _Gedichten_ ("Poems," 1863); _Psalmen, Zangen, en
+Oratorios_ ("Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios," 1869); _De Wind_ (1869), an
+inspiriting cantata, which had a large measure of success and was
+crowned; _De Liefde in 't Leven_ ("Love in Life," 1870); _Elle_ and
+_Isa_ (two musical dramas, 1874); _Liederen voor Groote en Kleine
+Kinderen_ ("Songs for Big and Small Folk," 1879); _Jakoba van Beieren_
+("Jacqueline of Bavaria," a poetic drama, 1880); _Mathilda van
+Denemarken_ (a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were
+published in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an active
+and prominent part in the so-called "Flemish movement" in Belgium, and
+his name is constantly associated with those of Jan van Beers, the
+Willems and Peter Benoit. The last wrote some of his compositions to
+Hiel's verses, notably to his oratorios _Lucifer_ (performed in London
+at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere) and _De Schelde_ ("The
+Scheldt"); whilst the Dutch composer, Richard Hol (of Utrecht), composed
+the music to Hiel's "Ode to Liberty," and van Gheluwe to the poet's
+"Songs for Big and Small Folk" (second edition, much enlarged, 1879),
+which has greatly contributed to their popularity in schools and among
+Belgian choral societies. Hiel also translated several foreign lyrics.
+His rendering of Tennyson's _Dora_ appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the
+national festival of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth
+anniversary of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas,
+_Belgenland_ ("The Land of the Belgians") and _Eer Belgenland_ ("Honour
+to Belgium"), which, set to music, were much appreciated. He died at
+Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August 1899. Hiel's efforts to
+counteract Walloon influences and bring about a _rapprochement_ between
+the Netherlanders in the north and the Teutonic racial sympathizers
+across the Rhine made him very popular with both, and a volume of his
+best poems was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors
+published at Leipzig.
+
+
+
+
+HIEMPSAL, the name of the two kings of Numidia. For Hiempsal I. see
+under JUGURTHA. Hiempsal II. was the son of Gauda, the half-brother of
+Jugurtha. In 88 B.C., after the triumph of Sulla, when the younger
+Marius fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent
+friendliness, his real intention being to detain him as a prisoner.
+Marius discovered this intention in time and made good his escape with
+the assistance of the king's daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was driven from
+his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by Hiarbas, ruler of part of
+the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the leader of the
+Marian party in Africa. Soon afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by
+Sulla to reinstate Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased
+by the addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty
+concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius Rullus
+introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had been originally
+assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Africanus, were expressly
+exempted from sale, which roused the indignation of Cicero (_De lege
+agraria_, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (_Caesar_, 71) it is evident
+that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 17), he
+was the author of an historical work in the Punic language.
+
+  Plutarch, _Marius_, 40, _Pompey_, 12; Appian, _Bell. civ._, i. 62. 80;
+  Dio Cassius xli. 41.
+
+
+
+
+HIERAPOLIS. 1. (Arabic _Manbij_ or _Mumbij_) an ancient Syrian town
+occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria, in a fertile
+district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the Sajur and Euphrates.
+There is abundant water supply from large springs. In 1879, after the
+Russo-Turkish war, a colony of Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was
+planted in the ruins, and the result has been the constant discovery of
+antiquities, which find their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab.
+The place first appears in Greek as _Bambyce_, but Pliny (v. 23) tells
+us its Syrian name was _Mabog_. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian
+sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who made it
+the chief station on their main road between Antioch and
+Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian Nature
+Goddess, Atargatis (q.v.), it became known to the Greeks as the city of
+the sanctuary [Greek: Hieropolis], and finally as the Holy City [Greek:
+Hierapolis]. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous writer)
+has immortalized this worship in the tract _De Dea Syria_, wherein are
+described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the tank of sacred
+fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. According to the _De Dea
+Syria_, the worship was of a phallic character, votaries offering little
+male figures of wood and bronze. There were also huge _phalli_ set up
+like obelisks before the temple, which were climbed once a year with
+certain ceremonies, and decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic
+character with golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration.
+Inside was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter.
+Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first seems to
+have been the more richly decorated with gems and other ornaments.
+Between them stood a gilt _xoanon_, which seems to have been carried
+outside in sacred processions. Other rich furniture is described, and a
+mode of divination by movements of a _xoanon_ of Apollo. A great bronze
+altar stood in front, set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived
+numerous sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice.
+Some three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous
+minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities and it
+was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an altar standing in
+the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and other orgies went on in the
+temple precinct, and there was an elaborate ritual on entering the city
+and first visiting the shrine under the conduct of local guides, which
+reminds one of the Meccan Pilgrimage.
+
+The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the Parthians (53
+B.C.); but in the 3rd century of the empire the city was the capital of
+the Euphratensian province and one of the great cities of Syria.
+Procopius called it the greatest in that part of the world. It was,
+however, ruinous when Julian collected his troops there ere marching to
+his defeat and death in Mesopotamia, and Chosroes I. held it to ransom
+after Justinian had failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun
+restored it at the end of the 8th century and it became a bone of
+contention between Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured
+it from the Seljuks in the 12th century, but Saladin retook it (1175),
+and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols, who
+completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost wholly of late
+date, as is to be expected in the case of a city which survived into
+Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no ruins of the great temple
+survive. The most noteworthy relic of antiquity is the sacred lake, on
+two sides of which can still be seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The
+first modern account of the site is in a short narrative appended by H.
+Maundrell to his _Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem_. He was at Mumbij in
+1699.
+
+The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century B.C. with an Aramaic
+series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural crown or as
+riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief type even during
+imperial times, being generally shown seated with the _tympanum_ in her
+hand. Other coins substitute the legend [Greek: Theas Surias
+Hieropoliton], within a wreath. It is interesting to note that from
+_Bambyce_ (near which much silk was produced) were derived the
+_bombycina vestis_ of the Romans and, through the crusaders, the
+bombazine of modern commerce.
+
+  See F. R. Chesney, _Euphrates Expedition_ (1850); W. F. Ainsworth,
+  _Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888); E. Sachau,
+  _Reise in Syrien_, &c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in _Journal of Hellenic
+  Studies_ (1909).
+
+2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the Churuk Su
+(Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the Menderes (Maeander),
+situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above the valley and 6 m. N. of
+Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous springs, that have deposited
+vast incrustations of snowy whiteness. To these springs, which are warm
+and slightly sulphureous, and to the "Plutonium"--a hole reaching deep
+into the earth, from which issued a mephitic vapour--the place owed its
+celebrity and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious
+establishment (_hieron_) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian
+Kydrara, a settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew
+round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native life but
+of non-political importance. The chief religious festival was the
+Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of the Mother
+Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic rites in which
+elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate and Nature-cult
+survived: there was also a worship of Apollo Lairbenos. Hierapolis was
+the seat of an early church (Col. iv. 13), with which tradition closely
+connects the apostle Philip. Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a
+disciple of St John and author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus,
+were born there. Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a
+station on the Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks
+has gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is
+apparently _Pambuk Kale_ (though doubt has been thrown on the
+statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-like
+appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted, however, that
+this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by the Syrians to
+the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), _Bambyce_, the origin of which it
+has been suggested was a native name of the goddess Pambe or Mambe
+(whence Mabog). Considering that cotton is a comparatively modern
+phenomenon in Anatolia, it is worth suggesting that _Pambuk_ in this
+case may be a survival of a primitive name, derived from the same
+goddess, Pambe. The goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case
+closely akin. If an old native name has reappeared here after the
+decline of Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish,
+it affords another instance of a very common feature of west Asian
+nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the ruins of
+Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily accessible
+spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the long avenue of
+tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by which the city is
+approached from the W., and for a very perfect theatre partly excavated
+in the hill at the N. side of the site. Stage buildings as well as
+auditorium are well preserved. On the S., just above the white terraces
+and largely blocked with petrified deposit, stand large baths, into
+which the natural warm spring was once conducted. Behind these is a fine
+triumphal arch, whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches
+survive, and also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which
+may represent the "Plutonium," but it has no such deadly power as was
+ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the "Plutonium" was
+obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over 300 inscriptions have
+been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence Ramsay has deduced interesting
+facts about the very early Christian community which existed here. The
+site has been often visited and described, and was systematically
+examined in 1887 by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann
+respectively.
+
+  See K. Humann, _Altertumer v. Hierapolis_ (1888); Sir W. M. Ramsay,
+  _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i. (1895).
+       (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HIERARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hieros], holy, and [Greek: archein], to rule),
+the office of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a "ruler of
+priests" or "priestly ruler" (see Boeckh, _Corp. inscr. Gr._ No. 1570),
+a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote the aggregate
+of those persons who exercise authority within the Christian Church, the
+patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-fold order of the clergy. The
+word [Greek: hierarchia], which does not occur in any classical Greek
+writer, owes its present extensive currency to the celebrated writings
+of Dionysius Areopagiticus. Of these the most important are the two
+which treat of the celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy
+respectively. Defining hierarchy as the "function which comprises all
+sacred things," or, more fully, as "a sacred order and science and
+activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and elevated to
+the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine illuminations
+conceded to it," the author proceeds to enumerate the nine orders of the
+heavenly host, which are subdivided again into hierarchies or triads, in
+descending order, thus: Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations,
+Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for
+the common object of raising men through ascending stages of
+purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical or
+earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the first or
+highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and chrism. The second
+triad consists of the three orders of the ministry, bishop or hierarch,
+priest and minister or deacon ([Greek: hierarches, hiereus,
+leitourgos]); this is the earliest known instance in which the title
+hierarch is applied to a bishop. The third or lowest triad is made up of
+monks, "initiated" and catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through
+Thomas Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period, the
+definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic writers--"coetus
+seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum ad regendam ecclesiam
+gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem divinitus institutus"[1]--although
+it immediately rests upon the authority of the sixth canon of the
+twenty-third session of the council of Trent, in which anathema is
+pronounced upon all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of
+a hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of bishops,
+priests and ministers.[2] (See ORDER, HOLY).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Perrone, _De locis theologicis_, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2.
+
+  [2] Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina
+    ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et
+    ministris: anathema sit.
+
+
+
+
+HIERATIC, priestly or sacred (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos, hieros], sacred),
+a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing,
+which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name was first
+given by Champollion (see EGYPT, S _Language_).
+
+
+
+
+HIERAX, or HIERACAS, a learned ascetic who flourished about the end of
+the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt, where he lived to the age of
+ninety, supporting himself by calligraphy and devoting his leisure to
+scientific and literary pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible.
+He was the author of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and
+is said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of the so-called
+sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from which married persons
+were excluded, and of which one of the leading tenets was that only the
+celibate could enter the kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the
+suppression of the sexual impulse was emphatically the new revelation
+brought by the Logos, and appealed to 1 Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and
+Matt. xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link between
+Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning and prodigious
+memory, he seems to have developed Origen's Christology in the direction
+of Athanasius. He held that the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of
+the Father, that Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the
+ideas of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the
+ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized
+infants, "for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict no
+reward." In his insistence on virginity as the specifically Christian
+virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the 4th and 5th
+centuries.
+
+
+
+
+HIERO (strictly HIERON), the name of two rulers of Syracuse.
+
+HIERO I. was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse from 478 to
+467/6 B.C. During his reign he greatly increased the power of Syracuse.
+He removed the inhabitants of Naxos and Catana to Leontini, peopled
+Catana (which he renamed Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with
+Acragas (Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against
+Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achievement was the
+defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which he saved the Greeks of
+Campania. A bronze helmet (now in the British Museum), with an
+inscription commemorating the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though
+despotic in his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died
+at Catana in 467.
+
+  See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, _Hiero_, 6. 2; E. Lubbert,
+  _Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron_ (1875); for his coins see
+  NUMISMATICS (section _Sicily_).
+
+
+
+
+HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 B.C., was the illegitimate
+son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelo. On
+the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275) the Syracusan army and
+citizens appointed him commander of the troops. He materially
+strengthened his position by marrying the daughter of Leptines, the
+leading citizen. In the meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian
+mercenaries who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the
+stronghold of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They were
+finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero, who was only
+prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian interference. His
+grateful countrymen then chose him king (270). In 264 he again returned
+to the attack, and the Mamertines called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at
+once joined the Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily;
+but being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew to
+Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was compelled to
+conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was to rule over the south-east
+of Sicily and the eastern coast as far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16;
+Zonaras viii. 9). From this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal
+to the Romans, and frequently assisted them with men and provisions
+during the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept up
+a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his famous kinsman
+Archimedes in the construction of those engines that, at a later date,
+played so important a part during the siege of Syracuse by the Romans.
+
+  A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in
+  the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic.
+  xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4.
+
+
+
+
+HIEROCLES, proconsul of Bithynia and Alexandria, lived during the reign
+of Diocletian (A.D. 284-305). He is said to have been the instigator of
+the fierce persecution of the Christians under Galerius in 303. He was
+the author of a work (not extant) entitled [Greek: logoi philaletheis
+pros tous Christianous] in two books, in which he endeavoured to
+persuade the Christians that their sacred books were full of
+contradictions, and that in moral influence and miraculous power Christ
+was inferior to Apollonius of Tyana. Our knowledge of this treatise is
+derived from Lactantius (_Instit. div._ v. 2) and Eusebius, who wrote a
+refutation entitled [Greek: Antirrhetikos pros ta Hierokleous].
+
+
+
+
+HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA, Neoplatonist writer, flourished c. A.D. 430. He
+studied under the celebrated Neoplatonist Plutarch at Athens, and taught
+for some years in his native city. He seems to have been banished from
+Alexandria and to have taken up his abode in Constantinople, where he
+gave such offence by his religious opinions that he was thrown into
+prison and cruelly flogged. The only complete work of his which has been
+preserved is the commentary on the _Carmina Aurea_ of Pythagoras. It
+enjoyed a great reputation in middle age and Renaissance times, and
+there are numerous translations in various European languages. Several
+other writings, especially one on providence and fate, a consolatory
+treatise dedicated to his patron Olympiodorus of Thebes, author of
+[Greek: historikoi logoi], are quoted or referred to by Photius and
+Stobaeus. The collection of some 260 witticisms ([Greek: asteia]) called
+[Greek: Philogelos] (ed. A. Eberhard, Berlin, 1869), attributed to
+Hierocles and Philagrius, has no connexion with Hierocles of Alexandria,
+but is probably a compilation of later date, founded on two older
+collections. It is now agreed that the fragments of the _Elements of
+Ethics_ ([Greek: Ethike stoicheiosis]) preserved in Stobaeus are from a
+work by a Stoic named Hierocles, contemporary of Epictetus, who has been
+identified with the "Hierocles Stoicus vir sanctus et gravis" in Aulus
+Gellius (ix. 5. 8). This theory is confirmed by the discovery of a
+papyrus (ed. H. von Arnim in _Berliner Klassikertexte_, iv. 1906; see
+also C. Prachter, _Hierokles der Stoiker_, 1901).
+
+
+  There is an edition of the commentary by F. W. Mullach in _Fragmenta
+  philosophorum Graecorum_ (1860), i. 408, including full information
+  concerning Hierocles, the poem and the commentary; see also E. Zeller,
+  _Philosophie der Griechen_ (2nd ed.), iii. 2, pp. 681-687; W. Christ,
+  _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898), pp. 834, 849.
+
+  Another Hierocles, who flourished during the reign of Justinian, was
+  the author of a list of provinces and towns in the Eastern Empire,
+  called [Greek: Synekdemos] ("fellow-traveller"; ed. A. Burckhardt,
+  1893); it was one of the chief authorities used by Constantine
+  Porphyrogenitus in his work on the "themes" of the Roman Empire (see
+  C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_, 1897, p.
+  417). In Fabricius's _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), i. 791,
+  sixteen persons named Hierocles, chiefly literary, are mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. [Greek: hieros], sacred, and [Greek: glyphe],
+carving), the term used by Greek and Latin writers to describe the
+sacred characters of the ancient Egyptian language in its classical
+phase. It is now also used for various systems of writing in which
+figures of objects take the place of conventional signs. Such characters
+which symbolize the idea of a thing without expressing the name of it
+are generally styled "ideographs" (Gr. [Greek: idea], idea, and [Greek:
+graphein], to write), e.g. the Chinese characters.
+
+  See EGYPT, _Language_; CUNEIFORM; INSCRIPTIONS and WRITING.
+
+
+
+
+HIERONYMITES, a common name for three or four congregations of hermits
+living according to the rule of St Augustine with supplementary
+regulations taken from St Jerome's writings. Their habit was white, with
+a black cloak. (1) The Spanish Hieronymites, established near Toledo in
+1374. The order soon became popular in Spain and Portugal, and in 1415
+it numbered 25 houses. It possessed some of the most famous monasteries
+in the Peninsula, including the royal monastery of Belem near Lisbon,
+and the magnificent monastery built by Philip II. at the Escurial.
+Though the manner of life was very austere the Hieronymites devoted
+themselves to studies and to the active work of the ministry, and they
+possessed great influence both at the Spanish and the Portuguese courts.
+They went to Spanish and Portuguese America and played a considerable
+part in Christianizing and civilizing the Indians. There were
+Hieronymite nuns founded in 1375, who became very numerous. The order
+decayed during the 18th century and was completely suppressed in 1835.
+(2) Hieronymites of the Observance, or of Lombardy: a reform of (1)
+effected by the third general in 1424; it embraced seven houses in Spain
+and seventeen in Italy, mostly in Lombardy. It is now extinct. (3) Poor
+Hermits of St Jerome, established near Pisa in 1377: it came to embrace
+nearly fifty houses whereof only one in Rome and one in Viterbo survive.
+(4) Hermits of St Jerome of the congregation of Fiesole, established in
+1406: they had forty houses but in 1668 they were united to (3).
+
+  See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1714), iii. cc. 57-60,
+  iv. cc. 1-3; Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S
+  70; and art. "Hieronymiten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed.
+  3), and in Welte and Wetzer, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA, Greek general and historian, contemporary of
+Alexander the Great. After the death of the king he followed the
+fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman Eumenes. He was wounded and
+taken prisoner by Antigonus, who pardoned him and appointed him
+superintendent of the asphalt beds in the Dead Sea. He was treated with
+equal friendliness by Antigonus's son Demetrius, who made him polemarch
+of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he died at the age
+of 104. He wrote a history of the Diadochi and their descendants,
+embracing the period from the death of Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus
+(323-272 B.C.), which is one of the chief authorities used by Diodorus
+Siculus (xviii.-xx.) and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus. He
+made use of official papers and was careful in his investigation of
+facts. The simplicity of his style rendered his work unpopular, but it
+is probable that it was on a high level as compared with that of his
+contemporaries. In the last part of his work he made a praiseworthy
+attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character and early history of
+the Romans. He is reproached by Pausanias (i. 9. 8) with unfairness
+towards all rulers with the exception of Antigonus Gonatas.
+
+  See Lucian, _Macrobii_, 22; Plutarch, _Demetrius_, 39; Diod. Sic.
+  xviii. 42. 44. 50, xix. 100; Dion. Halic. _Antiq. Rom._ i. 6; F.
+  Bruckner, "De vita et scriptis Hieronymi Cardii" in _Zeitschrift fur
+  die Alterthumswissenschaft_ (1842); F. Reuss, _Hieronymus von Kardia_
+  (Berlin, 1876); C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten
+  Geschichte_ (1895); fragments in C. W. Muller, _Frag. hist. Graec._
+  ii. 450-461.
+
+
+
+
+HIERRO, or FERRO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the
+Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 6508; area
+107 sq. m. Hierro, the most westerly and the smallest island of the
+group, is somewhat crescent-shaped. Its length is about 18 m., its
+greatest breadth about 15 m., and its circumference 50 m. It lies 92 m.
+W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its coast is bound by high, steep rocks, which only
+admit of one harbour, but the interior is tolerably level. Its hill-tops
+in winter are sometimes wrapped in snow. Better and more abundant grass
+grows here than on any of the other islands. Hierro is exposed to
+westerly gales which frequently inflict great damage. Fresh water is
+scarce, but there is a sulphurous spring, with a temperature of 102 deg.
+Fahr. The once celebrated and almost sacred Til tree, which was reputed
+to be always distilling water in great abundance from its leaves, no
+longer exists. Only a small part of the cultivable land is under
+tillage, the inhabitants being principally employed in pasturage.
+Valverde (pop. about 3000) is the principal town. Geographers were
+formerly in the habit of measuring all longitudes from Ferro, the most
+westerly land known to them. The longitude assigned at first has,
+however, turned out to be erroneous; and the so-called "Longitude of
+Ferro" does not coincide with the actual longitude of the island.
+
+
+
+
+HIGDON (or HIGDEN), RANULF (c. 1299-c. 1363), English chronicler, was a
+Benedictine monk of the monastery of St Werburg in Chester, in which he
+lived, it is said, for sixty-four years, and died "in a good old age,"
+probably in 1363. Higdon was the author of a long chronicle, one of
+several such works based on a plan taken from Scripture, and written for
+the amusement and instruction of his society. It closes the long series
+of general chronicles, which were soon superseded by the invention of
+printing. It is commonly styled the _Polychronicon_, from the longer
+title _Ranulphi Castrensis, cognomine Higdon, Polychronicon (sive
+Historia Polycratica) ab initio mundi usque ad mortem regis Edwardi III.
+in septem libros dispositum_. The work is divided into seven books, in
+humble imitation of the seven days of Genesis, and, with exception of
+the last book, is a summary of general history, a compilation made with
+considerable style and taste. It seems to have enjoyed no little
+popularity in the 15th century. It was the standard work on general
+history, and more than a hundred MSS. of it are known to exist. The
+Christ Church MS. says that Higdon wrote it down to the year 1342; the
+fine MS. at Christ's College, Cambridge, states that he wrote to the
+year 1344, after which date, with the omission of two years, John of
+Malvern, a monk of Worcester, carried the history on to 1357, at which
+date it ends. According, however, to its latest editor, Higdon's part of
+the work goes no further than 1326 or 1327 at latest, after which time
+it was carried on by two continuators to the end. Thomas Gale, in his
+_Hist. Brit. &c., scriptores_, xv. (Oxon., 1691), published that portion
+of it, in the original Latin, which comes down to 1066. Three early
+translations of the _Polychronicon_ exist. The first was made by John of
+Trevisa, chaplain to Lord Berkeley, in 1387, and was printed by Caxton
+in 1482; the second by an anonymous writer, was written between 1432 and
+1450; the third, based on Trevisa's version, with the addition of an
+eighth book, was prepared by Caxton. These versions are specially
+valuable as illustrating the change of the English language during the
+period they cover.
+
+  The _Polychronicon_, with the continuations and the English versions,
+  was edited for the Rolls Series (No. 41) by Churchill Babington (vols.
+  i. and ii.) and Joseph Rawson Lumby (1865-1886). This edition was
+  adversely criticized by Mandell Creighton in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._ for
+  October 1888.
+
+
+
+
+HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES (1810-1868), British writer over the nom-de-plume
+"Jacob Omnium," which was the title of his first magazine article, was
+born in County Meath, Ireland, on the 4th of December 1810. His letters
+in _The Times_ were instrumental in exposing many abuses. He was a
+frequent contributor to the _Cornhill_, and was a friend of Thackeray,
+who dedicated to him _The Adventures of Philip_, and one of his ballads,
+"Jacob Omnium's Hoss," deals with an incident in Higgins's career. He
+died on the 14th of August 1868. Some of his articles were published in
+1875 as _Essays on Social Subjects_.
+
+
+
+
+HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH (1823-1911), American author and soldier,
+was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of December 1823. He
+was a descendant of Francis Higginson (1588-1630), who emigrated from
+Leicestershire to the colony of Massachusetts Bay and was a minister of
+the church of Salem, Mass., in 1629-1630; and a grandson of Stephen
+Higginson (1743-1828), a Boston merchant, who was a member of the
+Continental Congress in 1783, took an active part in suppressing Shay's
+Rebellion, was the author of the "Laco" letters (1789), and rendered
+valuable services to the United States government as navy agent from the
+11th of May to the 22nd of June 1798. Graduating from Harvard in 1841,
+he was a schoolmaster for two years, studied theology at the Harvard
+Divinity School, and was pastor in 1847-1850 of the First Religious
+Society (Unitarian) of Newburyport, Massachusetts, and of the Free
+Church at Worcester in 1852-1858. He was a Free Soil candidate for
+Congress (1850), but was defeated; was indicted with Wendell Phillips
+and Theodore Parker for participation in the attempt to release the
+fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston (1853); was engaged in the
+effort to make Kansas a free state after the passage of the
+Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854; and during the Civil War was captain in
+the 51st Massachusetts Volunteers, and from November 1862 to October
+1864, when he was retired because of a wound received in the preceding
+August, was colonel of the First South Carolina Volunteers, the first
+regiment recruited from former slaves for the Federal service. He
+described his experiences in _Army Life in a Black Regiment_ (1870). In
+politics Higginson was successively a Republican, an Independent and a
+Democrat. His writings show a deep love of nature, art and humanity, and
+are marked by vigour of thought, sincerity of feeling, and grace and
+finish of style. In his _Common Sense About Women_ (1881) and his _Women
+and Men_ (1888) he advocated equality of opportunity and equality of
+rights for the two sexes.
+
+  Among his numerous books are _Outdoor Papers_ (1863); _Malbone: an
+  Oldport Romance_ (1869); Life of _Margaret Fuller Ossoli_ (in
+  "American Men of Letters" series, 1884); _A Larger History of the
+  United States of America to the Close of President Jackson's
+  Administration_ (1885); _The Monarch of Dreams_ (1886); _Travellers
+  and Outlaws_ (1889); _The Afternoon Landscape_ (1889), poems and
+  translations; _Life of Francis Higginson_ (in "Makers of America,"
+  1891); _Concerning All of Us_ (1892); _The Procession of the Flowers
+  and Kindred Papers_ (1897); _Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_ (in "American
+  Men of Letters" series, 1902); _John Greenleaf Whittier_ (in "English
+  Men of Letters" series, 1902); _A Reader's History of American
+  Literature_ (1903), the Lowell Institute lectures for 1903, edited by
+  Henry W. Boynton; and _Life and Times of Stephen Higginson_ (1907).
+  His volumes of reminiscence, _Cheerful Yesterdays_ (1898), _Old
+  Cambridge_ (1899), _Contemporaries_ (1899), and _Part of a Man's Life_
+  (1905), are characteristic and charming works. His collected works
+  were published in seven vols. (1900).
+
+
+
+
+HIGHAM FERRERS, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern
+parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 63 m. N.N.W. from
+London, on branches of the London & North-Western and Midland railways.
+Pop. (1901), 2540. It is pleasantly situated on high ground above the
+south bank of the river Nene. The church of St Mary is among the most
+beautiful of the many fine churches in Northamptonshire. To the Early
+English chancel a very wide north aisle, resembling a second nave, was
+added in the Decorated period, and the general appearance of the
+chancel, with its north aisle and Lady-chapel, is Decorated. The tower
+with its fine spire and west front was partially but carefully rebuilt
+in the 17th century. Close to the church, but detached from it, stands a
+beautiful Perpendicular building, the school-house, founded by
+Archbishop Chichele in 1422. The Bede House, a somewhat similar
+structure by the same founder, completes a striking group of buildings.
+In the town are remains of Chichele's college. Higham Ferrers shares in
+the widespread local industry of shoemaking. The town is governed by a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1945 acres.
+
+Higham (Hecham, Heccam, Hegham Ferers) was evidently a large village
+before the Domesday Survey. It was then held by William Peverel of the
+king, but on the forfeiture of the lordship by his son it was granted in
+1199 to William Ferrers, earl of Derby. On the outlawry of Robert his
+grandson it passed to Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and, reverting to the
+crown in 1322, was granted to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, but
+escheated to the crown in 1327, and was granted to Henry, earl of
+Lancaster. The castle, which may have been built before Henry III.
+visited Higham in 1229, is mentioned in 1322, but had been destroyed by
+1540. It appears by the confirmation of Henry III. in 1251 that the
+borough originated in the previous year when William de Ferrers, earl of
+Derby, manumitted by charter ninety-two persons, granting they should
+have a free borough. A mayor was elected from the beginning of the reign
+of Richard II., while a town hall is mentioned in 1395. The revenues of
+Chichele's college were given to the corporation by the charter of 1566,
+whereby the borough returned one representative to parliament, a
+privilege enjoyed until 1832. James I. in 1604 gave the mayor the
+commission of the peace with other privileges which were confirmed by
+Charles II. in 1664. The old charters were surrendered in 1684 and a new
+grant obtained; a further charter was granted in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+HIGHGATE, a northern district of London, England, partly in the
+metropolitan borough of St Pancras, but extending into Middlesex. It is
+a high-lying district, the greatest elevation being 426 ft. The Great
+North Road passes through Highgate, which is supposed to have received
+its name from the toll-gate erected by the bishop of London when the
+road was formed through his demesne in the 14th century. It is possible,
+however, that "gate" is used here in its old signification, and that the
+name means simply high road. The road rose so steeply here that in 1812
+an effort was made to lessen the slope for coaches by means of an
+archway, and a new way was completed in 1900. In the time of
+stage-coaches a custom was introduced of making ignorant persons believe
+that they required to be sworn and admitted to the freedom of the
+Highgate before being allowed to pass the gate, the fine of admission
+being a bottle of wine. Not a few famous names occur among the former
+residents of Highgate. Bacon died here in 1626; Coleridge and Andrew
+Marvell, the poets, were residents. Cromwell House, now a convalescent
+home, was presented by Oliver Cromwell to his eldest daughter Bridget on
+her marriage with Henry Ireton (January 15, 1646/7). Lauderdale House,
+now attached to the public grounds of Waterlow Park, belonged to the
+Duke of Lauderdale, one of the "Cabal" of Charles II. Among various
+institutions may be mentioned Whittington's almshouses, near Whittington
+Stone, at the foot of Highgate Hill, on which the future mayor of London
+is reputed to have been resting when he heard the peal of Bow bells and
+"turned again." Highgate grammar school was founded (1562-1565) by Sir
+Roger Cholmley, chief-justice. St Joseph's Retreat is the mother-house
+of the Passionist Fathers in England. There is an extensive and
+beautiful cemetery on the slope below the church of St Michael.
+
+
+
+
+HIGHLANDS, THE, that part of Scotland north-west of a line drawn from
+Dumbarton to Stonehaven, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the
+county of Bute, but excluding the Orkneys and Shetlands, Caithness, the
+flat coastal land of the shires of Nairn, Elgin and Banff, and all East
+Aberdeenshire (see SCOTLAND). This area is to be distinguished from the
+Lowlands by language and race, the preservation of the Gaelic speech
+being characteristic. Even in a historical sense the Highlanders were a
+separate people from the Lowlanders, with whom, during many centuries,
+they shared nothing in common. The town of Inverness is usually regarded
+as the capital of the Highlands. The Highlands consist of an old
+dissected plateau, or block, of ancient crystalline rocks with incised
+valleys and lochs carved by the action of mountain streams and by ice,
+the resulting topography being a wide area of irregularly distributed
+mountains whose summits have nearly the same height above sea-level, but
+whose bases depend upon the amount of denudation to which the plateau
+has been subjected in various places. The term "highland" is used in
+physical geography for any elevated mountainous plateau.
+
+
+
+
+HIGHNESS, literally the quality of being lofty or high, a term used, as
+are so many abstractions, as a title of dignity and honour, to signify
+exalted rank or station. These abstractions arose in great profusion in
+the Roman empire, both of the East and West, and "highness" is to be
+directly traced to the _altitudo_ and _celsitudo_ of the Latin and the
+[Greek: hypselotes] of the Greek emperors. Like other "exorbitant and
+swelling attributes" of the time, they were conferred on ruling princes
+generally. In the early middle ages such titles, couched in the second
+or third person, were "uncertain and much more arbitrary (according to
+the fancies of secretaries) than in the later times" (Selden, _Titles of
+Honour_, pt. i. ch. vii. 100). In English usage, "Highness" alternates
+with "Grace" and "Majesty," as the honorific title of the king and queen
+until the time of James I. Thus in documents relating to the reign of
+Henry VIII. all three titles are used indiscriminately; an example is
+the king's judgment against Dr Edward Crome (d. 1562), quoted, from the
+lord chamberlain's books, ser. 1, p. 791, in _Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc._
+N.S. xix. 299, where article 15 begins with "Also the Kinges Highness"
+hath ordered, 16 with "Kinges Majestie," and 17 with "Kinges Grace." In
+the Dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible of 1611 James I.
+is still styled "Majesty" and "Highness"; thus, in the first paragraph,
+"the appearance of Your Majesty, as of the Sun in his strength,
+instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised mists ... especially
+when we beheld the government established in Your Highness and Your
+hopeful Seed, by an undoubted title." It was, however, in James I.'s
+reign that "Majesty" became the official title. It may be noted that
+Cromwell, as lord protector, and his wife were styled "Highness." In
+present usage the following members of the British Royal Family are
+addressed as "Royal Highness" (H.R.H.): all sons and daughters, brothers
+and sisters, uncles and aunts of the reigning sovereign, grandsons and
+granddaughters if children of sons, and also great grandchildren (decree
+of 31st of May 1898) if children of an eldest son of any prince of
+Wales. Nephews, nieces and cousins and grandchildren, offspring of
+daughters, are styled "Highness" only. A change of sovereign does not
+entail the forfeiture of the title "Royal Highness," once acquired,
+though the father of the bearer has become a nephew and not a grandson
+of the sovereign. The principal feudatory princes of the Indian empire
+are also styled "Highness."
+
+As a general rule the members of the blood royal of an Imperial or Royal
+house are addressed as "Imperial" or "Royal Highness" (_Altesse
+Imperiale_, _Royale_, _Kaiserliche_, _Konigliche Hoheit_) respectively.
+In Germany the reigning heads of the Grand Duchies bear the title of
+Royal or Grand Ducal Highness (_Konigliche_ or _Gross-Herzogliche
+Hoheit_), while the members of the family are addressed as _Hoheit_,
+Highness, simply. _Hoheit_ is borne by the reigning dukes and the
+princes and princesses of their families. The title "Serene Highness"
+has also an antiquity equal to that of "highness," for [Greek:
+galenotes] and [Greek: hemerotes] were titles borne by the Byzantine
+rulers, and serenitas and _serenissimus_ by the emperors Honorius and
+Arcadius. The doge of Venice was also styled _Serenissimus_. Selden
+(_op. cit._ pt. ii. ch. x. 739) calls this title "one of the greatest
+that can be given to any Prince that hath not the superior title of
+King." In modern times "Serene Highness" (_Altesse Serenissime_) is used
+as the equivalent of the German _Durchlaucht_, a stronger form of
+_Erlaucht_, illustrious, represented in the Latin honorific
+_superillustris_. Thackeray's burlesque title "Transparency" in the
+court at Pumpernickel very accurately gives the meaning. The title of
+_Durchlaucht_ was granted in 1375 by the emperor Charles IV. to the
+electoral princes (_Kurfursten_). In the 17th century it became the
+general title borne by the heads of the reigning princely states of the
+empire (_reichslandische Fursten_), as _Erlaucht_ by those of the
+countly houses (_reichstandische Grafen_). In 1825 the German Diet
+agreed to grant the title _Durchlaucht_ to the heads of the mediatized
+princely houses whether domiciled in Germany or Austria, and it is now
+customary to use it of the members of those houses. Further, all those
+who are elevated to the rank of prince (_Furst_) in the secondary
+meaning of that title (see PRINCE) are also styled _Durchlaucht_. In
+1829 the title of _Erlaucht_, which had formerly been borne by the
+reigning counts of the empire, was similarly granted to the mediatized
+countly families (see _Almanack de Gotha_, 1909, 107).
+
+
+
+
+HIGH PLACE, in the English version of the Old Testament, the literal
+translation of the Heb. _bamah_. This rendering is etymologically
+correct, as appears from the poetical use of the plural in such
+expressions as to ride, or stalk, or stand on the high places of the
+earth, the sea, the clouds, and from the corresponding usage in
+Assyrian; but in prose _bamah_ is always a place of worship. It has been
+surmised that it was so called because the places of worship were
+originally upon hill-tops, or that the _bamah_ was an artificial
+platform or mound, perhaps imitating the natural eminence which was the
+oldest holy place, but neither view is historically demonstrable. The
+development of the religious significance of the word took place
+probably not in Israel but among the Canaanites, from whom the
+Israelites, in taking possession of the holy places of the land, adopted
+the name also.
+
+In old Israel every town and village had its own place of sacrifice, and
+the common name for these places was _bamah_, which is synonymous with
+_mikdash_, holy place (Amos vii. 9; Isa. xvi. 12, &c.). From the Old
+Testament and from existing remains a good idea may be formed of the
+appearance of such a place of worship. It was often on the hill above
+the town, as at Ramah (I Sam. ix. 12-14); there was a stele
+(_massebah_), the seat of the deity, and a wooden post or pole
+(_asherah_), which marked the place as sacred and was itself an object
+of worship; there was a stone altar, often of considerable size and hewn
+out of the solid rock[1] or built of unhewn stones (Ex. xx. 25; see
+ALTAR), on which offerings were burnt (_mizbeh_, lit. "slaughter
+place"); a cistern for water, and perhaps low stone tables for dressing
+the victims; sometimes also a hall (_lishkah_) for the sacrificial
+feasts.
+
+Around these places the religion of the ancient Israelite centred; at
+festival seasons, or to make or fulfil a vow, he might journey to more
+famous sanctuaries at a distance from his home, but ordinarily the
+offerings which linked every side of his life to religion were paid at
+the _bamah_ of his own town. The building of royal temples in Jerusalem
+or in Samaria made no change in this respect; they simply took their
+place beside the older sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Dan, Gilgal,
+Beersheba, to which they were, indeed, inferior in repute.
+
+The religious reformers of the 8th century assail the popular religion
+as corrupt and licentious, and as fostering the monstrous delusion that
+immoral men can buy the favour of God by worship; but they make no
+difference in this respect between the high places of Israel and the
+temple in Jerusalem (cf. Amos v. 21 sqq.; Hos. iv.; Isa. i. 10 sqq.);
+Hosea stigmatizes the whole cultus as pure heathenism--Canaanite
+baal-worship adopted by apostate Israel. The fundamental law in Deut.
+xii. prohibits sacrifice at every place except the temple in Jerusalem;
+in accordance with this law Josiah, in 621 B.C., destroyed and
+desecrated the altars (_bamoth_) throughout his kingdom, where Yahweh
+had been worshipped from time immemorial, and forcibly removed their
+priests to Jerusalem, where they occupied an inferior rank in the temple
+ministry. In the prophets of the 7th and 6th centuries the word _bamoth_
+connotes "seat of heathenish or idolatrous worship"; and the historians
+of the period apply the term in this opprobrious sense not only to
+places sacred to other gods but to the old holy places of Yahweh in the
+cities and villages of Judah, which, in their view, had been
+illegitimate from the building of Solomon's temple, and therefore not
+really seats of the worship of Yahweh; even the most pious kings of
+Judah are censured for tolerating their existence. The reaction which
+followed the death of Josiah (608 B.C.) restored the old altars of
+Yahweh; they survived the destruction of the temple in 586, and it is
+probable that after its restoration (520-516 B.C.) they only slowly
+disappeared, in consequence partly of the natural predominance of
+Jerusalem in the little territory of Judaea, partly of the gradual
+establishment of the supremacy of the written law over custom and
+tradition in the Persian period.
+
+It may not be superfluous to note that the deuteronomic dogma that
+sacrifice can be offered to Yahweh only at the temple in Jerusalem was
+never fully established either in fact or in legal theory. The Jewish
+military colonists in Elephantine in the 5th century B.C. had their
+altar of Yahweh beside the high way; the Jews in Egypt in the Ptolemaic
+period had, besides many local sanctuaries, one greater temple at
+Leontopolis, with a priesthood whose claim to "valid orders" was much
+better than that of the High Priests in Jerusalem, and the legitimacy of
+whose worship is admitted even by the Palestinian rabbis.
+
+  See Baudissin, "Hohendienst," _Protestantische Realencyklopadie_^3
+  (viii. 177-195); Hoonacker, _Le Lieu du culte dans la legislation
+  rituelle des Hebreux_ (1894); v. Gall, _Altisraelitische Kultstadte_
+  (1898).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Several altars of this type have been preserved.
+
+
+
+
+HIGH SEAS, an expression in international law meaning all those parts of
+the sea not under the sovereignty of adjacent states. Claims have at
+times been made to exclusive dominion over large areas of the sea as
+well as over wide margins, such as a 100 m., 60 m., range of vision,
+&c., from land. The action and reaction of the interests of navigation,
+however, have brought states to adopt a limitation first enunciated by
+Bynkershoek in the formula "terrae dominium finitur ubi finitur armorum
+vis." Thenceforward cannon-shot range became the determining factor in
+the fixation of the margin of sea afterwards known as "territorial
+waters" (q.v.). With the exception of these territorial waters, bays of
+certain dimensions and inland waters surrounded by territory of the same
+state, and serving only as a means of access to ports of the state by
+whose territory they are surrounded, and some waters allowed by
+immemorial usage to rank as territorial, all seas and oceans form part
+of the high sea. The usage of the high sea is free to all the nations of
+the world, subject only to such restrictions as result from respect for
+the equal rights of others, and to those which nations may contract with
+each other to observe. An interesting case affecting land-locked seas
+was that of the _Emperor of Japan_ v. _The Peninsular and Oriental Steam
+Navigation Company_, in which a collision had taken place in the inland
+sea of Japan. The British Supreme Court at Shanghai declared this sea to
+form part of the high sea. On appeal to the privy council, the
+appellants were successful. Though the decision of the Shanghai court on
+the point in question was not dealt with by the privy council, Japan
+continues to treat her inland sea as under her exclusive jurisdiction.
+     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HIGHWAY, a public road over which all persons have full right of
+way--walking, riding or driving. Such roads in England for the most part
+either are of immemorial antiquity or have been created under the
+authority of an act of parliament. But a private owner may create a
+highway at common law by dedicating the soil to the use of the public
+for that purpose; and the using of a road for a number of years, without
+interruption, will support the presumption that the soil has been so
+dedicated. At common law the parish is required to maintain all highways
+within its bounds; but by special custom the obligation may attach to a
+particular township or district, and in certain cases the owner of land
+is bound by the conditions of his holding to keep a highway in repair.
+Breach of the obligation is treated as a criminal offence, and is
+prosecuted by indictment. Bridges, on the other hand, and so much of the
+highway as is immediately connected with them, are as a general rule a
+charge on the county; and by 22 Henry VIII. c. 5 the obligation of the
+county is extended to 300 yds. of the highway on either side of the
+bridge. A bridge, like a highway, may be a burden on neighbouring land
+_ratione tenurae_. Private owners so burdened may sometimes claim a
+special toll from passengers, called a "toll traverse."
+
+Extensive changes in the English law of highways have been made by
+various highway acts, viz. the Highway Act 1835, and amending acts of
+1862, 1864, 1878 and 1891. The leading principle of the Highway Act 1835
+is to place the highways under the direction of parish surveyors, and to
+provide for the necessary expenses by a rate levied on the occupiers of
+land. It is the duty of the surveyor to keep the highways in repair; and
+if a highway is out of repair, the surveyor may be summoned before
+justices and convicted in a penalty not exceeding L5, and ordered to
+complete the repairs within a limited time. The surveyor is likewise
+specially charged with the removal of nuisances on the highway. A
+highway nuisance may be abated by any person, and may be made the
+subject of indictment at common law. The amending acts, while not
+interfering with the operation of the principal act, authorize the
+creation of highway districts on a larger scale. The justices of a
+county may convert it or any portion of it into a highway district to be
+governed by a highway board, the powers and responsibilities of which
+will be the same as those of the parish surveyor under the former act.
+The board consists of representatives of the various parishes, called
+"way wardens" together with the justices for the county residing within
+the district. Salaries and similar expenses incurred by the board are
+charged on a district fund to which the several parishes contribute; but
+each parish remains separately responsible for the expenses of
+maintaining its own highways. By the Local Government Act 1888 the
+entire maintenance of main roads was thrown upon county councils. The
+Public Health Act 1875 vested the powers and duties of surveyors of
+highways and vestries in urban authorities, while the Local Government
+Act 1894 transferred to the district councils of every rural district
+all the powers of rural sanitary authorities and highway authorities
+(see ENGLAND: _Local Government_).
+
+The Highway Act of 1835 specified as offences for which the driver of a
+carriage on the public highway might be punished by a fine, in addition
+to any civil action that might be brought against him--riding upon the
+cart, or upon any horse drawing it, and not having some other person to
+guide it, unless there be some person driving it; negligence causing
+damage to person or goods being conveyed on the highway; quitting his
+cart, or leaving control of the horses, or leaving the cart so as to be
+an obstruction on the highway; not having the owner's name painted up;
+refusing to give the same; and not keeping on the left or near side of
+the road, when meeting any other carriage or horse. This rule does not
+apply in the case of a carriage meeting a foot-passenger, but a driver
+is bound to use due care to avoid driving against any person crossing
+the highway on foot. At the same time a passenger crossing the highway
+is also bound to use due care in avoiding vehicles, and the mere fact of
+a driver being on the wrong side of the road would not be evidence of
+negligence in such a case.
+
+The "rule of the road" given above is peculiar to the United Kingdom.
+Cooley's treatise on the _American Law of Torts_ states that "the custom
+of the country, in some states enacted into statute law, requires that
+when teams approach and are about to pass on the highway, each shall
+keep to the right of the centre of the travelled portion of the road."
+This also appears to be the general rule on the continent of Europe.
+
+By the Lights on Vehicles Act 1907, all vehicles on highways in England
+and Wales must display to the front a white light during the period
+between one hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. Locomotives
+and motor cars, being dealt with by special acts, are excluded from the
+operation of the act, as are bicycles and tricycles (dealt with by the
+Local Government Act 1888), and vehicles drawn or propelled by hand, but
+every machine or implement drawn by animals comes within the act. There
+are two exceptions: (1) vehicles carrying inflammable goods in the
+neighbourhood of places where inflammable goods are stored, and (2)
+vehicles engaged in harvesting. The public have a right to pass along a
+highway freely, safely and conveniently, and any wrongful act or
+omission which prevents them doing so is a nuisance, for the prevention
+and abatement of which the highways and other acts contain provisions.
+Generally, nuisance to highway may be caused by encroachment, by
+interfering with the soil of the highway, by attracting crowds, by
+creating danger or inconvenience on or near the highway, by placing
+obstacles on the highway, by unreasonable user, by offences against
+decency and good order, &c.
+
+The use of locomotives, motor cars and other vehicles on highways is
+regulated by acts of 1861-1903.
+
+Formerly under the Turnpike Acts many of the more important highways
+were placed under the management of boards of commissioners or trustees.
+The trustees were required and empowered to maintain, repair and improve
+the roads committed to their charge, and the expenses of the trust were
+met by tolls levied on persons using the road. The various grounds of
+exemption from toll on turnpike roads were all of a public character,
+e.g. horses and carriages attending the sovereign or royal family, or
+used by soldiers or volunteers in uniform, were free from toll. In
+general horses and carriages used in agricultural work were free from
+toll. By the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878 disturnpiked roads
+became "main roads." Ordinary highways might be declared to be "main
+roads," and "main roads" be reduced to the status of ordinary highways.
+
+In Scotland the highway system is regulated by the Roads and Bridges Act
+1878 and amending acts. The management and maintenance of the highways
+and bridges is vested in county road trustees, viz. the commissioners of
+supply, certain elected trustees representing ratepayers in parishes and
+others. One of the consequences of the act was the abolition of tolls,
+statute-labour, causeway mail and other exactions for the maintenance of
+bridges and highways, and all turnpike roads became highways, and all
+highways became open to the public free of tolls and other exactions.
+The county is divided into districts under district committees, and
+county and district officers are appointed. The expenses of highway
+management in each district (or parish), together with a proportion of
+the general expenses of the act, are levied by the trustees by an
+assessment on the lands and heritages within the district (or parish).
+
+Highway, in the law of the states of the American Union, generally means
+a lawful public road, over which all citizens are allowed to pass and
+repass on foot, on horseback, in carriages and waggons. Sometimes it is
+held to be restricted to county roads as opposed to town-ways. In
+statutes dealing with offences connected with the highway, such as
+gaming, negligence of carriers, &c., "highway" includes navigable
+rivers. But in a statute punishing with death robbery on the highway,
+railways were held not to be included in the term. In one case it has
+been held that any way is a highway which has been used as such for
+fifty years.
+
+  See Glen, _Law Relating to Highways_; Pratt, _Law of Highways, Main
+  Roads and Bridges_.
+
+
+
+
+HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE (1827-1893), chief-justice of Victoria, Australia,
+sixth son of T. Higinbotham of Dublin, was born on the 19th of April
+1827, and educated at the Royal School, Dungannon, and at Trinity
+College, Dublin. After entering as a law student at Lincoln's Inn, and
+being engaged as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ in 1849, he
+emigrated to Victoria, where he contributed to the _Melbourne Herald_
+and practised at the bar (having been "called" in 1853) with much
+success. In 1850 he became editor of the _Melbourne Argus_, but resigned
+in 1859 and returned to the bar. He was elected to the legislative
+assembly in 1861 for Brighton as an independent Liberal, was rejected at
+the general election of the same year, but was returned nine months
+later. In 1863 he became attorney-general. Under his influence measures
+were passed through the legislative assembly of a somewhat extreme
+character, completely ignoring the rights of the legislative council,
+and the government was carried on without any Appropriation Act for more
+than a year. Mr Higinbotham, by his eloquence and earnestness, obtained
+great influence amongst the members of the legislative assembly, but his
+colleagues were not prepared to follow him as far as he desired to go.
+He contended that in a constitutional colony like Victoria the secretary
+of state for the colonies had no right to fetter the discretion of the
+queen's representative. Mr Higinbotham did not return to power with his
+chief, Sir James M'Culloch, after the defeat of the short-lived Sladen
+administration; and being defeated for Brighton at the next general
+election by a comparatively unknown man, he devoted himself to his
+practice at the bar. Amongst his other labours as attorney-general he
+had codified all the statutes which were in force throughout the colony.
+In 1874 he was returned to the legislative assembly for Brunswick, but
+after a few months he resigned his seat. In 1880 he was appointed a
+puisne judge of the supreme court, and in 1886, on the retirement of Sir
+William Stawell, he was promoted to the office of chief justice. Mr
+Higinbotham was appointed president of the International Exhibition held
+at Melbourne in 1888-1889, but did not take any active part in its
+management. One of his latest public acts was to subscribe a sum of L10,
+10s. a week towards the funds of the strikers in the great Australian
+labour dispute of 1890, an act which did not meet with general approval.
+He died in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+HILARION, ST (c. 290-371), abbot, the first to introduce the monastic
+system into Palestine. The chief source of information is a life written
+by St Jerome; it was based upon a letter, no longer extant, written by
+St Epiphanius, who had known Hilarion. The accounts in Sozomen are
+mainly based on Jerome's _Vita_; but Otto Zocker has shown that Sozomen
+also had at his disposal authentic local traditions (see "Hilarion von
+Gaza" in the _Neue Jahrbucher fur deutsche Theologie_, 1894), the most
+important study on Hilarion, which is written against the hypercritical
+school of Weingarten and shows that Hilarion must be accepted as an
+historical personage and the _Vita_ as a substantially correct account
+of his career. He was born of heathen parents at Tabatha near Gaza about
+290; he was sent to Alexandria for his education and there became a
+convert to Christianity; about 306 he visited St Anthony and became his
+disciple, embracing the eremitical life. He returned to his native place
+and for many years lived as a hermit in the desert by the marshes on the
+Egyptian border. Many disciples put themselves under his guidance; but
+his influence must have been limited to south Palestine, for there is no
+mention of him in Palladius or Cassian. In 356 he left Palestine and
+went again to Egypt; but the accounts given in the _Vita_ of his travels
+during the last fifteen years of his life must be taken with extreme
+caution. It is there said that he went from Egypt to Sicily, and thence
+to Epidaurus, and finally to Cyprus where he met Epiphanius and died in
+371.
+
+  An abridged story of his life will be found in Alban Butler's _Lives
+  of the Saints_, on the 21st of October, and a critical sketch with
+  full references in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3).
+       (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS (HILARY[1]), ST (c. 300-367), bishop of Pictavium (Poitiers),
+an eminent "doctor" of the Western Church, sometimes referred to as the
+"malleus Arianorum" and the "Athanasius of the West," was born at
+Poitiers about the end of the 3rd century A.D. His parents were pagans
+of distinction. He received a good education, including what had even
+then become somewhat rare in the West, some knowledge of Greek. He
+studied, later on, the Old and New Testament writings, with the result
+that he abandoned his neo-platonism for Christianity, and with his wife
+and his daughter received the sacrament of baptism. So great was the
+respect in which he was held by the citizens of Poitiers that about 353,
+although still a married man, he was unanimously elected bishop. At that
+time Arianism was threatening to overrun the Western Church; to repel
+the irruption was the great task which Hilary undertook. One of his
+first steps was to secure the excommunication, by those of the Gallican
+hierarchy who still remained orthodox, of Saturninus, the Arian bishop
+of Arles and of Ursacius and Valens, two of his prominent supporters.
+About the same time he wrote to the emperor Constantius a remonstrance
+against the persecutions by which the Arians had sought to crush their
+opponents (_Ad Constantium Augustum liber primus_, of which the most
+probable date is 355). His efforts were not at first successful, for at
+the synod of Biterrae (Beziers), summoned in 356 by Constantius with
+the professed purpose of settling the longstanding disputes, Hilary was
+by an imperial rescript banished with Rhodanus of Toulouse to Phrygia,
+in which exile he spent nearly four years. Thence, however, he continued
+to govern his diocese; while he found leisure for the preparation of two
+of the most important of his contributions to dogmatic and polemical
+theology, the _De synodis_ or _De fide Orientalium_, an epistle
+addressed in 358 to the Semi-Arian bishops in Gaul, Germany and Britain,
+expounding the true views (sometimes veiled in ambiguous words) of the
+Oriental bishops on the Nicene controversy, and the _De trinitate libri
+xii._,[2] composed in 359 and 360, in which, for the first time, a
+successful attempt was made to express in Latin the theological
+subtleties elaborated in the original Greek. The former of these works
+was not entirely approved by some members of his own party, who thought
+he had shown too great forbearance towards the Arians; to their
+criticisms he replied in the _Apologetica ad reprehensores libri de
+synodis responsa_. In 359 Hilary attended the convocation of bishops at
+Seleucia In Isauria, where, with the Egyptian Athanasians, he joined the
+Homoiousian majority against the Arianizing party headed by Acacius of
+Caesarea; thence he went to Constantinople, and, in a petition (_Ad
+Constantium Augustum liber secundus_) personally presented to the
+emperor in 360, repudiated the calumnies of his enemies and sought to
+vindicate his trinitarian principles. His urgent and repeated request
+for a public discussion with his opponents, especially with Ursacius and
+Valens, proved at last so inconvenient that he was sent back to his
+diocese, which he appears to have reached about 361, within a very short
+time of the accession of Julian. He was occupied for two or three years
+in combating Arianism within his diocese; but in 364, extending his
+efforts once more beyond Gaul, he impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan,
+and a man high in the imperial favour, as heterodox. Summoned to appear
+before the emperor (Valentinian) at Milan and there maintain his
+charges, Hilary had the mortification of hearing the supposed heretic
+give satisfactory answers to all the questions proposed; nor did his
+(doubtless sincere) denunciation of the metropolitan as a hypocrite save
+himself from an ignominious expulsion from Milan. In 365 he published
+the _Contra Arianos vel Auxentium Mediolanensem liber_, in connexion
+with the controversy; and also (but perhaps at a somewhat earlier date)
+the _Contra Constantium Augustum liber_, in which he pronounced that
+lately deceased emperor to have been Antichrist, a rebel against God, "a
+tyrant whose sole object had been to make a gift to the devil of that
+world for which Christ had suffered." Hilary is sometimes regarded as
+the first Latin Christian hymn-writer, but none of the compositions
+assigned to him is indisputable. The later years of his life were spent
+in comparative quiet, devoted in part to the preparation of his
+expositions of the Psalms (_Tractatus super Psalmos_), for which he was
+largely indebted to Origen; of his _Commentarius in Evangelium
+Matthaei_, a work on allegorical lines of no exegetical value; and of
+his no longer extant translation of Origen's commentary on Job. While he
+thus closely followed the two great Alexandrians, Origen and Athanasius,
+in exegesis and Christology respectively, his work shows many traces of
+vigorous independent thought. He died in 367; no more exact date is
+trustworthy. He holds the highest rank among the Latin writers of his
+century. Designated already by Augustine as "the illustrious doctor of
+the churches," he by his works exerted an increasing influence in later
+centuries; and by Pius IX. he was formally recognized as "universae
+ecclesiae doctor" at the synod of Bordeaux in 1851. Hilary's day in the
+Roman calendar is the 13th of January.[3]
+
+  EDITIONS.--Erasmus (Basel, 1523, 1526, 1528); P. Coustant
+  (Benedictine, Paris, 1693); Migne (_Patrol. Lat._ ix., x.). The
+  _Tractatus de mysteriis_, ed. J. F. Gamurrini (Rome, 1887), and the
+  _Tractatus super Psalmos_, ed. A. Zingerle in the Vienna _Corpus
+  scrip. eccl. Lat._ xxii. Translation by E. W. Watson in _Nicene and
+  Post-Nicene Fathers_, ix.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The life by (Venantius) Fortunatus c. 550 is almost
+  worthless. More trustworthy are the notices in Jerome (_De vir.
+  illus._ 100), Sulpicius Severus (_Chron._ ii. 39-45) and in Hilary's
+  own writings. H. Reinkens, _Hilarius von Poictiers_ (1864); O.
+  Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_; A. Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, esp. vol.
+  iv.; F. Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._ viii.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name is derived from Gr. [Greek: hilaros], gay, cheerful,
+    whence hilarious, hilarity.
+
+  [2] Hilary's own title was _De fide contra Arianos_. It really deals
+    less with the doctrine of the Trinity than with that of the
+    Incarnation. That it is not an easy work to read is due partly to the
+    nature of the subject, partly to the fact that it was issued in
+    detached portions.
+
+  [3] "Hilary" was the name of one of the four terms of the English
+    legal year. These terms were abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873,
+    s. 26, and "sittings" substituted. It is now the name of the sitting
+    of the Supreme Court of Judicature which commences on the 11th of
+    January and terminates on the Wednesday before Easter. In the Inns of
+    Court, Hilary is one of the four dining terms; it begins on the 11th
+    of January and ends on the 1st of February. It is also the name of
+    one of the terms at the universities of Oxford (more usually "Lent
+    term") and Dublin.
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS, or HILARUS (HILARY), bishop of Rome from 461 to 468, is known
+to have been a deacon and to have acted as legate of Leo the Great at
+the "robber" synod of Ephesus in 449. There he so vigorously defended
+the conduct of Flavian in deposing Eutyches that he was thrown into
+prison, whence he had great difficulty in making his escape to Rome. He
+was chosen to succeed Leo on the 19th of November 461. In 465 he held at
+Rome a council which put a stop to some abuses, particularly to that of
+bishops appointing their own successors. His pontificate was also marked
+by a successful encroachment of the papal authority on the metropolitan
+rights of the French and Spanish hierarchy, and by a resistance to the
+toleration edict of Anthemius, which ultimately caused it to be
+recalled. Hilarius died on the 17th of November 467, and was succeeded
+by Simplicius.
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS (fl. 1125), a Latin poet who is supposed to have been an
+Englishman. He was one of the pupils of Abelard at his oratory of
+Paraclete, and addressed to him a copy of verses with its refrain in the
+vulgar tongue, "_Tort avers vos li mestre_," Abelard having threatened
+to discontinue his teaching because of certain reports made by his
+servant about the conduct of the scholars. Later Hilarius made his way
+to Angers. His poems are contained in MS. supp. lat. 1008 of the
+Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, purchased in 1837 at the sale of M. de
+Rosny. Quotations from this MS. had appeared before, but in 1838 it was
+edited by Champollion Figeac as _Hilarii versus et ludi_. His works
+consist chiefly of light verses of the goliardic type. There are verses
+addressed to an English nun named Eva, lines to Rosa, "_Ave splendor
+puellarum, generosa domina_," and another poem describes the beauties of
+the priory of Chaloutre la Petite, in the diocese of Sens, of which the
+writer was then an inmate. One copy of satirical verses seems to aim at
+the pope himself. He also wrote three miracle plays in rhymed Latin with
+an admixture of French. Two of them, _Suscitatio Lazari_ and _Historia
+de Daniel repraesentanda_, are of purely liturgical type. At the end of
+_Lazarus_ is a stage direction to the effect that if the performance has
+been given at matins, Lazarus should proceed with the _Te Deum_, if at
+vespers, with the _Magnificat_. The third, _Ludus super iconia Sancti
+Nicholai_, is founded on a sufficiently foolish legend. Petit de
+Julleville sees in the play a satiric intention and a veiled incredulity
+that put the piece outside the category of liturgical drama.
+
+  A rhymed Latin account of a dispute in which the nuns of Ronceray at
+  Angers were concerned, contained in a cartulary of Ronceray, is also
+  ascribed to the poet, who there calls himself Hilarius Canonicus. The
+  poem is printed in the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (vol.
+  xxxvii. 1876), and is dated by P. Marchegay from 1121. See also a
+  notice in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xii. 251-254), supplemented (in
+  xx. 627-630), s.v. Jean Bodel, by Paulin Paris; also Wright,
+  _Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period_ (1846); and
+  Petit de Julleville, _Les Mysteres_ (vol. i. 1880).
+
+
+
+
+HILARIUS (HILARY), ST (c. 403-449), bishop of Arles, was born about 403.
+In early youth he entered the abbey of Lerins, then presided over by his
+kinsman Honoratus (St Honore), and succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric
+of Arles in 429. Following the example of St Augustine, he is said to
+have organized his cathedral clergy into a "congregation," devoting a
+great part of their time to social exercises of ascetic religion. He
+held the rank of metropolitan of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted to
+realize the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul which seemed
+implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor Patroclus (417).
+Hilarius deposed the bishop of Besancon (Chelidonus), for ignoring this
+primacy, and for claiming a metropolitan dignity for Besancon. An appeal
+was made to Rome, and Leo I. used it to extinguish the Gallican
+vicariate (A.D. 444). Hilarius was deprived of his rights as
+metropolitan to consecrate bishops, call synods, or exercise
+ecclesiastical oversight in the province, and the pope secured the edict
+of Valentinian III., so important in the history of the Gallican church,
+"ut episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid apostolicae
+sedis auctoritas sanxisset." The papal claims were made imperial law,
+and violation of them subject to legal penalties (_Novellae Valent._
+iii. tit. 16). Hilarius died in 449, and his name was afterwards
+introduced into the Roman martyrology for commemoration on the 5th of
+May. He enjoyed during his lifetime a high reputation for learning and
+eloquence as well as for piety; his extant works (_Vita S. Honorati
+Arelatensis episcopi_ and _Metrum in Genesin_) compare favourably with
+any similar literary productions of that period.
+
+  A poem, _De Providentia_, usually included among the writings of
+  Prosper, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Arles.
+
+
+
+
+HILDA, ST, strictly Hild (614-680), was the daughter of Hereric, a
+nephew of Edwin, king of Northumbria. She was converted to Christianity
+before 633 by the preaching of Paulinus. According to Bede she took the
+veil in 614, when Oswio was king of Northumbria and Aidan bishop of
+Lindisfarne, and spent a year in East Anglia, where her sister Hereswith
+had married Aethelhere, who was to succeed his brother Anna, the reigning
+king. In 648 or 649 Hilda was recalled to Northumbria by Aidan, and
+lived for a year in a small monastic community north of the Wear. She
+then succeeded Heiu, the foundress, as abbess of Hartlepool, where she
+remained several years. From Hartlepool Hilda moved to Whitby, where in
+657 she founded the famous double monastery which in the time of the
+first abbess included among its members five future bishops, Bosa, Aetta,
+Oftfor, John and Wilfrid II. as well as the poet Caedmon. Hilda exercised
+great influence in Northumbria, and ecclesiastics from all over
+Christian England and from Strathclyde and Dalriada visited her
+monastery. In 655 after the battle of Winwaed Oswio entrusted his
+daughter Aelfled to Hilda, with whom she went to Whitby. At the synod of
+Whitby in 664 Hilda sided with Colman and Cedd against Wilfrid. In spite
+of the defeat of the Celtic party she remained hostile to Wilfrid until
+679 at any rate. Hilda died in 680 after a painful illness lasting for
+seven years.
+
+  See Bede, _Hist. eccl._ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1869), iii. 24, 25,
+  iv. 23; Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_ (Raine, _Historians of Church of
+  York_, Rolls Series, vol. i., 1879), c. liv.
+
+
+
+
+HILDBURGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen,
+situated in a wide and fruitful valley on the river Werra, 19 m. S.E. of
+Meiningen, on the railway Eisenach-Lichtenfels. Pop. (1905) 7456. The
+principal buildings are a ducal palace, erected 1685-1695, now used as
+barracks, with a park in which there is a monument to Queen Louisa of
+Prussia, the old town hall, two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church
+and a theatre. A technical college occupies the premises in which
+Meyer's Bibliographisches Institut carried on business from 1828, when
+it removed hither from Gotha, until 1874, when it was transferred to
+Leipzig. A monument has been erected to those citizens who died in the
+Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. The manufactures include linen fabrics,
+cloth, toys, buttons, optical instruments, agricultural machines,
+knives, mineral waters, condensed soups and condensed milk.
+Hildburghausen (in records _Hilpershusia_ and _Villa Hilperti_) belonged
+in the 13th century to the counts of Henneberg, from whom it passed to
+the landgraves of Thuringia and then to the dukes of Saxony. In 1683 it
+became the capital of a principality which in 1826 was united to
+Saxe-Meiningen.
+
+  See R. A. Human, _Chronik der Stadt Hildburghausen_ (Hildburghausen,
+  1888).
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBERT, HYDALBERT, GILDEBERT or ALDEBERT (c. 1055-1133), French
+writer and ecclesiastic, was born of poor parents at Lavardin, near
+Vendome, and was intended for the church. He was probably a pupil of
+Berengarius of Tours, and became master (_scholasticus_) of the school
+at Le Mans; in 1091 he was made archdeacon and in 1096 bishop of Le
+Mans. He had to face the hostility of a section of his clergy and also
+of the English king, William II., who captured Le Mans and carried the
+bishop with him to England for about a year. Hildebert then travelled to
+Rome and sought permission to resign his bishopric, which Pope Paschal
+II. refused. In 1116 his diocese was thrown into great confusion owing
+to the preaching of Henry of Lausanne, who was denouncing the higher
+clergy, especially the bishop. Hildebert compelled him to leave the
+neighbourhood of Le Mans, but the effects of his preaching remained. In
+1125 Hildebert was translated very unwillingly to the archbishopric of
+Tours, and there he came into conflict with the French king Louis VI.
+about the rights of ecclesiastical patronage and with the bishop of Dol
+about the authority of his see in Brittany. He presided over the synod
+of Nantes, and died at Tours probably on the 18th of December 1133.
+Hildebert, who built part of the cathedral at Le Mans, has received from
+some writers the title of saint, but there appears to be no authority
+for this. He was not a man of very strict life; his contemporaries,
+however, had a very high opinion of him and he was called _egregius
+versificator_.
+
+The extant writings of Hildebert consist of letters, poems, a few
+sermons, two lives and one or two treatises. An edition of his works
+prepared by the Maurist, Antoine Beaugendre, and entitled _Venerabilis
+Hildeberti, primo Cenomannensis episcopi, deinde Turonensis
+archiepiscopi, opera tam edita quam inedita_, was published in Paris in
+1708 and was reprinted with additions by J. J. Bourasse in 1854. These
+editions, however, are very faulty. They credit Hildebert with numerous
+writings which are the work of others, while some genuine writings are
+omitted. The revelation of this fact has affected Hildebert's position
+in the history of medieval thought. His standing as a philosopher rested
+upon his supposed authorship of the important _Tractatus theologicus_;
+but this is now regarded as the work of Hugh of St Victor, and
+consequently Hildebert can hardly be counted among the philosophers. His
+genuine writings include many letters. These _Epistolae_ enjoyed great
+popularity in the 12th and 13th centuries, and were frequently used as
+classics in the schools of France and Italy. Those which concern the
+struggle between the emperor Henry V. and Pope Paschal II. have been
+edited by E. Sackur and printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica.
+Libelli de lite ii._ (1893). His poems, which deal with various
+subjects, are disfigured by many defects of style and metre, but they
+too were very popular. Hildebert attained celebrity also as a preacher
+both in French and Latin, but only a few of his sermons are in
+existence, most of the 144 attributed to him by his editors being the
+work of Peter Lombard and others. The _Vitae_ written by Hildebert are
+the lives of Hugo, abbot of Cluny, and of St Radegunda. Undoubtedly
+genuine is also his _Liber de querimonia et conflictu carnis et spiritus
+seu animae_. Hildebert was an excellent Latin scholar, being acquainted
+with Cicero, Ovid and other authors, and his spirit is rather that of a
+pagan than of a Christian writer.
+
+  See B. Haureau, _Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin_
+  (Paris, 1882), and _Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins
+  de la Bibliotheque nationale_ (Paris, 1890-1893); Comte P. de
+  Deservillers, _Un Eveque au XII^e siecle, Hildebert et son temps_
+  (Paris, 1876); E. A. Freeman, _The Reign of Rufus_, vol. ii. (Oxford,
+  1882); tome xi. of the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, and H.
+  Bohmer in Band viii. of Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1900). The
+  most important work, however, to be consulted is L. Dieudonne's
+  _Hildebert de Lavardin, eveque du Mans, archeveque de Tours. Sa vie,
+  ses lettres_ (Paris, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (_Das Hildebrandslied_), a unique example of Old
+German alliterative poetry, written about the year 800 on the first and
+last pages of a theological manuscript, by two monks of the monastery of
+Fulda. The fragment, or rather fragments, only extend to sixty-eight
+lines, and the conclusion of the poem is wanting. The theory propounded
+by Karl Lachmann, that the poem had been written in its present form
+from memory, has been discredited by later philological investigation;
+it is clearly a transcript of an older original, which the copyists--or
+more probably the writer to whom we owe the older version--imperfectly
+understood. The language of the poem shows a curious mixture of Low and
+High German forms; as the High German elements point to the dialect of
+Fulda, the inference is that the copyists were reproducing an originally
+Low German lay in the form in which it was sung in Franconia.
+
+The fragment is mainly taken up with a dialogue between Hildebrand and
+his son Hadubrand. When Hildebrand followed his master, Theodoric the
+Great, who was fleeing eastwards before Odoacer, he left his young wife
+and an infant child behind him. At his return to his old home, after
+thirty years' absence among the Huns, he is met by a young warrior and
+challenged to single combat. Before the fight begins, Hildebrand asks
+for the name of his opponent, and discovering his own son in him, tries
+to avert the fight, but in vain; Hadubrand only regards the old man's
+words as the excuse of cowardice. "In sharp showers the ashen spears
+fall on the shields, and then the warriors seize their swords and hew
+vigorously at the white shields until these are beaten to pieces...."
+With these words the fragment breaks off abruptly, giving no clue as to
+the issue of the combat. There is little doubt, however, that, as in the
+Old Norse _Asmundar saga_, where the tale is alluded to, the fight must
+have been fatal to Hadubrand. But in the later traditions, both of the
+Old Norse _Thidreks saga_ (13th century), and the so-called _Jungere
+Hildebrandslied_--a German popular lay, preserved in several versions
+from the 15th to the 17th century--Hadubrand is simply represented as
+defeated, and obliged to recognize his father. The Old High German
+_Hildebrandslied_ is dramatically conceived, and written in a terse,
+vigorous style; it is the only remnant that has come down from early
+Germanic times of an undoubtedly extensive ballad literature, dealing
+with the national sagas.
+
+  The MS. of the _Hildebrandslied_, originally in Fulda, is now
+  preserved in the Landesbibliothek at Cassel. The literature on the
+  poem will be found most conveniently in K. Mullenhoff and W. Scherer,
+  _Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem VIII. bis XI. Jahrh._,
+  3rd ed. (1892), and in W. Braune, _Althochdeutsches Lesebuch_, 5th ed.
+  (1902), to which authorities the reader is referred for a critical
+  text. The poem was discovered and first printed (as prose) by J. G.
+  von Eckhart, _Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis_ (1729), i. 864
+  ff.; the first scholarly edition was that of the brothers Grimm
+  (1812). Facsimile reproductions of the MS. have been published by W.
+  Grimm (1830), E. Sievers (1872), G. Konnecke in his _Bilderatlas_
+  (1887; 2nd ed., 1895) and M. Enneccerus (1897). See also K. Lachmann,
+  _Uber das Hildebrandslied_ (1833) in _Kleine Schriften_, i. 407 ff.;
+  C. W. M. Grein, _Das Hildebrandslied_ (1858; 2nd ed., 1880); O.
+  Schroder, _Bemerkungen zum Hildebrandslied_ (1880); H. Moller, _Zur
+  althochdeutschen Alliterationspoesie_ (1888); R. Heinzel, _Uber die
+  ostgotische Heldensage_ (1889); B. Busse, "Sagengeschichtliches zum
+  Hildebrandslied," in Paul und Braune's _Beitrage_, xxvi. (1901), pp. 1
+  ff.; R. Koegel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis zum Ausgang
+  des Mittelalters_, i. (1894), pp. 210 ff.; and R. Koegel and W.
+  Bruckner, in Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, 2nd ed.,
+  ii. (1901), pp. 71 ff.     (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD (1818-1868), German painter, was born in 1818, and
+served as apprentice to his father, a house-painter at Danzig. He was
+not twenty when he came to Berlin, where he was taken in hand by Wilhelm
+Krause, a painter of sea pieces. Several early pieces exhibited after
+his death--a breakwater, dated 1838, ships in a breeze off Swinemunde
+(1840), and other canvases of this and the following year--show
+Hildebrandt to have been a careful student of nature, with inborn
+talents kept down by the conventionalisms of the formal school to which
+Krause belonged. Accident made him acquainted with masterpieces of
+French art displayed at the Berlin Academy, and these awakened his
+curiosity and envy. He went to Paris, where, about 1842, he entered the
+atelier of Isabey and became the companion of Lepoittevin. In a short
+time he sent home pictures which might have been taken for copies from
+these artists. Gradually he mastered the mysteries of touch and the
+secrets of effect in which the French at this period excelled. He also
+acquired the necessary skill in painting figures, and returned to
+Germany, skilled in the rendering of many kinds of landscape forms. His
+pictures of French street life, done about 1843, while impressed with
+the stamp of the Paris school, reveal a spirit eager for novelty, quick
+at grasping, equally quick at rendering, momentary changes of tone and
+atmosphere. After 1843 Hildebrandt, under the influence of Humboldt,
+extended his travels, and in 1864-1865 he went round the world. Whilst
+his experience became enlarged his powers of concentration broke down.
+He lost the taste for detail in seeking for scenic breadth, and a fatal
+facility of hand diminished the value of his works for all those who
+look for composition and harmony of hue as necessary concomitants of
+tone and touch. In oil he gradually produced less, in water colours
+more, than at first, and his fame must rest on the sketches which he
+made in the latter form, many of them represented by chromo-lithography.
+Fantasies in red, yellow and opal, sunset, sunrise and moonshine,
+distances of hundreds of miles like those of the Andes and the Himalaya,
+narrow streets in the bazaars of Cairo or Suez, panoramas as seen from
+mastheads, wide cities like Bombay or Pekin, narrow strips of desert
+with measureless expanses of sky--all alike display his quality of
+bravura. Hildebrandt died at Berlin on the 25th of October 1868.
+
+
+
+
+HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR (1804-1874), German painter, was born at Stettin.
+He was a disciple of the painter Schadow, and, on Schadow's appointment
+to the presidency of a new academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828,
+followed that master to Dusseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting
+pictures illustrative of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he
+followed the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He
+produced rapidly "Faust and Mephistopheles" (1824), "Faust and Margaret"
+(1825), and "Lear and Cordelia" (1828). He visited the Netherlands with
+Schadow in 1829, and wandered alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not
+alter his style, though it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism
+and realism. At Dusseldorf, about 1830, he produced "Romeo and Juliet,"
+"Tancred and Clorinda," and other works which deserved to be classed
+with earlier paintings; but during the same period he exhibited (1829)
+the "Robber" and (1832) the "Captain and his Infant Son," examples of an
+affected but kindly realism which captivated the public, and marked to a
+certain extent an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made
+Hildebrandt's fame is the "Murder of the Children of King Edward"
+(1836), of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still
+belongs to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late in
+life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in pictures
+representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed again into the
+romantic in "Othello and Desdemona." After 1847 Hildebrandt gave himself
+up to portrait-painting, and in that branch succeeded in obtaining a
+large practice. He died at Dusseldorf in 1874.
+
+
+
+
+HILDEGARD, ST (1098-1179), German abbess and mystic, was born of noble
+parents at Bockelheim, in the countship of Sponheim, in 1098, and from
+her eighth year was educated at the Benedictine cloister of
+Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of the count of Sponheim, whom she
+succeeded as abbess in 1136. From earliest childhood she was accustomed
+to see visions, which increased in frequency and vividness as she
+approached the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years kept
+almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-third year
+(1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them. Committed to writing
+by her intimate friend the monk Godefridus, they now form the first and
+most important of her printed works, entitled _Scivias_ (probably an
+abbreviation for "sciens vias" or "nosce vias Domini") _s. visionum et
+revelatianum libri iii._, and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of
+Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard of
+Hildegard's revelations, and became so convinced of their reality that
+he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknowledging her as a
+prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated her recognition as
+such by his friend and former pupil Pope Eugenius III. in the synod of
+Treves (1148). In the same year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen
+of her nuns to a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which
+she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of voluminous
+correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys, in the course of
+which she was unwearied in the exercise of her gift of prophecy, she
+wielded for many years an increasing influence upon her
+contemporaries--an influence doubtless due to the fact that she was
+imbued with the most widely diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and
+hopes, of her time. Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV.
+and Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and also the
+theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted numerous questions in
+dogmatic theology for her determination. She died in 1179, but has never
+been canonized; her name, however, was received into the Roman
+martyrology in the 15th century, September 17th being the day fixed for
+her commemoration.
+
+  Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Godefridus and
+  Theodoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566. Hildegard's
+  writings, besides the _Scivias_ already mentioned and first printed in
+  Paris in 1513, include the _Liber divinorum operum_, _Explanatio
+  regulae S. Benedicti_, _Physica_ and _the Letters_, &c., are contained
+  in Migne, _Patr. Lat._ t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra's _Analecta
+  sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis opera_ (Paris,
+  1882).
+
+  For a modern study of the saint's writings, see _Sainte Hildegarde_ by
+  Pal Franche, "_Les Saints_" series (Paris, 1903); and U. Chevalier,
+  _Repertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl._ 2153.
+
+
+
+
+HILDEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province on the Itter, 9 m. S.E. of
+Dusseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,946. It possesses an Evangelical and
+a Roman Catholic church and a monument to the emperor William I. Its
+manufactures include silks, velvets, carpets, calico-printing, machinery
+and brick-making.
+
+
+
+
+HILDESHEIM, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Hanover, beautifully situated at the north foot of the Harz
+Mountains, on the right bank of the Innerste, 18 m. S.E. of Hanover by
+railway, and on the main line from Berlin, via Magdeburg to Cologne.
+Pop. (1885) 20,386, (1905) 47,060. The town consists of an old and a new
+part, and is surrounded by ramparts which have been converted into
+promenades. Its streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, and
+contain many old houses with overhanging upper storeys and richly and
+curiously adorned wooden facades. Its religious edifices are five Roman
+Catholic and four Evangelical churches and a synagogue. The most
+interesting is the Roman Catholic cathedral, which dates from the middle
+of the 11th century and occupies the site of a building founded by the
+emperor Louis the Pious early in the 9th century. It is famous for its
+antiquities and works of art. These include the bronze doors executed by
+Bishop Bernward, with reliefs from the history of Adam and of Jesus
+Christ; a brazen font of the 13th century; two large candelabra of the
+11th century; the sarcophagus of St Godehard; and the tomb of St
+Epiphanius. In the cathedral also there is a bronze column 15 ft. high,
+adorned with reliefs from the life of Christ and dating from 1022, and
+another column, at one time thought to be an Irminsaule erected in
+honour of the Saxon idol Irmin, but now regarded as belonging to a Roman
+aqueduct. On the wall of the Romanesque crypt, which was restored in
+1896, is a rose-bush, alleged to be a thousand years old; this sends its
+branches to a height of 24 ft. and a breadth of 30 ft., and they are
+trained to interlace one of the windows. Before the cathedral is the
+pretty cloister garth, with the chapel of St Anne, erected in 1321 and
+restored in 1888. The Romanesque church of St Godehard was built in the
+12th century and restored in the 19th. The church of St Michael, founded
+by Bishop Bernward early in the 11th century and restored after injury
+by fire in 1186, contains a unique painted ceiling of the 12th century,
+the sarcophagus and monument of Bishop Bernward, and a bronze font; it
+is now a Protestant parish church, but the crypt is used by the Roman
+Catholics. The church of the Magdalene possesses two candelabra, a gold
+cross, and various other works in metal by Bishop Bernward; and the
+Lutheran church of St Andrew has a choir dating from 1389 and a tower
+385 ft. high. In the suburb of Moritzberg there is an abbey church
+founded in 1040, the only pure columnar basilica in north Germany.
+
+The chief secular buildings are the town-hall (Rathaus), which dates
+from the 15th century and was restored in 1883-1892, adorned with
+frescoes illustrating the history of the city; the Tempelherrenhaus, in
+Late Gothic erroneously said to have been built by the Knights Templars;
+the Knochenhaueramthaus, formerly the gild-house of the butchers, which
+was restored after being damaged by fire in 1884, and is probably the
+finest specimen of a wooden building in Germany; the Michaelis
+monastery, used as a lunatic asylum; and the old Carthusian monastery.
+The Romer museum of antiquities and natural history is housed in the
+former church of St Martin; the buildings of Trinity hospital, partly
+dating from the 14th century, are now a factory; and the Wedekindhaus
+(1598) is now a savings-bank. The educational establishments include a
+Roman Catholic and a Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school and
+college and two technical institutions, the Georgstift for daughters of
+state servants and a conservatoire of music. Hildesheim is the seat of
+considerable industry. Its chief productions are sugar, tobacco and
+cigars, stoves, machines, vehicles, agricultural implements and bricks.
+Other trades are brewing and tanning. It is connected with Hanover by an
+electric tram line, 19 m. in length.
+
+Hildesheim owes its rise and prosperity to the fact that in 822 it was
+made the seat of the bishopric which Charlemagne had founded at Elze a
+few years before. Its importance was greatly increased by St Bernward,
+who was bishop from 993 to 1022 and walled the town. By his example and
+patronage the art of working in metals was greatly stimulated. In the
+13th century Hildesheim became a free city of the Empire; in 1249 it
+received municipal rights and about the same time it joined the
+Hanseatic league. Several of its bishops belonged to one or other of the
+great families of Germany; and gradually they became practically
+independent. The citizens were frequently quarrelling with the bishops,
+who also carried on wars with neighbouring princes, especially with the
+house of Brunswick-Luneburg, under whose protection Hildesheim placed
+itself several times. The most celebrated of these struggles is the one
+known as the _Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde_, which broke out early in the
+16th century when John, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was bishop. At first the
+bishop and his allies were successful, but in 1521 the king of Denmark
+and the duke of Brunswick overran his lands and in 1523 he made peace,
+surrendering nearly all his possessions. Much, however, was restored
+when Ferdinand, prince of Bavaria, was bishop (1612-1650), as this
+warlike prelate took advantage of the disturbances caused by the Thirty
+Years' War to seize the lost lands, and at the beginning of the 19th
+century the extent of the prince bishopric was 682 sq. m. In 1801 the
+bishopric was secularized and in 1803 was granted to Prussia; in 1807 it
+was incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia and in 1813 was
+transferred to Hanover. In 1866, along with Hanover, it was annexed by
+Prussia. In 1803 a new bishopric of Hildesheim, a spiritual organization
+only, was established, and this has jurisdiction over all the Roman
+Catholic churches in the centre of north Germany.
+
+In October 1868 a unique collection of ancient Augustan silver plate was
+discovered on the Galgenberg near Hildesheim by some soldiers who were
+throwing up earthworks. This _Hildesheimer Silberfund_ excited great
+interest among classical archaeologists. Some authorities think that it
+is the actual plate which belonged to Drusus himself. The most
+noteworthy pieces are a crater richly ornamented with arabesques and
+figures of children, a platter with a representation of Minerva, another
+with one of the boy Hercules and another with one of Cybele. The
+collection is in the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin.
+
+  See the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim_, edited by R. Dobner
+  (Hildesheim, 1881-1901); the _Urkundenbuch des Hochstifts Hildesheim_,
+  edited by K. Janicke and H. Hoogeweg (Leipzig and Hanover, 1896-1903);
+  C. Bauer, _Geschichte von Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1892); A. Bertram,
+  _Geschichte des Bistums Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1899 fol.); C.
+  Euling, _Hildesheimer Land und Leute des 16ten Jahrhunderts_
+  (Hildesheim, 1892); O. Fischer, _Die Stadt Hildesheim wahrend des
+  dreissigjahrigen Krieges_ (Hildesheim, 1897); A. Grebe, _Auf
+  Hildesheimschem Boden_ (Hildesheim, 1884); H. Cuno, _Hildesheims
+  Kunstler im Mittelalter_ (Hildesheim, 1886); W. Wachsmuth,
+  _Geschichte von Hochstift und Stadt Hildesheim_ (Hildesheim, 1863); R.
+  Dobner, _Studien zur Hildesheimischen Geschichte_ (Hildesheim, 1901);
+  Lachner, _Die Holzarchitektur Hildesheims_ (Hildesheim, 1882);
+  Seifart, _Sagen, Marchen, Schwanke und Gebrauche aus Stadt und Stift
+  Hildesheims_ (Hildesheim, 1889). For the _Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde_,
+  see H. Delius, _Die Hildesheimische Stiftsfehde_ 1519 (Leipzig, 1803).
+  For the _Hildesheimer Silberfund_, see Wieseler, _Der Hildesheimer
+  Silberfund_ (Gottingen, 1869); Holzer, _Der Hildesheimer antike
+  Silberfund_ (Hildesheim, 1871); and E. Pernice and F. Winter, _Der
+  Hildesheimer Silberfund der koniglichen Museen zu Berlin_ (Berlin,
+  1901).
+
+
+
+
+HILDRETH, RICHARD (1807-1865), American journalist and author, was born
+at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of June 1807, the son of Hosea
+Hildreth (1782-1835), a teacher of mathematics and later a
+Congregational minister. Richard graduated at Harvard in 1826, and,
+after studying law at Newburyport, was admitted to the bar at Boston in
+1830. He had already taken to journalism, and in 1832 he became joint
+founder and editor of a daily newspaper, the Boston Atlas. Having in
+1834 gone to the South for the benefit of his health, he was led by what
+he witnessed of the evils of slavery (chiefly in Florida) to write the
+anti-slavery novel _The Slave: or Memoir of Archy Moore_ (1836; enlarged
+edition, 1852, _The White Slave_). In 1837 he wrote for the _Atlas_ a
+series of articles vigorously opposing the annexation of Texas. In the
+same year he published _Banks, Banking, and Paper Currencies_, a work
+which helped to promote the growth of the free banking system in
+America. In 1838 he resumed his editorial duties on the _Atlas_, but in
+1840 removed, on account of his health, to British Guiana, where he
+lived for three years and was editor of two weekly newspapers in
+succession at Georgetown. He published in this year (1840) a volume in
+opposition to slavery, _Despotism in America_ (2nd ed., 1854). In 1849
+he published the first three volumes of his _History of the United
+States_, two more volumes of which were published in 1851 and the sixth
+and last in 1852. The first three volumes of this history, his most
+important work, deal with the period 1492-1789, and the second three
+with the period 1789-1821. The history is notable for its painstaking
+accuracy and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist
+bias. Hildreth's _Japan as It Was and Is_ (1855) was at the time a
+valuable digest of the information contained in other works on that
+country (new ed., 1906). He also wrote a campaign biography of William
+Henry Harrison (1839); _Theory of Morals_ (1844); and _Theory of
+Politics_ (1853), as well as _Lives of Atrocious Judges_ (1856),
+compiled from Lord Campbell's two works. In 1861 he was appointed United
+States consul at Trieste, but ill-health compelled him to resign and
+remove to Florence, where he died on the 11th of July 1865.
+
+
+
+
+HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH (1823-1907), German Protestant
+divine, was born at Stappenbeck near Salzwedel in Prussian Saxony on the
+2nd of June 1823. He studied at Berlin and Halle, and in 1890 became
+professor ordinarius of theology at Jena. He belonged to the Tubingen
+school. "Fond of emphasizing his independence of Baur, he still, in all
+important points, followed in the footsteps of his master; his method,
+which he is wont to contrast as _Literarkritik_ with Baur's
+_Tendenzkritik_, is nevertheless essentially the same as Baur's" (Otto
+Pfleiderer). On the whole, however, he modified the positions of the
+founder of the Tubingen school, going beyond him only in his
+investigations into the Fourth Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the
+_Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_. He died on the 12th of
+January 1907.
+
+  His works include: _Die elementarischen Recognitionen und Homilien_
+  (1848); _Die Evangelien und die Briefe des Johannes nach ihrem
+  Lehrbegriff_ (1849); _Das Markusevangelium_ (1850); _Die Evangelien
+  nach ihrer Entstehung und geschichtlichen Bedeutung_ (1854); _Das
+  Unchristentum_ (1855); _Jud. Apokalyptik_ (1857); _Novum Testamentum
+  extra canonem receptum_ (4 parts, 1866; 2nd ed., 1876-1884);
+  _Histor.-kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1875); _Acta
+  Apostolorum graece et latine secundum antiquissimos testes_ (1899);
+  the first complete edition of the _Shepherd of Hermas_ (1887);
+  _Ignatii et Polycarpi epistolae_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, AARON (1685-1750), English author, was born in London on the 10th
+of February 1685. He was the son of George Hill of Malmesbury Abbey,
+Wiltshire, who contrived to sell an estate entailed on his son. In his
+fourteenth year he left Westminster School to go to Constantinople,
+where William, Lord Paget de Beaudesert (1637-1713), a relative of his
+mother, was ambassador. Paget sent him, under care of a tutor, to travel
+in Palestine and Egypt, and he returned to England in 1703. He was
+estranged from his patron by the "envious fears and malice of a certain
+female," and again went abroad as companion to Sir William Wentworth. On
+his return home in 1709 he published _A Full and Just Account of the
+Present State of the Ottoman Empire_, a production of which he was
+afterwards much ashamed, and he addressed his poem of _Camillus_ to
+Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough. In the same year he is said to
+have been manager of Drury Lane theatre and in 1710 of the Haymarket.
+His first play, _Elfrid: or The Fair Inconstant_ (afterwards revised as
+_Athelwold_), was produced at Drury Lane in 1709. His connexion with the
+theatre was of short duration, and the rest of his life was spent in
+ingenious commercial enterprises, none of which were successful, and in
+literary pursuits. He formed a company to extract oil from beechmast,
+another for the colonization of the district to be known later as
+Georgia, a third to supply wood for naval construction from Scotland,
+and a fourth for the manufacture of potash. In 1730 he wrote _The
+Progress of Wit, being a caveat for the use of an Eminent Writer_. The
+"eminent writer" was Pope, who had introduced him into _The Dunciad_ as
+one of the competitors for the prize offered by the goddess of Dullness,
+though the satire was qualified by an oblique compliment. A note in the
+edition of 1729 on the obnoxious passage, in which, however, the
+original initial was replaced by asterisks, gave Hill great offence. He
+wrote to Pope complaining of his treatment, and received a reply in
+which Pope denied responsibility for the notes. Hill appears to have
+been a persistent correspondent, and inflicted on Pope a series of
+letters, which are printed in Elwin & Courthope's edition (x. 1-78).
+Hill died on the 8th of February 1750, and was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. The best of his plays were _Zara_ (acted 1735) and _Merope_
+(1749), both adaptations from Voltaire. He also published two series of
+periodical essays, _The Prompter_ (1735) and, with William Bond, _The
+Plaindealer_ (1724). He was generous to fellow-men of letters, and his
+letters to Richard Savage, whom he helped considerably, show his
+character in a very amiable light.
+
+  _The Works of the late Aaron Hill, consisting of letters ..., original
+  poems.... With an essay on the Art of Acting_ appeared in 1753, and
+  his _Dramatic Works_ in 1760. His _Poetical Works_ are included in
+  Anderson's and other editions of the British poets. A full account of
+  his life is provided by an anonymous writer in Theophilus Cibber's
+  _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, AMBROSE POWELL (1825-1865), American Confederate soldier, was born
+in Culpeper county, Virginia, on the 9th of November 1825, and graduated
+from West Point in 1847, being appointed to the 1st U.S. artillery. He
+served in the Mexican and Seminole Wars, was promoted first lieutenant
+in September 1851, and in 1855-1860 was employed on the United States'
+coast survey. In March 1861, just before the outbreak of the Civil War,
+he resigned his commission, and when his state seceded he was made
+colonel of a Virginian infantry regiment, winning promotion to the rank
+of brigadier-general on the field of Bull Run. In the Peninsular
+campaign of 1862 he gained further promotion, and as a major-general
+Hill was one of the most prominent and successful divisional commanders
+of Lee's army in the Seven Days', Second Bull Run, Antietam and
+Fredericksburg campaigns. His division formed part of "Stonewall"
+Jackson's corps, and he was severely wounded in the flank attack of
+Chancellorsville in May 1863. After Jackson's death Hill was made a
+lieutenant-general and placed in command of the 3rd corps of Lee's army,
+which he led in the Gettysburg campaign of 1863, the autumn campaign of
+the same year, and the Wilderness and Petersburg operations of 1864-65.
+He was killed in front of the Petersburg lines on the 2nd of April 1865.
+His reputation as a troop leader in battle was one of the highest
+amongst the generals of both sides, and both Lee and Jackson, when on
+their death-beds their thoughts wandered in delirium to the battlefield,
+called for "A. P. Hill" to deliver the decisive blow.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889), American Confederate soldier, was born
+in York district, South Carolina, on the 12th of July 1821, and
+graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842, being appointed
+to the 1st United States artillery. He distinguished himself in the
+Mexican War, being breveted captain and major for bravery at Contreras
+and Churubusco and at Chapultepec respectively. In February 1849 he
+resigned his commission and became a professor of mathematics at
+Washington College (now Washington and Lee University), Lexington,
+Virginia. In 1854 he joined the faculty of Davidson College, North
+Carolina, and was in 1859 made superintendent of the North Carolina
+Military Institute of Charlotte. At the outbreak of the Civil War, D. H.
+Hill was made colonel of a Confederate infantry regiment, at the head of
+which he won the action of Big Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, Va., on the
+10th of June 1861. Shortly after this he was made a brigadier-general.
+He took part in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations in the spring
+of 1862, and as a major-general led a division with great distinction in
+the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days. He took part in the Second
+Bull Run campaign in August-September 1862, and in the Antietam campaign
+the stubborn resistance of D. H. Hill's division in the passes of South
+Mountain enabled Lee to concentrate for battle. The division bore a
+conspicuous part in the battles of the Antietam and Fredericksburg. On
+the reorganization of the army of Northern Virginia after Jackson's
+death, D. H. Hill was not appointed to a corps command, but somewhat
+later in 1863 he was sent to the west as a lieutenant-general and
+commanded one of Bragg's corps in the brilliant victory of Chickamauga.
+D. H. Hill surrendered with Gen. J. E. Johnston on the 26th of April
+1865. In 1866-1869 he edited a magazine, _The Land we Love_, at
+Charlotte, N.C., which dealt with social and historical subjects and had
+a great influence in the South. In 1877 he became president of the
+university of Arkansas, a post which he held until 1884, and in 1885
+president of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville,
+Georgia. General Hill died at Charlotte, N.C., on the 24th of September
+1889.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843-1910), American politician, was born at
+Havana, New York, on the 29th of August 1843. In 1862 he removed to
+Elmira, New York, where in 1864 he was admitted to the bar. He at once
+became active in the affairs of the Democratic party, attracting the
+attention of Samuel J. Tilden, one of whose shrewdest and ablest
+lieutenants he became. In 1871 and 1872 he was a member of the New York
+State Assembly, and in 1877 and again in 1881, presided over the
+Democratic State Convention. In 1882 he was elected mayor of Elmira, and
+in the same year was chosen lieutenant-governor of the state, having
+been defeated for nomination as governor by Grover Cleveland. In January
+1885, however, Cleveland having resigned to become president, Hill
+became governor, and in November was elected for a three-year term, and
+subsequently re-elected. In 1891-1897 he was a member of the United
+States Senate. During these years, and in 1892, when he tried to get the
+presidential nomination, he was prominent in working against Cleveland.
+In 1896 he opposed the free silver plank in the platform adopted by the
+Democratic National Convention which nominated W. J. Bryan; in the
+National Convention of 1900, however, the free-silver issue having been
+subordinated to anti-imperialism, he seconded Bryan's nomination. After
+1897 he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1905 retired from
+politics. He died in Albany on the 30th of October 1910.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903), English author, son of Arthur
+Hill, head master of Bruce Castle school, was born at Tottenham,
+Middlesex, on the 7th of June 1835. Arthur Hill, with his brothers
+Rowland Hill, the postal reformer, and Matthew Davenport Hill,
+afterwards recorder of Birmingham, had worked out a system of education
+which was to exclude compulsion of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle,
+of which Arthur Hill was head master, was founded to carry into
+execution their theories, known as the Hazelwood system. George Birkbeck
+Hill was educated in his father's school and at Pembroke College,
+Oxford. In 1858 he began to teach at Bruce Castle school, and from 1868
+to 1877 was head master. In 1869 he became a regular contributor to the
+_Saturday Review_, with which he remained in connexion until 1884. On
+his retirement from teaching he devoted himself to the study of English
+18th-century literature, and established his reputation as the most
+learned commentator on the works of Samuel Johnson. He settled at Oxford
+in 1887, but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad. He
+died at Hampstead, London, on the 27th of February 1903. His works
+include: _Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics_ (1878); an edition of
+Boswell's _Correspondence_ (1879); a laborious edition of _Boswell's
+Life of Johnson, including Boswell's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides,
+and Johnson's Diary of a Journey into North Wales_ (Clarendon Press, 6
+vols., 1887); _Wit and Wisdom of Samuel Johnson_ (1888); _Select Essays
+of Dr Johnson_ (1889); _Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland_ (1890);
+_Letters of Johnson_ (1892); _Johnsonian Miscellanies_ (2 vols., 1897);
+an edition (1900) of Edward Gibbon's _Autobiography_; Johnson's _Lives
+of the Poets_ (3 vols., 1905), and other works on the 18th-century
+topics. Dr Birkbeck Hill's elaborate edition of Boswell's _Life_ is a
+monumental work, invaluable to the student.
+
+  See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition of
+  the _Lives of the English Poets_ (1905), and the _Letters_ edited by
+  his daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, JAMES J. (1838-   ), American railway capitalist, was born near
+Guelph, Ontario, Canada, on the 16th of September 1838, and was educated
+at Rockwood (Ont.) Academy, a Quaker institution. In 1856 he settled in
+St Paul, Minnesota. Abandoning, because of his father's death, his plans
+to study medicine, he became a clerk in the office of a firm of river
+steamboat agents and shippers, and later the agent for a line of river
+packets; he established about 1870 transportation lines on the
+Mississippi and on the Red River (of the North). He effected a traffic
+arrangement between the St Paul Pacific Railroad and his steamboat
+lines; and when the railway failed in 1873 for $27,000,000, Hill
+interested Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), George Stephen (Lord
+Mount Stephen), and other Canadian capitalists, in the road and in the
+wheat country of the Red River Valley; he got control of the bonds
+(1878), foreclosed the mortgage, reorganized the road as the St Paul,
+Minneapolis & Manitoba, and began to extend the line, then only 380 m.
+long, toward the Pacific; and in 1883 he became its president. He was
+president of the Great Northern Railway (comprehending all his secondary
+lines) from 1893 to April 1907, when he became chairman of its board of
+directors. In the extension (1883-1893) of this railway westward to
+Puget Sound (whence it has direct steamship connexions with China and
+Japan), the line was built by the company itself, none of the work being
+handled by contractors. Subsequently his financial interests in American
+railways caused constant sensations in the stock-markets. The Hill
+interests obtained control not only of the Great-Northern system, but of
+the Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and proposed
+the construction of another northern line to the Pacific coast. Hill was
+the president of the Northern Securities Company, which in 1904 was
+declared by the United States Supreme Court to be in conflict with the
+Sherman Anti-Trust Law. (See Vol. 27, p. 733.) Among Hill's gifts to
+public institutions was one of $500,000 to the St. Paul Theological
+Seminary (Roman Catholic).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775), called from his Swedish honours, "Sir" John
+Hill, English author, son of the Rev. Theophilus Hill, is said to have
+been born in Peterborough in 1716. He was apprenticed to an apothecary
+and on the completion of his apprenticeship he set up in a small shop in
+St Martin's Lane, Westminster. He also travelled over the country in
+search of rare herbs, with a view to publishing a _hortus siccus_, but
+the plan failed. His first publication was a translation of
+Theophrastus's _History of Stones_ (1746). From this time forward he was
+an indefatigable writer. He edited the _British Magazine_ (1746-1750),
+and for two years (1751-1753) he wrote a daily letter, "The Inspector,"
+for the _London Advertiser and Literary Gazette_. He also produced
+novels, plays and scientific works, and was a large contributor to the
+supplement of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_. His personal and
+scurrilous writings involved him in many quarrels. Henry Fielding
+attacked him in the _Covent Garden Journal_, Christopher Smart wrote a
+mock-epic, _The Hilliad_, against him, and David Garrick replied to his
+strictures against him by two epigrams, one of which runs:--
+
+  "For physics and farces, his equal there scarce is;
+   His farces are physic, his physic a farce is."
+
+He had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who accused him
+of plagiarizing his _Orpheus_, also with Samuel Foote and Henry
+Woodward. From 1759 to 1775 he was engaged on a huge botanical
+work--_The Vegetable System_ (26 vols. fol.)--adorned by 1600
+copperplate engravings. Hill's botanical labours were undertaken at the
+request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the order of
+Vasa from the king of Sweden in 1774. He had a medical degree from
+Edinburgh, and he now practised as a quack doctor, making considerable
+sums by the preparation of vegetable medicines. He died in London on the
+21st of November 1775.
+
+  Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_, the most valuable are those that
+  deal with botany. He is said to have been the author of the second
+  part of _The Oeconomy of Human Life_ (1751), the first part of which
+  is by Lord Chesterfield, and Hannah Glasse's famous manual of cookery
+  was generally ascribed to him (see Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 285). Dr
+  Johnson said of him that he was "an ingenious man, but had no
+  veracity."
+
+  See a _Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late
+  Sir John Hill_ (1779), which is chiefly occupied with a descriptive
+  catalogue of his works; also _Temple Bar_ (1872, xxxv. 261-266).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872), English lawyer and penologist, was
+born on the 6th of August 1792, at Birmingham, where his father, T. W.
+Hill, for long conducted a private school. He was a brother of Sir
+Rowland Hill. He early acted as assistant in his father's school, but in
+1819 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. He went the midland
+circuit. In 1832 he was elected one of the Liberal members for
+Kingston-upon-Hull, but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834.
+On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was chosen recorder; and
+in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in bankruptcy for the Bristol
+district. Having had his interest excited in questions relating to the
+treatment of criminal offenders, he ventilated in his charges to the
+grand juries, as well as in special pamphlets, opinions which were the
+means of introducing many important reforms in the methods of dealing
+with crime. One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his
+brother Frederick Hill (1803-1896), whose _Amount, Causes and Remedies
+of Crime_, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons for
+Scotland, marked an era in the methods of prison discipline. Hill was
+one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
+Knowledge, and the originator of the _Penny Magazine_. He died at
+Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 7th of June 1872.
+
+  His principal works are _Practical Suggestions to the Founders of
+  Reformatory Schools_ (1855); _Suggestions for the Repression of Crime_
+  (1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of
+  Birmingham; _Mettray_ (1855); _Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts_
+  (1864); _Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and
+  Reformatories of Dublin_ (1865); _Addresses delivered at the
+  Birmingham and Midland Institute_ (1867). See _Memoir of Matthew
+  Davenport Hill_, by his daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport Hill
+  (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, OCTAVIA (1838-   ) and MIRANDA (1836-1910), English philanthropic
+workers, were born in London, being daughters of Mr James Hill and
+granddaughters of Dr Southwood Smith, the pioneer of sanitary reform.
+Miss Octavia Hill's attention was early drawn to the evils of London
+housing, and the habits of indolence and lethargy induced in many of the
+lower classes by their degrading surroundings. She conceived the idea of
+trying to free a few poor people from such influences, and Mr Ruskin,
+who sympathized with her plans, supplied the money for starting the
+work. For L750 Miss Hill purchased the 56 years' lease of three houses
+in one of the poorest courts of Marylebone. Another L78 was spent in
+building a large room at the back of her own house where she could meet
+the tenants. The houses were put in repair, and let out in sets of two
+rooms. At the end of eighteen months it was possible to pay 5%
+interest, to repay L48 of the capital, as well as meet all expenses for
+taxes, ground rent and insurance. What specially distinguished this
+scheme was that Miss Hill herself collected the rents, thus coming into
+contact with the tenants and helping to enforce regular and
+self-respecting habits. The success of her first attempt encouraged her
+to continue. Six more houses were bought and treated in a similar
+manner. A yearly sum was set aside for the repairs of each house, and
+whatever remained over was spent on such additional appliances as the
+tenants themselves desired. This encouraged them to keep their tenements
+in good repair. By the help of friends Miss Hill was now enabled to
+enlarge the scope of her work. In 1869 eleven more houses were bought.
+The plan was to set a visitor over a small court or block of buildings
+to do whatever work in the way of rent-collecting, visiting for the
+School Board, &c., was required. As years went on Miss Octavia Hill's
+work was largely increased. Numbers of her friends bought and placed
+under her care small groups of houses, over which she fulfilled the
+duties of a conscientious landlord. Several large owners of tenement
+houses, notably the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, entrusted to her the
+management of such property, and consulted her about plans of
+rebuilding; and a number of fellow-workers were trained by her in the
+management of houses for the poor. The results in Southwark (where Red
+Cross Hall was established) and elsewhere were very beneficial. Both
+Miss Miranda and Miss Octavia Hill took an interest in the movement for
+bringing beauty into the homes of the poor, and the former was
+practically the founder of the Kyrle Society, the first suggestion of
+which was contained in a paper read to a small circle of friends. Both
+sisters worked for the preservation of open spaces, and helped to
+promote the work of the Charity Organization Society, and for several
+years Miss Miranda Hill (who died on the 31st of May 1910) did admirable
+work in Marylebone as a member of the Board of Guardians.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, ROWLAND (1744-1833), English preacher, sixth son of Sir Rowland
+Hill, Bart. (d. 1783), was born at Hawkstone, Shropshire, on the 23rd of
+August 1744. He was educated at Shrewsbury, Eton and St John's College,
+Cambridge. Stimulated by George Whitefield's example, he scandalized the
+university authorities and his own friends by preaching and visiting the
+sick before he had taken orders. In 1773 he was appointed to the parish
+of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he soon attracted great crowds to his
+open-air services. Having inherited considerable property, he built for
+his own use Surrey Chapel, in the Blackfriars Road, London (1783). Hill
+conducted his services in accordance with the forms of the Church of
+England, in whose communion he always remained. Both at Surrey Chapel
+and in his provincial "gospel tours" he had great success. His oratory
+was specially adapted for rude and uncultivated audiences. He possessed
+a voice of great power, and according to Southey "his manner" was "that
+of a performer as great in his own line as Kean or Kemble." His earnest
+and pure purposes more than made up for his occasional lapses from good
+taste and the eccentricity of his wit. He helped to found the Religious
+Tract Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the London
+Missionary Society, and was a stout advocate of vaccination. His
+best-known work is the _Village Dialogues_, which first appeared in
+1810, and reached a 34th edition in 1839. He died on the 11th of April
+1833.
+
+  See _Life_ by E. Sidney (1833); _Memoirs_, by William Jones (1834);
+  and _Memorials_, by Jas. Sherman (1857).
+
+
+
+
+HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879), English administrator, author of the
+penny postal system, a younger brother of Matthew Davenport Hill, and
+third son of T. W. Hill, who named him after Rowland Hill the preacher,
+was born on the 3rd of December 1795 at Kidderminster. As a young child
+he had, on account of an affection of the spine, to maintain a recumbent
+position, and his principal method of relieving the irksomeness of his
+situation was to repeat figures aloud consecutively until he had reached
+very high totals. A similar bent of mind was manifested when he entered
+school in 1802, his aptitude for mathematics being quite exceptional.
+But he was indebted for the direction of his abilities in no small
+degree to the guidance of his father, a man of advanced political and
+social views, which were qualified and balanced by the strong practical
+tendency of his mind. At the age of twelve Rowland began to assist in
+teaching mathematics in his father's school at Hilltop, Birmingham, and
+latterly he had the chief management of the school. On his suggestion
+the establishment was removed in 1819 to Hazelwood, a more commodious
+building in the Hagley Road, in order to have the advantages of a large
+body of boys, for the purpose of properly carrying out an improved
+system of education. That system, which was devised principally by
+Rowland, was expounded in a pamphlet entitled _Plans for the Government
+and Education of Boys in Large Numbers_, the first edition of which
+appeared in 1822, and a second with additions in 1827. The principal
+feature of the system was "to leave as much as possible all power in the
+hands of the boys themselves"; and it was so successful that, in a
+circular issued six years after the experiment had been in operation, it
+was announced that "the head master had never once exercised his right
+of veto on their proceedings." It may be said that Rowland Hill, as an
+educationist, is entitled to a place side by side with Arnold of Rugby,
+and was equally successful with him in making moral influence of the
+highest kind the predominant power in school discipline. After his
+marriage in 1827 Hill removed to a new school at Bruce Castle,
+Tottenham, which he conducted until failing health compelled him to
+retire in 1833. About this time he became secretary of Gibbon
+Wakefield's scheme for colonizing South Australia, the objects of which
+he explained in 1832 in a pamphlet on _Home Colonies_, afterwards partly
+reprinted during the Irish famine under the title _Home Colonies for
+Ireland_. It was in 1835 that his zeal as an administrative reformer was
+first directed to the postal system. The discovery which resulted from
+these investigations is when stated so easy of comprehension that there
+is great danger of losing sight of its originality and thoroughness. A
+fact which enhances its merit was that he was not a post-office
+official, and possessed no practical experience of the details of the
+old system. After a laborious collection of statistics he succeeded in
+demonstrating that the principal expense of letter carriage was in
+receiving and distributing, and that the cost of conveyance differed so
+little with the distance that a uniform rate of postage was in reality
+the fairest to all parties that could be adopted. Trusting also that the
+deficiency in the postal rate would be made up by the immense increase
+of correspondence, and by the saving which would be obtained from
+prepayment, from improved methods of keeping accounts, and from
+lessening the expense of distribution, he in his famous pamphlet
+published in 1837 recommended that within the United Kingdom the rate
+for letters not exceeding half an ounce in weight should be only one
+penny. The employment of postage stamps is mentioned only as a
+suggestion, and in the following words: "Perhaps the difficulties might
+be obviated by using a bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp,
+and covered at the back with a glutinous wash which by applying a little
+moisture might be attached to the back of the letter." Proposals so
+striking and novel in regard to a subject in which every one had a
+personal interest commanded immediate and general attention. So great
+became the pressure of public opinion against the opposition offered to
+the measure by official prepossessions and prejudices that in 1838 the
+House of Commons appointed a committee to examine the subject. The
+committee having reported favourably, a bill to carry out Hill's
+recommendations was brought in by the government. The act received the
+royal assent in 1839, and after an intermediate rate of four-pence had
+been in operation from the 5th of December of that year, the penny rate
+commenced on the 10th of January 1840. Hill received an appointment in
+the Treasury in order to superintend the introduction of his reforms,
+but he was compelled to retire when the Liberal government resigned
+office in 1841. In consideration of the loss he thus sustained, and to
+mark the public appreciation of his services, he was in 1846 presented
+with the sum of L13,360. On the Liberals returning to office in the
+same year he was appointed secretary to the postmaster-general and in
+1854 he was made chief secretary. His ability as a practical
+administrator enabled him to supplement his original discovery by
+measures realizing its benefits in a degree commensurate with
+continually improving facilities of communication, and in a manner best
+combining cheapness with efficiency. In 1860 his services were rewarded
+with the honour of knighthood; and when failing health compelled him to
+resign his office in 1864, he received from parliament a grant of
+L20,000 and was also allowed to retain his full salary of L2000 a year
+as retiring pension. In 1864 the university of Oxford conferred on him
+the degree of D.C.L., and on the 6th of June 1879 he was presented with
+the freedom of the city of London. The presentation, on account of his
+infirm health, took place at his residence at Hampstead, and he died on
+the 27th of August following. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+  He wrote, in conjunction with his brother, Arthur Hill, a _History of
+  Penny Postage_, published in 1880, with an introductory memoir by his
+  nephew, G. Birkbeck Hill. See also _Sir Rowland Hill, the Story of a
+  Great Reform_, told by his daughter (1907). To commemorate his memory
+  the Rowland Hill Memorial and Benevolent Fund was founded shortly
+  after his death for the purpose of relieving distressed persons
+  connected with the post office who were outside the scope of the
+  Superannuation Act. See also POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.
+
+
+
+
+HILL, ROWLAND HILL, 1ST VISCOUNT (1772-1842), British general, was the
+second son of (Sir) John Hill, of Hawkstone, Shropshire, and nephew of
+the Rev. Rowland Hill (1744-1833), was born at Prees Hall near Hawkstone
+on the 11th of August 1772. He was gazetted to the 38th regiment in
+1790, obtaining permission at the same time to study in a military
+academy at Strassburg, where he continued after removing into the 53rd
+regiment with the rank of lieutenant in 1791. In the beginning of 1793
+he raised a company, and was promoted to the rank of captain. The same
+year he acted as assistant secretary to the British minister at Genoa,
+and served with distinction as a staff officer in the siege of Toulon.
+Hill took part in many minor expeditions in the following years. In
+1800, when only twenty-eight, he was made a brevet colonel, and in 1801
+he served with distinction in Sir Ralph Abercromby's expedition to
+Egypt, and was wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He continued to
+command his regiment, the 90th, until 1803, when he became a
+brigadier-general. During his regimental command he introduced a
+regimental school and a sergeants' mess. He held various commands as
+brigadier, and after 1805 as major-general, in Ireland. In 1805 he
+commanded a brigade in the abortive Hanover expedition. In 1808 he was
+appointed to a brigade in the force sent to Portugal, and from Vimeira
+to Vittoria, in advance or retreat, he proved himself Wellington's
+ablest and most indefatigable coadjutor. He led a brigade at Vimeira, at
+Corunna and at Oporto, and a division at Talavera (see PENINSULAR WAR).
+His capacity for independent command was fully demonstrated in the
+campaigns of 1810, 1811 and 1812. In 1811 he annihilated a French
+detachment under Girard at Arroyo-dos-Molinos, and early in 1812, having
+now attained a rank of lieutenant-general (January 1812) and become a
+K.B. (March), he carried by assault the important works of Almaraz on
+the Tagus. Hill led the right wing of Wellington's army in the Salamanca
+campaign in 1812 and at the battle of Vittoria in 1813. Later in this
+year he conducted the investment of Pampeluna and fought with the
+greatest distinction at the Nivelle and the Nive. In the invasion of
+France in 1814 his corps was victoriously engaged both at Orthez and at
+Toulouse. Hill was one of the general officers rewarded for their
+services by peerages, his title being at first Baron Hill of Almaraz and
+Hawkstone, and he received a pension, the thanks of parliament and the
+freedom of the city of London. For about two years previous to his
+elevation to the peerage, he had been M.P. for Shrewsbury. In 1815 the
+news of Napoleon's return from Elba was followed by the assembly of an
+Anglo-Allied army (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN) in the Netherlands, and Hill
+was appointed to one of the two corps commands in this army. At Waterloo
+he led the famous charge of Sir Frederick Adams's brigade against the
+Imperial Guard, and for some time it was thought that he had fallen in
+the melee. He escaped, however, without a wound, and continued with the
+army in France until its withdrawal in 1818. Hill lived in retirement
+for some years at his estate of Hardwicke Grange. He carried the royal
+standard at the coronation of George IV. and became general in 1825.
+When Wellington became premier in 1828, he received the appointment of
+general commanding-in-chief, and on resigning this office in 1842 he was
+created a viscount. He died on the 10th of December of the same year.
+Lord Hill was, next to Wellington, the most popular and able soldier of
+his time in the British service, and was so much beloved by the troops,
+especially those under his immediate command, that he gained from them
+the title of "the soldier's friend." He was a G.C.B, and G.C.H., and
+held the grand crosses of various foreign orders, amongst them the
+Russian St George and the Austrian Maria Theresa.
+
+  The _Life of Lord Hill, G.C.B._, by Rev. Edwin Sidney, appeared in
+  1845.
+
+
+
+
+HILL (O. Eng. _hyll_; cf. Low Ger. _hull_, Mid. Dutch _hul_, allied to
+Lat. _celsus_, high, _collis_, hill, &c.), a natural elevation of the
+earth's surface. The term is now usually confined to elevations lower
+than a mountain, but formerly was used for all such elevations, high or
+low.
+
+
+
+
+HILLAH, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalik of Bagdad, 60 m. S. of
+the city of Bagdad, in 32 deg. 2' 35" N., 44 deg. 48' 40(1/2)" E.,
+formerly the capital of a sanjak and the residence of a mutasserif, who
+in 1893 was transferred to Diwanieh. It is situated on both banks of the
+Euphrates, the two parts of the town being connected by a floating
+bridge, 450 ft. in length, in the midst of a very fertile district. The
+estimated population, which includes a large number of Jews, varies from
+6000 to 12,000. The town has suffered much from the periodical breaking
+of the Hindieh dam and the consequent deflection of the waters of the
+Euphrates to the westward, as a result of which at times the Euphrates
+at this point has been entirely dry. This deflection of water has also
+seriously interfered with the palm groves, the cultivation of which
+constitutes a large part of the industry of the surrounding country
+along the river. The bazaars of Hillah are relatively large and well
+supplied. Many of the houses in the town are built of brick, not a few
+bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, obtained from the ruins of
+Babylon, which lie less than an hour away to the north.
+
+  Bibliography.--C. J. Rich, _Babylon and Persepolis_ (1839); J. R.
+  Peters, _Nippur_ (1857); H. Rassam, _Asshur and the Land of Nimrod_
+  (1897); H. V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_ (1904).     (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN (1808-1879), American lawyer and author, was
+born at Machias, Maine, on the 22nd of September 1808. After graduating
+at Harvard College in 1828, he taught in the Round Hill School at
+Northampton, Massachusetts. He graduated at the Harvard Law School in
+1832, and in 1833 he was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he entered
+into partnership with Charles Sumner. He was a member of the state House
+of Representatives in 1836, of the state Senate in 1850, and of the
+state constitutional convention of 1853, and in 1866-70 was United
+States district attorney for Massachusetts. He devoted a large portion
+of his time to literature. He became a member of the editorial staff of
+the _Christian Register_, a Unitarian weekly, in 1833; in 1834 he became
+editor of The _American Jurist_ (1829-1843), a legal journal to which
+Sumner, Simon Greenleaf and Theron Metcalf contributed; and from 1856 to
+1861 he was an associate editor of the Boston _Courier_. His
+publications include an edition of Edmund Spenser's works (in 5 vols.,
+1839); _Selections from the Writings of Walter Savage Landor_ (1856);
+_Six Months in Italy_ (2 vols., 1853); _Life and Campaigns of George B.
+McClellan_ (1864); a part of the _Life, Letters, and Journals of George
+Ticknor_ (1876); besides a series of school readers and many articles in
+periodicals and encyclopaedias. He died in Boston on the 21st of January
+1879.
+
+
+
+
+HILLEBRAND, KARL (1829-1884), German author, was born at Giessen on the
+17th of September 1829, his father Joseph Hillebrand (1788-1871) being a
+literary historian and writer on philosophic subjects. Karl Hillebrand
+became involved, as a student in Heidelberg, in the Baden revolutionary
+movement, and was imprisoned in Rastatt. He succeeded in escaping and
+lived for a time in Strassburg, Paris--where for several months he was
+Heine's secretary--and Bordeaux. He continued his studies, and after
+obtaining the doctor's degree at the Sorbonne, he was appointed teacher
+of German in the _Ecole militaire_ at St Cyr, and shortly afterwards,
+professor of foreign literatures at Douai. On the outbreak of the
+Franco-German War he resigned his professorship and acted for a time as
+correspondent to _The Times_ in Italy. He then settled in Florence, where
+he died on the 19th of October 1884. Hillebrand wrote with facility and
+elegance in French, English and Italian, besides his own language. His
+essays, collected under the title _Zeiten, Volker und Menschen_ (Berlin,
+1874-1885), show clear discernment, a finely balanced cosmopolitan
+judgment and grace of style. He undertook to write the _Geschichte
+Frankreichs von der Thronbesteigung Ludwig Philipps bis zum Fall
+Napoleons III._, but only two volumes were completed (to 1848) (2nd ed.,
+1881-1882). In French he published _Des conditions de la bonne comedie_
+(1863), _La Prusse contemporaine_ (1867), _Etudes italiennes_ (1868), and
+a translation of O. Muller's _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (3rd ed.,
+1883). In English he published his Royal Institution Lectures on _German
+Thought during the Last Two Hundred Years_ (1880). He also edited a
+collection of essays dealing with Italy, under the title _Italia_ (4
+vols., Leipzig, 1824-1877).
+
+  See H. Homberger, _Karl Hillebrand_ (Berlin, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HILLEL, Jewish rabbi, of Babylonian origin, lived at Jerusalem in the
+time of King Herod. Though hard pressed by poverty, he applied himself
+to study in the schools of Shemaiah and Abtalion (Sameas and Pollion in
+Josephus). On account of his comprehensive learning and his rare
+qualities he was numbered among the recognized leaders of the Pharisaic
+scribes. Tradition assigns him the highest dignity of the Sanhedrin,
+under the title of nasi ("prince"), about a hundred years before the
+destruction of Jerusalem, i.e. about 30 B.C. The date at least can be
+recognized as historic; the fact that Hillel took a leading position in
+the council can also be established. The epithet _ha-zaken_ ("the
+elder"), which usually accompanies his name, proves him to have been a
+member of the Sanhedrin, and according to a trustworthy authority Hillel
+filled his leading position for forty years, dying, therefore, about
+A.D. 10. His descendants remained, with few exceptions, at the head of
+Judaism in Palestine until the beginning of the 5th century, two of
+them, his grandson Gamaliel I. and the latter's son Simon, during the
+time when the Temple was still standing. The fact that Josephus (_Vita_
+38) ascribes to Simon descent from a very distinguished stock ([Greek:
+genous sphodra lamprou]), shows in what degree of estimation Hillel's
+descendants stood. When the dignity of _nasi_ became afterwards
+hereditary among them, Hillel's ancestry, perhaps on the ground of old
+family traditions, was traced back to David. Hillel is especially noted
+for the fact that he gave a definite form to the Jewish traditional
+learning, as it had been developed and made into the ruling and
+conserving factor of Judaism in the latter days of the second Temple,
+and particularly in the centuries following the destruction of the
+Temple. He laid down seven rules for the interpretation of the
+Scriptures, and these became the foundation of rabbinical hermeneutics;
+and the ordering of the traditional doctrines into a whole, effected in
+the Mishna by his successor Judah I., two hundred years after Hillel's
+death, was probably likewise due to his instigation. The tendency of his
+theory and practice in matters pertaining to the Law is evidenced by the
+fact that in general he advanced milder and more lenient views in
+opposition to his colleague Shammai, a contrast which after the death of
+the two masters, but not until after the destruction of the Temple, was
+maintained in the strife kept up between the two schools named the House
+of Hillel and the House of Shammai. The well-known institution of the
+Prosbol ([Greek: prosbole]), introduced by Hillel, was intended to avert
+the evil consequences of the scriptural law of release in the seventh
+year (Deut. xv. 1). He was led to this, as is expressly set forth (_M.
+Gittin_, iv. 3), by a regard for the welfare of the community. Hillel
+lived in the memory of posterity chiefly as the great teacher who
+enjoined and practised the virtues of charity, humility and true piety.
+His proverbial sayings, in particular, a great number of which were
+written down partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew, strongly affected the
+spirit both of his contemporaries and of the succeeding generations. In
+his Maxims (_Aboth,_ i. 12) he recommends the love of peace and the love
+of mankind beyond all else, and his own love of peace sprang from the
+tenderness and deep humility which were essential features in his
+character, as has been illustrated by many anecdotes. Hillel's patience
+has become proverbial. One of his sayings commends humility in the
+following paradox: "My abasement is my exaltation." His charity towards
+men is given its finest expression in the answer which he made to a
+proselyte who asked to be taught the commandments of the Torah in the
+shortest possible form: "What is unpleasant to thyself that do not to
+thy neighbour; this is the whole Law, all else is but its exposition."
+This allusion to the scriptural injunction to love one's neighbour (Lev.
+xix. 18) as the fundamental law of religious morals, became in a certain
+sense a commonplace of Pharisaic scholasticism. For the Pharisee who
+accepts the answer of Jesus regarding that fundamental doctrine which
+ranks the love of one's neighbour as the highest duty after the love of
+God (Mark xii. 33), does so because as a disciple of Hillel the idea is
+familiar to him. St Paul also (Gal. v. 14) doubtless learned this in the
+school of Gamaliel. Hillel emphasized the connexion between duty towards
+one's neighbour and duty towards oneself in the epigrammatic saying: "If
+I am not for myself, who is for me? And if I am for myself alone, what
+then am I? And if not now, then when?" (_Aboth_, i. 14). The duty of
+working both with and for men he teaches in the sentence: "Separate not
+thyself from the congregation" (_ib._ ii. 4). The duty of considering
+oneself part of common humanity, of not differing from others by any
+peculiarity of behaviour, he sums up in the words: "Appear neither naked
+nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing, neither laughing nor weeping"
+(_Tosef. Ber._ c. ii.). The command to love one's neighbour inspired
+also Hillel's injunction (_Aboth_, ii. 4): "Judge not thy neighbour
+until thou art in his place" (cf. Matt. vii. 1). The disinterested
+pursuit of learning, study for study's sake, is commended in many of
+Hillel's sayings as being what is best in life: "He who wishes to make a
+name for himself loses his name; he who does not increase [his
+knowledge] decreases it; he who does not learn is worthy of death; he
+who works for the sake of a crown is lost" (_Aboth_, i. 13). "He who
+occupies himself much with learning makes his life" (_ib._ ii. 7). "He
+who has acquired the words of doctrine has acquired the life of the
+world to come" (_ib._). "Say not: When I am free from other occupations
+I shall study; for may be thou shalt never at all be free" (_ib._ 4).
+One of his strings of proverbs runs as follows: "The uncultivated man is
+not innocent; the ignorant man is not devout; the bashful man learns
+not; the wrathful man teaches not; he who is much absorbed in trade
+cannot become wise; where no men are, there strive thyself to be a man"
+(_ib._ 5). The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's consciousness of
+God is shown in the words spoken by him on the occasion of a feast in
+the Temple--words alluding to the throng of people gathered there which
+he puts into the mouth of God Himself: "If I am here every one is here;
+if I am not here no one is here" (_Sukkah_ 53a). In like manner Hillel
+makes God say to Israel, referring to Exodus xx. 24: "Whither I please,
+thither will I go; if thou come into my house I come into thy house; if
+thou come not into my house, I come not into thine" (_ib._).
+
+It is noteworthy that no miraculous legends are connected with Hillel's
+life. A scholastic tradition, however, tells of a voice from heaven
+which made itself heard when the wise men had assembled in Jericho,
+saying: "Among those here present is one who would have deserved the
+Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it." And
+all eyes turned towards Hillel (_Tos. Sotah_, xiii. 3). When he died
+lamentation was made for him as follows: "Woe for the humble, woe for
+the pious, woe for the disciple of Ezra!" (_ib._)
+
+  HILLEL II., one of the patriarchs belonging to the family of Hillel
+  I., lived in Tiberias about the middle of the 4th century, and
+  introduced the arrangement of the calendar through which the Jews of
+  the Diaspora became independent of Palestine in the uniform fixation
+  of the new moons and feasts.
+
+  The Rabbi HILLEL, who in the 4th century made the remarkable
+  declaration that Israel need not expect a Messiah, because the promise
+  of a Messiah had already been fulfilled in the days of King Hezekiah
+  (Babli, _Sanhedrin_, 99a), is probably Hillel, the son of Samuel ben
+  Nahman, a well-known expounder of the scriptures.     (W. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLER, FERDINAND (1811-1885), German composer, was born at
+Frankfort-on-Main, on the 24th of October 1811. His first master was
+Aloys Schmitt, and when he was ten years of age his compositions and
+talent led his father, a well-to-do man, to send him to Hummel in
+Weimar. There he devoted himself to composition, among his work being
+the entr'actes to _Maria Stuart_, through which he made Goethe's
+acquaintance. Under Hummel, Hiller made great strides as a pianist, so
+much so that early in 1827 he went on a tour to Vienna, where he met
+Beethoven and produced his first quartet. After a brief visit home
+Hiller went to Paris in 1829, where he lived till 1836. His father's
+death necessitated his return to Frankfort for a time, but on the 8th of
+January 1839 he produced at Milan his opera _La Romilda_, and began to
+write his oratorio _Die Zerstorung Jerusalems_, one of his best works.
+Then he went to Leipzig, to his friend Mendelssohn, where in 1843-1844
+he conducted a number of the Gewandhaus concerts and produced his
+oratorio. After a further visit to Italy to study sacred music, Hiller
+produced two operas, _Ein Traum_ and _Conradin_, at Dresden in 1845 and
+1847 respectively; he went as conductor to Dusseldorf in 1847 and
+Cologne in 1850, and conducted at the Opera Italien in Paris in 1851 and
+1852. At Cologne he became a power as conductor of the Gurzenich
+concerts and head of the Conservatorium. In 1884 he retired, and died on
+the 12th of May in the following year. Hiller frequently visited
+England. He composed a work for the opening of the Royal Albert Hall,
+his _Nala and Damayanti_ was performed at Birmingham, and he gave a
+series of pianoforte recitals of his own compositions at the Hanover
+Square Rooms in 1871. He had a perfect mastery over technique and form
+in musical composition, but his works are generally dry. He was a sound
+pianist and teacher, and occasionally a brilliant writer on musical
+matters. His compositions, numbering about two hundred, include six
+operas, two oratorios, six or seven cantatas, much chamber music and a
+once-popular pianoforte concerto.
+
+
+
+
+HILLER, JOHANN ADAM (1728-1804), German musical composer, was born at
+Wendisch-Ossig near Gorlitz in Silesia on the 25th of December 1728. By
+the death of his father in 1734 he was left dependent to a large extent
+on the charity of friends. Entering in 1747 the Kreuzschule in Dresden,
+the school attended many years afterwards by Richard Wagner, he
+subsequently went to the university of Leipzig, where he studied
+jurisprudence, supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by
+performing at concerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Gradually he
+adopted music as his sole profession, and devoted himself more
+especially to the permanent establishment of a concert institute at
+Leipzig. It was he who in 1781 originated the celebrated Gewandhaus
+concerts which still flourish at Leipzig. In 1789 he became "cantor" of
+the Thomas school there, a position previously held by John Sebastian
+Bach. He died in Leipzig on the 16th of June 1804. Two of his pupils
+placed a monument to his memory in front of the Thomas school. Hiller's
+compositions comprise almost every kind of church music, from the
+cantata to the simple chorale. But much more important are his
+operettas, 14 in number, which for a long time retained their place on
+the boards, and had considerable influence on the development of light
+dramatic music in Germany. The _Jolly Cobbler_, _Love in the Country_
+and the _Village Barber_ were amongst the most popular of his works.
+Hiller also excelled in sentimental songs and ballads. With great
+simplicity of structure his music combines a considerable amount of
+genuine melodic invention. Although an admirer and imitator of the
+Italian school, Hiller fully appreciated the greatness of Handel, and
+did much for the appreciation of his music in Germany. It was under his
+direction that the _Messiah_ was for the first time given at Berlin,
+more than forty years after the composition of that great work. Hiller
+was also a writer on music, and for some years (1766-1770) edited a
+musical weekly periodical named _Wochentliche Nachrichten und
+Anmerkungen die Musik betreffend_.
+
+
+
+
+HILLIARD, LAWRENCE (d. 1640), English miniature painter. The date of his
+birth is not known, but he died in 1640. He was the son of Nicholas
+Hilliard, and evidently derived his Christian name from that of his
+grandmother. He adopted his father's profession and worked out the
+unexpired time of his licence after Nicholas Hilliard died. It was from
+Lawrence Hilliard that Charles I. received the portrait of Queen
+Elizabeth now at Montagu House, since van der Dort's catalogue describes
+it as "done by old Hilliard, and bought by the king of young Hilliard."
+In 1624 he was paid L42 from the treasury for five pictures, but the
+warrant does not specify whom they represented. His portraits are of
+great rarity, two of the most beautiful being those in the collections
+of Earl Beauchamp and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. They are as a rule signed
+L.H., but are also to be distinguished by the beauty of the calligraphy
+in which the inscriptions round the portraits are written. The writing
+is as a rule very florid, full of exquisite curves and flourishes, and
+more elaborate than the more formal handwriting of Nicholas Hilliard.
+The colour scheme adopted by the son is richer and more varied than that
+used by the father, and Lawrence Hilliard's miniatures are not so hard
+as are those of Nicholas, and are marked by more shade and a greater
+effect of atmosphere.     (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLIARD, NICHOLAS (c. 1537-1619), the first true English miniature
+painter, is said to have been the son of Richard Hilliard of Exeter,
+high sheriff of the city and county in 1560, by Lawrence, daughter of
+John Wall, goldsmith, of London, and was born probably about 1537. He
+was appointed goldsmith, carver and portrait painter to Queen Elizabeth,
+and engraved the Great Seal of England in 1586. He was in high favour
+with James I. as well as with Elizabeth, and from the king received a
+special patent of appointment, dated the 5th of May 1617, and granting
+him a sole licence for the royal work for twelve years. He is believed
+to have been the author of an important treatise on miniature painting,
+now preserved in the Bodleian Library, but it seems more probable that
+the author of that treatise was John de Critz, Serjeant Painter to James
+I. It is probable, however, that the treatise was taken down from the
+instructions of Hilliard, for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps
+Isaac Oliver.
+
+The esteem of his countrymen for Hilliard is testified to by Dr Donne,
+who in a poem called "The Storm" (1597) praises the work of this artist.
+He painted a portrait of himself at the age of thirteen, and is said to
+have executed one of Mary queen of Scots when he was eighteen years old.
+He died on the 7th of January 1619, and was buried in St
+Martin's-in-the-Fields, Westminster, leaving by his will twenty
+shillings to the poor of the parish, L30 between his two sisters, some
+goods to his maidservant, and all the rest of his effects to his son,
+Lawrence Hilliard, his sole executor.
+
+It seems to be pretty certain that he visited France, and that he is the
+artist alluded to in the papers of the duc d'Alencon under the name of
+"Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois" who was painter to this prince in
+1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres. The miniature of Mademoiselle
+de Sourdis, in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, is certainly the
+work of Hilliard, and is dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of
+honour at the French Court; and other portraits which are his work are
+believed to represent Gabrielle d'Estrees, niece of Madame de Sourdis,
+la Princesse de Conde and Madame de Montgomery.
+
+  For further information respecting Hilliard's sojourn in France, see
+  the privately printed catalogue of the collection of miniatures
+  belonging to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, compiled by Dr G. C. Williamson.
+       (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HILLSDALE, a city and the county-seat of Hillsdale county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., about 87 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 4151, of whom 300
+were foreign-born; (1904) 4809; (1910) 5001. Hillsdale is served by the
+Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It has a public library, and is
+the seat of Hillsdale College (co-educational, Free Baptist), which was
+opened as Michigan Central College, at Spring Arbor, Michigan, in 1844,
+was removed to Hillsdale and received its present name in 1853 and was
+re-opened here in 1855. The college in 1907-1908 had 22 instructors and
+345 students. The city is a centre for a rich farming region; among its
+manufactures are gasoline and gas engines, screen doors, wagons,
+barrels, shoes, fur-coats and flour. Hillsdale was first settled in
+1837, was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was chartered as a city
+in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+HILL TIPPERA, or TRIPURA, a native state of India, adjoining the British
+district of Tippera, in Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4086 sq. m.;
+pop, (1901) 173,325; estimated revenue, L55,000. Six parallel ranges of
+hill cross it from north to south, at an average distance of 12 m.
+apart. The hills are covered for the most part with bamboo jungle, while
+the low ground abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and
+swamps. The principal crop and food staple is rice. The other articles
+of produce are cotton, chillies and vegetables. The chief exports are
+cotton, timber, oilseeds, bamboo canes, thatching-grass and firewood, on
+all of which tolls are levied. The chief rivers are the Gumti, Haora,
+Khoyai, Dulai, Manu and Fenny (Pheni). During the heavy rains the people
+in the plains use boats as almost the sole means of conveyance.
+
+The history of the state includes two distinct periods--the traditional
+period described in the _Rajmala_, or "Chronicles of the Kings of
+Tippera," and the period since A.D. 1407. The _Rajmala_ is a history in
+Bengali verse, compiled by the Brahmans of the court of Tripura. In the
+early history of the state, the rajas were in a state of chronic feud
+with all the neighbouring countries. The worship of Siva was here, as
+elsewhere in India, associated with the practice of human sacrifice, and
+in no part of India were more victims offered. It was not until the
+beginning of the 17th century that the Moguls obtained any footing in
+this country. When the East India Company obtained the _diwani_ or
+financial administration of Bengal in 1765, so much of Tippera as had
+been placed on the Mahommedan rent-roll came under British rule. Since
+1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the British
+government. In October 1905 the state was attached to the new province
+of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It has a chronological era of its own,
+adopted by Raja Birraj, from whom the present raja is 93rd in descent.
+The year 1875 corresponded with 1285 of the Tippera era.
+
+Besides being the ruler of Hill Tippera, the raja holds an estate in the
+British district of Tippera, called _chakla_ Roshnabad, which is far the
+most valuable of his possessions. The capital is Agartala (pop. 9513),
+where there is an Arts College. The raja's palace and other public
+buildings were seriously damaged by the earthquake of the 12th of June
+1897. The late raja, who died from the result of a motor-car accident in
+1909, succeeded his father in 1896, but he had taken a large share in
+the administration of the state for some years previously. The principle
+of succession, which had often caused serious disputes, was defined in
+1904, to the effect that the chief may nominate any male descendant
+through males from himself or from any male ancestor, but failing such
+nomination, then the rule of primogeniture applies.
+
+
+
+
+HILTON, JOHN (1804-1878), British surgeon, was born at Castle Hedingham,
+in Essex, in 1804. He entered Guy's Hospital in 1824. He was appointed
+demonstrator of anatomy in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845, surgeon
+1849. In 1867 he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of
+which he became member in 1827 and fellow in 1843, and he also delivered
+the Hunterian oration in 1867. As Arris and Gale professor (1859-1862)
+he delivered a course of lectures on "Rest and Pain," which have become
+classics. He was also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. Hilton
+was the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nick named "Anatomical
+John." It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist, enriched Guy's
+Hospital with its unique collection of models. In his grasp of the
+structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord he was far in
+advance of his contemporaries. As an operator he was more cautious than
+brilliant. This was doubtless due partly to his living in the
+pre-anaesthetics period, and partly to his own consummate anatomical
+knowledge, as is indicated by the method for opening deep abscesses
+which is known by his name. But he could be bold when necessary; he was
+the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal section, and
+one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He died at Clapham on the
+14th of September 1878.
+
+
+
+
+HILTON, WILLIAM (1786-1839), English painter, was born in Lincoln on the
+3rd of June 1786, son of a portrait-painter. In 1800 he was placed with
+the engraver J. R. Smith, and about the same time began studying in the
+Royal Academy school. He first exhibited in this institution in 1803,
+sending a "Group of Banditti"; and he soon established a reputation for
+choice of subject, and qualities of design and colour superior to the
+great mass of his contemporaries. He made a tour in Italy with Thomas
+Phillips, the portrait-painter. In 1813, having exhibited "Miranda and
+Ferdinand with the Logs of Wood," he was elected an associate of the
+Academy, and in 1820 a full academician, his diploma-picture
+representing "Ganymede." In 1823 he produced "Christ crowned with
+Thorns," a large and important work, subsequently bought out of the
+Chantrey Fund; this may be regarded as his masterpiece. In 1827 he
+succeeded Henry Thomson as keeper of the Academy. He died in London on
+the 30th of December 1839, Some of his best pictures remained on his
+hands at his decease--such as the "Angel releasing Peter from Prison"
+(life-size), painted in 1831, "Una with the Lion entering Corceca's
+Cave" (1832), the "Murder of the Innocents," his last exhibited work
+(1838), "Comus," and "Amphitrite." The National Gallery now owns "Edith
+finding the Body of Harold" (1834), "Cupid Disarmed," "Rebecca and
+Abraham's Servant" (1829), "Nature blowing Bubbles for her Children"
+(1821), and "Sir Calepine rescuing Serena" (from the _Faerie Queen_)
+(1831). In the National Portrait Gallery is his likeness of John Keats,
+with whom he was acquainted. In a great school or period Hilton could
+not count as more than a respectable subordinate; but in the British
+school of the earlier part of the 19th century he had sufficient
+elevation of aim and width of attainment to stand conspicuous.
+
+
+
+
+HILVERSUM, a town in the province of North Holland, 18 m. by rail S.E.
+of Amsterdam. It is connected with Amsterdam by a steam tramway, passing
+by way of the small fortified towns of Naarden and Muiden on the Zuider
+Zee. Pop. (1900) 20,238. It is situated in the middle of the Gooi, a
+stretch of hilly country extending from the Zuider Zee to about 5 m.
+south of Hilversum, and composed of pine woods and sandy heaths. A
+convalescent home, the Trompenberg, was established here in 1874, and
+there are a town hall, middle-class and technical schools, and various
+places of worship, including a synagogue. Hilversum manufactures large
+quantities of floor-cloths and horse-blankets.
+
+
+
+
+HIMALAYA, the name given to the mountains which form the northern
+boundary of India. The word is Sanskrit and literally signifies
+"snow-abode," from _him_, snow, and _alaya_, abode, and might be
+translated "snowy-range," although that expression is perhaps more
+nearly the equivalent of _Himachal_, another Sanskrit word derived from
+_him_, snow, and _achal_, mountain, which is practically synonymous with
+Himalaya and is often used by natives of northern India. The name was
+converted by the Greeks into _Emodos_ and _Imaos_.
+
+Modern geographers restrict the term Himalaya to that portion of the
+mountain region between India and Tibet enclosed within the arms of the
+Indus and the Brahmaputra. From the bend of the Indus southwards towards
+the plains of the Punjab to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards
+towards the plains of Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or
+Himalaya. Beyond the Indus, to the north-west, the region of mountain
+ranges which stretches to a junction with the Hindu Kush south of the
+Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya. Thus the Himalaya represents
+the southern face of the great central upheaval--the plateau of
+Tibet--the northern face of which is buttressed by the Kuen Lun.
+
+
+  Structure of the Himalaya.
+
+Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain face
+geologists now trace a system of main chains, or axes, extending from
+the Hindu Kush to Assam, arranged in approximately parallel lines, and
+traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage obliquely.
+Godwin-Austen indicates six of these geological axes as follows:
+
+  1. The main Central Asian axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern edge
+  or ridge of the Tibetan plateau.
+
+  2. The Trans-Himalayan chain of Muztagh (or Karakoram), which is lost
+  in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the sources of the
+  Indus.
+
+  3. The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus--for
+  that river breaks across it about 100 m. above Leh. This chain
+  continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes part
+  of the Himalayan system.
+
+  4. The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, i.e. the "snowy range"
+  _par excellence_ which is indicated by Nanga Parbat (overlooking the
+  Indus), and passes in a south-east direction to the southern side of
+  the Deosai plains. Thence, bending slightly south, it extends in the
+  line of snowy peaks which are seen from Simla to the famous peaks of
+  Gangotri and Nanda Devi. This is the best known range of the Himalaya.
+
+  5. The outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge.
+
+  6. The Sub-Himalaya, which is "easily defined by the fringing line of
+  hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked off
+  from the main chain by open valleys (dhuns) or narrow valleys,
+  parallel to the main axis of the chain." These include the Siwaliks.
+
+Interspersed between these main geological axes are many other minor
+ridges, on some of which are peaks of great elevation. In fact, the
+geological axis seldom coincides with the line of highest elevation, nor
+must it be confused with the main lines of water-divide of the Himalaya.
+
+
+  The great northern watershed of India.
+
+On the north and north-west of Kashmir the great water-divide which
+separates the Indus drainage area from that of the Yarkand and other
+rivers of Chinese Turkestan has been explored by Sir F. Younghusband,
+and subsequently by H. H. P. Deasy. The general result of their
+investigations has been to prove that the Muztagh range, as it trends
+south-eastwards and finally forms a continuous mountain barrier together
+with the Karakoram, is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan
+plateau. Shutting off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of
+the Central Asian system of hydrography, this great water-parting is
+distinguished by a group of peaks of which the altitude is hardly less
+than that of the Eastern Himalaya. Mount Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft.
+high), only 750 ft. lower than Everest, affords an excellent example in
+Asiatic geography of a dominating, peak-crowned water-parting or divide.
+From Kailas on the far west to the extreme north-eastern sources of the
+Brahmaputra, the great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan
+highlands has only been occasionally touched. Littledale, du Rhins and
+Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards Lhasa,
+but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be lost in the
+mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan plateau. Nor can it
+be said to be as yet well defined to the east of Lhasa.
+
+
+  Eastern Tibet.
+
+The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the meridian of 92 deg.
+E., and to the east of this meridian the affluents of the Tsanpo (the
+same river as the Dihong and subsequently as the Brahmaputra) drain no
+longer from the elevated plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a wild
+region of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where its
+successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves around the great
+bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the sources of all the great
+rivers of Burma and China. Neither immediately beyond this great bend,
+nor within it in the Himalayan regions lying north of Assam and east of
+Bhutan, have scientific investigations yet been systematically carried
+out; but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of the
+Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the Tibetan
+plateau, and break down through the containing bands of hills, carrying
+deposits of gold from their sources to the plains, as do all the rivers
+of Tibet.
+
+
+  Himalaya north of the central chain of snowy peaks.
+
+Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not sufficiently
+well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed even approximately,
+there exists some scattered evidence of the nature of that strip of
+Northern Himalaya on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between the
+line of greatest elevation and the trough of the Tsanpo. Recent
+investigations show that all the chief rivers of Nepal flowing
+southwards to the Tarai take their rise north of the line of highest
+crests, the "main range" of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain
+long lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose
+strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally, almost
+at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels breaking
+down to the plains. This formation brings the southern edge of the
+Tsanpo basin to the immediate neighbourhood of the banks of that river,
+which runs at its foot like a drain flanking a wall. It also affords
+material evidence of that wrinkling or folding action which accompanied
+the process of upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised,
+which is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west
+Indian borderland. North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan crest and
+Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained; farther east,
+although the same natural forces first resulted in the same effect of
+successive folds of the earth's crust, forming extensive curves of ridge
+and furrow, the abundant rainfall and the totally distinct climatic
+conditions which govern the processes of denudation subsequently led to
+the erosion of deeper valleys enclosed between forest-covered ranges
+which rise steeply from the river banks.
+
+
+  Height of Himalayan peaks.
+
+Although suggestions have been made of the existence of higher peaks
+north of the Himalaya than that which dominates the Everest group, no
+evidence has been adduced to support such a contention. On the other
+hand the observations of Major Ryder and other surveyors who explored
+from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra and Indus, at the
+conclusion of the Tibetan mission in 1904, conclusively prove that Mount
+Everest, which appears from the Tibetan plateau as a single dominating
+peak, has no rival amongst Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very
+remarkable investigations made by permission of the Nepal durbar from
+peaks near Kathmandu in 1903, by Captain Wood, R.E., not only place the
+Everest group apart from other peaks with which they have been confused
+by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system of Nepal, but
+clearly show that there is no one dominating and continuous range
+indicating a main Himalayan chain which includes both Everest and
+Kinchinjunga. The main features of Nepalese topography are now fairly
+well defined. So much controversy has been aroused on the subject of
+Himalayan altitudes that the present position of scientific analysis in
+relation to them may be shortly stated. The heights of peaks determined
+by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are bound to be more
+or less in error for three reasons: (1) the extraordinary geoidal
+deformation of the level surface at the observing stations in submontane
+regions; (2) ignorance of the laws of refraction when rays traverse
+rarefied air in snow-covered regions; (3) ignorance of the variations in
+the actual height of peaks due to the increase, or decrease, of snow.
+The value of the heights attached to the three highest mountains in the
+world are, for these reasons, adjudged by Colonel S. G. Burrard, the
+Supt. Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the
+following extent:
+
+  +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  |                   | Present Survey  | Most probable |
+  |                   | Value of Height.|     Value.    |
+  +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  | Mount Everest     |      29,002     |     29,141    |
+  | K2 (Godwin Austen)|      28,250     |     28,191    |
+  | Kinchinjunga      |      28,146     |     28,225    |
+  +-------------------+-----------------+---------------+
+
+These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga second and
+K2 third on the list.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+  _Geology._--The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumpling of the
+  earth's crust along the southern margin of the great tableland of
+  Central Asia. Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign of this
+  crumpling is to be detected except in the Salt Range, and the
+  Peninsula of India has been entirely free from folding of any
+  importance since early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean
+  period itself. But the contrast between the Himalaya and the Peninsula
+  is not confined to their structure: the difference in the rocks
+  themselves is equally striking. In the Himalaya the geological
+  sequence, from the Ordovician to the Eocene, is almost entirely
+  marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the series, but during
+  nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at least
+  its northern part, must have been beneath the sea--the Central
+  Mediterranean Sea of Neumayr or Tethys of Suess. In the peninsula,
+  however, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than
+  Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood
+  of the coasts; the principal fossiliferous deposits are the
+  plant-bearing beds of the Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt
+  that, at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the
+  Peninsula has been land. Between the folded marine beds of the
+  Himalaya and the nearly horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the
+  Indo-Gangetic plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial and
+  wind-blown deposits of recent date. The deep boring at Lucknow passed
+  through 1336 ft. of sands--reaching nearly to 1000 ft. below
+  sea-level--without any sign of approaching the base of the alluvial
+  series. It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there is a
+  great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this
+  depression was ever beneath the sea.
+
+  In the light thrown by recent researches on the structure and origin
+  of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer
+  difficult. From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has been
+  dry land, a part, indeed, of a great continent which in Mesozoic times
+  extended across the Indian Ocean towards South Africa. Its northern
+  shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in Jurassic
+  and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from west to
+  east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of the
+  Himalaya. The tangential pressures which are known to be set up in the
+  earth's crust--either by the contraction of the interior or in some
+  other way--caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up against
+  the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and finally
+  led to the whole mass being pushed forward over the edge of the part
+  which did not crumple. The Indo-Gangetic depression was formed by the
+  weight of the over-riding mass bending down the edge over which it
+  rode, or else it is the lower limb of the S-shaped fold which would
+  necessarily result if there were no fracture--the Himalaya
+  representing the upper limb of the S.
+
+  Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which
+  correspond more or less with orographical divisions. The northern zone
+  is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
+  age are largely developed--excepting in the north-west no such rocks
+  are known on the southern flanks. The second is the zone of the snowy
+  peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed chiefly of
+  crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with unfossiliferous
+  sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age. The southern zone
+  comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely of Tertiary beds, and
+  especially of the upper Tertiaries. The oldest beds which have
+  hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician system, but it is
+  highly probable that the underlying "Haimantas" of the central
+  Himalaya are of Cambrian age. From these beds up to the top of the
+  Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but the Carboniferous beds
+  were in some places eroded before the deposition of the _Productus_
+  shales, which belong to the Permian period. It is, however, possible
+  that this erosion was merely local, for in other places there seems to
+  be a complete passage from the Carboniferous to the Permian. From the
+  Permian to the Lias the sequence in the central Himalaya shows no sign
+  of a break, nor has any unconformity been proved between the Liassic
+  beds and the overlying Spiti shales, which contain fossils of Middle
+  and Upper Jurassic age. The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by
+  Cretaceous beds (Gieumal sandstone below and Chikkim limestone above),
+  and these are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene
+  age, much disturbed and altered by intrusions of gabbro and syenite.
+  Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been
+  continuous deposition of marine beds from the Permian _Productus_
+  shales to the Eocene Nummulitic formation. The next succeeding deposit
+  is a sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon
+  the Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the
+  Sub-Himalaya (Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any
+  kind. The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Tertiaries of
+  Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite unaffected
+  by any of the folds.
+
+  From the absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident that in
+  the northern part of the Himalayan belt, at least in the Spiti area,
+  there can have been no post-Archaean folding of any magnitude until
+  after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the folding was
+  completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes were laid down. It
+  was, therefore, during the Miocene period that the elevation of this
+  part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the Siwalik-like
+  sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the Pliocene
+  period. Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the history of the
+  chain is still more clearly shown. The sub-Himalaya are formed of
+  Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while the lower
+  Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks without fossils.
+  Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever the junction of the
+  Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen, it is a great
+  reversed fault. West of the Blas river a similar reversed fault forms
+  the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the pre-Tertiary rocks
+  of the Himalaya, while between the Sutlej and the Jumna rivers, where
+  the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower Himalaya, the fault lies
+  between them and the Siwaliks. The hade of the fault is constantly
+  inwards, towards the centre of the chain, and the older rocks which
+  form the Himalaya proper, have been pushed forward over the later beds
+  of the sub-Himalaya. But the fault is more than an ordinary reversed
+  fault: it was, nearly everywhere, the northern boundary of deposition
+  of the Siwalik beds, and only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik
+  deposits extend even to a short distance beyond it. The fault in fact
+  was being formed during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the
+  beds were laid down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the
+  Siwaliks themselves being folded and upturned during the process.
+  Accordingly, in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and
+  conformable series from base to summit, in other places the middle
+  beds are absent and the upper beds of the series rest upon the
+  upturned and denuded edges of the lower beds. The Siwaliks are
+  fluviatile and torrential deposits similar to those which are now
+  being formed at the foot of the mountains, in the Indo-Gangetic plain;
+  and their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were
+  very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of the
+  plain and the Siwaliks themselves. But the great fault just described
+  is not the only one of this character. There is a series of such
+  faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although they have
+  not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever they occur
+  they seem to have formed the northern boundary of deposition of the
+  deposits immediately to the south of them. It appears, therefore, that
+  the Himalaya grew southwards in a series of stages. A reversed fault
+  was formed at the foot of the chain, and upon this fault the
+  mountains were pushed forward over the beds deposited at their base,
+  crumpling and folding them in the process, and forming a sub-Himalayan
+  ridge in front of the main chain. After a time a new fault originated
+  at the foot of the sub-Himalayan zone thus raised, which now became
+  part of the Himalaya themselves, and a new sub-Himalayan chain was
+  formed in front of the previous one. The earthquakes of the present
+  day show that the process is still in operation, and in time the
+  deposits of the present Indo-Gangetic plain will be involved in the
+  folds.
+
+  The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true
+  circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed
+  forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the dip
+  of the plane must be low, for a line drawn along the southern foot of
+  the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane inclined to
+  the surface at an angle of about 14 deg. The thrust-plane, then, does
+  not coincide with any of the boundary faults already mentioned, which
+  are usually inclined at angles of 50 deg. or 60 deg. The latter are
+  due to the fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass above the
+  thrust-plane may move, yet the pressure which pushes it forwards
+  necessarily proceeds from behind. The back, accordingly, moves faster
+  than the front, and the whole is packed together; as when an ice-floe
+  drives against the shore, the ice breaks and the outer fragments ride
+  over those within. The great thrust-plane which is thus imagined to
+  exist at the base of the Himalaya, corresponds with the "major
+  thrusts" of the N.W. Highlands of Scotland, and the reversed faults
+  which appear at the surface with the "minor thrusts."     (P. La.)
+
+
+    Topographical results of evolution.
+
+  Such is the general outline of Himalayan evolution as now understood,
+  and the process of it has led to certain marked features of scenery
+  and topography. Within the area of the trans-Indus mountains we have
+  beds of hard limestone or sandstone alternating with soft shales,
+  which leads to the scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys
+  where the shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep
+  rifts or gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which stand in
+  irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys between.
+  The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure, due to the
+  same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much larger scale;
+  but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the mountains
+  by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially by the
+  greater rainfall. Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys, here
+  are found fertile alluvial plains--such as Manipur--but for the most
+  part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep pace with
+  the rise of the river bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys
+  arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the
+  western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers
+  cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that
+  originally held. An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly
+  breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west
+  Himalaya to resume its north-westerly course after passing from the
+  northern to the southern side of the range. The reason assigned for
+  these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the
+  general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent--i.e. that the
+  lines of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were
+  raised; and that the drainage has merely maintained the course
+  originally held, by the power of erosion during the gradual process of
+  upheaval.
+
+  In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep, so
+  steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still
+  cutting down the river beds and have not yet reached the stage of
+  equilibrium. Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial
+  detritus owing to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this
+  occurs there is usually to be found a fertile and productive field for
+  agriculture. The straits of the Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably
+  account for the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in
+  principles of construction) a repetition on grand scale of the Maidan
+  of the Afridi Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great
+  amphitheatre of hills is collected and then arrested by the gorge
+  which marks the outlet to the Bara.
+
+
+    General Himalayan formation is typical.
+
+  Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by draining a
+  considerable area north of the snowy range--the Sutlej, the Kosi, the
+  Gandak and the Subansiri, for example. All these rivers break through
+  the main snowy range ere they twist their way through the southern
+  hills to the plains of India. Here the "antecedent" theory will not
+  suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of the snows
+  to support it. Their formation is explained by a process of "cutting
+  back," by which the heads of these streams are gradually eating their
+  way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the southern than on
+  the northern slopes. The result of this process is well exhibited in
+  the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and Tibetan sides of the
+  passes to the Indus plateau. On the southern or Indian side the routes
+  to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of Himalayan valleys with no
+  remarkably steep gradients till they near the approach to the
+  water-divide. The slope then steepens with the ascending curve to the
+  summit of the pass, from which point it falls with a comparatively
+  gentle gradient to the general level of the plateau. The Zoji La, the
+  Kashmir water-divide between the Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent
+  case in point, and all the passes from the Kumaon and Garhwal hills
+  into Tibet exhibit this formation in a marked degree. Taking the
+  average elevation of the central axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000
+  ft., the average height of the passes is not more than 10,000 owing to
+  this process of cutting down by erosion and gradual encroachment into
+  the northern basin.
+
+  [Illustration: Section across the sub-Himalayan zone.]
+
+  _Meteorology._--Independently of the enormous variety of topographical
+  conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast altitude of
+  the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of climate in
+  ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by those
+  observed in moving from the equator to the poles. One half of the
+  total mass of the atmosphere and three-fourths of the water suspended
+  in it in the form of vapour lie below the average altitude of the
+  Himalaya; and of the residue, one-half of the air and virtually almost
+  all the vapour come within the influence of the highest peaks. The
+  regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the barometer
+  and the annual and diurnal oscillations are as well marked in the
+  Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in suspension
+  diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than one-sixth
+  (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot of the
+  mountains is found at the greatest heights. This is dependent on the
+  temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude. On the
+  mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature, an
+  elevation of 1000 ft. producing a fall of 3(1/2) deg., or about 1 deg.
+  to each 300 ft. The mean winter temperature at 7000 ft. (which is
+  about the average height of Himalayan "hill stations") is 44 deg. F.
+  and the summer mean about 65 deg. F. At 9000 ft. the mean temperature
+  of the coldest month is 32 deg. F. At 12,000 ft. the thermometer never
+  falls below freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of
+  October, and at 15,000 ft. it is seldom above that point even in the
+  height of summer. It should be noted that the thermometrical
+  conditions of Tibet vary considerably from those of the Himalaya. At
+  12,000 ft. in Tibet the mean of the hottest month is about 60 deg. F.
+  and of the coldest about 10 deg. F. whilst, at 15,000 ft. the frost is
+  only permanent from the end of October to the end of April. The
+  distribution of vegetation and topographical conformation largely
+  influence the question of local temperature. For instance it may be
+  found that the difference of temperature between forest-clad ranges
+  and the Indian plains is twice as much in April and May as in December
+  or January; and the difference between the temperature of a
+  well-wooded hill top and the open valley below may vary from 9 deg. to
+  24 deg. within twenty-four hours. The general relations of temperature
+  to altitude as determined by Himalayan observations are as follows:
+  (1) The decrease of temperature with altitude is most rapid in summer.
+  (2) The annual range diminishes with the elevation. (3) The diurnal
+  range diminishes with the elevation. Comparisons are, however, apt to
+  become anomalous when applied to elevated zones with a dense covering
+  of forest and a great quantity of cloud and open and uncloudy regions
+  both above and below the forest-clad tracts.
+
+
+    Rainfall.
+
+  The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and October
+  (i.e. the period of the monsoon rains of India), the remainder of the
+  year being comparatively dry. The fall of rain over the great plain of
+  northern India gradually diminishes in quantity, and begins later, as
+  we pass from east to west. At the same time the rain is heavier as we
+  approach the Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer
+  ranges; but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the
+  chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great line
+  of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to be
+  hardly susceptible of measurement. Diurnal currents of wind, which are
+  established from the plains to the mountains during the day, and from
+  the hills to the plains during the night, are important agents in
+  distributing the rainfall. The condensation of vapour from the
+  ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion as they are
+  precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in the cloud effects
+  produced during the monsoon, the southern or windward face of each
+  range being clothed day after day with a white crest of cloud whilst
+  the northern slopes are often left entirely free. This shows how large
+  a proportion of the vapour is arrested and how it is that only by
+  drifting through the deeper gorges can any moisture find its way to
+  the Tibetan table-land.
+
+  The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 60 and 70 in. in the
+  delta of the Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river issues
+  from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouchment of the
+  Indus into the plains. At Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude) on the outer
+  ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about 120 in. At Naini
+  Tal north of the United Provinces it is about 90 in.; at Simla about
+  80 in., diminishing still further as one approaches the north-western
+  hills. All these stations are about the same altitude.
+
+
+    Snowfall.
+
+  In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is 6000 ft.
+  and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft. In Kumaon, on the
+  west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level and occasionally
+  to 2500 ft. Snow has been known to fall at Peshawar. At Leh, in
+  western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow are usually registered and the
+  fall on the passes between 17,000 and 19,000 ft. is not generally more
+  than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan passes farther east the falls are
+  much heavier. Even in September these passes may be quite blocked and
+  they are not usually open till the middle of June. The snow-line, or
+  the level to which snow recedes in the course of the year, ranges from
+  15,000 to 16,000 ft. on the southern exposures of the Himalaya that
+  carry perpetual snow, along all that part of the system that lies
+  between Sikkim and the Indus. It is not till December that the snow
+  begins to descend for the winter, although after September light falls
+  occur which cover the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these
+  soon disappear. On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than
+  18,500 ft. and on the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000
+  ft. On all the passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500
+  ft., and in August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400
+  ft. without finding any snow upon them; and it is as impossible to
+  find snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the
+  plains of India.
+
+  _Glaciers._--The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is
+  greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and
+  elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and
+  position of the mountain on which they are formed. Glaciers on the
+  outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly the
+  case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy range.
+  The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are believed not to
+  reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft. In Kumaon many of them
+  descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft. In the higher valleys and
+  Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary level at which they end,
+  but there are exceptions which descend far lower. In Europe the
+  glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft. below the snow-line, and in
+  the Himalaya and Tibet about the same holds good. The summer
+  temperatures of the points where the glaciers end on the Himalaya also
+  correspond fairly with those of the corresponding positions in
+  European glaciers, viz. for July a little below 60 deg. F., August 58
+  deg. and September 55 deg.
+
+  Measurements of the movement of Himalayan glaciers give results
+  according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in
+  the Alps, viz. rates from 9(1/2) to 14(1/4) in. in twenty-four hours.
+  The motion of one glacier from the middle of May to the middle of
+  October averaged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours. The dimensions of
+  the glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the
+  valleys descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with
+  those of Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in
+  length--8 or 10 m. not being unusual. In the elevated valleys of
+  northern Tibet, where the destructive action of the summer heat is far
+  less, the development of the glaciers is enormous. At one locality in
+  north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice
+  extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the
+  extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends. Another single
+  glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long.
+
+  The northern tributaries of the Gilgit river, which joins the Indus
+  near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from
+  a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its
+  extent and magnificent proportions. Chief amongst them are the
+  glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Muztagh
+  mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount
+  Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high). The Biafo glacier system, which lies
+  in a long narrow trough extending south-west from Nagar on the Hunza
+  to near the base of the Muztagh peaks, may be traced for 90 m. between
+  mountain walls which tower to a height of from 20,000 to 25,000 ft.
+  above sea-level on either side.
+
+  In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which precise
+  accounts are forthcoming are ancient moraines indicating some previous
+  condition in which their extent was much larger than now. In the east
+  these moraines are very remarkable, extending 8 or 10 m. In the west
+  they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 m. reach. They have been observed on
+  the summit of the table-land as well as on the Himalayan slope. The
+  explanation suggested to account for the former great extension of
+  glaciers in Norway would seem applicable here. Any modification of the
+  coast-line which should submerge the area now occupied by the North
+  Indian plain, or any considerable part of it, would be accompanied by
+  a much wetter and more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow
+  would fall on the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be
+  brought to bear on the destruction of the glaciers, which would
+  receive larger supplies and descend lower.
+
+  _Botany._--Speaking broadly, the general type of the flora of the
+  lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain
+  at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger
+  rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from
+  that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and
+  insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to
+  west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and
+  higher latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter
+  cold increases. The vegetation of the western part of the plain and of
+  the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely allied
+  to, or almost identical with, that of the drier parts of the Indian
+  peninsula, more especially of its hilly portions; and, while a general
+  tropical character is preserved, forms are observed which indicate the
+  addition of an Afghan as well as of an African element, of which last
+  the gay lily _Gloriosa superba_ is an example, pointing to some
+  previous connexion with Africa.
+
+  The European flora, which is diffused from the Mediterranean along the
+  high lands of Asia, extends to the Himalaya; many European species
+  reach the central parts of the chain, though few reach its eastern
+  end, while genera common to Europe and the Himalaya are abundant
+  throughout and at all elevations. From the opposite quarter an influx
+  of Japanese and Chinese forms, such as the rhododendrons, the tea
+  plant, _Aucuba_, _Helwingia_, _Skimmia_, _Adamia_, _Goughia_ and
+  others, has taken place, these being more numerous in the east and
+  gradually disappearing in the west. On the higher and therefore cooler
+  and less rainy ranges of the Himalaya the conditions of temperature
+  requisite for the preservation of the various species are readily
+  found by ascending or descending the mountain slopes, and therefore a
+  greater uniformity of character in the vegetation is maintained along
+  the whole chain. At the greater elevations the species identical with
+  those of Europe become more frequent, and in the alpine regions many
+  plants are found identical with species of the Arctic zone. On the
+  Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness, a Siberian type is
+  established, with many true Siberian species and more genera; and some
+  of the Siberian forms are further disseminated, even to the plains of
+  Upper India. The total absence of a few of the more common forms of
+  northern Europe and Asia should also be noticed, among which may be
+  named _Tilia_, _Fagus_, _Arbutus_, _Erica_, _Azalea_ and _Cistacae_.
+
+  In the more humid regions of the east the mountains are almost
+  everywhere covered with a dense forest which reaches up to 12,000 or
+  13,000 ft. Many tropical types here ascend to 7000 ft. or more. To the
+  west the upper limit of forest is somewhat lower, from 11,500 to
+  12,000 ft. and the tropical forms usually cease at 5000 ft.
+
+  In Sikkim the mountains are covered with dense forest of tall
+  umbrageous trees, commonly accompanied by a luxuriant growth of under
+  shrubs, and adorned with climbing and epiphytal plants in wonderful
+  profusion. In the tropical zone large figs abound, _Terminalia_,
+  _Shorea_ (sal), laurels, many _Leguminosae_, _Bombax_, _Artocarpus_,
+  bamboos and several palms, among which species of Calamus are
+  remarkable, climbing over the largest trees; and this is the western
+  limit of _Cycas_ and _Myristica_ (nutmeg). Plantains ascend to 7000
+  ft. _Pandanus_ and tree-ferns abound. Other ferns, _Scitamineae_,
+  orchids and climbing _Aroideae_ are very numerous, the last named
+  profusely adorning the forests with their splendid dark-green foliage.
+  Various oaks descend within a few hundred feet of the sea-level,
+  increasing in numbers at greater altitudes, and becoming very frequent
+  at 4000 ft., at which elevation also appear _Aucuba_, _Magnolia_,
+  cherries, _Pyrus_, maple, alder and birch, with many _Araliaceae_,
+  _Hollbollea_, _Skimmia_, _Daphne_, _Myrsine_, _Symplocos_ and _Rubus_.
+  Rhododendrons begin at about 6000 ft. and become abundant at 8000 ft.,
+  from 10,000 to 14,000 ft. forming in many places the mass of the
+  shrubby vegetation which extends some 2000 ft. above the forest.
+  Epiphytal orchids are extremely numerous between 6000 and 8000 ft. Of
+  the Coniferae, _Podocarpus_ and _Pinus longifolia_ alone descend to
+  the tropical zone; _Abies Brunoniana_ and _Smithiana_ and the larch (a
+  genus not seen in the western mountains) are found at 8000, and the
+  yew and _Picea Webbiana_ at 10,000 ft. _Pinus excelsa_, which occurs
+  in Bhutan, is absent in the wetter climate of Sikkim.
+
+  On the drier and higher mountains of the interior of the chain, the
+  forests become more open, and are spread less uniformly over the
+  hill-sides, a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation appears, and the number
+  of shrubby _Leguminosae_, such as _Desmodium_ and _Indigofera_,
+  increases, as well as _Ranunculaceae_, _Rosaceae_, _Umbelliferae_,
+  _Labiatae_, _Gramineae_, _Cyperaceae_ and other European genera.
+
+  Passing to the westward, and viewing the flora of Kumaon, which
+  province holds a central position on the chain, on the 80th meridian,
+  we find that the gradual decrease of moisture and increase of high
+  summer heat are accompanied by a marked change of the vegetation. The
+  tropical forest is characterized by the trees of the hotter and drier
+  parts of southern India, combined with a few of European type. Ferns
+  are more rare, and the tree-ferns have disappeared. The species of
+  palm are also reduced to two or three, and bamboos, though abundant,
+  are confined to a few species.
+
+  The outer ranges of mountains are mainly covered with forests of
+  _Pinus longifolia_, rhododendron, oak and _Pieris_. At Naini Tal
+  cypress is abundant. The shrubby vegetation comprises _Rosa_, _Rubus_,
+  _Indigofera_, _Desmodium_, _Berberis_, _Boehmeria_, _Viburnum_,
+  _Clematis_, with an _Arundinaria_. Of herbaceous plants species of
+  _Ranunculus_, _Potentilla_, _Geranium_, _Thalictrum_, _Primula_,
+  _Gentiana_ and many other European forms are common. In the less
+  exposed localities, on northern slopes and sheltered valleys, the
+  European forms become more numerous, and we find species of alder,
+  birch, ash, elm, maple, holly, hornbeam, _Pyrus_, &c. At greater
+  elevations in the interior, besides the above are met _Corylus_, the
+  common walnut, found wild throughout the range, horse chestnut, yew,
+  also _Picea Webbiana_, _Pinus excelsa_, _Abies Smithiana_, _Cedrus
+  Deodara_ (which tree does not grow spontaneously east of Kumaon), and
+  several junipers. The denser forests are commonly found on the
+  northern faces of the higher ranges, or in the deeper valleys, between
+  8000 and 10,500 ft. The woods on the outer ranges from 3000 up to 7000
+  ft. are more open, and consist mainly of evergreen trees.
+
+  The herbaceous vegetation does not differ greatly, generically, from
+  that of the east, and many species of _Primulaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_,
+  _Cruciferae_, _Labiatae_ and _Scrophulariaceae_ occur; balsams abound,
+  also beautiful forms of _Campanulaceae_, _Gentiana_, _Meconopsis_,
+  _Saxifraga_ and many others.
+
+  Cultivation hardly extends above 7000 ft., except in the valleys
+  behind the great snowy peaks, where a few fields of buckwheat and
+  Tibetan barley are sown up to 11,000 or 12,000 ft. At the lower
+  elevations rice, maize and millets are common, wheat and barley at a
+  somewhat higher level, and buckwheat and amaranth usually on the
+  poorer lands, or those recently reclaimed from forest. Besides these,
+  most of the ordinary vegetables of the plains are reared, and potatoes
+  have been introduced in the neighbourhood of all the British stations.
+
+  As we pass to the west the species of rhododendron, oak and _Magnolia_
+  are much reduced in number as compared to the eastern region, and both
+  the Malayan and Japanese forms are much less common. The herbaceous
+  tropical and semi-tropical vegetation likewise by degrees disappears,
+  the _Scitamineae_, epiphytal and terrestrial _Orchideae_, _Araceae_,
+  _Cyrtandraceae_ and _Begoniae_ only occur in small numbers in Kumaon,
+  and scarcely extend west of the Sutlej. In like manner several of the
+  western forms suited to drier climates find their eastern limit in
+  Kumaon. In Kashmir the plane and Lombardy poplar flourish, though
+  hardly seen farther east, the cherry is cultivated in orchards, and
+  the vegetation presents an eminently European cast. The alpine flora
+  is slower in changing its character as we pass from east to west, but
+  in Kashmir the vegetation of the higher mountains hardly differs from
+  that of the mountains of Afghanistan, Persia and Siberia, even in
+  species.
+
+  The total number of flowering plants inhabiting the range amounts
+  probably to 5000 or 6000 species, among which may be reckoned several
+  hundred common English plants chiefly from the temperate and alpine
+  regions; and the characteristic of the flora as a whole is that it
+  contains a general and tolerably complete illustration of almost all
+  the chief natural families of all parts of the world, and has
+  comparatively few distinctive features of its own.
+
+  The timber trees of the Himalaya are very numerous, but few of them
+  are known to be of much value. The "Sal" is one of the most valuable
+  of the trees; with the "Toon" and "Sissoo," it grows in the outer
+  ranges most accessible from the plains. The "Deodar" is also much
+  used, but the other pines produce timber that is not durable. Bamboos
+  grow everywhere along the outer ranges, and rattans to the eastward,
+  and are largely exported for use in the plains of India.
+
+  Though one species of coffee is indigenous in the hotter Himalayan
+  forests, the climate does not appear suitable for the growth of the
+  plant which supplies the coffee of commerce. The cultivation of tea,
+  however, is carried on successfully on a large scale, both in the east
+  and west of the mountains. In the western Himalaya the cultivated
+  variety of the tea plant of China succeeds well; on the east the
+  indigenous tea of Assam, which is not specifically different, and is
+  perhaps the original parent of the Chinese variety, is now almost
+  everywhere preferred. The produce of the Chinese variety in the hot
+  and wet climate of the eastern Himalaya, Assam and eastern Bengal is
+  neither so abundant nor so highly flavoured as that of the indigenous
+  plant.
+
+  The cultivation of the cinchona, several species of which have been
+  introduced from South America and naturalized in the Sikkim Himalaya,
+  promises to yield at a comparatively small cost an ample supply of the
+  febrifuge extracted from its bark. At present the manufacture is
+  almost wholly in the hands of the Government, and the drug prepared is
+  all disposed of in India.
+
+  _Zoology._--The general distribution of animal life is determined by
+  much the same conditions that have controlled the vegetation. The
+  connexion with Europe on the north-west, with China on the north-east,
+  with Africa on the south-west, and with the Malayan region on the
+  south-east is manifest; and the greater or less prevalence of the
+  European and Eastern forms varies according to more western or eastern
+  position on the chain. So far as is known these remarks will apply to
+  the extinct as well as to the existing fauna. The Palaeozoic forms
+  found in the Himalaya are very close to those of Europe, and in some
+  cases identical. The Triassic fossils are still more closely allied,
+  more than a third of the species being identical. Among the Jurassic
+  Mollusca, also, are many species that are common in Europe. The
+  Siwalik fossils contain 84 species of mammals of 45 genera, the whole
+  bearing a marked resemblance to the Miocene fauna of Europe, but
+  containing a larger number of genera still existing, especially of
+  ruminants, and now held to be of Pliocene age.
+
+  The fauna of the Tibetan Himalaya is essentially European or rather
+  that of the northern half of the old continent, which region has by
+  zoologists been termed Palaearctic. Among the characteristic animals
+  may be named the yak, from which is reared a cross breed with the
+  ordinary horned cattle of India, many wild sheep, and two antelopes,
+  as well as the musk-deer; several hares and some burrowing animals,
+  including pikas (_Lagomys_) and two or three species of marmot;
+  certain arctic forms of carnivora--fox, wolf, lynx, ounce, marten and
+  ermine; also wild asses. Among birds are found bustard and species of
+  sand-grouse and partridge; water-fowl in great variety, which breed on
+  the lakes in summer and migrate to the plains of India in winter; the
+  raven, hawks, eagles and owls, a magpie, and two kinds of chough; and
+  many smaller birds of the passerine order, amongst which are several
+  finches. Reptiles, as might be anticipated, are far from numerous, but
+  a few lizards are found, belonging for the most part to types, such as
+  _Phrynocephalus_, characteristic of the Central-Asiatic area. The
+  fishes from the headwaters of the Indus also belong, for the most
+  part, to Central-Asiatic types, with a small admixture of purely
+  Himalayan forms. Amongst the former are several peculiar small-scaled
+  carps, belonging to the genus _Schizothorax_ and its allies.
+
+  The ranges of the Himalaya, from the border of Tibet to the plains,
+  form a zoological region which is one of the richest of the world,
+  particularly in respect to birds, to which the forest-clad mountains
+  offer almost every range of temperature.
+
+  Only two or three forms of monkey enter the mountains, the langur, a
+  species of _Semnopithecus_, ranging up to 12,000 ft. No lemurs occur,
+  although a species is found in Assam, and another in southern India.
+  Bats are numerous, but the species are for the most part not peculiar
+  to the area; several European forms are found at the higher
+  elevations. Moles, which are unknown in the Indian peninsula, abound
+  in the forest regions of the eastern Himalayas at a moderate altitude,
+  and shrews of several species are found almost everywhere; amongst
+  them are two very remarkable forms of water-shrew, one of which,
+  however, _Nectogale_, is probably Tibetan rather than Himalayan. Bears
+  are common, and so are a marten, several weasels and otters, and cats
+  of various kinds and sizes, from the little spotted _Felis
+  bengalensis_, smaller than a domestic cat, to animals like the clouded
+  leopard rivalling a leopard in size. Leopards are common, and the
+  tiger wanders to a considerable elevation, but can hardly be
+  considered a permanent inhabitant, except in the lower valleys.
+  Civets, the mungoose (_Herpestes_), and toddy cats (_Paradoxurus_) are
+  only found at the lower elevations. Wild dogs (_Cyon_) are common, but
+  neither foxes nor wolves occur in the forest area. Besides these
+  carnivora some very peculiar forms are found, the most remarkable of
+  which is Aelurus, sometimes called the cat-bear, a type akin to the
+  American racoon. Two other genera, _Helictis_, an aberrant badger, and
+  linsang, an aberrant civet, are representatives of Malayan types.
+  Amongst the rodents squirrels abound, and the so-called flying
+  squirrels are represented by several species. Rats and mice swarm,
+  both kinds and individuals being numerous, but few present much
+  peculiarity, a bamboo rat (_Rhizomys_) from the base of the eastern
+  Himalaya being perhaps most worthy of notice. Two or three species of
+  vole (_Arvicola_) have been detected, and porcupines are common. The
+  elephant is found in the outer forests as far as the Jumna, and the
+  rhinoceros as far as the Sarda; the spread of both of these animals as
+  far as the Indus and into the plains of India, far beyond their
+  present limits, is authenticated by historical records; they have
+  probably retreated before the advance of cultivation and fire-arms.
+  Wild pigs are common in the lower ranges, and one peculiar species of
+  pigmy-hog (_Sus salvanius_) of very small size inhabits the forests at
+  the base of the mountains in Nepal and Sikim. Deer of several kinds
+  are met with, but do not ascend very high on the hillsides, and belong
+  exclusively to Indian forms. The musk deer keeps to the greater
+  elevations. The chevrotains of India and the Malay countries are
+  unrepresented. The gaur or wild ox is found at the base of the hills.
+  Three very characteristic ruminants, having some affinities with
+  goats, inhabit the Himalaya; these are the "serow" (_Nemorhaedus_),
+  "goral" (_Cemas_) and "tahr" (_Hemitragus_), the last-named ranging to
+  rather high elevations. Lastly, the pangolin (_Manis_) is represented
+  by two species in the eastern Himalaya. A dolphin (_Platanista_)
+  living in the Ganges ascends that river and its affluents to their
+  issue from the mountains.
+
+  Almost all the orders of birds are well represented, and the
+  marvellous variety of forms found in the eastern Himalaya is only
+  rivalled in Central and South America. Eagles, vultures and other
+  birds of prey are seen soaring high over the highest of the
+  forest-clad ranges. Owls are numerous, and a small species,
+  _Glaucidium_, is conspicuous, breaking the stillness of the night by
+  its monotonous though musical cry of two notes. Several kinds of
+  swifts and nightjars are found, and gorgeously-coloured trogons,
+  bee-eaters, rollers, and beautiful kingfishers and barbets are common.
+  Several large hornbills inhabit the highest trees in the forest. The
+  parrots are restricted to parrakeets, of which there are several
+  species, and a single small lory. The number of woodpeckers is very
+  great and the variety of plumage remarkable, and the voice of the
+  cuckoo, of which there are numerous species, resounds in the spring as
+  in Europe. The number of passerine birds is immense. Amongst them the
+  sun-birds resemble in appearance and almost rival in beauty the
+  humming-birds of the New Continent. Creepers, nuthatches, shrikes, and
+  their allied forms, flycatchers and swallows, thrushes, dippers and
+  babblers (about fifty species), bulbuls and orioles, peculiar types of
+  redstart, various sylviads, wrens, tits, crows, jays and magpies,
+  weaver-birds, avadavats, sparrows, crossbills and many finches,
+  including the exquisitely coloured rose-finches, may also be
+  mentioned. The pigeons are represented by several wood-pigeons, doves
+  and green pigeons. The gallinaceous birds include the peacock, which
+  everywhere adorns the forest bordering on the plains, jungle fowl and
+  several pheasants; partridges, of which the chikor may be named as
+  most abundant, and snow-pheasants and partridges, found only at the
+  greatest elevations. Waders and waterfowl are far less abundant, and
+  those occurring are nearly all migratory forms which visit the
+  peninsula of India--the only important exception being two kinds of
+  solitary snipe and the red-billed curlew.
+
+  Of the reptiles found in these mountains many are peculiar. Some of
+  the snakes of India are to be seen in the hotter regions, including
+  the python and some of the venomous species, the cobra being found as
+  high up as 8000 or 9000 ft., though not common. Lizards are numerous,
+  and as well as frogs are found at all elevations from the plains to
+  the upper Himalayan valleys, and even extend to Tibet.
+
+  The fishes found in the rivers of the Himalaya show the same general
+  connexion with the three neighbouring regions, the Palaearctic, the
+  African and the Malayan. Of the principal families, the
+  _Acanthopterygii_, which are abundant in the hotter parts of India,
+  hardly enter the mountains, two genera only being found, of which one
+  is the peculiar amphibious genus _Ophiocephalus_. None of these fishes
+  are found in Tibet. The _Siluridae_, or scaleless fishes, and the
+  _Cyprinidae_, or carp and loach, form the bulk of the mountain fish,
+  and the genera and species appear to be organized for a
+  mountain-torrent life, being almost all furnished with suckers to
+  enable them to maintain their positions in the rapid streams which
+  they inhabit. A few _Siluridae_ have been found in Tibet, but the
+  carps constitute the larger part of the species. Many of the Himalayan
+  forms are Indian fish which appear to go up to the higher streams to
+  deposit their ova, and the Tibetan species as a rule are confined to
+  the rivers on the table-land or to the streams at the greatest
+  elevations, the characteristics of which are Tibetan rather than
+  Himalayan. The _Salmonidae_ are entirely absent from the waters of the
+  Himalaya proper, of Tibet and of Turkestan east of the Terektag.
+
+  The Himalayan butterflies are very numerous and brilliant, for the
+  most part belonging to groups that extend both into the Malayan and
+  European regions, while African forms also appear. There are large and
+  gorgeous species of _Papilio_, _Nymphalidae_, _Morphidae_ and
+  _Danaidae_, and the more favoured localities are described as being
+  only second to South America in the display of this form of beauty and
+  variety in insect life. Moths, also, of strange forms and of great
+  size are common. The cicada's song resounds among the woods in the
+  autumn; flights of locusts frequently appear after the summer, and
+  they are carried by the prevailing winds even among the glaciers and
+  eternal snows. Ants, bees and wasps of many species, and flies and
+  gnats abound, particularly during the summer rainy season, and at all
+  elevations.
+
+  _Mountain Scenery._--Much has been written about the impressiveness
+  of Himalayan scenery. It is but lately, however, that any adequate
+  conception of the magnitude and majesty of the most stupendous of the
+  mountain groups which mass themselves about the upper tributaries and
+  reaches of the Indus has been presented to us in the works of Sir F.
+  Younghusband, Sir W. M. Conway, H. C. B. Tanner and D. Freshfield. It
+  is not in comparison with the picturesque beauty of European Alpine
+  scenery that the Himalaya appeals to the imagination, for amongst the
+  hills of the outer Himalaya--the hills which are known to the majority
+  of European residents and visitors--there is often a striking absence
+  of those varied incidents and sharp contrasts which are essential to
+  picturesqueness in mountain landscape. Too often the brown, barren,
+  sun-scorched ridges are obscured in the yellow dust haze which drifts
+  upwards from the plains; too often the whole perspective of hill and
+  vale is blotted out in the grey mists that sweep in soft, resistless
+  columns against these southern slopes, to be condensed and
+  precipitated in ceaseless, monotonous rainfall. Few Europeans really
+  see the Himalaya; fewer still are capable of translating their
+  impressions into language which is neither exaggerated nor inadequate.
+
+  Some idea of the magnitude of Himalayan mountain construction--a
+  magnitude which the eye totally fails to appreciate--may, however, be
+  gathered from the following table of comparison of the absolute height
+  of some peaks above sea-level with the actual amount of their slopes
+  exposed to view:--
+
+    _Relative Extent of Snow Slopes Visible._
+
+    +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+
+    |                     |                      | Height |  Amount  |
+    |  Name of Mountain.  | Place of Observation.|  above | of Slope |
+    |                     |                      |   sea. | exposed. |
+    +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+
+    | Everest             | Dewanganj            | 29,002 |    8,000 |
+    |    "                | Sandakphu            |    "   |   12,000 |
+    | K2 or Godwin-Austen | Between Gilgit and   |        |          |
+    |                     |   Gor, 16,000 ft.    | 28,250 |          |
+    | Pk. XIII. or Makalu | Purnea, 200 ft       | 27,800 |    8,000 |
+    |                     | Sandakphu, 12,000 ft.|    "   |    9,000 |
+    | Nanga Parbat        | Gor, 16,000 ft.      | 26,656 |   23,000 |
+    | Tirach Mir          | Between Gilgit and   |        |          |
+    |                     |   Chitral, 8000 ft.  | 25,400 |17-18,000 |
+    | Rakapushi           | Chaprot (Gilgit),    |        |          |
+    |                     |   13,000 ft.         | 25,560 |   18,000 |
+    | Kinchinjunga        | Darjeeling, 7000 ft. | 28,146 |   16,000 |
+    | Mont Blanc          | Above Chamonix, 7000 |        |          |
+    |                     |   ft.                | 15,781 |   11,500 |
+    +---------------------+----------------------+--------+----------+
+
+  It will be observed from this table that it is not often that a
+  greater slope of snow-covered mountain side is observable in the
+  Himalaya than that which is afforded by the familiar view of Mont
+  Blanc from Chamonix.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Drew, _Jammu and Kashmir_ (London, 1875); G. W. Leitner,
+  _Dardistan_ (1887); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta,
+  1880); H. H. Godwin-Austen, "Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vols.
+  v. and vi. _Proc. R. G. S._ (1883-1884); C. Ujfalvy, _Aus dem
+  westlichen Himalaya_ (Leipzig, 1884); H. C. B. Tanner, "Our Present
+  Knowledge of the Himalaya," vol. xiii. _Proc. R. G. S._ (1891); R. D.
+  Oldham, "The Evolution of Indian Geography," vol. iii. _Jour. R. G.
+  S._; W. Lawrence, _Kashmir_ (Oxford, 1895); Sir W. M. Conway,
+  _Climbing and Exploring in the Karakoram_ (London, 1898); F. Bullock
+  Workman, _In the Ice World of Himalaya_ (1900); F. B. and W. H.
+  Workman, _Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh_ (1908); D. W. Freshfield,
+  _Round Kangchenjunga_ (1903).
+
+  For geology see R. Lydekker, "The Geology of Kashmir," &c., _Mem.
+  Geol. Surv. India_, vol. xxii. (1883); C. S. Middlemiss, "Physical
+  Geology of the Sub-Himalaya of Gahrwal and Kumaon," ibid., vol. xxiv.
+  pt. 2 (1890); C. L. Griesbach, _Geology of the Central Himalayas_,
+  vol. xxiii. (1891); R. D. Oldham, _Manual of the Geology of India_,
+  chap. xviii. (2nd ed., 1893). Descriptions of the fossils, with some
+  notes on stratigraphical questions, will be found in several of the
+  volumes of the _Palaeontologia Indica_, published by the Geological
+  Survey of India, Calcutta.
+
+
+
+
+HIMERA, a city on the north coast of Sicily, on a hill above the east
+bank of the Himeras Septentrionalis. It was founded in 648 B.C. by the
+Chalcidian inhabitants of Zancle, in company with many Syracusan exiles.
+Early in the 5th century the tyrant Terillas, son-in-law of Anaxilas of
+Rhegium and Zancle, appealed to the Carthaginians, who came to his
+assistance, but were utterly defeated by Gelon of Syracuse in 480
+B.C.--on the same day, it is said, as the battle of Salamis.
+Thrasydaeus, son of Theron of Agrigentum, seems to have ruled the city
+oppressively, but an appeal made to Hiero of Syracuse, Gelon's brother,
+was betrayed by him to Theron; the latter massacred all his enemies and
+in the following year resettled the town. In 415 it refused to admit the
+Athenian fleet and remained an ally of Syracuse. In 408 the Carthaginian
+invading army under Hannibal, after capturing Selinus, invested and took
+Himera and razed the city to the ground, founding a new town close to
+the hot springs (Thermae Himeraeae), 8 m. to the west. The only relic of
+the ancient town now visible above ground is a small portion (four
+columns, lower diameter 7 ft.) of a Doric temple, the date of which
+(whether before or after 480 B.C.) is uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+HIMERIUS (c. A.D. 315-386), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at
+Prusa in Bithynia. He completed his education at Athens, whence he was
+summoned to Antioch in 362 by the emperor Julian to act as his private
+secretary. After the death of Julian in the following year Himerius
+returned to Athens, where he established a school of rhetoric, which he
+compared with that of Isocrates and the Delphic oracle, owing to the
+number of those who flocked from all parts of the world to hear him.
+Amongst his pupils were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great, bishop
+of Caesarea. In recognition of his merits, civic rights and the
+membership of the Areopagus were conferred upon him. The death of his
+son Rufinus (his lament for whom, called [Greek: monodia], is extant)
+and that of a favourite daughter greatly affected his health; in his
+later years he became blind and he died of epilepsy. Although a heathen,
+who had been initiated into the mysteries of Mithra by Julian, he shows
+no prejudice against the Christians. Himerius is a typical
+representative of the later rhetorical schools. Photius (cod. 165, 243
+Bekker) had read 71 speeches by him, of 36 of which he has given an
+epitome; 24 have come down to us complete and fragments of 10 or 12
+others. They consist of epideictic or "display" speeches after the style
+of Aristides, the majority of them having been delivered on special
+occasions, such as the arrival of a new governor, visits to different
+cities (Thessalonica, Constantinople), or the death of friends or
+well-known personages. The _Polemarchicus_, like the _Menexenus_ of
+Plato and the _Epitaphios Logos_ of Hypereides, is a panegyric of
+those who had given their lives for their country; it is so called
+because it was originally the duty of the polemarch to arrange the
+funeral games in honour of those who had fallen in battle. Other
+declamations, only known from the excerpts in Photius, were imaginary
+orations put into the mouth of famous persons--Demosthenes advocating
+the recall of Aeschines from banishment, Hypereides supporting the
+policy of Demosthenes, Themistocles inveighing against the king of
+Persia, an orator unnamed attacking Epicurus for atheism before Julian
+at Constantinople. Himerius is more of a poet than a rhetorician, and
+his declamations are valuable as giving prose versions or even the
+actual words of lost poems by Greek lyric writers. The prose poem on the
+marriage of Severus and his greeting to Basil at the beginning of spring
+are quite in the spirit of the old lyric. Himerius possesses vigour of
+language and descriptive powers, though his productions are spoilt by
+too frequent use of imagery, allegorical and metaphorical obscurities,
+mannerism and ostentatious learning. But they are valuable for the
+history and social conditions of the time, although lacking the
+sincerity characteristic of Libanius.
+
+  See Eunapius, _Vitae sophistarum_; Suidas, _s.v._; editions by G.
+  Wernsdorf (1790), with valuable introduction and commentaries, and by
+  F. Dubner (1849) in the Didot series; C. Teuber, _Quaestiones
+  Himerianae_ (Breslau, 1882); on the style, E. Norden, _Die antike
+  Kunstprosa_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE (1823-1906), French historian and geographer, was
+born at Strassburg on the 28th of March 1823. After studying in his
+native town and taking the university course in Berlin (1842-1843) he
+went to Paris, and passed first in the examination for fellowship
+(_agregation_) of the _lycees_ (1845), first in the examinations on
+leaving the Ecole des Chartes, and first in the examination for
+fellowship of the faculties (1849). In 1849 he took the degree of doctor
+of letters with two theses, one of which, _Wala et Louis le Debonnaire_
+(published in Paris in 1849), placed him in the front rank of French
+scholars in the province of Carolingian history. Soon, however, he
+turned his attention to the study of geography. In 1858 he obtained an
+appointment as teacher of geography at the Sorbonne, and henceforth
+devoted himself to that subject. It was not till 1876 that he published,
+in two volumes, his remarkable _Histoire de la formation territoriale
+des etats de l'Europe centrale_, in which he showed with a firm, but
+sometimes slightly heavy touch, the reciprocal influence exerted by
+geography and history. While the work gives evidence throughout of wide
+and well-directed research, he preferred to write it in the form of a
+student's manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained him
+admission to the Institute in 1881. In that year he was appointed dean
+of the faculty of letters, and for ten years he directed the
+intellectual life of that great educational centre during its
+development into a great scientific body. He died at Sevres on the 6th
+of October 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY (1765-1814), German composer, was born on the
+20th of November 1765 at Treuenbrietzen in Brandenburg, Prussia, and
+originally studied theology at Halle. During a temporary stay at Potsdam
+he had an opportunity of showing his self-acquired skill as a pianist
+before King Frederick William II., who thereupon made him a yearly
+allowance to enable him to complete his musical studies. This he did
+under Naumann, a German composer of the Italian school, and the style of
+that school Himmel himself adopted in his serious operas. The first of
+these, a pastoral opera, _Il Primo Navigatore_, was produced at Venice
+in 1794 with great success. In 1792 he went to Berlin, where his
+oratorio _Isaaco_ was produced, in consequence of which he was made
+court Kapellmeister to the king of Prussia, and in that capacity wrote a
+great deal of official music, including cantatas, and a coronation Te
+Deum. His Italian operas, successively composed for Stockholm, St
+Petersburg and Berlin, were all received with great favour in their day.
+Of much greater importance than these is an operetta to German words by
+Kotzebue, called _Fanchon_, an admirable specimen of the primitive form
+of the musical drama known in Germany as the _Singspiel_. Himmel's gift
+of writing genuine simple melody is also observable in his songs,
+amongst which one called "To Alexis" is the best. He died in Berlin on
+the 8th of June 1814.
+
+
+
+
+HINCKLEY, a market town in the Bosworth parliamentary division of
+Leicestershire, England, 14(1/2) m. S.W. from Leicester on the
+Nuneaton-Leicester branch of the London & North-Western railway, and
+near the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,304.
+The town is well situated on a considerable eminence. Among the
+principal buildings are the church of St Mary, a Decorated and
+Perpendicular structure, with lofty tower and spire; the Roman Catholic
+academy named St Peter's Priory, and a grammar school. The ditch of a
+castle erected by Hugh de Grentismenil in the time of William Rufus is
+still to be traced. Hinckley is the centre of a stocking-weaving
+district, and its speciality is circular hose. It also possesses a
+boot-making industry, brick and tile works, and lime works. There are
+mineral springs in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+HINCKS, EDWARD (1792-1866), British assyriologist, was born at Cork,
+Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders in the
+Protestant Church of Ireland, and was rector of Killyleagh, Down, from
+1825 till his death on the 3rd of December 1866. Hincks devoted his
+spare time to the study of hieroglyphics, and to the deciphering of the
+cuneiform script (see CUNEIFORM), in which he was a pioneer, working out
+contemporaneously with Sir H. Rawlinson, and independently of him, the
+ancient Persian vowel system. He published a number of original and
+scholarly papers on assyriological questions of the highest value,
+chiefly in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Irish Academy.
+
+
+
+
+HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS (1807-1885), Canadian statesman, was born at Cork,
+Ireland, the son of an Irish Presbyterian minister. In 1832 he engaged
+in business in Toronto, became a friend of Robert Baldwin, and in 1835
+was chosen to examine the accounts of the Welland Canal, the management
+of which was being attacked by W. L. Mackenzie. This turned his
+attention to political life and in 1838 he founded the _Examiner_, a
+weekly paper in the Liberal interest. In 1841 he was elected M.P. for
+the county of Oxford, and in the following year was appointed
+inspector-general, the title then borne by the finance minister, but in
+1843 resigned with Baldwin and the other ministers on the question of
+responsible government. In 1848 he again became inspector-general in the
+Baldwin-Lafontaine ministry, and on their retirement in 1851 became
+premier of Canada, his chief colleague being A. N. Morin (1803-1865).
+While premier he was prominent in the negotiations which led to the
+construction of the Grand Trunk railway, and in co-operation with Lord
+Elgin negotiated with the United States the reciprocity treaty of 1854.
+In the same year the bitter hostility of the "Clear Grits" under George
+Brown compelled his resignation, and he was prominent in the formation
+of the Liberal-Conservative Party. In 1855 he was chosen governor of
+Barbados and the Windward Islands, and subsequently governor of British
+Guiana. In 1869 he was created K.C.M.G. and returned to Canada, becoming
+till 1873 finance minister in the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. In
+February of that year he resigned, but continued to take an active part
+in public life. In 1879 the failure of the Consolidated Bank of Canada,
+of which he was president, led to his being tried for issuing false
+statements. Though found guilty on a technicality (see _Journal_ of the
+Canadian Bankers' Association, April 1906) judgment was suspended, his
+personal credit remained unimpaired, and he continued to take part in
+the discussion of public questions till his death on the 18th of August
+1885.
+
+  His writings include: _The Political History of Canada between 1840
+  and 1855_ (1877); _The Political Destiny of Canada_ (1878), and his
+  _Reminiscences_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HINCMAR (c. 805-882), archbishop of Reims, one of the most remarkable
+figures in the ecclesiastical history of France, belonged to a noble
+family of the north or north-east of Gaul. Destined, doubtless, to the
+monastic life, he was brought up at St Denis under the direction of the
+abbot Hilduin (d. 844), who brought him in 822 to the court of the
+emperor Louis the Pious. When Hilduin was disgraced in 830 for having
+joined the party of Lothair, Hincmar accompanied him into exile at
+Corvey in Saxony, but returned with him to St Denis when the abbot was
+reconciled with the emperor, and remained faithful to the emperor during
+his struggle with his sons. After the death of Louis the Pious (840)
+Hincmar supported Charles the Bald, and received from him the abbacies
+of Notre-Dame at Compiegne and St Germer de Fly. In 845 he obtained
+through the king's support the archbishopric of Reims, and this choice
+was confirmed at the synod of Beauvais (April 845). Archbishop Ebbo,
+whom he replaced, had been deposed in 835 at the synod of Thionville
+(Diedenhofen) for having broken his oath of fidelity to the emperor
+Louis, whom he had deserted to join the party of Lothair. After the
+death of Louis, Ebbo succeeded in regaining possession of his see for
+some years (840-844), but in 844 Pope Sergius II. confirmed his
+deposition. It was in these circumstances that Hincmar succeeded, and in
+847 Pope Leo IV. sent him the pallium.
+
+One of the first cares of the new prelate was the restitution to his
+metropolitan see of the domains that had been alienated under Ebbo and
+given as benefices to laymen. From the beginning of his episcopate
+Hincmar was in constant conflict with the clerks who had been ordained
+by Ebbo during his reappearance. These clerks, whose ordination was
+regarded as invalid by Hincmar and his adherents, were condemned in 853
+at the council of Soissons, and the decisions of that council were
+confirmed in 855 by Pope Benedict III. This conflict, however, bred an
+antagonism of which Hincmar was later to feel the effects. During the
+next thirty years the archbishop of Reims played a very prominent part
+in church and state. His authoritative and energetic will inspired, and
+in great measure directed, the policy of the west Frankish kingdom until
+his death. He took an active part in all the great political and
+religious affairs of his time, and was especially energetic in defending
+and extending the rights of the church and of the metropolitans in
+general, and of the metropolitan of the church of Reims in particular.
+In the resulting conflicts, in which his personal interest was in
+question, he displayed great activity and a wide knowledge of canon law,
+but did not scruple to resort to disingenuous interpretation of texts.
+His first encounter was with the heresiarch Gottschalk, whose
+predestinarian doctrines claimed to be modelled on those of St
+Augustine. Hincmar placed himself at the head of the party that
+regarded Gottschalk's doctrines as heretical, and succeeded in procuring
+the arrest and imprisonment of his adversary (849). For a part at least
+of his doctrines Gottschalk found ardent defenders, such as Lupus of
+Ferrieres, the deacon Florus and Amolo of Lyons. Through the energy and
+activity of Hincmar the theories of Gottschalk were condemned at Quierzy
+(853) and Valence (855), and the decisions of these two synods were
+confirmed at the synods of Langres and Savonnieres, near Toul (859). To
+refute the predestinarian heresy Hincmar composed his _De
+praedestinatione Dei et libero arbitrio_, and against certain
+propositions advanced by Gottschalk on the Trinity he wrote a treatise
+called _De una et non trina deitate_. Gottschalk died in prison in 868.
+The question of the divorce of Lothair II., king of Lorraine, who had
+repudiated his wife Theutberga to marry his concubine Waldrada, engaged
+Hincmar's literary activities in another direction. At the request of a
+number of great personages in Lorraine he composed in 860 his _De
+divortio Lotharii et Teutbergae_, in which he vigorously attacked, both
+from the moral and the legal standpoints, the condemnation pronounced
+against the queen by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (February 860).
+Hincmar energetically supported the policy of Charles the Bald in
+Lorraine, less perhaps from devotion to the king's interests than from a
+desire to see the whole of the ecclesiastical province of Reims united
+under the authority of a single sovereign, and in 869 it was he who
+consecrated Charles at Metz as king of Lorraine.
+
+In the middle of the 9th century there appeared in Gaul the collection
+of false decretals commonly known as the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. The
+exact date and the circumstances of the composition of the collection
+are still an open question, but it is certain that Hincmar was one of
+the first to know of their existence, and apparently he was not aware
+that the documents were forged. The importance assigned by these
+decretals to the bishops and the provincial councils, as well as to the
+direct intervention of the Holy See, tended to curtail the rights of the
+metropolitans, of which Hincmar was so jealous. Rothad, bishop of
+Soissons, one of the most active members of the party in favour of the
+pseudo-Isidorian theories, immediately came into collision with his
+archbishop. Deposed in 863 at the council of Soissons, presided over by
+Hincmar, Rothad appealed to Rome. Pope Nicholas I. supported him
+zealously, and in 865, in spite of the protests of the archbishop of
+Reims, Arsenius, bishop of Orta and legate of the Holy See, was
+instructed to restore Rothad to his episcopal see. Hincmar experienced
+another check when he endeavoured to prevent Wulfad, one of the clerks
+deposed by Ebbo, from obtaining the archbishopric of Bourges with the
+support of Charles the Bald. After a synod held at Soissons, Nicholas I.
+pronounced himself in favour of the deposed clerks, and Hincmar was
+constrained to make submission (866). He was more successful in his
+contest with his nephew Hincmar, bishop of Laon, who was at first
+supported both by the king and by his uncle, the archbishop of Reims,
+but soon quarrelled with both. Hincmar of Laon refused to recognize the
+authority of his metropolitan, and entered into an open struggle with
+his uncle, who exposed his errors in a treatise called _Opusculum LV.
+capitulorum_, and procured his condemnation and deposition at the synod
+of Douzy (871). The bishop of Laon was sent into exile, probably to
+Aquitaine, where his eyes were put out by order of Count Boso. Pope
+Adrian protested against his deposition, but it was confirmed in 876 by
+Pope John VIII., and it was not until 878, at the council of Troyes,
+that the unfortunate prelate was reconciled with the Church. A serious
+conflict arose between Hincmar on the one side and Charles and the pope
+on the other in 876, when Pope John VIII., at the king's request,
+entrusted Ansegisus, archbishop of Sens, with the primacy of the Gauls
+and of Germany, and created him vicar apostolic. In Hincmar's eyes this
+was an encroachment on the jurisdiction of the archbishops, and it was
+against this primacy that he directed his treatise _De jure
+metropolitanorum_. At the same time he wrote a life of St Remigius, in
+which he endeavoured by audacious falsifications to prove the supremacy
+of the church of Reims over the other churches. Charles the Bald,
+however, upheld the rights of Ansegisus at the synod of Ponthion.
+Although Hincmar had been very hostile to Charles's expedition into
+Italy, he figured among his testamentary executors and helped to secure
+the submission of the nobles to Louis the Stammerer, whom he crowned at
+Compiegne (8th of December 877).
+
+During the reign of Louis, Hincmar played an obscure part. He supported
+the accession of Louis III. and Carloman, but had a dispute with Louis,
+who wished to instal a candidate in the episcopal see of Beauvais
+without the archbishop's assent. To Carloman, on his accession in 882,
+Hincmar addressed his _De ordine palatii_, partly based on a treatise
+(now lost) by Adalard, abbot of Corbie (c. 814), in which he set forth
+his system of government and his opinion of the duties of a sovereign, a
+subject he had already touched in his _De regis persona et regio
+ministerio_, dedicated to Charles the Bald at an unknown date, and in
+his _Instructio ad Ludovicum regem_, addressed to Louis the Stammerer on
+his accession in 877. In the autumn of 832 an irruption of the Normans
+forced the old archbishop to take refuge at Epernay, where he died on
+the 21st of December 882. Hincmar was a prolific writer. Besides the
+works already mentioned, he was the author of several theological
+tracts; of the _De villa Noviliaco_, concerning the claiming of a domain
+of his church; and he continued from 861 the _Annales Bertiniani_, of
+which the first part was written by Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, the
+best source for the history of Charles the Bald. He also wrote a great
+number of letters, some of which are extant, and others embodied in the
+chronicles of Flodoard.
+
+  Hincmar's works, which are the principal source for the history of his
+  life, were collected by Jacques Sirmond (Paris, 1645), and reprinted
+  by Migne, _Patrol. Latina_, vol. cxxv. and cxxvi. See also C. von
+  Noorden, _Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims_ (Bonn, 1863), and,
+  especially, H. Schrors, _Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims_
+  (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1884). For Hincmar's political and
+  ecclesiastical theories see preface to Maurice Prou's edition of the
+  _De ordine palatii_ (Paris, 1885), and the abbe Lesne, _La Hierarchie
+  episcopale en Gaule et en Germanie_ (Paris, 1905).     (R. Po.)
+
+
+
+
+HIND, the female of the red-deer, usually taken as being three years old
+and over, the male being known as a "hart." It is sometimes also applied
+to the female of other species of deer. The word appears in several
+Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch and Ger. _Hinde_, and has been connected
+with the Goth. _hinthan_ (_hinthan_), to seize, which may be connected
+ultimately with "hand" and "hunt." "Hart," from the O.E. _heort_, may be
+in origin connected with the root of Gr. [Greek: keras], horn. "Hind"
+(O.E. _hine_, probably from the O.E. _hinan_, members of a family or
+household), meaning a servant, especially a labourer on a farm, is
+another word. In Scotland the "hind" is a farm servant, with a cottage
+on the farm, and duties and responsibilities that make him superior to
+the rest of the labourers. Similarly "hind" is used in certain parts of
+northern England as equivalent to "bailiff."
+
+
+
+
+HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON (1804-1872), Prussian general, was born at
+Wernigerode near Halberstadt on the 18th of July 1804. He was the son of
+a priest and received a good education. His earlier life was spent in
+great poverty, and the struggle for existence developed in him an iron
+strength of character. Entering the Prussian artillery in 1820 he became
+an officer in 1825. From 1830 to 1837 he attended the Allgemeine
+Kriegsakademie at Berlin, and in 1841, while still a subaltern, he was
+posted to the great General Staff, in which he afterwards directed the
+topographical section. In 1849 he served with the rank of major on the
+staff of General Peucker, who commanded a federal corps in the
+suppression of the Baden insurrection. He fell into the hands of the
+insurgents at the action of Ladenburg, but was released just before the
+fall of Rastadt. In the Danish war of 1864 Hindersin, now
+lieutenant-general, directed the artillery operations against the lines
+of Duppel, and for his services was ennobled by the king of Prussia.
+Soon afterwards he became inspector-general of artillery. His experience
+at Duppel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore gun were
+past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting zeal to the rearmament
+and reorganization of the Prussian artillery. The available funds were
+small, and grudgingly voted by the parliament. There was a strong
+feeling moreover that the smooth-bore was still tactically superior to
+its rival (see ARTILLERY, S 19). There was no practical training for war
+in either the field or the fortress artillery units. The latter had made
+scarcely any progress since the days of Frederick the Great, and before
+von Hindersin's appointment had practised with the same guns in the same
+bastion year after year. All this was altered, the whole
+"foot-artillery" was reorganized, manoeuvres were instituted, and the
+smooth-bores were, except for ditch defence, eliminated from the
+armament of the Prussian fortresses. But far more important was his work
+in connexion with the field and horse batteries. In 1864 only one
+battery in four had rifled guns, but by the unrelenting energy of von
+Hindersin the outbreak of war with Austria one and a half years later
+found the Prussians with ten in every sixteen batteries armed with the
+new weapon. But the battles of 1866 showed, besides the superiority of
+the rifled gun, a very marked absence of tactical efficiency in the
+Prussian artillery, which was almost always outmatched by that of the
+enemy. Von Hindersin had pleaded, in season and out of season, for the
+establishment of a school of gunnery; and in spite of want of funds,
+such a school had already been established. After 1866, however, more
+support was obtained, and the improvement in the Prussian field
+artillery between 1866 and 1870 was extraordinary, even though there had
+not been time for the work of the school to leaven the whole arm.
+Indeed, the German artillery played by far the most important part in
+the victories of the Franco-German war. Von Hindersin accompanied the
+king's headquarters as chief of artillery, as he had done in 1866, and
+was present at Gravelotte, Sedan and the siege of Paris. But his work,
+which was now accomplished, had worn out his physical powers, and he
+died on the 23rd of January 1872 at Berlin.
+
+  See Bartholomaus, _Der General der Infanterie von Hindersin_ (Berlin,
+  1895), and Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, _Letters on
+  Artillery_ (translated by Major Walford, R.A.), No. xi.
+
+
+
+
+HINDI, EASTERN, one of the "intermediate" Indo-Aryan languages (see
+HINDOSTANI). It is spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand and Chhattisgarh by over
+22,000,000 people. It is derived from the Apabhramsa form of
+Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (see PRAKRIT), and possesses a large and important
+literature. Its most famous writer was Tulsi Das, the poet and reformer,
+who died early in the 17th century, and since his time it has been the
+North-Indian language employed for epic poetry.
+
+
+
+
+HINDI, WESTERN, the Indo-Aryan language of the middle and upper Gangetic
+Doab, and of the country to the north and south. It is the vernacular of
+over 40,000,000 people. Its standard dialect is Braj Bhasha, spoken near
+Muttra, which has a considerable literature mainly devoted to the
+religion founded on devotion to Krishna. Another dialect spoken near
+Delhi and in the upper Gangetic Doab is the original from which
+Hindostani, the great _lingua franca_ of India, has developed (see
+HINDOSTANI). Western Hindi, like Punjabi, its neighbour to the west, is
+descended from the Apabhramsa form of Sauraseni Prakrit (see PRAKRIT),
+and represents the language of the Madhyadesa or Midland, as distinct
+from the intermediate and outer Indo-Aryan languages.
+
+
+
+
+HINDKI, the name given to the Hindus who inhabit Afghanistan. They are
+of the Khatri class, and are found all over the country even amongst the
+wildest tribes. Bellew in his _Races of Afghanistan_ estimates their
+number at about 300,000. The name Hindki is also loosely used on the
+upper Indus, in Dir, Bajour, &c., to denote the speakers of Punjabi or
+any of its dialects. It is sometimes applied in a historical sense to
+the Buddhist inhabitants of the Peshawar Valley north of the Kabul
+river, who were driven thence about the 5th or 6th century and settled
+in the neighbourhood of Kandahar.
+
+
+
+
+HINDLEY, an urban district in the Ince parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 2 m. E.S.E. of Wigan, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire
+and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901) 23,504. Cotton spinning and the
+manufacture of cotton goods are the principal industries, and there are
+extensive coal-mines in the neighbourhood. It is recorded that in the
+time of the Puritan revolution Hindley church was entered by the
+Cavaliers, who played at cards in the pews, pulled down the pulpit and
+tore the Bible in pieces.
+
+
+
+
+HINDOSTANI (properly _Hindostani_, of or belonging to Hindostan[1]), the
+name given by Europeans to an Indo-Aryan dialect (whose home is in the
+upper Gangetic Doab and near the city of Delhi), which, owing to
+political causes, has become the great _lingua franca_ of modern India.
+The name is not employed by natives of India, except as an imitation of
+the English nomenclature. Hindostani is by origin a dialect of Western
+Hindi, and it is first of all necessary to explain what we mean by the
+term "Hindi" as applied to language. Modern Indo-Aryan languages fall
+into three groups,--an outer band, the language of the Midland and an
+intermediate band. The Midland consists of the Gangetic Doab and of the
+country to its immediate north and south, extending, roughly speaking,
+from the Eastern Punjab on the west, to Cawnpore on its east. The
+language of this tract is called "Western Hindi"; to its west we have
+Panjabi (of the Central Punjab), and to the east, reaching as far as
+Benares, Eastern Hindi, both Intermediate languages. These three will
+all be dealt with in the present article. Panjabi and Western Hindi are
+derived from Sauraseni, and Eastern Hindi from Ardham gadha Prakrit,
+through the corresponding Apabhramsas (see PRAKRIT). Eastern Hindi
+differs in many respects from the two others, but it is customary to
+consider it together with the language of the Midland, and this will be
+followed on the present occasion. In 1901 the speakers of these three
+languages numbered: Panjabi, 17,070,961; Western Hindi, 40,714,925;
+Eastern Hindi, 22,136,358.
+
+_Linguistic Boundaries._--Taking the tract covered by these three forms
+of speech, it has to its west, in the western Punjab, Lannda (see
+SINDHI), a language of the Outer band. The parent of Lahnda once no
+doubt covered the whole of the Punjab, but, in the process of expansion
+of the tribes of the Midland described in the article INDO-ARYAN
+LANGUAGES, it was gradually driven back, leaving traces of its former
+existence which grow stronger as we proceed westwards, until at about
+the 74th degree of east longitude there is a mixed, transition dialect.
+To the west of that degree Lahnda may be said to be established, the
+deserts of the west-central Punjab forming a barrier and protecting it,
+just as, farther south, a continuation of the same desert has protected
+Sindhi from Rajasthani. It is the old traces of Lahnda which mainly
+differentiate Panjabi from Hindostani. To the south of Panjabi and
+Western Hindi lies Rajasthani. This language arose in much the same way
+as Panjabi. The expanding Midland language was stopped by the desert
+from reaching Sindhi, but to the south-west it found an unobstructed way
+into Gujarat, where, under the form of Gujarati, it broke the
+continuity of the Outer band. Eastern Hindi, as an Intermediate form of
+speech, is of much older lineage. It has been an Intermediate language
+since, at least, the institution of Jainism (say, 500 B.C.), and is much
+less subject to the influence of the Midland than is Panjabi. To its
+east it has Bihari, and, stretching far to the south, it has Marathi as
+its neighbour in that direction, both of these being Outer languages.
+
+_Dialects._--The only important dialect of Eastern Hindi is Awadhi,
+spoken in Oudh, and possessing a large literature of great excellence.
+Chhattisgarhi and Bagheli, the other dialects, have scanty literatures
+of small value. Western Hindi has four main dialects, Bundeli of
+Bundelkhand, Braj Bhasha (properly "Braj Bhasa") of the country round
+Mathura (Muttra), Kanauji of the central Doab and the country to its
+north, and vernacular Hindostani of Delhi and the Upper Doab. West of
+the Upper Doab, across the Jumna, another dialect, Bangaru, is also
+found. It possesses no literature. Kanauji is very closely allied to
+Braj Bhasha, and these two share with Awadhi the honour of being the
+great literary speeches of northern India. Nearly all the classical
+literature of India is religious in character, and we may say that, as a
+broad rule, Awadhi literature is devoted to the Ramaite religion and the
+epic poetry connected with it, while that of Braj Bhasha is concerned
+with the religion of Krishna. Vernacular Hindostani has no literature of
+its own, but as the _lingua franca_ now to be described it has a large
+one. Panjabi has one dialect, Dogri, spoken in the Himalayas.
+
+_Hindostani as a Lingua Franca._--It has often been said that Hindostani
+is a mongrel "pigeon" form of speech made up of contributions from the
+various languages which met in Delhi bazaar, but this theory has now
+been proved to be unfounded, owing to the discovery of the fact that it
+is an actual living dialect of Western Hindi, existing for centuries in
+its present habitat, and the direct descendant of Sauraseni Prakrit. It
+is not a typical dialect of that language, for, situated where it is, it
+represents Western Hindi merging into Panjabi (Braj Bhasha being
+admittedly the standard of the language), but to say that it is a
+mongrel tongue thrown together in the market is to reverse the order of
+events. It was the natural language of the people in the neighbourhood
+of Delhi, who formed the bulk of those who resorted to the bazaar, and
+hence it became the bazaar language. From here it became the _lingua
+franca_ of the Mogul camp and was carried everywhere in India by the
+lieutenants of the empire. It has several recognized varieties, amongst
+which we may mention Dakhini, Urdu, Rekhta and Hindi. Dakhini or
+"southern," is the form current in the south of India, and was the first
+to be employed for literature. It contains many archaic expressions now
+extinct in the standard dialect. Urdu, or _Urdu zaban_, "the language of
+the camp," is the name usually employed for Hindostani by natives, and
+is now the standard form of speech used by Mussulmans. All the early
+Hindostani literature was in poetry, and this literary form of speech
+was named "Rekhta," or "scattered," from the way in which words borrowed
+from Persian were "scattered" through it. The name is now reserved for
+the dialect used in poetry, Urdu being the dialect of prose and of
+conversation. The introduction of these borrowed words, which has been
+carried to even a greater extent in Urdu, was facilitated by the facts
+that the latter was by origin a "camp" language, and that Persian was
+the official language of the Mogul court. In this way Persian (and, with
+Persian, Arabic) words came into current use, and, though the language
+remained Indo-Aryan in its grammar and essential characteristics, it
+soon became unintelligible to any one who had not at least a moderate
+acquaintance with the vocabulary of Iran. This extreme Persianization of
+Urdu was due rather to Hindu than to Persian influence. Although Urdu
+literature was Mussulman in its origin, the Persian element was first
+introduced in excess by the pliant Hindu officials employed in the Mogul
+administration, and acquainted with Persian, rather than by Persians and
+Persianized Moguls, who for many centuries used only their own languages
+for literary purposes.[2] Prose Urdu literature took its origin in the
+English occupation of India and the need for text-books for the college
+of Fort William. It has had a prosperous career since the commencement
+of the 19th century, but some writers, especially those of Lucknow, have
+so overloaded it with Persian and Arabic that little of the original
+Indo-Aryan character remains, except, perhaps, an occasional pronoun or
+auxiliary verb. The Hindi form of Hindostani was invented simultaneously
+with Urdu prose by the teachers at Fort William. It was intended to be a
+Hindostani for the use of Hindus, and was derived from Urdu by ejecting
+all words of Persian or Arabic birth, and substituting for them words
+either borrowed from Sanskrit (_tatsamas_) or derived from the old
+primary Prakrit (_tadbhavas_) (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Owing to the
+popularity of the first book written in it, and to its supplying the
+need for a _lingua franca_ which could be used by the most patriotic
+Hindus without offending their religious prejudices, it became widely
+adopted, and is now the recognized vehicle for writing prose by those
+inhabitants of northern India who do not employ Urdu. This Hindi, which
+is an altogether artificial product of the English, is hardly ever used
+for poetry. For this the indigenous dialects (usually Awadhi or Braj
+Bhasha) are nearly always employed by Hindus. Urdu, on the other hand,
+having had a natural growth, has a vigorous poetical literature. Modern
+Hindi prose is often disfigured by that too free borrowing of Sanskrit
+words instead of using home-born _tadbhavas_, which has been the ruin of
+Bengali, and it is rapidly becoming a Hindu counterpart of the
+Persianized Urdu, neither of which is intelligible except to persons of
+high education.
+
+Not only has Urdu adopted a Persian vocabulary, but even a few
+peculiarities of Persian construction, such as reversing the positions
+of the governing and the governed word (e.g. _bap mera_ for _mera bap_),
+or of the adjective and the substantive it qualifies, or such as the use
+of Persian phrases with the preposition _ba_ instead of the native
+postposition of the ablative case (e.g. _ba-khushi_ for _khushi-se_, or
+_ba-hukm sarkar-ke_ instead of _sarkar-ke hukm-se_) are to be met with
+in many writings; and these, perhaps, combined with the too free
+indulgence on the part of some authors in the use of high-flown and
+pedantic Persian and Arabic words in place of common and yet chaste
+Indian words, and the general use of the Persian instead of the Nagari
+character, have induced some to regard Hindostani or Urdu as a language
+distinct from Hindi. But such a view betrays a radical misunderstanding
+of the whole question. We must define Urdu as the Persianized Hindostani
+of educated Mussulmans, while Hindi is the Sanskritized Hindostani of
+educated Hindus. As for the written character, Urdu, from the number of
+Persian words which it contains, can only be written conveniently in the
+Persian character, while Hindi, for a parallel reason, can only be
+written in the Nagari or one of its related alphabets (see SANSKRIT). On
+the other hand, "Hindostani" implies the great _lingua franca_ of India,
+capable of being written in either character, and, without purism,
+avoiding the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when
+employed for literature. It is easy to write this Hindostani, for it has
+an opulent vocabulary of _tadbhava_ words understood everywhere by both
+Mussulmans and Hindus. While "Hindostani," "Urdu" and "Hindi" are thus
+names of dialects, it should be remembered that the terms "Western
+Hindi" and "Eastern Hindi" connote, not dialects, but languages.
+
+The epoch of Akbar, which first saw a regular revenue system
+established, with toleration and the free use of their religion to the
+Hindus, was, there can be little doubt, the period of the formation of
+the language. But its final consolidation did not take place till the
+reign of Shah Jahan. After the date of this monarch the changes are
+comparatively immaterial until we come to the time when European sources
+began to mingle with those of the East. Of the contributions from these
+sources there is little to say. Like the greater part of those from
+Arabic and Persian, they are chiefly nouns, and may be regarded rather
+as excrescences which have sprung up casually and have attached
+themselves to the original trunk than as ingredients duly incorporated
+in the body. In the case of the Persian and Arabic element, indeed, we
+do find not a few instances in which nouns have been furnished with a
+Hindi termination, e.g. _kharidna_, _badalna_, _guzarna_, _daghna_,
+_bakhshnaa_, _kaminapan_, &c.; but the European element cannot be said
+to have at all woven itself into the grammar of the language. It
+consists, as has been observed, solely of nouns, principally substantive
+nouns, which on their admission into the language are spelt
+phonetically, or according to the corrupt pronunciation they receive in
+the mouths of the natives, and are declined like the indigenous nouns by
+means of the usual postpositions or case-affixes. A few examples will
+suffice. The Portuguese, the first in order of seniority, contributes a
+few words, as _kamara_ or _kamra_ (_camera_), a room; _martol_
+(_martello_), a hammer; _nilam_ (_leilao_), an auction, &c. &c. Of
+French and Dutch influence scarcely a trace exists. English has
+contributed a number of words, some of which have even found a place in
+the literature of the language; e.g. _kamishanar_ (commissioner); _jaj_
+(judge); _daktar_ (doctor); _daktari_, "the science of medicine" or "the
+profession of physicians"; _inspektar_ (inspector); _istant_
+(assistant); _sosayati_ (society); _apil_ (appeal); _apil karna_, "to
+appeal"; _dikri_ or _digri_ (decree); _digri_ (degree); _inc_ (inch);
+_fut_ (foot); and many more, are now words commonly used. Some borrowed
+words are distorted into the shape of genuine Hindostani words familiar
+to the speakers; e.g. the English railway term "signal" has become
+_sikandar_, the native name for Alexander the Great, and "signal-man" is
+_sikandar-man_, or "the pride of Alexander." How far the free use of
+Anglicisms will be adopted as the language progresses is a question upon
+which it would be hazardous to pronounce an opinion, but of late years
+it has greatly increased in the language of the educated, especially in
+the case of technical terms. A native veterinary surgeon once said to
+the present writer, "_kutte-ka saliva bahut antiseptic hai_" for "a
+dog's saliva is very antiseptic," and this is not an extravagant
+example.[3]
+
+The vocabulary of Panjabi and Eastern Hindi is very similar to that of
+Western Hindi. Panjabi has no literature to speak of and is free from
+the burden of words borrowed from Persian or Sanskrit, only the
+commonest and simplest of such being found in it. Its vocabulary is thus
+almost entirely _tadbhava_, and, while capable of expressing all ideas,
+it has a charming rustic flavour, like the Lowland Scotch of Burns,
+indicative of the national character of the sturdy peasantry that
+employs it. Eastern Hindi is very like Panjabi in this respect, but for
+a different reason. In it were written the works of Tulsi Das, one of
+the greatest writers that India has produced, and his influence on the
+language has been as great as that of Shakespeare on English. The
+peasantry are continually quoting him without knowing it, and his style,
+simple and yet vigorous, thoroughly Indian and yet free from purism, has
+set a model which is everywhere followed except in the large towns where
+Urdu or Sanskritized Hindi prevails. Eastern Hindi is written in the
+Nagari alphabet, or in the current character related to it called
+"Kaithi" (see BIHARI). The indigenous alphabet of the Punjab is called
+_Landa_ or "clipped." It is related to Nagari, but is hardly legible to
+any one except the original writer, and sometimes not even to him. To
+remedy this defect an improved form of the alphabet was devised in the
+16th century by Angad, the fifth Sikh Guru, for the purpose of recording
+the Sikh scriptures. It was named _Gurmukhi_, "proceeding from the mouth
+of the Guru," and is now generally used for writing the language.
+
+  _Grammar._--In the following account we use these contractions: Skr. =
+  Sanskrit; Pr. = Prakrit; Ap. = Apabhramsa; W.H. = Western Hindi; E.H.
+  = Eastern Hindi; H. = Hindostani; Br. = Braj Bhasha; P. = Panjabi.
+
+  (A) _Phonetics._--The phonetic system of all three languages is nearly
+  the same as that of the Apabhramsas from which they are derived. With
+  a few exceptions, to be noted below, the letters of the alphabets of
+  the three languages are the same as in Sanskrit. Panjabi, and the
+  western dialects of Western Hindi, have preserved the old Vedic
+  cerebral l. There is a tendency for concurrent vowels to run into each
+  other, and for the semi-vowels y and v to become vowels. Thus, Skr.
+  _carmakaras_, Ap. _cammaaru_, a leather-worker, becomes H. _camar_;
+  Skr. _rajani_, Ap. _ra(y)ani_, H. _rain_, night; Skr. _dhavalakas_,
+  Ap. _dhavalau_, H. _dhaula_, white. Sometimes the semi-vowel is
+  retained, as in Skr. _kataras_, Ap. _ka(y)aru_, H. _kayar_, a coward.
+  Almost the only compound consonants which survived in the Pr. stage
+  were double letters, and in W.H. and E.H. these are usually
+  simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened and sometimes
+  nasalized, in compensation. P., on the other hand, prefers to retain
+  the double consonant. Thus, Skr. _karma_, Ap. _kammu_, W.H. and E.H.
+  _kam_, but P. _kamm_, a work; Skr. _satyas_, Ap. _saccu_, W.H. and
+  E.H. _sac_, but P. _sacc_, true (H., being the W.H. dialect which lies
+  nearest to P., often follows that language, and in this instance has
+  _sacc_, usually written _sac_); Skr. _hastas_, Ap. _hatthu_, W.H. and
+  E.H. _hath_, but P. _hatth_, a hand. The nasalization of vowels is
+  very frequent in all three languages, and is here represented by the
+  sign ~ over the vowel. Sometimes it is compensatory, as in _sac_, but
+  it often represents an original _m_, as in _kawal_ from Skr.
+  _kamalas_, a lotus. Final short vowels quiesce in prose pronunciation,
+  and are usually not written in transliteration; thus the final _a_,
+  _i_ or _u_ has been lost in all the examples given above, and other
+  _tatsama_ examples are Skr. _mati_-which becomes _mat_, mind, and Skr.
+  _vastu_-, which becomes _bast_, a thing. In all poetry, however
+  (except in the Urdu poetry formed on Persian models, and under the
+  rules of Persian prosody), they reappear and are necessary for the
+  scansion.
+
+  In _tadbhava_ words an original long vowel in any syllable earlier
+  than the penultimate is shortened. In P. and H. when the long vowel is
+  _e_ or _o_ it is shortened to _i_ or _u_ respectively, but in other
+  W.H. dialects and in E.H. it is shortened to _e_ or _o_; thus, _beti_,
+  daughter, long form H. _bitiya_, E.H. _betiya_; _ghori_, mare, long
+  form H. _ghuriya_, E.H. _ghoriya_. The short vowels _e_ and _o_ are
+  very rare in P. and H., but are not uncommon (though ignored by most
+  grammars) in E.H. and the other W.H. dialects. A medial _d_ is
+  pronounced as a strongly burred cerebral _r_, and is then written as
+  shown, with a supposited dot. All these changes and various
+  contractions of Prakrit syllables have caused considerable variations
+  in the forms of words, but generally not so as to obscure the origin.
+
+  (B) _Declension._--The nominative form of a _tadbhava_ word is derived
+  from the nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but _tatsama_ words
+  are usually borrowed in the form of the Skr. crude base; thus, Skr.
+  _hastin_-, nom. _hasti_, Ap. nom. _hatthi_, H. _hathi_, an elephant;
+  Skr. base _mati_-, nom. _matis_, H. (_tatsama_) _mati_, or, with
+  elision of the final short vowel, _mat_. Some _tatsamas_ are, however,
+  borrowed in the nominative form, as in Skr. _dhanin_-, nom. _dhani_,
+  H. _dhani_, a rich man. As another example of a _tadbhava_ word, we
+  may take the Skr. nom. _ghotas_, Ap. _ghodu_, H. _ghor_, a horse. Here
+  again the final short vowel has been elided, but in old poetry we
+  should find _ghoru_, and corresponding forms in u are occasionally met
+  with at the present day.
+
+  In the article PRAKRIT attention is drawn to the frequent use of
+  pleonastic suffixes, especially -_ka_- (fem.-(i)_ka_). With such a
+  suffix we have the Skr. _ghota-kas_, Ap. _ghoda-u_, Western Hindi
+  _ghorau_, or in P. and H. (which is the W.H. dialect nearest in
+  locality to P.) _ghora_, a horse; Skr. _ghoti-ka_, Ap. _ghodi-a_, W.H.
+  and P. _ghodi_, a mare. Such modern forms made with one pleonastic
+  suffix are called "strong forms," while those made without it are
+  called "weak forms." All strong forms end in _au_ (or _a_) in the
+  masculine, and in _i_ in the feminine, whereas, in Skr., and hence in
+  _tatsamas_, both _a_ and _i_ are generally typical of feminine words,
+  though sometimes employed for the masculine. It is shown in the
+  article PRAKRIT that these pleonastic suffixes can be doubled, or even
+  trebled, and in this way we have a new series of _tadbhava_ forms. Let
+  us take the imaginary Skr. *_ghota-ka-kas_ with a double suffix. From
+  this we have the Ap. _ghoda-a-u_, and modern _ghorawa_ (with euphonic
+  _w_ inserted), a horse. Similarly for the feminine we have Skr.
+  *_ghoti-ka-ka_, Ap. _ghodi-a-a_, modern _ghoriya_ (with euphonic _y_
+  inserted), a mare. Such forms, made with two suffixes, are called
+  "long forms," and are heard in familiar conversation, the feminine
+  also serving as diminutives. There is a further stage, built upon
+  three suffixes, and called the "redundant form," which is mainly used
+  by the vulgar. As a rule masculine long forms end in -_awa_, -_iya_ or
+  -_ua_, and feminines in -_iya_, although the matter is complicated by
+  the occasional use of pleonastic suffixes other than the -_ka_- which
+  we have taken for our example, and is the most common. Strong forms
+  are rarely met with in E.H., but on the other hand long forms are more
+  common in that language.
+
+  There are a few feminine terminations of weak nouns which may be
+  noted. These are -_ini_, -_in_, -_an_, -_ni_ (Skr. -_ini_, Pr.
+  _-ini_); and -_ani_, -_ani_, -_ain_ (Skr. -_ani_, Pr. -_ani_). These
+  are found not only in words derived from Prakrit, but are added to
+  Persian and even Arabic words; thus, _hathini_, _hathni_, _hathin_
+  (Skr. _hastini_, Pr. _hatthini_), a she-elephant; _sunarin_,
+  _sunaran_, a female goldsmith (_sonar_); _sherni_, a tigress (Persian
+  _sher_, a tiger); _Nasiban_, a proper name (Arabic _nasib_);
+  _panditani_, the wife of a _pandit_; _caudhrain_, the wife of a
+  _caudhri_ or head man; _mehtrani_, the wife of a sweeper (Pres.
+  _mehtar_, a sweeper). With these exceptions weak forms rarely have any
+  terminations distinctive of gender.[4]
+
+  The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has disappeared. We
+  see it in the actual stage of disappearance in Apabhramsa (see
+  PRAKRIT), in which the case terminations had become worn down to
+  -_hu_, -_ho_, -_hi_, -_hi_ and -_ha_, of which -_hi_ and -_hi_ were
+  employed for several cases, both singular and plural. There was also a
+  marked tendency for these terminations to be confused, and in the
+  earliest stages of the modern vernaculars we find -_hi_ freely
+  employed for any oblique case of the singular, and -_hi_ for any
+  oblique case of the plural, but more especially for the genitive and
+  the locative. In the case of modern weak nouns these terminations have
+  disappeared altogether in W.H. and P. except in sporadic forms of the
+  locative such as _gawe_ (for _gawahi_), in the village. In E.H. they
+  are still heard as the termination of a form which can stand for any
+  oblique case, and is called the "oblique form" or the "oblique case."
+  Thus, from _ghar_, a house (a weak noun), we have W.H. and P. oblique
+  form _ghar_, E.H. _gharahi_, _ghare_ or _ghar_. In the plural, the
+  oblique form is sometimes founded on the Ap. terminations -_ha_ and
+  -_hu_, and sometimes on the Skr. termination of the genitive plural
+  -_anam_ (Pr. -_ana_, -_anham_), as in P. _ghara_, W.H. _gharau_,
+  _gharo_, _gharani_, E.H. _gharan_. In the case of masculine weak
+  forms, the plural nominative has dropped the old termination, except
+  in E.H., where it has adopted the oblique plural form for this case
+  also, thus _gharan_. The nominative plural of feminine weak forms
+  follows the example of the masculine in E.H. In P. it also takes the
+  oblique plural form, while in W.H. it takes the old singular oblique
+  form in -_ahi_, which it weakens to _ai_ or (H.) _e_; thus _bat_
+  (fem.), a word, nom. plur. E.H. _bat-an_, P. _bat-a_, W.H. _batai_ or
+  (H.) _bate_.
+
+  Strong masculine bases in Ap. ended in -_a-a_ (nom. -_a-u_); thus
+  _ghoda-a_- (nom. _ghoda-u_), and adding -_hi_ we get _ghoda-a-hi_,
+  which becomes contracted _ghodahi_ and finally to _ghore_. The
+  nominative plural is the same as the oblique singular, except in E.H.
+  where it follows the oblique plural. The oblique plural of all closely
+  follows in principle the weak forms. Feminine strong forms in Ap.
+  ended in -_i-a_, contracted to _i_ in the modern languages. Except in
+  E.H. the -_hi_ of the original oblique form singular disappears, so
+  that we have E.H. _ghorihi_ or _ghori_, others only _ghori_. The
+  nominative plural of feminine strong forms exhibits some
+  irregularities. In E.H., as usual, it follows the plural oblique
+  forms. In W.H. (except Hindostani) it simply nasalizes the oblique
+  form singular (i.e. adds -_hi_ instead of -_hi_), as in _ghori_, but
+  first on line looks like -hi]. P. and H. adopt the oblique long form
+  for the plural and nasalize it, thus, P. _ghoria_, H. _ghoriya_. The
+  oblique plurals call for no further remarks. We thus get the following
+  summary, illustrating the way in which these nominative and oblique
+  forms are made.
+
+    +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+
+    |                   | Panjabi. | Hindostani.|    Braj Bhasha.    | Eastern Hindi.|
+    +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+
+    |Weak Noun Masc.--  |          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | ghar     | ghar       | ghar               | ghar          |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | ghar     | ghar       | ghar               | ghar, gharahi |
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | ghar     | ghar       | ghar               | gharan        |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | ghara    | gharo      | gharau, gharani    | gharan        |
+    |Strong Noun Masc.--|          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | ghora    | ghora      | ghorau             | ghora         |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | ghore    | ghore      | ghore, ghorai      | ghora, ghore  |
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | ghore    | ghore      | ghore              | ghoran        |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | ghoria   | ghoro      | ghorau, ghorani    | ghoran        |
+    |Weak Noun Fem.--   |          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | bat      | bat        | bat                | bat           |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | bat      | bat        | bat                | bat           |
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | bata     | bate       | batai              | batan         |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | bata     | bato       | batau, batani      | batan         |
+    |Strong Noun Fem.-- |          |            |                    |               |
+    |  Nom. Sing.       | ghori    | ghori      | ghori              | ghori         |
+    |  Obl. Sing.       | ghori    | ghori      | ghori              | ghori, ghorihi|
+    |  Nom. Plur.       | ghoria   | ghoriya    | ghori              | ghorin        |
+    |  Obl. Plur.       | ghoria   | ghoriyo    | ghoriyau, ghoriyani| ghorin        |
+    +-------------------+----------+------------+--------------------+---------------+
+
+  We have seen that the oblique form is the resultant of a general
+  melting down of all the oblique cases of Sanskrit and Prakrit, and
+  that in consequence it can be used for any oblique case. It is obvious
+  that if it were so employed it would often give rise to great
+  confusion. Hence, when it is necessary to show clearly what particular
+  case is intended, it is usual to add defining particles corresponding
+  to the English prepositions "of," "to," "from," "by," &c., which, as
+  in all Indo-Aryan languages they follow the main word, are here called
+  "postpositions." The following are the postpositions commonly employed
+  to form cases in our three languages:--
+
+    +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+
+    |              | Agent.| Genitive.| Dative.| Ablative.| Locative. |
+    +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+
+    | Panjabi      | nai   | da       | nu     | te       | vicc      |
+    | Hindostani   | ne    | ka       | ko     | se       | me        |
+    | Braj Bhasha  | ne    | kau      | kau    | te, sau  | mai       |
+    | Eastern Hindi| None  | ker, k   | ka     | se       | me, bikhe |
+    +--------------+-------+----------+--------+----------+-----------+
+
+  The agent case is the case which a noun takes when it is the subject
+  of a transitive verb in a tense formed from the past participle. This
+  participle is passive in origin, and must be construed passively. In
+  the Prakrit stage the subject was in such cases put into the
+  instrumental case (see PRAKRIT), as in the phrase _aham tena mario_, I
+  by-him (was) struck, i.e. he struck me. In Eastern Hindi this is still
+  the case, the old instrumental being represented by the oblique form
+  without any suffix. The other two languages define the fact that the
+  subject is in the instrumental (or agent) case by the addition of the
+  postposition _ne_, &c., an old form employed elsewhere to define the
+  dative. It is really the oblique form (by origin a locative) of _na_
+  or _no_, which is employed in Gujarati (q.v.) for the genitive. As
+  this suffix is never employed to indicate a material instrument but
+  here only to indicate the agent or subject of a verb, it is called the
+  postposition of the "agent" case.
+
+  The genitive postpositions have an interesting origin. In Buddhist
+  Sanskrit the words _krtas_, done, and _krtyas_, to be done, were added
+  to a noun to form a kind of genitive. A synonym of _krtyas_ was
+  _karyas_. These three words were all adjectives, and agreed with the
+  thing possessed in gender, number, and case; thus, _mala-krte_
+  _karande_, in the basket of the garland, literally, in the
+  garland-made basket. In the various dialects of Apabhramsa Prakrit
+  _krtas_ became (strong form) _kida-u_ or _kia-u_, _krtyas_ became
+  _kicca-u_, and _karyas_ became _kera-u_ or _kajja-u_, the initial _k_
+  of which is liable to elision after a vowel. With the exception of
+  Gujarati (and perhaps Marathi, q.v.) every Indo-Aryan language has
+  genitive postpositions derived from one or other of these forms. Thus
+  from _(ki)da-u_ we have Panjabi _da_; from _kia-u_ we have H. _ka_,
+  Br. kau, E.H. and Bihari _k_ and Naipali _ko_; from _(ki)cca-u_ we
+  have perhaps Marathi _ca_; from _kera-u_, E.H. and Bihari _ker_,
+  _kar_, Bengali Oriya and Assamese -_r_, and Rajasthani -_ro_; while
+  from _(ka)jja-u_ we have the Sindhi _jo_. It will be observed that
+  while _k_, _ker_, _kar_, and _r_ are weak forms, the rest are strong.
+  As already stated, the genitive is an adjective. _Bap_ means "father,"
+  and _bap-ka ghora_ is literally "the paternal horse." Hence (while
+  the weak forms as usual do not change) these genitives agree with the
+  thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Thus, _bap-ka ghora_, the
+  horse of the father, but _bap-ki ghori_, the mare of the father, and
+  _bap-ke ghore-ko_, to the horse of the father, the _ka_ being put into
+  the oblique case masculine _ke_, to agree with _ghore_, which is
+  itself in an oblique case. The details of the agreement vary slightly
+  in P. and W.H., and must be learnt from the grammars. The E.H. weak
+  forms do not change in the modern language. Finally, in Prakrit it was
+  customary to add these postpositions (_kera-u_, &c.) to the genitive,
+  as in _mama_ or _mama kera-u_, of me. Similarly these postpositions
+  are, in the modern languages, added to the oblique form.
+
+  The locative of the Sanskrit _krtas_, _krte_, was used in that
+  language as a dative postposition, and it can be shown that all the
+  dative postpositions given above are by origin old oblique forms of
+  some genitive postposition. Thus H. _ko_, Br. _kau_, is a contraction
+  of _kahu_, an old oblique form of _kia-u_. Similarly for the others.
+  The origin of the ablative postpositions is obscure. To the present
+  writer they all seem (like the Bengal _haite_) to be connected with
+  the verb substantive, but their derivation has not been definitely
+  fixed. The locative postpositions _me_ and _mai_ are derived from the
+  Skr. _madhye_, in, through _majjhi_, _mahi_, and so on. The derivation
+  of _vicc_ and _bikhe_ is obscure.
+
+    +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    |             | Apabhramsa.| Panjabi.| Hindostani.|  Braj  | Eastern |
+    |             |            |         |            | Bhasha.|  Hindi. |
+    +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    | I,     Nom. | hau        | mai     | mai        | hau    | mai     |
+    |        Obl. | mai, mahu, | mai     | mujh       | mohi   | mo      |
+    |             |   majjhu   |         |            |        |         |
+    | WE,    Nom. | amhe       | asi     | ham        | ham    | ham     |
+    |        Obl. | amaha      | asa     | hamo       | hamau, | ham     |
+    |             |            |         |            |  hamani|         |
+    | THOU,  Nom. | tuhu       | tu      | tu         | tu     | tai     |
+    |        Obl. | tai, tuha, | tai     | tujh       | tohi   | to      |
+    |             |   tujjhu   |         |            |        |         |
+    | YOU,   Nom. | tumhe      | tusi    | tum        | tum    | tum     |
+    |        Obl. | tumhaha    | tusa    | tumho      | tumhau | tum     |
+    +-------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+
+  The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. This will be
+  evident from the preceding table of the first two personal pronouns
+  compared with Apabhramsa.
+
+  It will be observed that in most of the nominatives of the first
+  person, and in the E.H. nominative of the second person, the old
+  nominative has disappeared, and its place has been supplied by an
+  oblique form, exactly as we have observed in the nominative plural of
+  nouns substantive. The P. _asi_, _tusi_, &c., are survivals from the
+  old Lahnda (see _Linguistic Boundaries_, above). The genitives of
+  these two pronouns are rarely used, possessive pronouns (in H. _mera_,
+  my; _hamara_, our; _tera_, thy; _tumhara_, your) being employed
+  instead. They can all (except P. _asada_, our; _tusada_, your, which
+  are Lahnda) be referred to corresponding Ap. forms.
+
+  There is no pronoun of the third person, the demonstrative pronouns
+  being used instead. The following table shows the principal remaining
+  pronominal forms, with their derivation from Ap.:--
+
+    +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+
+    |                    |  Apabhramsa. | Panjabi. | Hindostani.|  Braj  | Eastern |
+    |                    |              |          |            | Bhasha.|  Hindi. |
+    +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+
+    | THAT, HE,     Nom. |       ?      | uh       | woh        | wo     | u       |
+    |               Obl. |       ?      |  uh      |  us        |  wa    |  o      |
+    | THOSE, THEY,  Nom. | oi           |  oh      |  we        |  wai   |  unh    |
+    |               Obl. |       ?      |  unha    |  unh       |  uni   |  unh    |
+    | THIS, HE,     Nom. | ehu          | ih       | yeh        | yah    | i       |
+    |               Obl. |  ehasu, ehaho| ih       |  is        |  ya    |  e      |
+    | THESE, THEY,  Nom. | ei           |  eh      |  ye        |  yai   |  inh    |
+    |               Obl. |  ehana       |  inha    |  inh       |  ini   |  inh    |
+    | THAT,         Nom. | so           | so       | so         | so     | se      |
+    |               Obl. |  tasu, taho  |  tih     |  tis       |  ta    |  te     |
+    | THOSE,        Nom. |  se          |  so      |  so        |  so    |  se     |
+    |               Obl. |  tana        |  tinha   |  tinh      |  tini  |  tenh   |
+    | WHO,          Nom. | jo           | jo       | jo         | jo     | je      |
+    |               Obl. |  jasu, jaho  |  jih     |  jis       |  ja    |  je     |
+    | WHO (pl.),    Nom. |  je          |   jo     |  jo        |  jo    |  je     |
+    |               Obl. |  jana        |   jinha  |  jinh      |  jini  |  jenh   |
+    | WHO?          Nom. | ko, kawanu   | kaun     | kaun       | ko     | ke      |
+    |               Obl. |  kasu, kaho  |  kih     |  kis       |  ka    |  ke     |
+    | WHO? (pl.),   Nom. |  ke          |  kaun    |  kaun      |  ko    |  ke     |
+    |               Obl. |  kana        |  kinha   |  kinh      |  kini  |  kenh   |
+    | WHAT?(Neut.), Nom. | kim          | kia      | kya        | kaha   | ka      |
+    |               Obl. |  kaha, kasu  |  kah, kas|  kahe      |  kahe  |  kahe   |
+    +--------------------+--------------+----------+------------+--------+---------+
+
+  The origin of the first pronoun given above (that, he; those, they)
+  cannot be referred to Sanskrit. It is derived from an Indo-Aryan base
+  which was not admitted to the classical literary language, but of
+  which we find sporadic traces in Apabhramsa. The existence of this
+  base is further vouched for by its occurrence in the Iranian language
+  of the Avesta under the form _ava-_. The base of the second pronoun is
+  the same as the base of the first syllable in the Skr. _e-sas_, this,
+  and other connected pronouns, and also occurs in the Avesta. Ap. _ehu_
+  is directly derived from _e-sas_.
+
+  There are other pronominal forms upon which, except perhaps _koi_ (Pr.
+  _ko-vi_, Skr. _ko-'pi_), any one, it is unnecessary to dwell. The
+  phrase _koi hai_? "Is any one (there)?" is the usual formula for
+  calling a servant in upper India, and is the origin of the
+  Anglo-Indian word "Qui-hi." The reflexive pronoun is _ap_ (Ap. _appu_,
+  Skr. _atma_), self, which, something like the Latin _suus_ (Skr.
+  _svas_), always refers to the subject of the sentence, but to all
+  persons, not only to the third. Thus _mai apne_ (not _mere_) _bap-ko
+  dekhta-hu_, "I see my father."
+
+  C. _Conjugation_.--The synthetic conjugation was already commencing to
+  disappear in Prakrit, and in the modern languages the only original
+  tenses which remain are the present, the imperative, and here and
+  there the future. The first is now generally employed as a present
+  subjunctive. In the accompanying table we have the conjugation of this
+  tense, and also the three participles, present active, and past and
+  future passive, compared with Apabhramsa, the verb selected being the
+  intransitive root _call_ or _cal_, go. In Ap. the word may be spelt
+  with one or with two _ls_, which accounts for the variations of
+  spelling in the modern languages.
+
+  The imperative closely resembles the old present, except that it drops
+  all terminations in the 2nd person singular; thus, _cal_, go thou.
+
+  In P. and H. a future is formed by adding the syllable _ga_ (fem.
+  _gi_) to the simple present. Thus, H. _calu-ga_, I shall go. The _ga_
+  is commonly said to be derived from the Skr. _gatas_ (Pr. _gao_),
+  gone, but this suggestion is not altogether acceptable to the present
+  writer, although he is not now able to propose a better. Under the
+  form of _-gau_ the same termination is used in Br., but in that
+  dialect the old future has also survived, as in _calihau_ (Ap.
+  _calihau_, Skr. _calisyami_), I shall go, which is conjugated like the
+  simple present. The E.H. formation of the future is closely analogous
+  to what we find in Bihari (q.v.). The third person is formed as in
+  Braj Bhasha, but the first and second persons are formed by adding
+  pronominal suffixes, meaning "by me," "by thee," &c., to the future
+  passive participle.
+
+    +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    |                     | Apabhramsa.| Panjabi.| Hindostani.|  Braj  | Eastern |
+    |                     |            |         |            | Bjasja.|  Hindi. |
+    +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+    | Old Present--       |            |         |            |        |         |
+    |  Singular 1.        | callau     | calla   | calu       | calau  | calau   |
+    |     "     2.        | callasi,   | calle   | cale       | calai  | calas   |
+    |                     |   callahi  |         |            |        |         |
+    |     "     3.        | callai     | calle   | cale       | calai  | calai   |
+    |  Plural   1.        | callahu    | calliye | cale       | calai  | calai   |
+    |     "     2.        | callahu    | callo   | calo       | calau  | calau   |
+    |     "     3.        | callanti,  | callan  | cale       | calai  | calai   |
+    |                     |   callahi  |         |            |        |         |
+    | Present Participle  | callanta-u | callda  | calta      | calatu | calat   |
+    | Past Part. Passive  | callia-u   | callia  | cala       | calyau | cala    |
+    | Future Part. Passive| callania-u | callna  | calna      | calnau |         |
+    |                     | calliavva-u|   ..    |     ..     | caliwau| calab   |
+    +---------------------+------------+---------+------------+--------+---------+
+
+  Thus, _calab-u_, it-is-to-be-gone by-me, I shall go. We thus get the
+  following forms. It will be observed that, as in many other Indo-Aryan
+  languages, the first person plural has no suffix:--
+
+      Sing.        Plur.
+    1. alabu     calab
+    2. calabe    calabo
+    3. calihai   calihai
+
+  In old E.H. the future participle passive, _calab_, takes no suffix
+  for any person, and is used for all persons.
+
+  The last remark leads us to a class of tenses in P. and W.H., in which
+  a participle, by itself, can be employed for any person of a finite
+  tense. A few examples of the use of the present and past participles
+  will show the construction. They are all taken from Hindostani. _Woh
+  calta_, he goes; _woh calti_, she goes; _mai cala_, I went; _woh
+  cali_, she went; _we cale_, they went. The present participle in this
+  construction, though it may be used to signify the present, is more
+  commonly employed to signify a past conditional "(if) he had gone." It
+  will have been observed that in the above examples, in all of which
+  the verb is intransitive, the past as well as the present participle
+  agrees with the subject in gender and number; but, if the verb be
+  transitive, the passive meaning of the past participle comes into
+  force. The subject must be put into the case of the agent, and the
+  participle inflects to agree with the object. If the object be not
+  expressed, or, as sometimes happens, be expressed in the dative case,
+  the participle is construed impersonally, and takes the masculine (for
+  want of a neuter) form. Thus, _mai-ne kaha_, by-me it-was-said, i.e. I
+  said; _us-ne citthi likhi_, by-him a-letter (fem.) was-written, he
+  wrote a letter; _raja-ne sherni-ko mara_, the king killed the tigress,
+  lit., by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, it (impersonal)
+  -was-killed. In the article PRAKRIT it is shown that the same
+  construction is obtained in that language.
+
+  In E.H. the construction is the same, but is obscured by the fact that
+  (as in the future) pronominal suffixes are added to the participle to
+  indicate the person of the subject or of the agent, as in _calat-eu_,
+  (if) I had gone; _cal-eu_, I went; _mar-eu_ (transitive), I struck,
+  lit., struck-by-me; _mar-es_, struck-by-him, he struck. If the
+  participle has to be feminine, it (although a weak form) takes the
+  feminine termination _i_, as in _mari-u_, I struck her; _calati-u_,
+  (if) I (fem.) had gone; _cali-u_, I (fem.) went.
+
+  Further tenses are formed by adding the verb substantive to these
+  participles, as in H. _mai calta-hu_, I am going; _mai calta-tha_, I
+  was going; _mai cala-hu_, I have gone; _mai cala-tha_, I had gone.
+  These and other auxiliary verbs need not detain us long. They differ
+  in the various languages. For "I am" we have P. _ha_, H. _hu_, Br.
+  _hau_, E.H. _batyeu_ or _aheu_. For "I was" we have P. _si_ or _sa_,
+  H. _tha_, Br. _hau_ or _hutau_, E.H. _raheu_. The H. _hu_ is thus
+  conjugated:--
+
+      Sing.    Plur.
+    1. hu     hai
+    2. hai    ho
+    3. hai    hai
+
+  The derivation of _ha_, _hu_, _hau_, and _aheu_ is uncertain. They are
+  usually derived from the Skr. _asmi_, I am; but this presents many
+  difficulties. An old form of the third person singular is _hwai_, and
+  this points to the Pr. _havai_, he is, equivalent to the Skr.
+  _bhavati_, he becomes. On the other hand this does not account for the
+  initial _a_ of _aheu_. This last word is in the _form_ of a past
+  tense, and it may be a secondary formation from _asmi_. The P. _si_ is
+  not a feminine of _sa_, as usually stated, but is a survival of the
+  Skr. _asit_, Pr. _asi_, was. As in the Prakrit form, _si_ is employed
+  for both genders, both numbers and all persons. _Sa_ is a secondary
+  formation from this, on the analogy of the H. _tha_, which is from the
+  Skr. _sthitas_, Pr. _thio_, stood, and is a participial form like
+  _cal_a; thus, _woh tha_, he was; _woh thi_, she was. The Br. _hau_ is
+  a modern past of _hau_, while _hutau_ is probably by origin a present
+  participle of the Skr. _bhu_, become, Pr. _huntao_. The E.H. _bateu_,
+  is the Skr. _varte_, Ap. _vattau_. _Raheu_ is the past tense of the
+  root _rah_, remain.
+
+  The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an
+  infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. _calna_, E.H. _calab_, the act of
+  going, to go. There is a whole series of derivative verbal forms,
+  making potential passives and transitives from intransitives, and
+  causals (and even double causals) from transitives. Thus _dikhna_, to
+  be seen; potential passive, _dikhana_, to be visible; transitive,
+  _dekhna_, to see; causal, _dikhlana_, to show.
+
+  D. _Literature._--The literatures of Western and Eastern Hindi form
+  the subject of a separate article (see HINDOSTANI LITERATURE). Panjabi
+  has no formal literature. Even the _Granth_, the sacred book of the
+  Sikhs, is mainly in archaic Western Hindi, only a small portion being
+  in Panjabi. On the other hand, the language is peculiarly rich in
+  folksongs and ballads, some of considerable length and great poetic
+  beauty. The most famous is the ballad of _Hir_ and _Ranjha_ by Waris
+  Shah, which is considered to be a model of pure Panjabi. Colonel Sir
+  Richard Temple has published an important collection of these songs
+  under the title of _The Legends of the Punjab_ (3 vols., Bombay and
+  London, 1884-1900), in which both texts and translations of nearly all
+  the favourite ones are to be found.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(a) General: The two standard authorities are the
+  comparative grammars of J. Beames (1872-1879) and A. F. R. Hoernle
+  (1880), mentioned in the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. To these may be
+  added G. A. Grierson, "On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the
+  Modern Indo-Aryan Languages" in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
+  Bengal_, vol. lxiv. (1895), part i. pp. 352 et seq.; and "On Certain
+  Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars" in the _Zeitschrift fur
+  vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen
+  Sprachen_ for 1903, pp. 473 et seq.
+
+  (b) For the separate languages, see C. J. Lyall, _A Sketch of the
+  Hindustani Language_ (Edinburgh, 1880); S. H. Kellogg, _A Grammar of
+  the Hindi Language_ (for both Western and Eastern Hindi), (2nd ed.,
+  London, 1893); J. T. Platts, _A Grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu
+  Language_ (London, 1874); and _A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi
+  and English_ (London, 1884); E. P. Newton, _Panjabi Grammar: with
+  Exercises and Vocabulary_ (Ludhiana, 1898); and Bhai Maya Singh, _The
+  Panjabi Dictionary_ (Lahore, 1895). _The Linguistic Survey of India_,
+  vol. vi., describes Eastern Hindi, and vol. ix., Hindostani and
+  Panjabi, in each instance in great detail.     (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "Hindostan" is a Persian word, and in modern Persian is
+    pronounced "Hindustan." It means the country of the Hindus. In
+    medieval Persian the word was "Hindostan," with an _o_, but in the
+    modern language the distinctions between _e_ and _i_ and between _o_
+    and _u_ have been lost. Indian languages have borrowed Persian words
+    in their medieval form. Thus in India we have _sher_, a tiger, as
+    compared with modern Persian _shir_; _go_, but modern Pers. _gu_;
+    _bostan_, but modern Pers. _bustan_. The word "Hindu" is in medieval
+    Persian "Hindo" representing the ancient Avesta _hendava_ (Sanskrit,
+    _saindhava_), a dweller on the _Sindhu_ or Indus. Owing to the
+    influence of scholars in modern Persian the word "Hindu" is now
+    established in English and, through English, in the Indian literary
+    languages; but "Hindo" is also often heard in India. "Hindostan" with
+    _o_ is much more common both in English and in Indian languages,
+    although "Hindustan" is also employed. Up to the days of Persian
+    supremacy inaugurated in Calcutta by Gilchrist and his friends, every
+    traveller in India spoke of "Indostan" or some such word, thus
+    bearing testimony to the current pronunciation. Gilchrist introduced
+    "Hindoostan," which became "Hindustan" in modern spelling. The word
+    is not an Indian one, and both pronunciations, with _o_ and with _u_,
+    are current in India at the present day, but that with _o_ is
+    unquestionably the one demanded by the history of the word and of the
+    form which other Persian words take on Indian soil. On the other hand
+    "Hindu" is too firmly established in English for us to suggest the
+    spelling "Hindo.". The word "Hindi" has another derivation, being
+    formed from the Persian _Hind_, India (Avesta _hindu_, Sanskrit
+    _sindhu_, the Indus). "Hindi" means "of or belonging to India," while
+    "Hindu" now means "a person of the Hindu religion." (Cf. Sir C. J.
+    Lyall, _A Sketch of the Hindustani Language_, p. 1).
+
+  [2] Sir C. J. Lyall, _op. cit._ p. 9.
+
+  [3] This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Mr
+    Platts's article in vol. xi. of the 9th edition of this
+    encyclopaedia.
+
+  [4] In some dialects of W.H. weak forms have masculines ending in u
+    and corresponding feminines in _i_, but these are nowadays rarely met
+    in the literary forms of speech. In old poetry they are common. In
+    Braj Bhasha they have survived in the present participle.
+
+
+
+
+HINDOSTANI LITERATURE. The writings dealt with in this article are those
+composed in the vernacular of that part of India which is properly
+called Hindostan,--that is, the valleys of the Jumna and Ganges rivers
+as far east as the river Kos, and the tract to the south including
+Rajputana, Central India (Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand), the Narmada
+(Nerbudda) valley as far west as Khandwa, and the northern half of the
+Central Provinces. It does not include the Punjab proper (though the
+town population there speak Hindostani), nor does it extend to Lower
+Bengal.
+
+In this region several different dialects prevail. The people of the
+towns everywhere use chiefly the form of the language called _Urdu_ or
+_Rekhta_,[1] stocked with Persian words and phrases, and ordinarily
+written in a modification of the Persian character. The country folk
+(who form the immense majority) speak different varieties of _Hindi_, of
+which the word-stock derives from the Prakrits and literary Sanskrit,
+and which are written in the Devanagari or Kaithi character. Of these
+the most important from a literary point of view, proceeding from west
+to east, are _Marwari_ and _Jaipuri_ (the languages of Rajputana),
+_Brajbhasha_ (the language of the country about Mathura and Agra),
+_Kanauji_ (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna Doab and western
+Rohilkhand), _Eastern Hindi_, also called _Awadhi_ and _Baiswari_ (the
+language of Eastern Rohilkhand, Oudh and the Benares division of the
+United Provinces) and _Bihari_ (the language of Bihar or Mithila,
+comprising several distinct dialects). What is called _High Hindi_ is a
+modern development, for literary purposes, of the dialect of Western
+Hindi spoken in the neighbourhood of Delhi and thence northwards to the
+Himalaya, which has formed the vernacular basis of Urdu; the Persian
+words in the latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of
+Sanskritic origin, and the order of words in the sentence which is
+proper to the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in
+Urdu, which under the influence of Persian constructions has admitted
+many inversions.
+
+As in many other countries, nearly all the early vernacular literature
+of Hindostan is in verse, and works in prose are a modern growth.[2]
+Both Hindi and Urdu are, in their application to literary purposes, at
+first intruders upon the ground already occupied by the learned
+languages Sanskrit and Persian, the former representing Hindu and the
+latter Musalman culture. But there is this difference between them,
+that, whereas Hindi has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech
+chiefly by impulses of revolt against the monopoly of the Brahmans, Urdu
+has been cultivated with goodwill by authors who have themselves highly
+valued and dexterously used the polished Persian. Both Sanskrit and
+Persian continue to be employed occasionally for composition by Indian
+writers, though much fallen from their former estate; but for popular
+purposes it may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in
+sole possession of the field.
+
+The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:--
+
+  1. Early Hindi, of the period during which the language was being
+  fashioned as a literary medium out of the ancient Prakrits,
+  represented by the old heroic poems of Rajputana and the literature of
+  the early _Bhagats_ or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about
+  A.D. 1100 to 1550;
+
+  2. Middle Hindi, representing the best age of Hindi poetry, and
+  reaching from about 1550 to the end of the 18th century;
+
+  3. The rise and development of literary Urdu, beginning about the end
+  of the 16th century, and reaching its height during the 18th;
+
+  4. The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature in
+  both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the 19th century.
+
+1. _Early Hindi._--Our knowledge of the ancient metrical chronicles of
+Rajputana is still very imperfect, and is chiefly derived from the
+monumental work of Colonel James Tod, called _The Annals and Antiquities
+of Rajasthan_ (published in 1829-1832), which is founded on them. It is
+in the nature of compositions of this character to be subjected to
+perpetual revision and recasting; they are the production of the family
+bards of the dynasties whose fortunes they record, and from generation
+to generation they are added to, and their language constantly modified
+to make it intelligible to the people of the time. Round an original
+nucleus of historical fact a rich growth of legend accumulates; later
+redactors endeavour to systematize and to assign dates, but the result
+is not often such as to inspire confidence; and the mass has more the
+character of ballad literature than of serious history. The materials
+used by Tod are nearly all still unprinted; his manuscripts are now
+deposited in the library of the Royal Asiatic Society in London; and one
+of the tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first
+be undertaken by the investigator of early Hindi literature is the
+examination and sifting, and the publication in their original form, of
+these important texts.
+
+Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by compilers of
+accounts of Hindi literature, the earliest author of whom any portion
+has as yet been published in the original text is Chand Bardai, the
+court bard of Prithwi-Raj, the last Hindu sovereign of Delhi. His poem,
+entitled _Prithi-Raj Rasau_ (or _Raysa_), is a vast chronicle in 69
+books or cantos, comprising a general history of the period when he
+wrote. Of this a small portion has been printed, partly under the
+editorship of the late Mr John Beames and partly under that of Dr Rudolf
+Hoernle, by the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult
+nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much progress.[3]
+Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native of Lahore, which had
+for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under Muslim rule when he
+flourished, and the language of the poem exhibits a considerable leaven
+of Persian words. In its present form the work is a redaction made by
+Amar Singh of Mewar, about the beginning of the 17th century, and
+therefore more than 400 years after Chand's death, with his patron
+Prithwi-Raj, in 1193. There is, therefore, considerable reason to doubt
+whether we have in it much of Chand's composition in its original shape;
+and the nature of the incidents described enhances this doubt. The
+detailed dates contained in the Chronicle have been shown by Kabiraj
+Syamal Das[4] to be in every case about ninety years astray. It tells of
+repeated conflicts between the hero Prithwi-Raj and Sultan Shihabuddin,
+of Ghor (Muhammad Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last
+great battle, comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on
+payment of a ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our
+contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter (that of
+Tirauri (Tirawari) near Thenesar, fought in 1191) in which the Sultan
+was defeated, and even then he escaped uncaptured to Lahore. The Mongols
+(Book XV.) are brought on the stage more than thirty years before they
+actually set foot in India, and are related to have been vanquished by
+the redoubtable Prithwi-Raj. It is evident that such a record cannot
+possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but nevertheless
+it appears to contain a considerable element which, from its language,
+may belong to Chand's own age, and represents the earliest surviving
+document in Hindi. "Though we may not possess the actual text of Chand,
+we have certainly in his writings some of the oldest known specimens of
+Gaudian literature, abounding in pure Apabhramsa Sauraseni Prakrit
+forms" (Grierson).
+
+  It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as
+  literature. The language, essentially transitional in character,
+  consists largely of words which have long since died out of the
+  vernacular speech. Even the most learned Hindus of the present day are
+  unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses
+  must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit and
+  Prakrit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hindi.
+  Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of
+  ballad chroniclers in general. There is much that is lively and
+  spirited in his descriptions of fight or council; and the characters
+  of the Rajput warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in
+  their utterances with skill and animation. The sound, however,
+  frequently predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on
+  with the wearisome iteration and tedious unfolding of familiar themes
+  and images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value,
+  for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary.
+
+Chand may be taken as the representative of a long line of successors,
+continued even to the present day in the Rajput states. Many of their
+compositions are still widely popular as ballad literature, but are known
+only in oral versions sung in Hindostan by professional singers. One of
+the most famous of these is the _Alha-khand_, reputed to be the work of a
+contemporary of Chand called Jagnik or Jagnayak, of Mahoba in Bundelkhand,
+who sang the praises of Raja-Parmal, a ruler whose wars with Prithwi-Raj
+are recorded in the Mahoba-Khand of Chand's work. Alha and Udal, the
+heroes of the poem, are famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories
+connected with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bihar, as
+well as in the Bundelkhandi or western form which is best known. Two
+versions of the latter have been printed, having been taken down as
+recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists. Another celebrated bard
+was Sarangdhar of Rantambhor, who flourished in 1363, and sang the praises
+of Hammir Deo (Hamir Deo), the Chauhan chief of Rantambhor who fell in a
+heroic struggle against Sultan 'Ala'uddin Khilji in 1300. He wrote the
+_Hammir Kavya_ and _Hammir Rasau_, of which an account is given by Tod;[5]
+he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which language he compiled, in 1363,
+the anthology called _Sarngadhara-Paddhati_. Another work which may be
+mentioned (though much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled
+_Chhattra-Prakas_, or the history of Raja Chhatarsal, the Bundela raja of
+Panna, who was killed, fighting on behalf of Prince Dara-Shukoh, in the
+battle of Dholpur won by Aurangzeb in 1658. The author, Lal Kabi, has
+given in this work a history of the valiant Bundela nation which was
+rendered into English by Captain W. R. Pogson in 1828, and printed at
+Calcutta.
+
+Before passing on to the more important branch of early Hindi
+literature, the works of the _Bhagats_, mention may be made here of a
+remarkable composition, a poem entitled the _Padmawat_, the materials of
+which are derived from the heroic legends of Rajputana, but which is not
+the work of a bard nor even of a Hindu. The author, Malik Muhammad of
+Ja'is, in Oudh, was a venerated Muslim devotee, to whom the Hindu raja
+of Amethi was greatly attached. Malik Muhammad wrote the Padmawat in
+1540, the year in which Sher Shah Sur ousted Humayan from the throne of
+Delhi. The poem is composed in the purest vernacular Awadhi, with no
+admixture of traditional Hindu learning, and is generally to be found
+written in the Persian character, though the metres and language are
+thoroughly Indian. It professes to tell the tale of Padmawati or
+Padmini, a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the
+Chauhan raja of Chitor in Mewar. The historical Padmini's husband was
+named Bhim Singh, but Malik Muhammad calls him Ratan Sen; and the story
+turns upon the attempts of 'Ala'uddin Khilji, the sovereign of Delhi, to
+gain possession of her person. The tale of the siege of Chitor in 1303
+by 'Ala'uddin, the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished to
+the last man in fight with the Sultan's army, and the self-immolation of
+Padmini and the other women, the wives and daughters of the warriors, by
+the fiery death called _johar_, will be found related in Tod's
+_Rajasthan_, i. 262 sqq. Malik Muhammad takes great liberties with the
+history, and explains at the end of the poem that all is an allegory,
+and that the personages represent the human soul, Divine wisdom, Satan,
+delusion and other mystical characters.
+
+  Both on account of its interest as a true vernacular work, and as the
+  composition of a Musalman who has taken the incidents of his morality
+  from the legends of his country and not from an exotic source, the
+  poem is memorable. It has often been lithographed, and is very
+  popular; a translation has even been made into Sanskrit. A critical
+  edition has been prepared by Dr G. A. Grierson and Pandit Sudhakar
+  Dwivedi.
+
+The other class of composition which is characteristic of the period of
+early Hindi, the literature of the _Bhagats_, or Vaishnava saints, who
+propagated the doctrine of _bhakti_, or faith in Vishnu, as the popular
+religion of Hindostan, has exercised a much more powerful influence both
+upon the national speech and upon the themes chosen for poetic
+treatment. It is also, as a body of literature, of high intrinsic
+interest for its form and content. Nearly the whole of subsequent
+poetical composition in Hindi is impressed with one or other type of
+Vaishnava doctrine, which, like Buddhism many centuries before, was
+essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the chains of
+caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in face of the monopoly which
+the "twice-born" asserted of learning, of worship, of righteousness. A
+large proportion of the writers were non-Brahmans, and many of them of
+the lowest castes. As Siva was the popular deity of the Brahmans, so was
+Vishnu of the people; and while the literature of the Saivas and
+Saktas[6] is almost entirely in Sanskrit, and exercised little or no
+influence on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas
+is largely in Hindi, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of what
+has been written in that language.
+
+The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to Ramanuja, a Brahman
+who was born about the end of the 11th century, at Perambur in the
+neighbourhood of the modern Madras, and spent his life in southern
+India. His works, which are in Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on
+the Vedanta Sutras, are devoted to establishing "the personal existence
+of a Supreme Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love
+and pity for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released
+soul a home of eternal bliss near him--a home where each soul never
+loses its identity, and whose state is one of perfect peace."[7] In the
+Deity's infinite love and pity he has on several occasions become
+incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and of these incarnations two,
+Ramachandra, the prince of Ayodhya, and Krishna, the chief of the Yadava
+clan and son of Vasudeva, are pre-eminently those in which it is most
+fitting that he should be worshipped. Both of these incarnations had for
+many centuries[8] attracted popular veneration, and their histories had
+been celebrated by poets in epics and by weavers of religious myths in
+_Puranas_ or "old stories"; but it was apparently Ramanuja's teaching
+which secured for them, and especially for Ramachandra, their exclusive
+place as the objects of _bhakti_--ardent faith and personal devotion
+addressed to the Supreme. The adherents of Ramanuja were, however, all
+Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of food, bathing and
+dress; the new doctrine had not yet penetrated to the people.
+
+Whether Ramanuja himself gave the preference to Rama against Krishna as
+the form of Vishnu most worthy of worship is uncertain. He dealt mainly
+with philosophic conceptions of the Divine Nature, and probably busied
+himself little with mythological legend. His _mantra_, or formula of
+initiation, if Wilson[9] was correctly informed, implies devotion to
+Rama; but Vasudeva (Krishna) is also mentioned as a principal object of
+adoration, and Ramanuja himself dwelt for several years in Mysore, at a
+temple erected by the raja, at Yadavagiri in honour of Krishna in his
+form Ranchhor.[10] It is stated that in his worship of Krishna he joined
+with that god as his _Sakti_, or Energy, his wife Rukmini; while the
+later varieties of Krishna-worship prefer to honour his mistress Radha.
+The great difference, in temper and influence upon life, between these
+two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development subsequent to
+Ramanuja; but by the time of Jaideo (about 1250) it is clear that the
+theme of Krishna and Radha, and the use of passionate language drawn
+from the relations of the sexes to express the longings of the soul for
+God, had become fully established; and from that time onwards the two
+types of Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from one
+another.
+
+The cult of Rama is founded on family life, and the relation of the
+worshipper to the Deity is that of a child to a father. The morality it
+inculcates springs from the sacred sources of human piety which in all
+religions have wrought most in favour of pureness of life, of fraternal
+helpfulness and of humble devotion to a loving and tender Parent, who
+desires the good of mankind, His children, and hates violence and wrong.
+That of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary
+career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked by a
+kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and more spent its
+energy in developing that side of devotion which is perilously near to
+sensual thought, and has allowed the imagination and ingenuity of poets
+to dwell on things unmeet for verse or even for speech. It is claimed
+for those who first opened this way to faith that their hearts were pure
+and their thoughts innocent, and that the language of erotic passion
+which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely
+mystical and allegorical. This is probable; but that these beginnings
+were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that the fervent
+impulses of adoration made way in later times for those of lust and
+lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute.
+
+The worship of Krishna, especially in his infant and youthful form
+(which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the neighbourhood
+of Mathura, the capital of that land of Braj where as a boy he lived.
+Its literature is mainly composed in the dialect of this region, called
+Brajbhasha. That of Rama, though general throughout Hindostan, has
+since the time of Tulsi Das adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh,
+called Awadhi or Baiswari, a form of Eastern Hindi easily understood
+throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley. Thus these two dialects
+came to be, what they are to this day, the standard vehicles of poetic
+expression.
+
+Subsequently to Ramanuja his doctrine appears to have been set forth,
+about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by Jaideo, a Brahman born at
+Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli, in the Birbhum district of Bengal,
+author of the Sanskrit _Gita Govinda_, and by Namdeo or Nama, a
+tailor[11] of Maharashtra, of both of whom verses in the popular speech
+are preserved in the _Adi Granth_ of the Sikhs. But it was not until the
+beginning of the 15th century that the Brahman Ramanand, a prominent
+_Gosain_ of the sect of Ramanuja, having had a dispute with the members
+of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed by them, left the
+community, migrated to northern India (where he is said to have made his
+headquarters Galta in Rajputana), and addressed himself to those outside
+the Brahman caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the
+popular faith of Hindostan. Among his twelve disciples or apostles were
+a Rajput, a Jat, a leather-worker, a barber and a Musalman weaver; the
+last-mentioned was the celebrated KABIR (see separate article). One
+short Hindi poem by Ramanand is contained in the _Adi Granth_, and Dr
+Grierson has collected hymns (_bhajans_) attributed to him and still
+current in Mithila or Tirhut. Both Ramanand and Kabir were adherents of
+the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to Raama,
+who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself identical
+with the Deity. A contemporary of Ramanand, Bidyapati Thakur, is
+celebrated as the author of numerous lyrics in the Maithili dialect of
+Bihar, expressive of the other side of Vaishnavism, the passionate
+adoration of the Deity in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the
+worshipper being mystically conveyed in the character of Radha, the
+cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasudeva. These stanzas
+of Bidyapati (who was a Brahman and author of several works in Sanskrit)
+afterwards inspired the Vaishnava literature of Bengal, whose most
+celebrated exponent was Chaitanya (b. 1484). Another famous adherent of
+the same cult was Mira Bai, "the one great poetess of northern India"
+(Grierson). This lady, daughter of Raja Ratiya Rana, Rathor, of Merta in
+Rajputana, must have been born about the beginning of the 15th century;
+she was married in 1413 to Raja Kumbhkaran of Mewar, who was killed by
+his son Uday Rana in 1469. She was devoted to Krishna in the form of
+Ranchhor, and her songs have a wide currency in northern India.
+
+  An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava
+  saints or _Bhagats_ is contained in the sacred book, or _Adi Granth_,
+  of the Sikh _Gurus_. Nanak, the founder of this sect (1469-1538),
+  though a native of the Punjab (born at Talvandi on the Ravi near
+  Lahore), took his doctrine from the _Bhagats_ (see KABIR); and each of
+  the thirty-one _rags_, forming the body of the _Granth_, is followed
+  by a compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints,
+  chiefly of Kabir, in confirmation of the teaching of the _Gurus_,
+  while the whole book is closed by a _bhog_ or conclusion, containing
+  more verses by the same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian
+  Sufi, Shekh Farid of Pakpattan. The body of the _Granth_ (q.v.), being
+  in old Panjabi, falls outside the scope of this article; but the
+  extracts included in it from the early writers of old Hindi are a
+  precious store of specimens of authors some of whom have left no other
+  record in the surviving literature. The _Adi Granth_, which was put
+  together about 1600 by Arjun, the fifth _Guru_ of the Sikhs, sets
+  forth the creed of the sect in its original pietistic form, before it
+  assumed the militant character which afterwards distinguished it under
+  the five _Gurus_ who succeeded him.
+
+2. _Middle Hindi._--The second period, that of middle Hindi, begins with
+the reign of the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605); and it is not improbable
+that the broad and liberal views of this great monarch, his active
+sympathy with his Hindu subjects, the interest which he took in their
+religion and literature, and the peace which his organization of the
+empire secured for Hindostan, had an important effect on the great
+development of Hindi poetry which now set in.[12] Akbar's court was
+itself a centre of poetical composition. The court musician Tan Sen (who
+was also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by him in
+the Emperor's name live to this day in the memory of the people. Akbar's
+favourite minister and companion, Raja Birbal (who fell in battle on the
+north-western frontier in 1583), was a musician and a poet as well as a
+politician, and held the title, conferred by the Emperor, of _Kabi-Ray_,
+or poet laureate; his verses and witty sayings are still extremely
+popular in northern India, though no complete work by him is known to
+exist. Other nobles of the court were also poets, among them the
+_Khan-khanan_ 'Abdur-Rahim, son of Bairam Khan, whose Hindi _dohas_ and
+_kabittas_ are still held in high estimation, and Faizi, brother of the
+celebrated Abul-Fazl, the Emperor's annalist.
+
+By this time the worship of Krishna as the lover of Radha
+_(Radha-ballabh)_ had been systematized, and a local habitation found
+for it at Gokul, opposite Mathura on the Jumna, some 30 m. upstream from
+Agra, Akbar's capital, by Vallabhacharya, a Tailinga Brahman from
+Madras. Born in 1478, in 1497 he chose the land of Braj as his
+headquarters, thence making missionary tours throughout India. He wrote
+chiefly, if not entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate
+followers, and those of his son Bitthalnath (who succeeded his father on
+the latter's death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets in
+Hindi. Four disciples of Vallabhacharya and four of Bitthalnath, who
+flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the _Asht Chhap_, or
+"Eight Seals," and are the acknowledged masters of the literature of
+Braj-bhasha, in which dialect they all wrote. Their names are
+Krishna-Das Pay-ahari, Sur Das (the Bhat), Parmanand Das, Kumbhan Das,
+Chaturbhuj Das, Chhit Swami, Nand Das and Gobind Das. Of these much the
+most celebrated, and the only one whose verses are still popular, is Sur
+Das. The son of Baba Ram Das, who was a singer at Akbar's court, Sur Das
+was descended, according to his own statement, from the bard of
+Prithwi-Raj, Chand Bardai. A tradition gives the date of his birth as
+1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both seem to be placed too
+early, and in Abul-Fazl's _Ain-i Akbari_ he is mentioned as living when
+that work was completed (1596/7). He was blind, and entirely devoted to
+the worship of Krishna, to whose address he composed a great number of
+hymns (_bhajans_), which have been collected in a compilation entitled
+the _Sur Sagar_, said to contain 60,000 verses; this work is very highly
+esteemed as the high-water mark of Braj devotional poetry, and has been
+repeatedly printed in India. Other compositions by him were a
+translation in verse of the _Bhagavata Purana_, and a poem dealing with
+the famous story of Nala and Damayanti; of the latter no copies are now
+known to exist.
+
+The great glory of this age is Tulsi Das (q.v.). He and Sur Das between
+them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of the poetic art. It
+is somewhat remarkable that the time of their appearance coincided with
+the Elizabethan age of English literature.
+
+To these great masters succeeded a period of artifice and reflection,
+when many works were composed dealing with the rules of poetry and the
+analysis and the appropriate language of sentiment. Of their writers the
+most famous is Kesab Das, a Brahman of Bundelkhand, who flourished
+during the latter part of Akbar's reign and the beginning of that of
+Jahangir. His works are the _Rasik-priya_, on composition (1591), the
+_Kavi-priya_, on the laws of poetry (1601), a highly esteemed poem
+dedicated to Parbin Rai Paturi, a celebrated courtesan of Orchha in
+Bundelkhand, the _Ramachandrika_, dealing with the history of Rama,
+(1610), and the _Vigyan-gita_ (1610). The fruit of this elaboration of
+the poetic art reached its highest perfection in BIHARI LAL, whose
+_Sat-sai_, or "seven centuries" (1662), is the most remarkable example
+in Hindi of the rhetorical style in poetry (see separate article).
+
+Side by side with this cultivation of the literary use of the themes of
+Rama and Krishna, there grew up a class of compositions dealing, in a
+devotional spirit, with the lives and doings of the holy men from whose
+utterances and example the development of the popular religion
+proceeded. The most famous of these is the _Bhakta-mala_, or "Roll of
+the _Bhagats_," by Narayan Das, otherwise called Nabha Das, or Nabhaji.
+This author, who belonged to the despised caste of Doms and was a native
+of the Deccan, had in his youth seen Tulsi Das at Mathura, and himself
+flourished in the first half of the 17th century. His work consists of
+108 stanzas in _chhappai_ metre, each setting forth the characteristics
+of some holy personage, and expressed in a style which is extremely
+brief and obscure. Its exact date is unknown, but it falls between 1585
+and 1623. The book was furnished with a _ika_ (supplement or gloss) in
+the _kabitta_ metre, by Priya Das in 1713, gathering up, in an allusive
+and disjointed fashion, all the legendary stories related of each saint.
+This again was expanded about a century later by a modern author named
+Lachhman into a detailed work of biography, called the _Bhakta-sindhu_.
+From these nearly all our knowledge (such as it is) of the lives of the
+Vaishnava authors, both of the Rama and the Krishna cults, is derived,
+and much of it is of a very legendary and untrustworthy character.
+Another work, somewhat earlier in date than the _Bhakta-mala_, named the
+_Chaurasi Varta_, is devoted exclusively to stories of the followers of
+Vallabhacharya. It is reputed to have been written by Gokulnath, son of
+Bitthalnath, son of Vallabhacharya, and is dated in 1551.
+
+  The matter of these tales is justly characterized by Professor
+  Wilson[13] (who gives some translated specimens) as "marvellous and
+  insipid anecdotes"; but the book is remarkable for being in very
+  artless prose, and, though written more than 300 years ago, shows that
+  the current language of Braj was then almost precisely identical with
+  that now spoken in that region. A specimen of the text will be found
+  at p. 296 of Mr F. S. Growse's _Mathura, a District Memoir_ (3rd ed.,
+  1883).
+
+It would be tedious to enumerate the many authors who succeeded the
+great period of Hind poetical composition which extended through the
+reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan. None of them attained to the
+fame of Sur Das, Tuls Das or Bihari Lal. Their themes exhibit no
+novelty, and they repeat with a wearisome monotony the sentiments of
+their predecessors. The list of Hindi authors drawn up by Dr G. A.
+Grierson, and printed in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_
+in 1889, may be consulted for the names and works of these _epigoni_.
+The courts of Chhatarsal, raja of Panna in Bundelkhand, who was killed
+in battle with Aurangzeb in 1658, and of several rajas of Bandho (now
+called Riwan or Rewah) in Baghelkhand, were famous for their patronage
+of poets; and the Mogul court itself kept up the office of _Kabi-Ray_ or
+poet laureate even during the fanatical reign of Aurangzeb.
+
+Such, in the briefest outline, is the character of Hind literature
+during the period when it grew and flourished through its own original
+forces. Founded by a popular and religious impulse in many respects
+comparable to that which, nearly 1600 years before, had produced the
+doctrine and literature, in the vernacular tongue, of Jainism and
+Buddhism, and cultivated largely (though by no means exclusively) by
+authors not belonging to the Brahmanical order, it was the legitimate
+descendant in spirit, as Hindi is the legitimate descendant in speech,
+of the Prakrit literature which preceded it. Entirely in verse, it
+adopted and elaborated the Prakrit metrical forms, and carried them to a
+pitch of perfection too often overlooked by those who concern themselves
+rather with the substance than the form of the works they read. It
+covers a wide range of style, and expresses, in the works of its
+greatest masters, a rich variety of human feeling. Little studied by
+Europeans in the past, it deserves much more attention than it has
+received. The few who have explored it speak of it as an "enchanted
+garden" (Grierson), abounding in beauties of thought and phrase. Above
+all it is to be remembered that it is genuinely popular, and has reached
+strata of society scarcely touched by literature in Europe. The ballads
+of Rajput prowess, the aphorisms of Kabir, Tulsi Das's _Ramayan_, and
+the _bhajans_ of Sur Das are to this day carried about everywhere by
+wandering minstrels, and have found their way, throughout the great
+plains of northern India and the uplands of the Vindhya plateau, to the
+hearts of the people. There is no surer key to unlock the confidence of
+the villager than an apt quotation from one of these inspired singers.
+
+3. _Literary Urdu._--The _origines_ of Urdu as a literary language are
+somewhat obscure. The popular account refers its rise to the time of
+Timur's invasion (1398). Some authors even claim for it a higher
+antiquity, asserting that a _diwan_, or collection of poems, was
+composed in _Rekhta_ by Mas'ud, son of Sa'd, in the last half of the
+11th or beginning of the 12th century, and that Sa'di of Shiraz and his
+friend Amir Khusrau[14] of Delhi likewise made verses in that dialect
+before the end of the 13th century. This, however, is very improbable.
+It has already been seen that during the early centuries of Muslim rule
+in India adherents of that faith used the language and metrical forms of
+the country for their compositions. Persian words early made their way
+into the popular speech; they are common in Chand, and in Kabir's verses
+(which are nevertheless unquestionable Hindi) they are in many places
+used as freely as in the modern dialect. Much of the confusion which
+besets the subject is due to the want of a clear understanding of what
+Urdu, as opposed to Hindi, really is.
+
+Urdu, as a literary language, differs from Hindi rather in its form than
+in its substance. The grammar, and to a large extent the vocabulary, of
+both are the same. The really vital point of difference, that in which
+Hindi and Urdu are incommensurable, is the _prosody_. Hardly one of the
+metres taken over by Urdu poets from Persian agrees with those used in
+Hindi. In the latter language it is the rule to give the short _a_
+inherent in every consonant or _nexus_ of consonants its full value in
+scansion (though in prose it is no longer heard), except occasionally at
+the metrical pause; in Urdu this is never done, the words being scanned
+generally as pronounced in prose, with a few exceptions which need not
+be mentioned here. The great majority of Hindi metres are scanned by the
+number of _matras_ or syllabic instants--the value in time of a short
+syllable--of which the lines consist; in Urdu, as in Persian, the metre
+follows a special order of long and short syllables.
+
+The question, then, is not When did Persian first become intermixed with
+Hindi in the literary speech?--for this process began with the first
+entry of Muslim conquerors into India, and continued for centuries
+before a line of Urdu verse was composed; nor When was the Persian
+character first employed to write Hindi?--for the written form is but a
+subordinate matter; as already mentioned, the MSS. of Malik Muhammad's
+purely Hindi poem, the _Padmawat_, are ordinarily found to be written in
+the Persian character; and copies lithographed in Devanagari of the
+popular compositions of the Urdu poet Nazir are commonly procurable in
+the bazars. We must ask When was the first verse composed in Hindi,
+whether with or without foreign admixture, according to the forms of
+Persian prosody, and not in those of the indigenous metrical system?
+Then, and not till then, did Urdu poetry come into being. This appears
+to have happened, as already mentioned, about the end of the 16th
+century. Meantime the vernacular speech had been gradually permeated
+with Persian words and phrases. The impulse which Akbar's interest in
+his Hindu subjects had given to the translation of Sanskrit works into
+Persian had brought the indigenous and the foreign literatures into
+contact. The current language of the neighbourhood of the capital, the
+Hindi spoken about Delhi and thence northwards to the Himalaya, was
+naturally the form of the vernacular which was most subject to foreign
+influences; and with the extension of Mogul territory by the conquests
+in the south of Akbar and his successors, this idiom was carried abroad
+by their armies, and was adopted by the Musalman kingdoms of the Deccan
+as their court language some time before their overthrow by the
+campaigns of Aurangzeb.
+
+It is not a little remarkable that, as happened with the Vaishnava
+reformation initiated by Ramanuja and Ramanand, and with the
+Vallabhacharya cult of Krishna established at Mathura, the first impulse
+to literary composition in Urdu should have been given, not at the
+headquarters of the empire in the north, but at the Muhammadan courts of
+Golkonda and Bijapur in the south, the former situated amid an
+indigenous population speaking Telugu, and the latter among one whose
+speech was Kanarese, both Dravidian languages having nothing in common
+with the Aryan tongues of the north. This fact of itself defines the
+nature of the literature thus inaugurated. It had nothing to do with the
+idiom or ideas of the people among whom it was born, but was from the
+beginning an imitation of Persian models. It adopted the standards of
+form and content current among the poets of Eran. The _qasida_ or
+laudatory ode, the _ghazal_ or love-sonnet, usually of mystical import,
+the _marsiya_ or dirge, the _masnavi_ or narrative poem with coupled
+rhymes, the _hija_ or satire, the _ruba'i_ or epigram--these were the
+types which Urdu took over ready-made. And with the forms were
+appropriated also all the conventions of poetic diction. The Persians,
+having for centuries treated the same themes with a fecundity which most
+Europeans find extremely wearisome, had elaborated a system of rhetoric
+and a stock of poetic images which, in the exhaustion of original
+matter, made the success of the poet depend chiefly upon dexterity of
+artifice and cleverness of conceit. Pleasing hyperbole, ingenious
+comparison, antithesis, alliteration, carefully arranged gradation of
+noun and epithet, are the means employed to obtain variety; and few of
+the most eloquent passages of later Persian verse admit of translation
+into any other language without losing that which in the original makes
+their whole charm. What is true of Persian is likewise true of Urdu
+poetry. Until quite modern times, there is scarcely anything in it which
+can be called original.[15] Differences of school, which are made much
+of by native critics, are to us hardly perceptible; they consist in the
+use of one or other range of metaphor or comparison, classed, according
+as they repeat the well-worn poetical stock-in-trade of the Persians, or
+seek a slightly fresher and more Indian field of sentiment, as the old
+or the new style of composition.
+
+  Shuja'uddin Nuri, a native of Gujarat, a friend of Faizi and
+  contemporary of Akbar, is mentioned by the native biographers as the
+  most ancient Urdu poet after Amir Khusrau. He was tutor of the son of
+  the _wazir_ of Sultan Abu-l-Hasan Kutb Shah of Golkonda, and several
+  _ghazals_ by him are said to survive. Kuli Kutb Shah of Golkonda, who
+  reigned from 1581, and his successor 'Abdullah Kutb Shah, who came to
+  the throne in 1611, have both left collections of verse, including
+  _ghazals_, _ruba'is_, _masnavis_ and _qasidas_. And during the reign
+  of the latter Ibn Nishati wrote two works which are still famous as
+  models of composition in Dakhni; they are _masnavis_ entitled the
+  _Tuti-nama_, or "Tales of a Parrot," and the _Phul-ban_. The first,
+  written in 1639, is an adaptation of a Persian work by Nakhshabi, but
+  derives ultimately from a Sanskrit original entitled the
+  _Suka-saptati_; this collection has been frequently rehandled in Urdu,
+  both in verse and prose, and is the original of the _Tota-Kahani_, one
+  of the first works in Urdu prose, composed in 1801 by Muhammad
+  Haidar-bakhsh Haidari of the Fort William College. The _Phul-ban_ is a
+  love tale named from its heroine, said to be translated from a Persian
+  work entitled the _Basatin_. Another famous work which probably
+  belongs to the same place and time is the _Story of Kamrup and Kala_
+  by Tahsinuddin, a _masnavi_ which has been published (1836) by M.
+  Garcin de Tassy; what makes this poem remarkable is that, though the
+  work of a Musalman, its personages are Hindu. Kamrup, the hero, is son
+  of the king of Oudh, and the heroine, Kala, daughter of the king of
+  Ceylon; the incidents somewhat resemble those of the tale of
+  as-Sindibad in the _Thousand and One Nights_; the hero and heroine
+  dream one of the other, and the former sets forth to find his beloved;
+  his wanderings take him to many strange countries and through many
+  wonderful adventures, ending in a happy marriage.
+
+  The court of Bijapur was no less distinguished in literature. Ibrahim
+  'Adil Shah (1579-1626) was the author of a work in verse on music
+  entitled the _Nau-ras_ or "Nine Savours," which, however, appears to
+  have been in Hindi rather than Urdu; the three prefaces (_dibajas_) to
+  this poem were rendered into Persian prose by Maula Zuhuri, and, under
+  the name of the _Sih nasr-i Zuhuri_, are well-known models of style. A
+  successor of this prince, 'Ali 'Adil Shah, had as his court poet a
+  Brahman known poetically as Nusrati, who in 1657 composed a _masnavi_
+  of some repute entitled the _Gulshan-i 'Ishq_, or "Rose-garden of
+  Love," a romance relating the history of Prince Manohar and
+  Madmalati,--like the _Kamrup_, an Indian theme. The same poet is
+  author of an extremely long _masnavi_ entitled the _'Ali-nama_,
+  celebrating the monarch under whom he lived.
+
+  These early authors, however, were but pioneers; the first generally
+  accepted standard of form, a standard which suffered little change in
+  two centuries, was established by Wali of Aurangabad (about 1680-1720)
+  and his contemporary and fellow-townsman Siraj. The former of these is
+  commonly called "the Father of Rekhtah"--_Baba-e Rekhta_; and all
+  accounts agree that the immense development attained by Urdu poetry in
+  northern India during the 18th century was due to his example and
+  initiative. Very little is known of Wali's life; he is believed to
+  have visited Delhi towards the end of the reign of Aurangzeb, and is
+  said to have there received instruction from Shah Gulshan in the art
+  of clothing in a vernacular dress the ideas of the Persian poets. His
+  _Kulliyat_ or complete works have been published by M. Garcin de
+  Tassy, with notes and a translation of selected passages (Paris,
+  1834-1836), and may be commended to readers desirous of consulting in
+  the original a favourable specimen of Urdu poetical composition.
+
+  The first of the Delhi school of poets was Zuhuruddin Hatim, who was
+  born in 1699 and died in 1792. In the second year of Muhammad Shah
+  (1719), the _diwan_ of Wali reached Delhi, and excited the emulation
+  of scholars there. Hatim was the first to imitate it in the Urdu of
+  the north, and was followed by his friends Naji, Mazmun and Abru. Two
+  _diwans_ by him survive. He became the founder of a school, and one of
+  his pupils was Rafi us-Sauda, the most distinguished poet of northern
+  India. Khan Arzu (1689-1756) was another of the fathers of Urdu poetry
+  in the north. This author is chiefly renowned as a Persian scholar, in
+  which language he not only composed much poetry, but one of the best
+  of Persian lexicons, the _Siraju-l-lughat_; but his compositions in
+  Urdu are also highly esteemed. He was the master of Mir Taqi, who
+  ranks next to Sauda as the most eminent Urdu poet. Arzu died at
+  Lucknow, whither he betook himself after the devastation of Delhi by
+  Nadir Shah (1739). Another of the early Delhi poets who is considered
+  to have surpassed his fellows was In'amullah Khan Yaqin, who died
+  during the reign of Ahmad Shah (1748-1754), aged only twenty-five.
+  Another was Mir Dard, pupil of the same Shah Gulshan who is said to
+  have instructed Wali; his _diwan_ is not long, but extremely popular,
+  and especially esteemed for the skill with which it develops the
+  themes of spiritualism. In his old age he became a _darwesh_ of the
+  _Naqshbandi_ following, and died in 1793.
+
+  Sauda and Mir Taqi are beyond question the most distinguished Urdu
+  poets. The former was born at Delhi about the beginning of the 18th
+  century, and studied under Hatim. He left Delhi after its devastation,
+  and settled at Lucknow, where the Nawab Asafuddaulah gave him a
+  _jagir_ of Rs. 6000 a year, and where he died in 1780. His poems are
+  very numerous, and cover all the styles of Urdu poetry; but it is to
+  his satires that his fame is chiefly due, and in these he is
+  considered to have surpassed all other Indian poets. Mir Taqi was born
+  at Agra, but early removed to Delhi, where he studied under Arzu; he
+  was still living there at the time of Sauda's death, but in 1782
+  repaired to Lucknow, where he likewise received a pension; he died at
+  a very advanced age in 1810. His works are very voluminous, including
+  no less than six _diwans_. Mir is counted the superior of Sauda in the
+  _ghazal_ and _masnavi_, while the latter excelled him in the satire
+  and _qasida_. Sayyid Ahmad, an excellent authority, and himself one of
+  the best of modern authors in Urdu, says of him in his
+  _Asaru-s-Sanadid_: "Mir's language is so pure, and the expressions
+  which he employs so suitable and natural, that to this day all are
+  unanimous in his praise. Although the language of Sauda is also
+  excellent, and he is superior to Mir in the point of his allusions, he
+  is nevertheless inferior to him in style."
+
+  The tremendous misfortunes which befell Delhi at the hands of Nadir
+  Shah (1739), Ahmad Shah Durrani (1756), and the Marathas (1759), and
+  the rapid decay of the Mogul empire under these repeated shocks,
+  transferred the centre of the cultivation of literature from that city
+  to Lucknow, the capital of the newly founded and flourishing state of
+  Oudh. It has been mentioned how Arzu, Sauda and Mir betook themselves
+  to this refuge and ended their days there; they were followed in their
+  new residence by a school of poets hardly inferior to those who had
+  made Delhi illustrious in the first half of the century. Here they
+  were joined by Mir Hasan (d. 1786), Mir Soz (d. 1800) and
+  Qalandar-bakhsh Jur'at (d. 1810), also like themselves refugees from
+  Delhi, and illustrious poets. Mir Hasan was a friend and collaborator
+  of Mir Dard, and first established himself at Faizabad and
+  subsequently at Lucknow; he excelled in the _ghazal_, _ruba'i_,
+  _masnavi_ and _marsiya_, and is counted the third, with Sauda and Mir
+  Taqi, among the most eminent of Urdu poets. His fame chiefly rests
+  upon a much admired _masnavi_ entitled the _Sihru-l-bayan_, or "Magic
+  of Eloquence," a romance relating the loves of Prince Be-nazir and the
+  Princess Badr-i Munir; his _masnavi_ called the _Gulzar-i Iram_
+  ("Rose-garden of Iram," the legendary 'Adite paradise in southern
+  Arabia), in praise of Faizabad, is likewise highly esteemed. Mir
+  Muhammadi Soz was an elegant poet, remarkable for the success with
+  which he composed in the dialect of the harem called _Rekhti_, but
+  somewhat licentious in his verse; he became a _darwesh_ and renounced
+  the world in his later years. Jur'at was also a prolific poet, but,
+  like Soz, his _ghazals_ and _masnavis_ are licentious and full of
+  double meanings. He imitated Sauda in satire with much success; he
+  also cultivated Hindi poetry, and composed _dohas_ and _kabittas_.
+  Miskin was another Lucknow poet of the same period, whose _marsiyas_
+  are especially admired; one of them, that on the death of Muslim and
+  his two sons, is considered a masterpiece of this style of
+  composition. The school of Lucknow, so founded and maintained during
+  the early years of the century, continued to flourish till the
+  dethronement of the last king, Wajid 'Ali, in 1856. Atash and Nasikh
+  (who died respectively in 1847 and 1841) are the best among the modern
+  poets of the school in the _ghazal_; Mir Anis, a grandson of Mir
+  Hasan, and his contemporary Dabir, the former of whom died in December
+  1875 and the latter a few months later, excelled in the _marsiyah_.
+  Rajab Ali Beg Surur, who died in 1869, was the author of a
+  much-admired romance in rhyming prose entitled the _Fisanah-e 'Ajaib_
+  or "Tale of Marvels," besides a _diwan_. The dethroned prince Wajid
+  'Ali himself, poetically styled Akhtar, was also a poet; he published
+  three diwans, among them a quantity of poetry in the rustic dialect of
+  Oudh which is philologically of much interest.
+
+  Though Delhi was thus deserted by its brightest lights of literature,
+  it did not altogether cease to cultivate the poetic art. Among the
+  last Moguls several princes were themselves creditable poets. Shah
+  Alam II. (1761-1806) wrote under the name of Aftab, and was the author
+  of a romance entitled Manzum-i Aqdas, besides a _diwan_. His son
+  Sulaiman-shukoh, brother of Akbar Shah II., who had at first, like his
+  brother authors, repaired to Lucknow, returned to Delhi in 1815, and
+  died in 1838; he also has left a _diwan_. Lastly, his nephew Bahadur
+  Shah II., the last titular emperor of Delhi (d. 1862), wrote under the
+  name of Zafar, and was a pupil in poetry of Shaikh Ibrahim Zauq, a
+  distinguished writer; he has left a voluminous _diwan_, which has been
+  printed at Delhi. Mashafi (Ghulam-i Hamdani), who died about 1814, was
+  one of the most distinguished of the revived poetic school of Delhi,
+  and was himself one of its founders. Originally of Lucknow, he left
+  that city for Delhi in 1777, and held conferences of poets, at which
+  several authors who afterwards acquired repute formed their style; he
+  has left five _diwans_, a _Tazkira_ or biography of Urdu poets, and a
+  _Shah-nama_ or account of the kings of Delhi down to Shah 'Alam. Qaim
+  (Qiyamuddin 'Ali) was one of his society, and died in 1792; he has
+  left several works of merit. Ghalib, otherwise Mirza Asadullah Khan
+  Naushah, laureate of the last Mogul, who died in 1869, was undoubtedly
+  the most eminent of the modern Delhi poets. He wrote chiefly in
+  Persian, of which language, especially in the form cultivated by
+  Firdausi, free from intermixture of Arabic words, he was a master; but
+  his Urdu _diwan_, though short, is excellent in its way, and his
+  reputation spread far and wide. To this school, though he lived and
+  died at Agra, may be attached Mir Wali Muhammad Nazir (who died in the
+  year 1832); his _masnavis_ entitled _Jogi-nama_, _Kauri-nama_,
+  _Banjare-nama_, and _Burhape-nama_, as well as his _diwan_, have been
+  frequently reprinted, and are extremely popular. His language is less
+  artificial than that of the generality of Urdu poets, and some of his
+  poems have been printed in Nagari, and are as well known and as much
+  esteemed by Hindus as by Mahommedans. His verse is defaced by much
+  obscenity.
+
+4. _Modern Period._--While such, in outline, is the history of the
+literary schools of the Deccan, Delhi and Lucknow, a fourth, that of the
+Fort William College at Calcutta, was being formed, and was destined to
+give no less an impulse to the cultivation of Urdu prose than had a
+hundred years before been given to that of poetry by Wali. At the
+commencement of the 19th century Dr John Gilchrist was the head of this
+institution, and his efforts were directed towards getting together a
+body of literature suitable as text-books for the study of the Urdu
+language by the European officers of the administration. To his
+exertions we owe the elaboration of the vernacular as an official
+speech, and the possibility of substituting it for the previously
+current Persian as the language of the courts and the government. He
+gathered together at Calcutta the most eminent vernacular scholars of
+the time, and their works, due to his initiative, are still notable as
+specimens of elegant and serviceable prose composition, not only in
+Urdu, but also in Hindi. The chief authors of this school are Haidari
+(Sayyid Muhammad Haidar-bakhsh), Husaini (Mir Bahadur 'Ali), Mir Amman
+Lutf, Hafizuddin Ahmad, Sher 'Ali Afsos, Nihal Chand of Lahore, Kazim
+'Ali Jawan, Lallu Lal Kavi, Mazhar 'Ali Wila and Ikram 'Ali.
+
+  Haidari died in 1828. He composed the _Tota-Kahani_ (1801), a prose
+  redaction of the _Tuti-namah_ which has been already mentioned; a
+  romance named _Araish-i Mahfil_ ("Ornament of the Assembly"),
+  detailing the adventures of the famous Arab chief Hatim-i Tai; the
+  _Gul-i Maghfirat_ or _Dah Majlis_, an account of the holy persons of
+  the Muhammadan faith; the _Gulzar-i Danish_, a translation of the
+  _Bahar-i Danish_, a Persian work containing stories descriptive of the
+  craft and faithlessness of women; and the _Tarikh-i Nadiri_, a
+  translation of a Persian history of Nadir Shah. Husaini is the author
+  of an imitation in prose of Mir Hasan's _Sihru-l-bayan_, under the
+  name of _Nasr-i Benazir_ ("the Incomparable Prose," or "the Prose of
+  Benazir," the latter being the name of the hero), and of a work named
+  _Akhlaq-i Hindi_, or "Indian Morals," both composed in 1802. The
+  _Akhlaq-i Hindi_ is an adaptation of a Persian work called the
+  _Mufarrihu-l-qulub_ ("the Delighter of Hearts"), itself a version of
+  the _Hitopadesa_. Mir Amman was a native of Delhi, which he left in
+  the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani for Patna, and in 1801 repaired to
+  Calcutta. To him we owe the _Bagh o Bahar_ (1801-1802), an adaptation
+  of Amir Khusrau's famous Persian romance entitled the _Chahar
+  Darwesh_, or "Story of the Four Dervishes." Amman's work is not itself
+  directly modelled on the Persian, but is a rehandling of an almost
+  contemporary rendering by Tahsin of Etawa, called the _Nau-tarz-i
+  Murassa'_. The style of this composition is much admired by natives of
+  India, and editions of it are very numerous. Amman also composed an
+  imitation of Husain Wa'iz Kashifi's _Akhlaq-i Muhsini_ under the name
+  of the _Ganj-i Khubi_ ("Treasure of Virtue"), produced in 1802.
+  Hafizuddin Ahmad was a professor at the Fort William College; in 1803
+  he completed a translation of Abu-l-Fazl's _'Iyar-i Danish_, under the
+  name of the _Khirad-afroz_ ("Enlightener of the Understanding"). The
+  _'Iyar-i Danish_ ("Touchstone of Wisdom") is one of the numerous
+  imitations of the originally Sanskrit collection of apologues known in
+  Persian as the _Fables of Bidpai_, or _Kalilah and Dimna_. Afsos was
+  one of the most illustrious of the Fort William school; originally of
+  Delhi, he left that city at the age of eleven, and entered the service
+  of Qasim 'Ali Khan, Nawab of Bengal; he afterwards repaired to
+  Hyderabad in the Deccan, and thence to Lucknow, where he was the pupil
+  of Mir Hasan, Mir Soz and Mir Haidar 'Ali Hairan. He joined the Fort
+  William College in 1800, and died in 1809. He is the author of a much
+  esteemed diwan; but his chief reputation is founded on two prose works
+  of great excellence, the _Araish-i Mahfil_ (1805), an account of India
+  adapted from the introduction of the Persian _Khulasatu-t-tawarikh_ of
+  Sujan Rae, and the _Bagh-i Urdu_ (1808), a translation of Sa'di's
+  _Gulistan_. Nihal Chand translated into Urdu a _masnavi_, entitled the
+  _Gul-i Bakawali_, under the name of _Mazhab-i 'Ishq_ ("Religion of
+  Love"); this work is in prose intermingled with verse, was composed in
+  1804, and has been frequently reproduced. Jawan, like most of his
+  collaborators, was originally of Delhi and afterwards of Lucknow; he
+  joined the College in 1800. He is the author of a version in Urdu of
+  the well-known story of Sakuntala, under the name of _Sakuntala
+  Natak_; the Urdu was rendered from a previous Braj-bhasha version by
+  Nawaz Kabishwar made in 1716, and was printed in 1802. He also
+  composed a _Barah-masa_, or poetical description of the twelve months
+  (a very popular and often-handled form of composition), with accounts
+  of the various Hindu and Muhammadan festivals, entitled the _Dastur-i
+  Hind_ ("Usages of India"), printed in 1812. Ikram 'Ali translated,
+  under the name of the _Ikhwanu-s-safa_, or "Brothers of Purity"
+  (1810), a chapter of a famous Arabian collection of treatises on
+  science and philosophy entitled _Rasailu Ikhwani-s-safa_, and composed
+  in the 10th century. The complete collection, due to different writers
+  who dwelt at Basra, has recently been made known to European readers
+  by the translation of Dr F. Dieterici (1858-1879); the chapter
+  selected by Ikram 'Ali is the third, which records an allegorical
+  strife for the mastery between men and animals before the king of the
+  _Jinn_. The translation is written in excellent Urdu, and is one of
+  the best of the Fort William productions.
+
+  Sri Lallu Lal was a Brahman, whose family, originally of Gujarat, had
+  long been settled in northern India. What was done by the other Fort
+  William authors for Urdu prose was done by Lallu Lal almost alone for
+  Hindi. He may indeed without exaggeration be said to have created
+  "High Hindi" as a literary language. His _Prem Sagar_ and _Rajniti_,
+  the former a version in pure Hindi of the 10th chapter of the
+  _Bhagavata Purana_, detailing the history of Krishna, and founded on a
+  previous Braj-bhasha version by Chaturbhuj Misr, and the latter an
+  adaptation in Braj-bhasha prose of the _Hitopadesa_ and part of the
+  _Pancha-tantra_, are unquestionably the most important works in Hindi
+  prose. The _Prem Sagar_ was begun in 1804 and ended in 1810; it enjoys
+  immense popularity in northern India, has been frequently reproduced
+  in a lithographed form, and has several times been printed. The
+  _Rajniti_ was composed in 1809; it is much admired for its sententious
+  brevity and the purity of its language. Besides these two works, Lallu
+  Lal was the author of a collection of a hundred anecdotes in Hindi and
+  Urdu entitled _Lataif-i Hindi_, an anthology of Hindi verse called the
+  _Sabha-bilas_, a _Sat-sai_ in the style of Bihari-Lal called
+  _Sapta-satika_ and several other works. He and Jawan worked together
+  at the _Singhasan Battisi_ (1801), a redaction in mixed Urdu and Hindi
+  (Devanagari character) of a famous collection of legends relating the
+  prowess of King Vikramaditya; and he also aided the latter author in
+  the production of the _Sakuntala Natak_. Mazhar 'Ali Wila was his
+  collaborator in the _Baital Pachisi_, a collection of stories similar
+  in many respects to the _Singhasan Battisi_, and also in mixed
+  Urdu-Hindi; and he aided Wila in the preparation in Urdu of the _Story
+  of Madhonal_, a romance originally composed in Braj-bhasha by Moti
+  Ram.
+
+  The works of these authors, though compiled and published under the
+  superintendence of Dr Gilchrist, Captain Abraham Lockett, Professor J.
+  W. Taylor, Dr W. Hunter and other European officers of the college of
+  Fort William, and originally intended for the instruction of the
+  Company's officers in the vernacular, are essentially Indian in taste
+  and style, and, until superseded by the more recent developments of
+  literature noticed below, enjoyed a very wide reputation and
+  popularity. They may, indeed, be said to have set the standard of
+  prose composition in Urdu and Hindi, and for the first half of the
+  19th century their influence in this respect continued almost
+  unchallenged. Side by side with them, among the Musalman population of
+  northern India, another almost contemporaneous impulse did much for
+  the expansion of the Urdu language, and, like the work of the
+  Vaishnava reformers in moulding literary Hindi, gave an impetus to
+  composition which might otherwise have been lacking. This was the
+  reform in Islam led by Sayyid Ahmad[16] and his followers. In all
+  Eastern countries religion is the first and chief subject of literary
+  production; and the controversies which the new preaching aroused in
+  India at once afforded abundant material for authorship in Urdu, and
+  interested deeply the people to whom the works were addressed.
+
+  Sayyid Ahmad was born in 1782, and received his early education at
+  Delhi; his instructors were two learned Muslims, Shah 'Abdul-'Aziz,
+  author of a celebrated commentary on the Qur'an (the _Tafsir-i
+  'Aziziyyah_), and his brother 'Abdu-l-Qadir, the writer of the first
+  translation of the holy volume into Urdu. Under their guidance Sayyid
+  Ahmad embraced the doctrines of the Wahhabis, a sect whose preaching
+  appears at this time to have first reached India. He gathered round
+  him a large number of fervent disciples, among others Isma'il Haji,
+  nephew of 'Abdu-l'Aziz and 'Abdu-l-Qadir, the chief author of the
+  sect. After a course of preaching and apostleship at Delhi, Sayyid
+  Ahmad set out in 1820 for Calcutta, attended by numerous adherents.
+  Thence in 1822 he started on a pilgrimage to Mecca, whence he went to
+  Constantinople, and was there received with distinction and gained
+  many disciples. He travelled for nearly six years in Turkey and
+  Arabia, and then returned to Delhi. The religious degradation and
+  coldness which he found in his native country strongly impressed him
+  after his sojourn in lands where the life of Islam is stronger, and he
+  and his disciples established a propaganda throughout northern India,
+  reprobating the superstitions which had crept into the faith from
+  contact with Hindus, and preaching a _jihad_ or holy war against the
+  Sikhs. In 1828 he started for Peshawar, attended by, it is said,
+  upwards of 100,000 Indians, and accompanied by his chief followers,
+  Haji Isma'il and 'Abdu-l-Hayy. He was furnished with means by a
+  general subscription in northern India, and by several Muhammadan
+  princes who had embraced his doctrines. At the beginning of 1829 he
+  declared war against the Sikhs, and in the course of time made himself
+  master of Peshawar. The Afghans, however, with whom he had allied
+  himself in the contest, were soon disgusted by the rigour of his
+  creed, and deserted him and his cause. He fled across the Indus and
+  took refuge in the mountains of Pakhli and Dhamtor, where in 1831 he
+  encountered a detachment of Sikhs under the command of Sher Singh, and
+  in the combat he and Haji Isma'il were slain. His sect is, however, by
+  no means extinct; the Wahhabi doctrines have continued to gain ground
+  in India, and to give rise to much controversial writing, down to our
+  own day.
+
+  The translation of the Quran by 'Abdu-l-Qadir was finished in 1803,
+  and first published by Sayyid 'Abdullah, a fervent disciple of Sayyid
+  Ahmad, at Hughli in 1829. The _Tambihu-l-ghafilin_, or "Awakener of
+  the Heedless," a work in Persian by Sayyid Ahmad, was rendered into
+  Urdu by 'Abdullah, and published at the same press in 1830. Haji
+  Isma'il was the author of a treatise in Urdu entitled
+  _Taqwiyatu-l-Iman_ ("Confirmation of the Faith"), which had great
+  vogue among the following of the Sayyid. Other works by the disciples
+  of the _Tariqah-e Muhammadiyyah_ (as the new preaching was called) are
+  the _Targhib-i Jihad_ ("Incitation to Holy War"), _Hidayatu-l-Muminin_
+  ("Guide of the Believers"), _Muzihu-l-Kabair_ wa-l-Bid'ah ("Exposition
+  of Mortal Sins and Heresy"), _Naslhatu-l-Muslimin_ ("Admonition to
+  Muslims"), and the _Mi'at Masail_, or "Hundred Questions."
+
+  Printing was first used for vernacular works by the College Press at
+  Fort William, at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th
+  century, and all the compositions prepared for Dr Gilchrist and his
+  successors which have been mentioned were thus given to the public.
+  But the expense of this method of reproduction long precluded its
+  extensive use in India, and movable types, though well suited for
+  alphabets derived from the Sanskrit, were not equally applicable to
+  the flowing and graceful characters of Persian. Lithography was
+  introduced about 1837, when the first press was set up at Delhi, and
+  immediately gave a powerful stimulus to the multiplication of
+  literature, both original and editions of older works. In 1832 the
+  vernaculars were substituted for Persian as the official language of
+  the courts and the acts of the legislature, and this at once led to
+  the transfer to the former of a mass of technical and forensic terms
+  which had previously been only to a limited extent in popular use.
+  Thirdly, the spread of education in subjects of Western learning, for
+  which text-books (many of them translations from English) were
+  required, not only greatly enlarged the vocabulary of the common
+  speech, but led by degrees to the use of a simpler and more direct
+  style, and the abandonment wholesale of the florid and artificial
+  ornament which was the legacy of the Persian literature upon which
+  Urdu prose had at first modelled itself. Lastly, the establishment of
+  a vernacular newspaper press, which lithography had rendered possible,
+  placed within the reach of a continually widening public the means of
+  becoming acquainted with new ideas in every department of culture, and
+  practised the writers who contributed to it in the art of wielding
+  their mother-tongue with effect in its application to European themes.
+
+  All these revolutionary agencies were at work, though in a tentative
+  and limited fashion, when the great change, following on the Mutiny of
+  1857, of the transfer of the government of India from the Company to
+  the Crown inaugurated a new era. Since 1860 their operation has become
+  extremely rapid and far-reaching. The use of lithography both for Urdu
+  and Hindi annually gives birth to hundreds of works. The extension of
+  education through both public and private agency has created an
+  immense mass of school-books, and the spread of instruction in English
+  and the activity of translators have filled the vernaculars with a
+  multitude of new words drawn from that language. The newspaper press,
+  in Urdu and Hindi, now counts over two hundred journals, the majority
+  issued in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and in the Punjab, but
+  a few at Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bombay and Calcutta. Of this
+  great body of literary production it is possible to speak only in
+  general terms. Style and vocabulary are still in a somewhat fluid and
+  unsettled condition, and the subjects treated are almost as various as
+  they are in European literatures. Much, indeed, of the work produced
+  has scarcely any claim to literary excellence, and in the crowd of
+  writers we may content ourselves with mentioning only a few whose
+  influence and authority make it probable that they will hereafter be
+  known as leaders in the new culture.
+
+  One of the first effects of the new literary inspiration seemed to be
+  the extinction of poetical composition as previously practised. With
+  the deaths of Zauq (1854) and Ghalib (1869) of the Delhi school, and
+  those of Anis (1875) and Dabir (1876) of Lucknow, the end of Urdu
+  poetry appeared to have come. The new age was intensely practical and
+  eager to engage in the race for material and political advancement,
+  and had no time for sentiment, or taste for mystical conceits.
+  Moreover, poetical composition in India, as in other Eastern
+  countries, has always owed much to the patronage of courts and
+  princes. The thrones of Delhi and Lucknow had passed away, and the new
+  rulers showed little interest in this form of achievement. Only at
+  Hyderabad in the Deccan, under the patronage of the Nizam, were
+  laureates still honoured; the last of these, Mirza Khan Dagh
+  (1831-1905), enjoyed a wide reputation as a graceful and eloquent
+  master of the poetic art.
+
+  But prose and material prosperity did not succeed in monopolizing the
+  genius of the people. The great movement of reform and liberalism in
+  Islam led by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) found its bard in
+  Sayyid Altaf Husain of Panipat, poetically styled Hali--an ambiguous
+  _nom-de-plume_ now generally taken in the sense of "modern," or
+  "up-to-date." Hali in his youth was a pupil of the famous Ghalib,
+  whose life he has written and of whose writings he has published an
+  able criticism. At the age of forty he came under the influence of Sir
+  Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and from that time devoted his great poetic gifts
+  to the service of his co-religionists. He has published much verse, of
+  which an interesting specimen will be found in the edition of his
+  _Ruba'is_ or quatrains (101 in number), with an English translation,
+  by Mr G. E. Ward (Oxford, 1904); in this is included a famous poem
+  addressed to his muse, setting forth his ideals in poetry--simplicity,
+  avoidance of exaggeration and unreality, direct and emotional appeal
+  to the heart, and above all sincerity. There can be no doubt that he
+  has succeeded in becoming the leader of a new poetic school, which
+  shows much vigour and promise.
+
+  Perhaps the most memorable of all Hali's compositions is his long poem
+  in six-line stanzas (called _musaddas_) on "the flow and ebb of Islam"
+  (1879), which has had an extraordinary influence in stimulating
+  enthusiasm in the cause of progress among the Musalmans of the north
+  of India. In it he draws, in simple and direct but searching and
+  eloquent language, a rapid sketch of the glories of Islam in the past,
+  its principles and precepts, and the sources of its strength; and then
+  turns to contrast with this picture the degradation and decay into
+  which it had, when he wrote, fallen in Hindostan. Never have the vices
+  and shortcomings of a people been lashed by one of themselves with
+  more vigorous denunciation, or with more earnestness of moral purpose.
+  In his preface he explains how the poem came to be written--after a
+  youth spent in heedlessness and unsettlement, at the instigation of
+  Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and in the cause of that great reformer. The
+  poem is still recited and imitated by Muslims in the Punjab and United
+  Provinces, though the picture which it presents of Indian Musalmans is
+  no longer wholly applicable to the community. Hali has recently
+  completed a life of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan in two volumes, entitled
+  _Hayat-i Javid_ ("eternal life"), a work of great merit.
+
+  Another writer whose work, though chiefly in prose, deals with poetry
+  and poetic style, is Maulavi Muhammad Husain Azad, lately professor of
+  Arabic at the Government College, Lahore. He has not himself composed
+  much verse; but his biographies of Urdu poets, with criticisms of
+  their works, entitled _Ab-i Hayat_ ("Water of Life," Lahore, 1883), is
+  by far the best book dealing with the subject. His prose style is much
+  admired. As Hali was the pupil of Ghalib, so was Azad that of Zauq, of
+  whose poems he has published a revised and annotated edition. His
+  other works in prose are _Qisas-i Hind_, episodes of Indian history
+  arranged for schools; _Nairang-i Khayal_, an allegory dealing with
+  human life; and _Darbar-i Akbari_, an account of the reign of Akbar.
+
+  Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's life and work are dealt with elsewhere. Among
+  his literary achievements may be mentioned the _Asarus-Sanadid_
+  ("Vestiges of Princes"), an excellent account of Delhi and its
+  monuments, which has passed through several editions since it was
+  first lithographed in 1847. His essays and occasional papers,
+  published in the _Aligarh Institute Gazette_ (started in 1864), and
+  afterwards (from 1870 onwards) in a periodical entitled
+  _Tahzibul-Akhlaq_ (or "Muhammadan Social Reformer"), handle all the
+  problems of religious, social and educational advancement among Indian
+  Musalmans--the cause with which his life was identified. His great
+  _Commentary on the Qur'an_, in seven volumes, the last finished only a
+  few days before his death in 1898, is carried to the end of Surah xx.,
+  a little more than half the book. In him Urdu prose found its most
+  powerful wielder for the diffusion of modern ideas, and the movement
+  which he set on foot has been the spring of the best literature in the
+  language during recent years.
+
+  Another excellent writer of Urdu is Shamsul-'Ulama Maulavi Nazir Ahmad
+  of Delhi, who is the author of a series of novels describing domestic
+  life, of a somewhat didactic character, which have had a wide
+  popularity, and from their admirable moral tone have been specially
+  serviceable in the education of Indian women. These are entitled the
+  _Mir'atul-'Arus_ (or "Brides' Mirror"); _Taubatun-Nasuh_ ("the
+  Repentance of Nasuh"), _Banatun-Na'sh_ ("the Seven Stars of the Great
+  Bear"), _Ibnul-Waqt_ ("Son of the Age"), and _Ayama_ ("Widows"). But
+  Nazir Ahmad is a man of many sides; before he took to novel-writing he
+  was the principal translator into Urdu of the _Indian Penal Code_
+  (1861), which is reckoned a masterpiece in the exact rendering of
+  European legal ideas; and more lately he gave to the world the best
+  Urdu version of the Quran. He has been a popular lecturer on social
+  subjects, displaying a rich vein of humour, and in his old age even
+  ventured upon verse. During the latter portion of his life he was most
+  closely associated with Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
+
+  The novel is one of the most noteworthy features of recent literary
+  composition in Urdu. India has from time immemorial been rich in
+  stories and romances of adventure; but the description of actual life
+  and character in action, as the modern novel is understood in Europe,
+  is quite a new development. The most admired production of this kind
+  in Urdu is a work entitled _Fisana-e Azad_, by Pandit Ratan-nath
+  Sarshar of Lucknow. The story, which is very long, is remarkable for
+  the faithful and vivid pictures of Lucknow society which it presents,
+  and its exact and lifelike delineation of character; it appeared
+  originally as a _feuilleton_ of the _Awadh Akhbar_, of which paper the
+  author was at the time editor. Another good writer in the same branch
+  of literature is Maulavi 'Abdul-Halim Sharar, also a native of the
+  neighbourhood of Lucknow, but settled at Hyderabad. He was editor of a
+  monthly periodical called the _Dil-gudaz_ ("melter of hearts"), which
+  contained essays and papers in European style, and in it his novels,
+  which are all of an historical character, in the style of Sir Walter
+  Scott, originally appeared. The best are _'Aziz and Virgina_, a tale
+  of the Crusades, and _Mansur and Mohina_, a story of which the scene
+  is laid in India at the time of the invasions of Sultan Mahmud of
+  Ghazni.
+
+  Although Urdu chiefly represents Musalman culture, its use is by no
+  means confined to adherents of that faith. It has just been mentioned
+  that the most popular Urdu novelist is a Hindu (a Brahman from
+  Kashmir); and the statistics of the vernacular press show that this
+  form of the language is widely used by Hindus as well as Musalmans.
+  Thus, of eighty periodicals in Urdu published in the United Provinces,
+  twenty-nine are conducted by Hindus; similarly, in the Punjab, of
+  forty-eight Urdu journals, twenty are edited by Hindus.
+
+  "High Hindi" has scarcely adapted itself to modern requirements with
+  the thoroughness displayed by Urdu. It is taught in the schools where
+  the population is mainly Hindu, and books of science have been written
+  in it with a terminology borrowed from Sanskrit, in place of the
+  Persian terms used in the other dialect. But Sanskrit is far removed
+  from the daily life of the people, and the majority of works in this
+  style are read only by Pandits, the great bulk of them dealing with
+  religion, philosophy and the ancient literature. There are
+  thirty-seven Hindi and four Hindi-Urdu journals in the United
+  Provinces; but many of them are exclusively religious in their
+  character, and several, though written in Devanagari, employ a mixed
+  language which admits Persian words freely. The old dialects of
+  literature, Awadhi and Braj-bhasha, are now only used for poetry; High
+  Hindi has been a complete failure for this purpose.
+
+  The most noticeable authors in Hindi since the middle of the 19th
+  century have been Babu Harishchandra and Raja Siva Prasad, both of
+  Benares. The former, during his short life (1850-1885), was an
+  enthusiastic cultivator of the old poetic art, using the dialects just
+  mentioned. He published in the _Sundari Tilak_ an anthology of the
+  best Hindi poetry, and in the _Kabi-bachan-Sudha_ ("ambrosia of the
+  words of poets") and the magazine called _Harishchandrika_ a quantity
+  of old texts, with much added matter. He also wrote a volume of
+  biographies of famous men, European and Indian, and many critical
+  studies, historical and literary. In history especially he cleared up
+  many problems, and traced the lines for further investigation. In his
+  _Kashmir Kusum_, or history of Kashmir, a list is given of about a
+  hundred works by him. He was also the real founder of the modern Hindi
+  drama; he wrote plays himself, and inspired others. Raja Siva Prasad
+  (1823-1895) served for many years in the educational department, and
+  published a number of works intended for use in schools, which have
+  greatly contributed to the formation of a sound vernacular form of
+  Hindi, not excessively Sanskritized, and not rejecting current Persian
+  forms. The society at Benares called the _Nagari Pracharini Sabha_
+  ("Society for promoting the use of the Nagari character") has, since
+  the death of Harishchandra, been active in procuring the publication
+  of works in Hindi, and has issued many useful books, besides
+  conducting a systematic search for old MSS.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best account in English of Hindi literature is Dr
+  G. A. Grierson's _Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindostan_, issued
+  by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889; the dates in this work,
+  which is founded on indigenous compilations, have, however, in many
+  cases to be received with caution. Before it appeared, Garcin de
+  Tassy's _Histoire de la litterature Hindouie et Hindoustanie_, and his
+  annual summaries of the progress made from 1850 to 1877, were our
+  chief authority, and may still be consulted with advantage. For the
+  religious literature of the Vaishnava sects, Professor H. H. Wilson's
+  _Essay on the Religious Sects of the Hindus_ (vol. i. of his collected
+  works) has not yet been superseded.
+
+  For Urdu poets, Professor Azad's _Ab-i Hayat_ (in Urdu) is the most
+  trustworthy record. For the new school of Urdu literature reference
+  may be made to a series of lectures (in English) by Shaikh
+  'Abdul-Qadir of Lahore, printed in 1898. The catalogues by Professor
+  Blumhardt of Hindostani and Hindi books in the libraries of the
+  British Museum and the India Office will give a good idea of the
+  volume of the recent productions of the press in those languages.
+       (C. J. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Urdu_ is a Turkish word meaning a camp or army with its
+    followers, and is the origin of the European word _horde_. _Rekhta_
+    means "scattered, strewn," referring to the way in which Persian
+    words are intermixed with those of Indian origin; it is used chiefly
+    for the literary form of Urdu.
+
+  [2] The only known exceptions are a work in Hindi called the
+    _Chaurasi Varta_ (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems;
+    the latter can scarcely be called literature.
+
+  [3] A fresh critical edition of the text by Pandit Mohan Lal Vishnu
+    Lal Pandia at Benares, under the auspices of the _Nagari Pracharini
+    Sabha_, had reached canto xxiv. in 1907.
+
+  [4] See _J.A.S.B._ (1886), pp. 6 sqq.
+
+  [5] _Annals and Antiquities_, ii. 452 n. and 472 n.
+
+  [6] Worshippers of the energic power--_Sakti_--of Siva, represented
+    by his consort Parvati or Bhawani.
+
+  [7] Quoted from G. A. Grierson, chapter on "Literature," in the
+    _India Gazetteer_ (ed. 1907).
+
+  [8] The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 300 B.C.),
+    who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathura on
+    the Jumna river. That of Rama is probably still more ancient; the
+    name occurs in stories of the Buddha.
+
+  [9] _Religious Sects of the Hindus_, p. 40.
+
+  [10] This name of Krishna, which means "He who quits the battle," is
+    connected with the story of the transfer of the Yadava clan from
+    Mathura to the new capital on the coast of the peninsula of
+    Kathiawar, the city of Dwaraka. This migration was the result of an
+    invasion of Braj by Jarasandha, king of Magadha, before whom Krishna
+    resolved to retreat. As his path southwards took him through
+    Rajputana and Gujarat, it is in these regions that his form Ranchhor
+    is most generally venerated as a symbol of the shifting of the centre
+    of divine life from Gangetic to southern India.
+
+  [11] In the _Granth_ Namdeo is called a calico-printer, _Chhipi_. The
+    Marathi tradition is that he was a tailor, _Shimpi_; it is probable
+    that the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been
+    wrongly rendered by the former.
+
+  [12] It will be remembered that Akbar's reign was remarkable for the
+    translation into Persian of a large number of Sanskrit works of
+    religion and philosophy, most of the versions being made by, or in
+    the names of, members of his court.
+
+  [13] _Religious Sects_, p. 132.
+
+  [14] Amir Khusrau is credited with the authorship of many still
+    popular rhymes, riddles or punning verses (called _pahelis_ and
+    _mukuris_); but these, though often containing Persian words, are in
+    Hindi and scanned according to the prosody of that language; they
+    are, therefore, like Malik Muhammad's _Padmawat_, not Urdu or Rekhta
+    verse (see Professor Azad's _Abi-Hayat_, pp. 72-76). A late Dakkhani
+    poet who used the _takkallus_ of Sa'di is said by Azad (p. 79) to
+    have been confused by Mirza Rafi'us-Sauda in his _Tazkira_ with Sa'di
+    of Shiraz.
+
+  [15] An exception may be made to this general statement in favour of
+    the _genre_ pictures of city and country life contained in the
+    _masnavis_ of Sauda and Nazir. These are often satires (in the vein
+    of Horace rather than Juvenal), and are full of interest as pictures
+    of society. In Sauda, however, the conventional language used in
+    description is often Persian rather than Indian.
+
+  [16] To be carefully distinguished from the reformer of the same name
+    who flourished half a century later.
+
+
+
+
+HINDU CHRONOLOGY. The subject of Hindu chronology divides naturally into
+three parts: the calendar, the eras, and other reckonings.
+
+
+I. THE CALENDAR
+
+The Hindus have had from very ancient times the system of lunisolar
+cycles, made by the combination of solar years, regulated by the course
+of the sun, and lunar years, regulated by the course of the moon, but
+treated in such a manner as to keep the beginning of the lunar year near
+the beginning of the solar year. The exact manner in which they arranged
+the details of their earliest calendar is still a subject of research.
+We deal here with their calendar as it now stands, in a form which was
+developed from about A.D. 400 under the influence of the Greek astronomy
+which had been introduced into India at no very long time previously.
+
+The Hindu calendar, then, is determined by years of two kinds, solar and
+lunar. For civil purposes, solar years are used in Bengal, including
+Orissa, and in the Tamil and Malayalam districts of Madras, and lunar
+years throughout the rest of India. But the lunar year regulates
+everywhere the general religious rites and festivals, and the details of
+private and domestic life, such as the selection of auspicious occasions
+for marriages and for starting on journeys, the choice of lucky moments
+for shaving, and so on. Consequently, the details of the lunar year are
+shown even in the almanacs which follow the solar year. On the other
+hand, certain details of the solar year, such as the course of the sun
+through the signs and other divisions of the zodiac, are shown in the
+almanacs which follow the lunar year. We will treat the solar year
+first, because it governs the lunisolar system, and the explanation of
+it will greatly simplify the process of explaining the lunar calendar.
+
+
+  The astronomical solar year.
+
+The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical solar year. The
+latter professes to begin at the vernal equinox, but the actual position
+is as follows. In our Western astronomy the signs of the zodiac have, in
+consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, drawn away to a large
+extent from the constellations from which they derived their names; with
+the result that the sun now comes to the vernal equinox, at the first
+point of the sign Aries, not in the constellation Aries, but at a point
+in Pisces, about 28 degrees before the beginning of Aries. The Hindus,
+however, have disregarded precession in connexion with their calendar
+from the time (A.D. 499, 522, or 527, according to different schools)
+when, by their system, the signs coincided with the constellations; and
+their sign Aries, called Mesha by them, is still their constellation
+Aries, beginning, according to them, at or near the star [zeta] Piscium.
+Their astronomical solar year is, in fact, not the tropical year, in the
+course of which the sun really passes from one vernal equinox to the
+next, but a sidereal year, the period during which the earth makes one
+revolution in its orbit round the sun with reference to the first point
+of Mesha; its beginning is the moment of the Mesha-samkranti, the
+entrance of the sun into the sidereal sign Mesha, instead of the
+tropical sign Aries; and it begins, not with the true equinox, but with
+an artificial or nominal equinox.
+
+The length of this sidereal solar year was determined in the following
+manner. The astronomer selected what the Greeks termed an _exeligmos_,
+the Romans an _annus magnus_ or _mundanus_, a period in the course of
+which a given order of things is completed by the sun, moon, and planets
+returning to a state of conjunction from which they have started. The
+usual Hindu _exeligmos_ has been the Great Age of 4,320,000 sidereal
+solar years, the aggregate of the Krita or golden age, the Treta or
+silver age, the Dvapara or brazen age, and the Kali or iron age, in
+which we now are; but it has sometimes been the Kalpa or aeon,
+consisting according to one view of 1000, according to another view of
+1008, Great Ages. He then laid down the number of revolutions, in the
+period of his _exeligmos_, of the _nakshatras_, certain stars and groups
+of stars which will be noticed more definitely in our account of the
+lunar year; that is, the number of rotations of the earth on its axis,
+or, in other words, the number of sidereal days. A deduction of the
+number of the years from the number of the sidereal days gave, as
+remainder, the number of civil days in the _exeligmos_. And, this
+remainder being divided by the number of the years, the quotient gave
+the length of the sidereal solar year: refinements, suggested by
+experience, inference, or extraneous information, were made by
+increasing or decreasing the number of sidereal days assigned to the
+_exeligmos_. The Hindus now recognize three standard sidereal solar
+years determined in that manner. (1) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min.
+30 sec. according to the _Aryabhatiya_, otherwise called the _First
+Arya-Siddhanta_, which was written by the astronomer Aryabhata (b. A.D.
+476): this year is used in the Tamil and Malayalam districts, and, we
+may add, in Ceylon. (2) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30.915 sec.
+according to the _Rajamriga ka_, a treatise based on the
+_Brahma-Siddhanta_ of Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598) and attributed to king
+Bhoja, of which the epoch, the point of time used in it for
+calculations, falls in A.D. 1042: this year is used in parts of Gujarat
+(Bombay) and in Rajputana and other western parts of Northern India. (3)
+A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 36.56 sec. according to the present
+_Surya-Siddhanta_, a work of unknown authorship which dates from
+probably about A.D. 1000: this year is used in almost all the other
+parts of India. It may be remarked that, according to modern science,
+the true mean sidereal solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.6
+sec., and the mean tropical year measures 365 days 5 hrs. 48 min.
+46.054440 sec.
+
+The result of the use of this sidereal solar year is that the beginning
+of the Hindu astronomical solar year, and with it the civil solar year
+and the lunar year and the nominal incidence of the seasons, has always
+been, and still is, travelling slowly forward in our calendar year by an
+amount which varies according to the particular authority.[1] For
+instance, Aryabhata's year exceeds the Julian year by 12 min. 30 sec.
+This amounts to exactly one day in 115(1/5) years, and five days in 576
+years. Thus, if we take the longer period and confine ourselves to a
+time when the Julian calendar (old style) was in use, according to
+Aryabhata the Mesha-samkranti began to occur in A.D. 603 on 20th March,
+and in A.D. 1179 on 25th March. The intermediate advances arrange
+themselves into four steps of one day each in 116 years, followed by one
+step of one day in 112 years: thus, the Mesha-samkranti began to occur
+on 21st March in A.D. 719, on 22nd March in A.D. 835, on 23rd March in
+A.D. 951, and on 24th March in A.D. 1067 (whence 112 years take us to
+25th March in A.D. 1179). It is now occurring sometimes on 11th April,
+sometimes on the 12th; having first come to the 12th in A.D. 1871.
+
+
+  The civil solar year.
+
+The civil solar year exists in more varieties than one. The principal
+variety, conveniently called the Meshadi year, i.e. "the year beginning
+at the Mesha-samkranti," is the only one that we need notice at this
+point. The beginning of it is determined directly by the astronomical
+solar year; and for religious purposes it begins, with that year, at the
+moment of the Mesha-samkranti. Its first civil day, however, may be
+either the day on which the _samkranti_ occurs, or the next day, or even
+the day after that: this is determined partly by the time of day or
+night at which the _samkranti_ occurs, which, moreover, of course varies
+in accordance with the locality as well as the particular authority that
+is followed; partly by differing details of practice in different parts
+of the country. In these circumstances an exact equivalent of the
+Meshadi civil solar year cannot be stated; but it may be taken as now
+beginning on or closely about the 12th of April.
+
+
+    The solar month.
+
+  The solar year is divided into twelve months, in accordance with the
+  successive _samkrantis_ or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal)
+  signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are twelve in number. The
+  names of the signs in Sanskrit are as follows: Mesha, the ram (Aries);
+  Vrishabha, the bull (Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini);
+  Karka, Karkata, Karkataka, the crab (Cancer); Simha, the lion (Leo);
+  Kanya, the maiden (Virgo); Tula, the scales (Libra); Vrischika, the
+  scorpion (Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius); Makara, the
+  sea-monster (Capricornus); Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius); and Mina,
+  the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some parts by the
+  names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them; and these are the
+  best names for them for general use, because they lead to no
+  confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of names, preserving
+  the connexion of them with the lunar months: the Sanskrit forms of
+  these names are Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyaishtha, Ashadha, Sravana,
+  Bhadrapada, Asvina or Asvayuja, Karttika, Margasira or Margasirsha
+  (also known as Agrahayana), Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna: in some
+  localities these names are used in corrupted forms, and in others
+  vernacular names are substituted for some of them; and, while in some
+  parts the name Chaitra is attached to the month Mesha, in other parts
+  it is attached to the month Mina, and so on throughout the series in
+  each case. The astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one
+  _samkranti_ of the sun to the moment of the next _samkranti_; and, as
+  the signs of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as
+  with us, while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its
+  orbit round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the
+  length of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the
+  longest is Mithuna. The civil solar month begins with its first civil
+  day, which is determined, in different localities, in the same manner
+  with the first civil day of the Meshadi year, as indicated above. The
+  civil month is of variable length; partly for that reason, partly
+  because of the variation in the length of the astronomical month. No
+  exact equivalents of the civil months, therefore, can be stated; but,
+  speaking approximately, we may say that, while the month Mesha now
+  begins on or closely about 12th April, the beginning of a subsequent
+  month may come as late as the 16th day of the English month in which
+  it falls.
+
+
+    The seasons.
+
+  The solar year is also divided into six seasons, the Sanskrit names of
+  which are Vasanta, spring; Grishma, the hot weather; Varsha, the rainy
+  season; Sarad, autumn; Hemanta, the cold weather; and Sisira, the dewy
+  season. Vasanta begins at the Mina-samkranti; the other seasons begin
+  at each successive second _samkranti_ from that. Originally, this
+  scheme was laid out with reference to the true course of the sun, and
+  the starting-point of it was the real winter solstice, with Sisira, as
+  the first season, beginning then; now, owing partly to the disregard
+  of precession, partly to our introduction of New Style, each season
+  comes about three weeks too late; Vasanta begins on or about 12th
+  March, instead of 19th or 20th February, and so on with the rest. It
+  may be added that in early times the year was also divided into three
+  or four, and even into five or seven, seasons; and there appears to
+  have been also a practice of reckoning the seasons according to the
+  lunar months, which, however, would only give a very varying
+  arrangement, in addition to neglecting the point that the seasons are
+  naturally determined by the course of the sun, not of the moon. But
+  there is now recognized only the division into six seasons, determined
+  as stated above.
+
+
+    The solstitial divisions of the year.
+
+  The solar year is also divided into two parts called Uttarayana, the
+  period during which the sun is moving to the north, and Dakshinayana,
+  the period during which it is moving to the south. The Uttarayana
+  begins at the nominal winter solstice, as marked by the
+  Makara-samkranti; and the day on which this solstice occurs, usually
+  12th January at present, is still a special occasion of festivity and
+  rejoicing; the Dakshinayana begins at the nominal summer solstice, as
+  marked by the Karka-samkranti. It may be added here that, while the
+  Hindus disregard precession in the actual computation of their years
+  and the regulation of their calendar, they pay attention to it in
+  certain other respects, and notably as regards the solstices: the
+  precessional solstices are looked upon as auspicious occasions, as
+  well as the non-precessional solstices, and are customarily shown in
+  the almanacs; and some of the almanacs show also the other
+  precessional _samkrantis_ of the sun.
+
+
+    The civil day.
+
+  The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are numbered
+  1, 2, 3, &c., in unbroken succession to the end of the month. And, the
+  length of the month being variable for the reasons stated above, the
+  number of the civil days may range from twenty-nine to thirty-two.
+
+
+    The weekday.
+
+  The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual
+  appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some of the
+  names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit Adityavara or
+  Ravivara, the day of the sun, sometimes called Adivara, the
+  beginning-day (Sunday); Somavara, the day of the moon (Monday);
+  Mangalavara, the day of Mars (Tuesday); Budhavara, the day of Mercury
+  (Wednesday); Brihas-pativara or Guruvara, the day of Jupiter
+  (Thursday); Sukravara, the day of Venus (Friday); and Sanivara, the
+  day of Saturn (Saturday). It may be mentioned, as a matter of
+  archaeological interest, that, while some of the astronomical books
+  perhaps postulate an earlier knowledge of the "lords of the days," and
+  other writings indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven
+  days, the first proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is
+  of the year A.D. 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor
+  district, Central India.
+
+
+    Divisions of the day.
+
+  The divisions of the civil day, as far as we need note them, are 60
+  _vipalas_ = 1 _pala_ = 24 seconds; 60 _palas_ = 1 _ghatika_ = 24
+  minutes; 60 _ghatikas_ = 24 hours = 1 day. There is also the _muhurta_
+  = 2 _ghatikas_ = 48 minutes: this is the nearest approach to the
+  "hour." The comparative value of these measures of time may perhaps be
+  best illustrated thus: 2(1/2) _muhurtas_ = 2 hours; 2(1/2) _ghatikas_
+  = 1 hour; 2(1/2) _palas_ = 1 minute; 2(1/2) _vipalas_ = 1 second.
+
+
+    Civil time.
+
+  As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count all
+  their times, in _ghatikas_ and _palas_, from that moment. But the
+  moment is a varying one, though not in India to anything like the
+  extent to which it is so in European latitudes; and under the British
+  Government the Hindus have recognized the advantage, and in fact the
+  necessity, especially in connexion with their lunar calendar, of
+  having a convenient means of referring their own times to the time
+  which prevails officially. Consequently, some of the almanacs have
+  adopted the European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours
+  and minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset
+  from noon.
+
+
+  The lunar year.
+
+The lunar year consists primarily of twelve lunations or lunar months,
+of which the present Sanskrit names, generally used in more or less
+corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c., to Phalguna, as given above
+in connexion with the solar months. It is of two principal varieties,
+according as it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or with
+the corresponding day in Karttika: the former variety is conveniently
+known as the Chaitradi year; the latter as the Karttikadi year. For
+religious purposes the lunar year begins with its first lunar day: for
+civil purposes it begins with its first civil day, the relation of which
+to the lunar day will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which,
+as we shall explain, the beginning of the lunar year is always shifting
+backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay down any close
+equivalents for comparison: but an indication may be given as follows.
+The first civil day of the Chaitradi year is the day after the new-moon
+conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Mina,
+and it now falls from about 13th March to about 11th April: the first
+civil day of the Karttikadi year is the first day after the new-moon
+conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Tula,
+and it now falls from about 17th October to about 15th November.
+
+
+    The lunar month.
+
+  The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were derived
+  from the _nakshatras_, which are certain conspicuous stars and groups
+  of stars lying more or less along the neighbourhood of the ecliptic.
+  The _nakshatras_ are regarded sometimes as twenty-seven in number,
+  sometimes as twenty-eight, and are grouped in twelve sets of two or
+  three each, beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the
+  list, with the pair Krittika and Rohini, and including in the sixth
+  place Chitra and Svati, and ending with the triplet Revati, Asvini and
+  Bharani. They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes
+  spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac; and it is, no doubt,
+  chiefly in connexion with the moon that they are now taken into
+  consideration. But they mark divisions of the ecliptic: according to
+  one system, twenty-seven divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes;
+  according to two other systems, twenty-seven or twenty-eight unequal
+  divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs show the
+  course of the sun through them, as well as the course of the moon; and
+  the course of the sun was marked by them only, before the time when
+  the Hindus began to use the twelve signs of the solar zodiac. So there
+  is nothing exclusively lunar about them. The present names of the
+  lunar months were derived from the _nakshatras_ in the following
+  manner: the full-moon which occurred when the moon was in conjunction
+  with Chitra (the star [alpha] Virginis) was named Chaitri, and the
+  lunar month, which contained the Chaitri full-moon, was named Chaitra;
+  and so on with the others. The present names have superseded another
+  set of names which were at one time in use concurrently with them;
+  these other names are Madhu (= Chaitra), Madhava, Sukra, Suchi,
+  Nabhas, Nabhasya, Isha, Urja (= Karttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and
+  Tapasya (= Phalguna): they seem to have marked originally solar
+  season-months of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar
+  year.
+
+  A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new-moon,
+  which is called _amavasya_, or with the full-moon, which is called
+  _purnamasi_, _purnima_: a month of the former kind is termed _amanta_,
+  "ending with the new-moon," or _sukladi_, "beginning with the bright
+  fortnight;" a month of the latter kind is termed purnimanta, "ending
+  with the full-moon," or _krishnadi_, "beginning with the dark
+  fortnight." For all purposes of the calendar, the _amanta_ month is
+  used in Southern India, and the _purnimanta_ month in Northern India.
+  But only the _amanta_ month, the period of the synodic revolution of
+  the moon, is recognized in Hindu astronomy, and for the purpose of
+  naming the lunations and adjusting the lunar to the solar year by the
+  intercalation and suppression of lunar months; and the rule is that
+  the lunar Chaitra is the _amanta_ or synodic month at the first moment
+  of which the sun is in the sign Mina, and in the course of which the
+  sun enters Mesha: the other months follow in the same way; and the
+  lunar Karttika is the _amanta_ month at the first moment of which the
+  sun is in Tula, and in the course of which the sun enters Vrischika.
+  The connexion between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by
+  the point that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice
+  to the solar Mina, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to
+  another practice to the solar Mesha, in which the lunar Chaitra ends.
+  Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious purposes
+  with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil
+  day.
+
+
+    Intercalation and suppression of lunar months.
+
+  One mean lunar year of twelve lunations measures very nearly 354 days
+  8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures 365 days 6
+  hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to Aryabhata, or slightly more
+  according to the other two authorities. Consequently, the beginning of
+  a lunar year pure and simple would be always travelling backwards
+  through the solar year, by about eleven days on each occasion, and
+  would in course of time recede entirely through the solar year, as it
+  does in the Mahommedan calendar. The Hindus prevent that in the
+  following manner. The length of the Hindu astronomical solar month,
+  measured by the _samkrantis_ of the sun, its successive entrances into
+  the signs of the zodiac, ranges, in accordance with periodical
+  variations in the speed of the sun, from about 29 days 7 hrs. 38 min.
+  up to about 31 days 15 hrs. 28 min. The length of the _amanta_ or
+  synodic lunar month ranges, in accordance with periodical variations
+  in the speed of the moon and the sun, from about 29 days 19 hrs. 30
+  min. down to about 29 days 7 hrs. 20 min. Consequently, it happens
+  from time to time that there are two new-moon conjunctions, so that
+  two lunations begin, in one astronomical solar month, between two
+  _samkrantis_ of the sun, while the sun is in one and the same sign of
+  the zodiac, and there is no _samkranti_ in the lunation ending with
+  the second new-moon: when this is the case, there are two lunations to
+  which the same name is applicable, and so there is an additional or
+  intercalated month, in the sense that a name is repeated: thus, when
+  two new-moons occur while the sun is in Mesha, the lunation ending
+  with the first of them, during which the sun has entered Mesha, is
+  Chaitra; the next lunation, in which there is no _samkranti_, is
+  Vaisakha, because it begins when the sun is in Mesha; and the next
+  lunation after that is again Vaisakha, for the same reason, and also
+  because the sun enters Vrishabha in the course of it: in these
+  circumstances, the first of the two Vaisakhas is called
+  Adhika-Vaisakha, "the additional or intercalated Vaisakha," and the
+  second is called simply Vaisakha, or sometimes Nija-Vaisakha, "the
+  natural Vaisakha." On the other hand, it occasionally happens, in an
+  autumn or winter month, that there are two _samkrantis_ of the sun in
+  one and the same _amanta_ or synodic lunar month, between two new-moon
+  conjunctions, so that no lunation begins between the two _samkrantis_:
+  when this is the case, there is one lunation to which two names are
+  applicable, and there is a suppressed month, in the sense that a name
+  is omitted: thus, if the sun enters both Dhanus and Makara during one
+  synodic lunation, that lunation is Margasira, because the sun was in
+  Vrischika at the first moment of it and enters Dhanus in the course of
+  it;[2] the next lunation is Magha, because the sun is in Makara by the
+  time when it begins and will enter Kumbha in the course of it; and the
+  name Pausha, between Margasira and Magha, is omitted. When a month is
+  thus suppressed, there is always one intercalated month, and sometimes
+  two, in the same Chaitradi lunar year, so that the lunar year never
+  contains less than twelve months, and from time to time consists of
+  thirteen months. There are normally seven intercalated months, rising
+  to eight when a month is suppressed, in 19 solar years, which equal
+  very nearly 235 lunations;[3] and there is never less than one year
+  without an intercalated month between two years with intercalated
+  months, except when there is only one such month in a year in which a
+  month is suppressed; then there is always an intercalated month in the
+  next year also. The suppression of a month takes place at intervals of
+  19 years and upwards, regarding which no definite statement can
+  conveniently be made here. It may be added that an intercalated
+  Chaitra or Karttika takes the place of the ordinary month as the first
+  month of the year; an intercalated month is not rejected for that
+  purpose, though it is tabooed from the religious and auspicious points
+  of view.
+
+  The manner in which this arrangement of intercalated and suppressed
+  months works out, so as to prevent the beginning of the Chaitradi
+  lunar year departing far from the beginning of the Meshadi solar
+  year, may be illustrated as follows. In A.D. 1815 the Mesha-samkranti
+  occurred on 11th April; and the first civil day of the Chaitradi year
+  was 10th April. In A.D. 1816 and 1817 the first civil day of the
+  Chaitradi year fell back to 29th March and 18th March. In A.D. 1817,
+  however, there was an intercalated month, Sravana; with the result
+  that in A.D. 1818 the first civil day of the Chaitradi year advanced
+  to 6th April. And, after various shiftings of the same kind--including
+  in A.D. 1822 an intercalation of Asvina and a suppression of Pausha,
+  followed in A.D. 1823, when the first civil day of the Chaitradi year
+  had fallen back to 13th March, by an intercalation of Chaitra
+  itself--in A.D. 1834, when the Mesha-samkranti occurred again on 11th
+  April, the first civil day of the Chaitradi year was again 10th April.
+
+
+    The lunar fortnight.
+
+  The lunar month is divided into two fortnights (_paksha_), called
+  bright and dark, or, in Indian terms, _sukla_ or _suddha_, _sudi_,
+  _sudi_, and _krishna_ or _bahula_, _badi_, _vadi_: the bright
+  fortnight, _sukla-paksha_, is the period of the waxing moon, ending at
+  the full-moon; the dark fortnight, _krishna-paksha_, is the period of
+  the waning moon, ending at the new-moon. In the _amanta_ or _sukladi_
+  month, the bright fortnight precedes the dark; in the _purnimanta_ or
+  _krishnadi_ month, the dark fortnight comes first; and the result is
+  that, whereas, for instance, the bright fortnight of Chaitra is the
+  same period of time throughout India, the preceding dark fortnight is
+  known in Northern India as the dark fortnight of Chaitra, but in
+  Southern India as the dark fortnight of Phalguna. This, however, does
+  not affect the period covered by the lunar year; the Chaitradi and
+  Karttikadi years begin everywhere with the bright fortnight of Chaitra
+  and Karttika respectively; simply, by the _amanta_ system the dark
+  fortnights of Chaitra and Karttika are the second fortnights, and by
+  the _purnimanta_ system they are the last fortnights, of the years.
+  Like the month, the fortnight begins for religious purposes with its
+  first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil day.
+
+
+    The lunar day.
+
+  The lunar fortnights are divided each into fifteen tithis or lunar
+  days.[4] The _tithi_ is the time in which the moon increases her
+  distance from the sun round the circle by twelve degrees; and the
+  almanacs show each _tithi_ by its ending-time; that is, by the moment,
+  expressed in _ghatikas_ and _palas_, after sunrise, at which the moon
+  completes that distance. In accordance with that, the _tithi_ is
+  usually used and cited with the weekday on which it ends; but there
+  are special rules regarding certain rites, festivals, &c., which
+  sometimes require the _tithi_ to be used and cited with the weekday on
+  which it begins or is current at a particular time. The first _tithi_
+  of each fortnight begins immediately after the moment of new-moon and
+  full-moon respectively; the last _tithi_ ends at the moment of
+  full-moon and new-moon. The _tithis_ are primarily denoted by the
+  numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., for each fortnight; but, while the full-moon
+  _tithi_ is always numbered 15, the new-moon _tithi_ is generally
+  numbered 30, even where the _purnimanta_ month is used. The _tithis_
+  may be cited either by their figures or by the Sanskrit ordinal words
+  _prathama_, "first," _dvitiya_, "second," &c., or corruptions of them.
+  But usually the first _tithi_ of either fortnight is cited by the term
+  _pratipad_, _pratipada_, and the new-moon and full-moon _tithis_ are
+  cited by the terms _amavasya_ and _purnima_; or here, again,
+  corruptions of the Sanskrit terms are used. And special names are
+  sometimes prefixed to the numbers of the _tithis_, according to the
+  rites, festivals, &c., prescribed for them, or events or merits
+  assigned to them: for instance, Vaisakha sukla 3 is Akshaya or
+  Akshayya-tritiya, the third _tithi_ which ensures permanence to acts
+  performed on it; Bhadrapada sukla 4 is Ganesa-chaturthi, the fourth
+  _tithi_ dedicated to the worship of the god Ganesa, Ganapati, and the
+  _amanta_ Bhadrapada or _purnimanta_ Asvina krishna 13 is
+  Kaliyugadi-trayodasi, as being regarded (for some reason which is not
+  apparent) as the anniversary of the beginning of the Kaliyuga, the
+  present Age. The first _tithi_ of the year is styled
+  Samvatsara-pratipada, which term answers closely to our "New Year's
+  Day."
+
+
+    The civil day.
+
+  The civil days of the lunar month begin, like those of the solar
+  month, at sunrise, and bear in the same way the names of the weekdays.
+  But they are numbered in a different manner; fortnight by fortnight
+  and according to the _tithis_. The general rule is that the civil day
+  takes the number of the _tithi_ which is current at its sunrise. And
+  the results are as follows. As the motions of the sun and the moon
+  vary periodically, a tithi is of variable length, ranging, according
+  to the Hindu calculations, from 21 hrs. 34 min. 24 sec. to 26 hrs. 6
+  min. 24 sec.: it may, therefore, be either shorter or longer than a
+  civil day, the duration of which is practically 24 hours (one minute,
+  roughly, more or less, according to the time of the year). A _tithi_
+  may end at any moment during the civil day; and ordinarily it ends on
+  the civil day after that on which it begins, and covers only one
+  sunrise and gives its number to the day on which it ends. It may,
+  however, begin on one civil day and end on the next but one, and so
+  cover two sunrises; and it is then treated as a repeated _tithi_, in
+  the sense that its number is repeated: for instance, if the seventh
+  _tithi_ so begins and ends, the civil day on which it begins is
+  numbered 6, from the _tithi_ which is current at the sunrise of that
+  day and ends on it; the day covered entirely by the seventh _tithi_ is
+  numbered 7, because that _tithi_ is current at its sunrise; the next
+  day, at the sunrise of which the seventh _tithi_ is still current and
+  during which it ends, is again numbered 7; and the number 8 falls to
+  the next day after that, when the eighth tithi is current at
+  sunrise.[5] On the other hand, a _tithi_ may begin and end during one
+  and the same civil day, so as not to touch a sunrise at all: in this
+  case, it exists for any practical purposes for which it may be wanted
+  (it is, however, to be avoided if possible, as being an unlucky
+  occasion), but it is suppressed or expunged for the numbering of the
+  civil day, in the sense that its number is omitted; for instance, if
+  the seventh _tithi_ begins and ends during one civil day, that day is
+  numbered 6 from, as before, the _tithi_ which is current at its
+  sunrise and ends when the seventh _tithi_ begins; the next day is
+  numbered 8, because the eighth _tithi_ is current at its sunrise; and
+  there is, in this case, no civil day bearing the number seven. In
+  consequence of this method of numbering, it sometimes happens, as the
+  result of the suppression of a _tithi_, that the day of a full-moon is
+  numbered 14 instead of 15; that the day of a new-moon is numbered 14
+  instead of 30; and that the first day of a fortnight, and even the
+  first day of a lunar year, is numbered 2 instead of 1.
+
+  There are, on an average, thirteen suppressed _tithis_ and seven
+  repeated _tithis_ in twelve lunar months; and so the lunar year
+  averages 354 days, rising to about 384 when a month is intercalated.
+  It occasionally happens that there are two suppressions of _tithis_ in
+  one and the same fortnight; and the almanacs show such a case in the
+  bright fortnight of Jyaishtha, A.D. 1878: but this occurs only after
+  very long intervals.
+
+
+    The Karana.
+
+  The _tithi_ is divided into two _karanas_; each _karana_ being the
+  time in which the moon increases her distance from the sun by six
+  degrees. But this is a detail of astrological rather than
+  chronological interest. So, also, are two other details to which a
+  prominent place is given in the lunar calendars; to yoga, or time in
+  which the joint motion in longitude, the sum of the motions of the sun
+  and the moon, is increased by 13 degrees 20 minutes; and the
+  _nakshatra_, the position of the moon as referred to the ecliptic by
+  means of the stars and groups of stars which have been mentioned above
+  under the lunar month.
+
+  In the Indian calendar everything depends upon exact times, which
+  differ, of course, on every different meridian; and (to cite what is
+  perhaps the most frequent and generally important occurrence)
+  suppression and repetition may affect one _tithi_ and civil day in one
+  locality, and another _tithi_ and civil day in another locality not
+  very far distant. Consequently, neither for the lunar nor for the
+  solar calendar is there any almanac which is applicable to even the
+  whole area in which any particular length of the astronomical solar
+  year prevails; much less, for the whole of India. Different almanacs
+  are prepared and published for places of leading importance; details
+  for minor places, when wanted, have to be worked out by the local
+  astrologer, the modern representative of an ancient official known as
+  Sammvatsara, the "clerk of the year."
+
+
+II. ERAS
+
+As far as the available evidence goes (and we have no reason to expect
+to discover anything opposed to it), any use of eras, in the sense of
+continuous reckonings which originated in historical occurrences or
+astronomical epochs and were employed for official and other public
+chronological purposes, did not prevail in India before the 1st century
+B.C. Prior to that time, there existed, indeed, in connexion with the
+sacrificial calendar, a five-years lunisolar cycle, and possibly some
+extended cycles of the same nature; and there was in Buddhist circles a
+record of the years elapsed since the death of Buddha, which we shall
+mention again further on. But, as is gathered from books and is well
+illustrated by the edicts of Asoka (reigned 264-227 B.C.) and the
+inscriptions of other rulers, the years of the reign of each successive
+king were found sufficient for the public dating of proclamations and
+the record of events. There is no known case in which any Indian king,
+of really ancient times, deliberately applied himself to the foundation
+of an era: and we have no reason for thinking that such a thing was ever
+done, or that any Hindu reckoning at all owes its existence to a
+recognition of historical requirements. The eras which came into
+existence from the 1st century B.C. onwards mostly had their origin in
+the fortuitous extension of regnal reckonings. The usual course has been
+that, under the influence of filial piety, pride in ancestry, loyalty to
+a paramount sovereign, or some other such motive, the successor of some
+king continued the regnal reckoning of his predecessor, who was not
+necessarily the first king in the dynasty, and perhaps did not even
+reign for any long time, instead of starting a new reckoning, beginning
+again with the year 1, according to the years of his own reign. Having
+thus run for two reigns, the reckoning was sufficiently well established
+to continue in the same form, and to eventually develop into a generally
+accepted local era, which might or might not be taken over by subsequent
+dynasties ruling afterwards over the same territory. In these
+circumstances, we find the establisher of any particular era in that
+king who first continued his predecessor's regnal reckoning, instead of
+replacing it by his own; but we regard as the founder of the era that
+king whose regnal reckoning was so continued. We may add here that it
+was only in advanced stages that any of the Hindu eras assumed specific
+names: during the earlier period of each of them, the years were simply
+cited by the term _samvatsara_ or _varsha_, "the year (bearing
+such-and-such a number)," or by the abbreviations _samvat_ and _sam_,
+without any appellative designation.
+
+
+  The Buddhist and Jain religious reckonings.
+
+The Hindus have had two religious reckonings, which it will be
+convenient to notice first. Certain, statements in the Ceylonese
+chronicles, the _Dipavamsa_ and _Mahavamsa_, endorsed by an entry in a
+record of Asoka, show that in the 3rd century B.C. there existed among
+the Buddhists a record of the time elapsed since the death of Buddha in
+483 B.C., from which it was known that Asoka was anointed to the
+sovereignty 218 years after the death. The reckoning, however, was
+confined to esoteric Buddhist circles, and did not commend itself for
+any public use; and the only known inscriptional use of it, which also
+furnishes the latest known date recorded in it, is found in the Last
+Edict of Asoka, which presents his dying speech delivered in 226 B.C.,
+256 years after the death of Buddha. In Ceylon, where, also the original
+reckoning was not maintained, there was devised in the 12th century A.D.
+a reckoning styled Buddhavarsha, "the years of Buddha," which still
+exists, and which purports to run from the death of Buddha, but has set
+up an erroneous date for that event in 544 B.C. This later reckoning
+spread from Ceylon to Burma and Siam, where, also, it is still used. It
+did not obtain any general recognition in India, because, when it was
+devised, Buddhism had practically died out there, except at Bodh-Gaya.
+But, as there seems to have been constant intercourse between Bodh-Gaya
+and Ceylon as well as other foreign Buddhist countries, we should not be
+surprised to find an occasional instance of its use at Bodh-Gaya: and it
+is believed that one such instance, belonging to A.D. 1270, has been
+obtained.
+
+The Jains have had, and still maintain, a reckoning from the death of
+the founder of their faith, Vira, Mahavira, Vardhamana, which event is
+placed by them in 528 B.C. This reckoning figures largely in the Jain
+books, which put forward dates in it for very early times. But the
+earliest known synchronous date in it--by which we mean a date given by
+a writer who recorded the year in which he himself was writing--is one
+of the year 980, or, according to a different view mentioned in the
+passage itself, of the year 993. This reckoning, again, did not commend
+itself for any official or other public use. And the only known
+inscriptional instances of the use of it are modern ones, of the 19th
+century. While it is certain that the Jain reckoning, as it exists, has
+its initial point in 528 B.C. it has not yet been determined whether
+that is actually the year in which Vira died. All that can be said on
+this point is that the date is not inconsistent with certain statements
+in Buddhist books, which mention, by a Prakrit name of which the
+Sanskrit form is Nirgrantha-Jnata-putra, a contemporary of Buddha, in
+whom there is recognized the original of the Jain Vira, Mahavira, or
+Vardhamana, and who, the same books say, died while Buddha was still
+alive. But there are some indications that Nirgrantha-Jnataputra may
+have died only a short time before Buddha himself; and the event may
+easily have been set back to 528 B.C. in circumstances, attending a
+determination of the reckoning long after the occurrence, analogous to
+those in which the Ceylonese Buddhavarsha set up the erroneous date of
+544 B.C. for the death of Buddha.
+
+
+    Bygone Eras of royal origin.
+
+  In the class of eras of royal origin, brought into existence in the
+  manner indicated above, the Hindus have had various reckonings which
+  have now mostly fallen into disuse. We may mention them, without
+  giving them the detailed treatment which the more important of the
+  still existing reckonings demand.
+
+  The Kalachuri or Chedi era, commencing in A.D. 248 or 249, is known
+  best from inscriptional records, bearing dates which range from the
+  10th to the 13th century A.D., of the Kalachuri kings of the Chedi
+  country in Central India; and it is from them that it derived the name
+  under which it passes. In earlier times, however, we find this era
+  well established, without any appellation, in Western India, in
+  Gujarat and the Thana district of Bombay, where it was used by kings
+  and princes of the Chalukya, Gurjara, Sendraka, Katachchuri and
+  Traikutaka families. It is traced back there to A.D. 457, at which
+  time there was reigning a Traikutaka king named Dahrasena. Beyond that
+  point, we have at present no certain knowledge about it. But it seems
+  probable that the founder of it may be recognized in an Abhira king
+  Isvarasena, or else in his father Sivadatta, who was reigning at Nasik
+  in or closely about A.D. 248-49.
+
+  The Gupta era, commencing in A.D. 320, was founded by Chandragupta I.,
+  the first paramount king in the great Gupta dynasty of Northern India.
+  When the Guptas passed away, their reckoning was taken over by the
+  Maitraka kings of Valabhi, who succeeded them in Kathiawar and some of
+  the neighbouring territories; and so it became also known as the
+  Valabhi era.
+
+  From Halsi in the Belgaum district, Bombay, we have a record of the
+  Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, which was framed during the time when he
+  was the Yuvaraja or anointed successor to the sovereignty, and may be
+  referred to about A.D. 500. It is dated in "the eightieth victorious
+  year," and thus indicates the preservation of a reckoning running from
+  the foundation of the Kadamba dynasty by Mayuravarman, the
+  great-grandfather of Kakusthavarman. But no other evidence of the
+  existence of this era has been obtained.
+
+  The records of the Ganga kings of Kalinganagara, which is the modern
+  Mukhalingam-Nagarikatakam in the Ganjam district, Madras, show the
+  existence of a Ganga era which ran for at any rate 254 years. And
+  various details in the inscriptions enable us to trace the origin of
+  the Ganga kings to Western India, and to place the initial point of
+  their reckoning in A.D. 590, when a certain
+  Satyasraya-Dhruvaraja-Indravarman, an ancestor and probably the
+  grandfather of the first Ganga king Rajasimha-Indravarman I.,
+  commenced to govern a large province in the Konkan under the Chalukya
+  king Kirtivarman I.
+
+  An era commencing in A.D. 605 or 606 was founded in Northern India by
+  the great king Harshavardhana, who reigned first at Thanesar and then
+  at Kanauj, and who was the third sovereign in a dynasty which traced
+  its origin to a prince named Naravardhana. A peculiarity about this
+  era is that it continued in use for apparently four centuries after
+  Harshavardhana, in spite of the fact that his line ended with him.
+
+  The inscriptions assert that the Western Chalukya king Vikrama or
+  Vikramaditya VI. of Kalyani in the Nizam's dominions, who reigned from
+  A.D. 1076 to 1126, abolished the use of the Saka era in his dominions
+  in favour of an era named after himself. What he or his ministers did
+  was to adopt, for the first time in that dynasty, the system of regnal
+  years, according to which, while the Saka era also remained in use,
+  most of the records of his time are dated, not in that era, but in the
+  year so-and-so of the Chalukya-Vikrama-kala or
+  Chalukya-Vikrama-varsha, "the time or years of the Chalukya Vikrama."
+  There is some evidence that this reckoning survived Vikramaditya VI.
+  for a short time. But his successors introduced their own regnal
+  reckonings; and that prevented it from acquiring permanence.
+
+  In Tirhut, there is still used a reckoning which is known as the
+  Lakshmanasena era from the name of the king of Bengal by whom it was
+  founded. There is a difference of opinion as to the exact initial
+  point of this reckoning; but the best conclusion appears to be that
+  which places it in A.D. 1119. This era prevailed at one time
+  throughout Bengal: we know this from a passage in the _Akbarnama_,
+  written in A.D. 1584, which specifies the Saka era as the reckoning of
+  Gujarat and the Dekkan, the Vikrama era as the reckoning of Malwa,
+  Delhi, and those parts, and the Lakshmanasena era as the reckoning of
+  Bengal.
+
+  The last reckoning that we have to mention here is one known as the
+  Rajyabhisheka-Saka, "the era of the anointment to the sovereignty,"
+  which was in use for a time in Western India. It dated from the day
+  Jyaishtha sukla 13 of the Saka year 1597 current, = 6 June, A.D. 1674,
+  when Sivaji, the founder of the Maratha kingdom, had himself
+  enthroned.
+
+
+    Miscellaneous Eras.
+
+  There are four reckonings which it is difficult at present to class
+  exactly. Two inscriptions of the 15th and 17th centuries, recently
+  brought to notice from Jesalmer in Rajputana, present a reckoning
+  which postulates an initial point in A.D. 624 or in the preceding or
+  the following year, and bears an appellation, Bhatika, which seems to
+  be based on the name of the Bhatti tribe, to which the rulers of
+  Jesalmer belong. No historical event is known, referable to that time,
+  which can have given rise to an era. It is possible that the apparent
+  initial date represents an epoch, at the end of the Saka year 546 or
+  thereabouts, laid down in some astronomical work composed then or soon
+  afterwards and used in the Jesalmer territory. But it seems more
+  probable that it is a purely fictitious date, set up by an attempt to
+  evolve an early history Of the ruling family.
+
+  In the Tinnevelly district of Madras, and in the territories of the
+  same presidency in which the Malayalam language prevails, namely,
+  South Kanara below Mangalore, the Malabar district, and the Cochin and
+  Travancore states, there is used a reckoning which is known sometimes
+  as the Kollam or Kolamba reckoning, sometimes as the era of
+  Parasurama. The years of it are solar: in the southern parts of the
+  territory in which it is current, they begin with the month Simha; in
+  the northern parts, they begin with the next month, Kanya. The initial
+  point of the reckoning is in A.D. 825; and the year 1076 commenced in
+  A.D. 1900. The popular view about this reckoning is that it consists
+  of cycles of 1000 years; that we are now in the fourth cycle; and that
+  the reckoning originated in 1176 B.C. with the mythical Parasurama,
+  who exterminated the Kshatriya or warrior caste, and reclaimed the
+  Konkan countries, Western India below the Ghauts, from the ocean. But
+  the earliest known date in it, of the year 149, falls in A.D. 973; and
+  the reckoning has run on in continuation of the thousand, instead of
+  beginning afresh in A.D. 1825. It seems probable, therefore, that the
+  reckoning had no existence before A.D. 825. The years are cited
+  sometimes as "the Kollam year (of such-and-such a number)," sometimes
+  as "the year (so-and-so) after Kollam appeared;" and this suggests
+  that the reckoning may possibly owe its origin to some event,
+  occurring in A.D. 825, connected with one or other of the towns and
+  ports named Kollam, on the Malabar coast; perhaps Northern Kollam in
+  the Malabar district, perhaps Southern Kollam, better known as Quilon,
+  in Travancore. But the introduction of Parasurama into the matter,
+  which would carry back (let us say) the foundation of Kollam to
+  legendary times, may indicate, rather, a purely imaginative origin.
+  Or, again, since each century of the Kollam reckoning begins in the
+  same year A.D. with a century of the Saptarshi reckoning (see below
+  under III. Other Reckonings), it is not impossible that this reckoning
+  may be a southern offshoot of the Saptarshi reckoning, or at least may
+  have had the same astrological origin.
+
+  In Nepal there is a reckoning, known as the Newar era and commencing
+  in A.D. 879, which superseded the Gupta and Harsha eras there. One
+  tradition attributes the foundation of it to a king Raghavadeva;
+  another says that, in the time and with the permission of a king
+  Jayadevamalla, a merchant named Sakhwal paid off, by means of wealth
+  acquired from sand which turned into gold, all the debts then existing
+  in the country, and introduced the new era in commemoration of the
+  occurrence. It is possible that the era may have been founded by some
+  ruler of Nepal: but nothing authentic is known about the particular
+  names mentioned in connexion with it. This era appears to have been
+  discarded for state and official purposes, in favour of the Saka era,
+  in A.D. 1768, when the Gurkhas became masters of Nepal; but
+  manuscripts show that in literary circles it has remained in use up to
+  at any rate A.D. 1875.
+
+  Inscriptions disclose the use in Kathiawar and Gujarat, in the 12th
+  and 13th centuries, of a reckoning, commencing in A.D. 1114, which is
+  known as the Simha-samvat. No historical occurrence is known, on which
+  it can have been based; and the origin of it is obscure.
+
+
+  Three great Eras in general use.
+
+The eras mentioned above have for the most part served their purposes
+and died out. But there are three great reckonings, dating from a very
+respectable antiquity, which have held their own and survived to the
+present day. These are the Kaliyuga, Vikrama, and Saka eras. It will be
+convenient to treat the Kaliyuga first, though, in spite of having the
+greatest apparent antiquity, it is the latest of the three in respect of
+actual date of origin.
+
+
+  The Kaliyuga Era of 3102 B.C.
+
+The Kaliyuga era is the principal astronomical reckoning of the Hindus.
+It is frequently, if not generally, shown in the almanacs: but it can
+hardly be looked upon as being now in practical use for civil purposes;
+and, as regards the custom of previous times as far as we can judge it
+from the inscriptional use, which furnishes a good guide, the position
+is as follows: from Southern India we have one such instance of A.D.
+634, one of A.D. 770, three of the 10th century, and then, from the 12th
+century onwards, but more particularly from the 14th, a certain number
+of instances, not exactly very small in itself, but extremely so in
+comparison with the number of cases of the use of the Vikrama and Saka
+eras and other reckonings: from Northern India the earliest known
+instance of is A.D. 1169 or 1170, and the later ones number only four.
+Its years are by nature sidereal solar years, commencing with the
+Mesha-samkranti, the entrance of the sun into the Hindu constellation
+and sign Mesha, i.e. Aries (for this and other technical details, see
+above, under the Calendar);[6] but they were probably cited as lunar
+years in the inscriptional records which present the reckoning; and the
+almanacs appear to treat them either as Meshadi civil solar years with
+solar months, or as Chaitradi lunar years with lunar months _amanta_
+(ending with the new-moon) or _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon)
+as the case may be, according to the locality. Its initial point lies in
+3102 B.C.; and the year 5002 began in A.D. 1900.[7]
+
+  This reckoning is not an historical era, actually running from 3102
+  B.C. It was devised for astronomical purposes at some time about A.D.
+  400, when the Hindu astronomers, having taken over the principles of
+  the Greek astronomy, recognized that they required for purposes of
+  computation a specific reckoning with a definite initial occasion.
+  They found that occasion in a conjunction of the sun, the moon, and
+  the five planets which were then known, at the first point of their
+  sign Mesha. There was not really such a conjunction; nor, apparently,
+  is it even the case that the sun was actually at the first point of
+  Mesha at the moment arrived at. But there was an approach to such a
+  conjunction, which was turned into an actual conjunction by taking the
+  mean instead of the true positions of the sun, the moon, and the
+  planets. And, partly from the reckoning which has come down to us,
+  partly from the astronomical books, we know that the moment assigned
+  to the assumed conjunction was according to one school the midnight
+  between Thursday the 17th, and Friday the 18th, February, 3102 B.C.,
+  and according to another school the sunrise on the Friday.
+
+  The reckoning thus devised was subsequently identified with the
+  Kaliyuga as the iron age, the last and shortest, with a duration of
+  432,000 years, of the four ages in each cycle of ages in the Hindu
+  system of cosmical periods. Also, traditional history was fitted to it
+  by one school, represented notably by the Puranas, which, referring
+  the great war between the Pandavas and the Kurus, which is the topic
+  of the Mahabharata, to the close of the preceding age, the Dvapara,
+  placed on the last day of that age the culminating event which ushered
+  in the Kali age; namely, the death of Krishna (the return to heaven of
+  Vishnu on the termination of his incarnation as Krishna), which was
+  followed by the abdication of the Pandava king Yudhishthira, who,
+  having installed his grand-nephew Parikshit as his successor, then set
+  out on his own journey to heaven. Another school, however, placed the
+  Pandavas and the Kurus 653 years later, in 2449 B.C. A third school
+  places in 3102 B.C. the anointment of Yudhishthira to the sovereignty,
+  and treats that event as inaugurating the Kali age; from this point of
+  view, the first 3044 years of the Kaliyuga--the period from its
+  commencement in 3102 B.C. to the commencement of the first historical
+  era, the so-called Vikrama era, in 58 B.C.--are also known as "the era
+  of Yudhishthira."
+
+
+  The Vikrama Era of 58 B.C.
+
+The Vikrama era, which is the earliest of all the Hindu eras in respect
+of order of foundation, is the dominant era and the great historical
+reckoning of Northern India--that is, of the territory on the north of
+the rivers Narbada and Mahanadi--to which part of the country its use
+has always been practically confined. Like, indeed, the Kaliyuga and
+Saka eras, it is freely cited in almanacs in any part of India; and it
+is sometimes used in the south by immigrants from the north: but it is,
+by nature, so essentially foreign to the south that the earliest known
+inscriptional instance of the use of it in Southern India only dates
+from A.D. 1218, and the very few later instances that have been
+obtained, prior to the 15th century A.D., come, along with the instance
+of A.D. 1218, from the close neighbourhood of the dividing-line between
+the north and the south. The Vikrama era has never been used for
+astronomical purposes. Its years are lunar, with lunar months, but seem
+liable to be sometimes regarded as solar, with solar months, when they
+are cited in almanacs of Southern India which present the solar
+calendar. Originally they were Kartti-kadi, with _purnimanta_ months
+(ending with the full-moon). They now exist in the following three
+varieties: in Kathiawar and Gujarat, they are chiefly Karttikadi, with
+_amanta_ months (ending with the new-moon); and they are shown in this
+form in almanacs for the other parts of the Bombay Presidency; but there
+is also found in Kathiawar and that neighbourhood an Ashadhadi variety,
+commencing with Ashadha sukla I, similarly with _amanta_ months; in the
+rest of Northern India, they are Chaitradi, with _purnimanta_ months.
+The era has its initial point in 58 B.C., and its first civil day,
+Karttika sukla I, is 19th September in that year if we determine it with
+reference to the Hindu Tula-samkranti, or 18th October if we determine
+it with reference to the tropical equinox. The years of the three
+varieties, Chaitradi, Ashadhadi, and Karttikadi, all commence in the
+same year A.D.; and the year 1958 began in A.D. 1900.
+
+  Hindu legend connects the foundation of this era with a king Vikrama
+  or Vikramaditya of Ujjain in Malwa, Central India: one version is that
+  he began to reign in 58 B.C.; another is that he died in that year,
+  and that the reckoning commemorates his death. Modern research,
+  however, based largely on the inscriptional records, has shown that
+  there was no such king, and that the real facts are very different.
+  The era owes its existence to the Kushan king Kanishka, a foreign
+  invader, who established himself in Northern India and commenced to
+  reign there in B.C. 58.[8] He was the founder of it, in the sense that
+  the opening years of it were the years of his reign. It was
+  established and set going as an era by his successor, who continued
+  the reckoning so started, instead of breaking it by introducing
+  another according to his own regnal years. And it was perpetuated as
+  an era, and transmitted as such to posterity by the Malavas, the
+  people from whom the modern territory Malwa derived its name, who were
+  an important section of the subjects of Kanishka and his successors.
+  In consonance with that, records ranging in date from A.D. 473 to 879
+  style it "the reckoning of the Malavas, the years of the Malava lords,
+  the Malava time or era." Prior to that, it had no specific name; the
+  years of it were simply cited, in ordinary Hindu fashion, by the term
+  _samvatsara_, "the year (of such-and-such a number)," or by its
+  abbreviations _samvat_ and _sam_: and the same was frequently done in
+  later times also, and is habitually done in the present day; and so,
+  in modern times, this era has often been loosely styled "the Samvat
+  era." The idea of a king Vikrama in connexion with it appears to date
+  from only the 9th or 10th century A.D.
+
+
+  The Saka Era of A.D. 78.
+
+The Saka era, though it actually had its origin in the south-west corner
+of Northern India, is the dominant era and the great historical
+reckoning of Southern India; that is, of the territory below the rivers
+Narbada and Mahanadi. It is also the subsidiary astronomical reckoning,
+largely used, from the 6th century A.D. onwards, in the _Karanas_, the
+works dealing with practical details of the calendar, for laying down
+epochs or points of time furnishing convenient bases for computation. As
+a result of that, it came to be used in past times for general purposes
+also, to a limited extent, in parts of Northern India where it was not
+indigenous. And it is now used more or less freely, and is cited in
+almanacs everywhere. Its years are usually lunar, Chaitradi, and its
+months are _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon) in Northern India,
+and _amanta_ (ending with the new-moon) in Southern India; but in times
+gone by it was sometimes treated for purposes of calculation as having
+astronomical solar years, and it is now treated as having Mesh di civil
+solar years and solar months in those parts of India where that form of
+the solar calendar prevails. It has its initial point in A.D. 78; and
+its first civil day, Chaitra sukla I, is 3rd March in that year, as
+determined with reference either to the Hindu M'na-samkranti or to the
+entrance of the sun into the tropical Pisces. The year 1823 began in
+A.D. 1900.
+
+Regarding the origin of the Saka era, there was current in the 10th and
+11th centuries A.D. a belief which, ignoring the difference of a hundred
+and thirty-five years between the two reckonings, connected the
+legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjain, mentioned above under the Vikrama
+era, with the foundation of this era also. The story runs, from this
+point of view, that the Sakas were a barbarous people who established
+themselves in the western and north-western dominions of that king, but
+were met in battle and destroyed by him, and that the era was
+established in celebration of that event. The modern belief, however,
+ascribes the foundation of this era to a king Salivahana of
+Pratishthana, which is the modern Paithan, on the Godavari, in the
+Nizam's dominions. But in this case, again, research has shown that the
+facts are very different. Like the Vikrama era, the Saka era owes its
+existence to foreign invaders. It was founded by the Chhaharata or
+Kshaharata king Nahapana, who appears to have been a Pahlava or Palhava,
+i.e. of Parthian extraction, and who reigned from A.D. 78 to about
+125.[9] He established himself first in Kathiawar, but subsequently
+brought under his sway northern Gujarat (Bombay) and Ujjain, and, below
+the Narbada, southern Gujarat, Nasik and probably Khandesh. His capital
+seems to have been Dohad, in the Panch Mahals. And he had two viceroys:
+one, named Bhumaka, of the same family with himself, in Kathiawar; and
+another, Chashtana, son of Ghsamotika, at Ujjain. Soon after A.D. 125,
+Nahapana was overthrown, and his family was wiped out, by the
+Satavahana-Satakarni king Gautamiputra-Sri-Satakarni, who thereby
+recovered the territories on the south of the Narbada, and perhaps
+secured for a time Kathiawar and some other parts on the north of that
+river. Very soon, however, Chashtana, or else his son Jayadaman,
+established his sway over all the territory which had belonged to
+Nahapana on the north of the Narbada; founded a line of Hinduized
+foreign kings, who ruled there for more than three centuries; and,
+continuing Nahapana's regnal reckoning, established the era to which the
+name Saka eventually became attached. Inscriptions and coins show that,
+up to at least the second decade of its fourth century, this reckoning
+had no specific appellation; its years were simply cited, in the usual
+fashion, as _varsha_, "the year (of such-and-such a number)." The
+reckoning was then taken up by the astronomers. And we find it first
+called Sakakala, "the time or era of the Sakas," in an epochal date, the
+end of the year 427, falling in A.D. 505, which was used by the
+astronomer Varahamihira (d. A.D. 587) in his Panchasiddhantika. That
+this name came to be attached to it appears to be due to the points
+that, along with some of the Pahlavas or Palhavas and the Yavanas or
+descendants of the Asiatic Greeks, some of the Sakas, the Scythians, had
+made their way into Kathiawar and neighbouring parts by about A.D. 100,
+and that the Sakas incidentally came to acquire prominence in the memory
+of the Hindus regarding these occurrences, in such a manner that their
+name was selected when the occasion arose to devise an appellation for
+an era the exact origin of which had been forgotten. The name of the
+imaginary king Salivahana first figures in connexion with the era in a
+record of A.D. 1272, and seems plainly to have been introduced in
+imitation of the coupling of the name Vikrama, Vikramaditya, with the
+era of B.C. 58.
+
+  That the Saka era, though it had its origin in the south-west corner
+  of Northern India, is essentially an era of Southern India, is proved
+  by its inscriptional and numismatic history. During the period before
+  the time when it was taken up by the astronomers, it is found only in
+  the inscriptions of Nahapana, and in the similar records and on the
+  coins of the descendants of Chashtana. After that same time, it
+  figures first in a record of the Chalukya king Kirtivarman I., at
+  Badami in the Bijapur district, Bombay, which is dated on the
+  full-moon day of the month Karttika, falling in A.D. 578, "when there
+  had elapsed five centuries of the years of the anointment of the Saka
+  king to the sovereignty." And from this date onwards the records of a
+  large part of Southern India are mostly dated in this era, by various
+  expressions all of which include the term Saka or Saka. In Northern
+  India the case is very different. We have a record dated in the month
+  Karttika, the Saka year 631 (expired), falling in A.D. 709: it comes
+  from Multai in the Betul district, Central Provinces, that is, from
+  the south of the Narbada; but it belongs to Gujarat (Bombay), and
+  perhaps to the north, though more probably to the south, of that
+  province. But, setting that aside, the earliest inscriptional instance
+  of the use of this era in Northern India, outside Kathiawar and
+  Gujarat, is found in a record of A.D. 862 at Deogarh near Lalitpur,
+  the headquarters town of the Lalitpur district, United Provinces of
+  Agra and Oude; here, however, the record is primarily dated, with the
+  full details of the month, &c., in "Samvat 919," that is, in the
+  Vikrama year 919; it is only as a subsidiary detail that the Saka year
+  784 is given in a separate passage at the end of the record, a sort of
+  postscript. From this date onwards the era is found in other records
+  of Northern India, but to any appreciable extent only from A.D. 1137,
+  and to only a very small extent in comparison with the Vikrama and
+  other northern eras; and the cases in which it was used exclusively
+  there, without being coupled with one or other of the northern
+  reckonings, are still more conspicuously few. In short, the general
+  position is that the Saka era has been essentially foreign to Northern
+  India until recent times; it was used there quite exceptionally and
+  sporadically, and in very few cases indeed at any appreciable distance
+  from the dividing-line between the north and the south. That it found
+  its way into Northern India, outside Kathiawar and northern Gujarat at
+  all, is unquestionably due to its use by the astronomers. It also
+  travelled, across the sea, by the 7th century A.D. to Cambodia, and
+  somewhat later to Java; to which parts it was doubtless taken in
+  almanacs, or in invoices, statements of account, &c., by the persons
+  engaged in the trade between Broach and the far east via Tagara (Ter)
+  and the east coast. It also found its way in subsequent times to Assam
+  and Ceylon, and more recently still to Nepal.
+
+
+III. OTHER RECKONINGS
+
+  The Cycles of Jupiter.
+
+We come now to certain reckonings consisting of cycles, and will take
+first the cycles of Guru or Brihaspati, Jupiter. This planet, a very
+conspicuous object in eastern skies, requires a period of 4332.6 days, =
+50.4 days less than twelve Julian years, to make a circuit of the
+heavens, and has provided the Hindus with two reckonings, each in more
+than one variety; a cycle of twelve years, and a cycle of sixty years.
+The years of Jupiter, in all their varieties, are usually styled
+_samvatsara_; and it is convenient to use this term here, in order to
+preserve clearly the distinction between them and the solar and lunar
+years. The _samvatsaras_ have no divisions of their own; the months,
+days, &c., cited with them are those of the ordinary solar or lunar
+calendar, as the case may be.
+
+
+  The 12-years Cycle.
+
+The older reckoning of Jupiter appears to be that of the 12-years cycle,
+which is found in two varieties; in both of them the _samvatsaras_ bear,
+according to certain rules which need not be explained here, the same
+names with the lunar months, Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c. In one variety, each
+_samvatsara_ runs from one of the planet's heliacal risings--that is,
+from the day on which it becomes visible as a morning star on the
+eastern horizon--to the next such rising; and the length of such a
+_samvatsara_, according to the Hindu data, is from 392 to 405 days, with
+an average of 399 days. Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle
+are found in six of the Gupta records of Northern India, ranging from
+A.D. 475 to 528.
+
+In the other variety of the 12-years cycle, which is mentioned in
+astronomical works from the time of Aryabhata onwards (b. A.D. 476), the
+_samvatsaras_ are regulated by Jupiter's course with reference to his
+mean motion and mean longitude: a _samvatsara_ of this variety commences
+when Jupiter thus enters a sign of the zodiac, and lasts for the time
+occupied by him in traversing that sign from the same point of view; and
+the period taken by him to do that--that is, the duration of such a
+_samvatsara_--is slightly in excess, according to the Hindu data, of
+361.02 days, which amount is very close to the actual fact, 361.05 days.
+Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle are perhaps found in
+two records of Southern India of the Kadamba series, belonging to about
+A.D. 575.
+
+The 12-years mean-sign cycle seems to be still used in some parts. And
+the heliacal risings of Jupiter, as also, indeed, those of the other
+planets, are shown in almanacs for astrological purposes. In either
+variety, however, the 12-years cycle is now chiefly of antiquarian
+interest.
+
+
+  The 60-years cycle.
+
+The cycle of Jupiter now in general use is a cycle of sixty years, the
+_samvatsaras_ of which bear certain special names, Prabhava, Vibhava,
+Sukla, Pramoda, &c., again in accordance with certain rules which we
+need not explain here. This cycle exists in three varieties.
+
+According to the original constitution of this cycle, the _samvatsaras_
+are determined as in the second or mean-sign variety of the 12-years
+cycle: each _samvatsara_ commences when Jupiter enters a sign of the
+zodiac with reference to his mean motion and longitude; and it lasts for
+slightly more than 361.02 days. This variety is traced back in
+inscriptional records to A.D. 602, and is still used in Northern India.
+
+Now, the _samvatsaras_ are calculated by means of the astronomical solar
+year commencing with the Mesha-samkranti, the entrance of the sun into
+the sign Mesha (Aries). The process gives the number of the _samvatsara_
+last expired before any particular Mesha-samkranti, with a remainder
+denoting the portion of the current _samvatsara_ elapsed up to the same
+time; and the remainder, reduced to months, &c., gives the moment of the
+commencement of the current _samvatsara_, by reckoning back from the
+Mesha-samkranti. As the result, apparently, of unwillingness to take the
+trouble to work out the full details, at some time about A.D. 800 a
+practice arose, in some quarters, according to which that _samvatsara_
+of the 60-years cycle which was current at any particular
+Mesha-samkranti was taken as coinciding with the astronomical solar year
+beginning at that _samkranti_, and with the Chaitradi lunar year
+belonging to that same solar year. And this practice set up a lunisolar
+variety of the cycle, in connexion with which we have to notice the
+following point. While the duration of a mean-sign _samvatsara_ is
+closely about 361.02 days, the length of the Hindu astronomical solar
+year is closely about 365.258 days. It consequently happens, after every
+85 or 86 years, that a mean-sign _samvatsara_ begins and ends between
+two successive Mesha-samkrantis. In the mean-sign cycle, such a
+_samvatsara_ retains its existence unaffected; and the names Prabhava,
+Vibhava, &c., run on without any interruption. According to the
+lunisolar system, however, the position is different; the _samvatsara_
+beginning and ending between the two Mesha-samkrantis is expunged or
+suppressed, in the sense that its name is omitted and is replaced by the
+next name on the list. The second variety of the 60-years cycle, thus
+started, ran on alongside of the mean-sign variety, and, being
+eventually transferred, with that variety, to Northern India, is now
+known as the northern lunisolar variety. It preserves a connexion
+between the _samvatsaras_ and the movements of Jupiter: but the
+connexion is an imperfect one; and both in this variety, and still more
+markedly in the remaining one still to be described, the _samvatsaras_
+practically became mere appellations for the solar and lunar years.
+
+Meanwhile, just after A.D. 900, another development occurred, and there
+was started a third variety, which is now known as the southern
+lunisolar variety. The precise year in which this happened depends on
+the particular authority that we follow. If we take the elements adopted
+in the Surya-Siddhanta as the proper data for that time and for the
+locality--Western India below the Narbada--to which the early history of
+the cycle belongs, the position was as follows. At the Mesha-samkranti
+in A.D. 908 there was current, by the mean-sign system, the _samvatsara_
+No. 2, Vibhava: but No. 4, Pramoda, was current by the same system at
+the Mesha-samkranti in A.D. 909; and No. 3, Sukla, began and ended
+between the two Mesha-samkrantis. Accordingly, No. 2, Vibhava, was the
+lunisolar _samvatsara_ for the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi
+lunar year commencing in A.D. 908; and by the strict lunisolar system,
+which was adhered to by some people and is now known as the northern
+lunisolar system, it was followed in A.D. 909 by No. 4, Pramoda, the
+name of the intermediate _samvatsara_, No. 3, Sukla, being passed over.
+On the other hand, whether through oversight, or whatever the reason may
+have been, by other people the name of No. 3, Sukla, was not passed
+over, but that _samvatsara_ was taken as the lunisolar _samvatsara_ for
+the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi lunar year beginning in A.D.
+909, and No. 4, Pramoda, followed it in A.D. 910. On subsequent similar
+occasions, also, there was, in the same quarters, no passing over of
+the name of any _samvatsara_. And this practice established itself in
+Southern India, to the exclusion there of the mean-sign and the northern
+lunisolar varieties; the discrepancy between the last-mentioned variety
+and the variety thus set up continuing, of course, to increase by one
+_samvatsara_ after every 85 or 86 years. In this variety, the southern
+lunisolar variety, all connexion between the _samvatsaras_ and the
+movements of Jupiter has now been lost.
+
+  The present position of the 60-years cycle in its three varieties may
+  be illustrated thus. In Northern India, by the mean-sign system the
+  _samvatsara_ No. 46, Paridhavin, began, according to different
+  authorities, in August, September or October, A.D. 1899. Consequently,
+  by the northern or expunging lunisolar system, that same _samvatsara_,
+  No. 46, Paridhavin, coincided with the Meshadi civil solar year
+  beginning with or just after 12th April, and with the Chaitradi lunar
+  year beginning with 31st March, A.D. 1900. But by the southern or
+  non-expunging lunisolar system those same solar and lunar years were
+  No. 34, Sarvarin.
+
+  The treatment of the cycles of Jupiter in the Sanskrit books shows
+  that it was primarily from the astrological point of view that they
+  appealed to the Hindus; it was only as a secondary consideration that
+  they acquired anything of a chronological nature. For the practical
+  application of any of them to historical purposes, it is, of course,
+  necessary that, along with the mention of a _samvatsara_, there should
+  always be given the year of some known era, or some other specific
+  guide to the exact period to which that _samvatsara_ is to be
+  referred. But it is fortunately the case that the _samvatsaras_ have
+  been but rarely cited in the inscriptional records without such a
+  guide, of some kind or another.
+
+
+  The Saptarshi reckoning.
+
+The Saptarshi reckoning is used in Kashmir, and in the Kangra district
+and some of the Hill states on the south-east of Kashmir; some nine
+centuries ago it was also in use in the Punjab, and apparently in Sind.
+In addition to being cited by such expressions as Saptarshi-samvat, "the
+year (so-and-so) of the Saptarshis," and Sastra-samvatsara, "the year
+(so-and-so) of the scriptures," it is found mentioned as Lokakala, "the
+time or era of the people," and by other terms which mark it as a vulgar
+reckoning. And it appears that modern popular names for it are
+Pahari-samvat and Kachcha-samvat, which we may render by "the Hill era"
+and "the crude era." The years of this reckoning are lunar, Chaitradi;
+and the months are _purnimanta_ (ending with the full-moon). As matters
+stand now, the reckoning has a theoretical initial point in 3077 B.C.;
+and the year 4976, more usually called simply 76, began in A.D. 1900;
+but there are some indications that the initial point was originally
+placed one year earlier.
+
+  The idea at the bottom of this reckoning is a belief that the
+  Saptarshis, "the Seven Rishis or Saints," Marichi and others, were
+  translated to heaven, and became the stars of the constellation Ursa
+  Major, in 3076 B.C. (or 3077); and that these stars possess an
+  independent movement of their own, which, referred to the ecliptic,
+  carries them round at the rate of 100 years for each _nakshatra_ or
+  twenty-seventh division of the circle. Theoretically, therefore, the
+  Saptarshi reckoning consists of cycles of 2700 years; and the
+  numbering of the years should run from 1 to 2700, and then commence
+  afresh. In practice, however, it has been treated quite differently.
+  According to the general custom, which has distinctly prevailed in
+  Kashmir from the earliest use of the reckoning for chronological
+  purposes, and is illustrated by Kalhana in his history of Kashmir, the
+  _Rajataramgini_, written in A.D. 1148-1150, the numeration of the
+  years has been centennial; whenever a century has been completed, the
+  numbering has not run on 101, 102, 103, &c., but has begun again with
+  1, 2, 3, &c. Almanacs, indeed, show both the figures of the century
+  and the full figures of the entire reckoning, which is treated as
+  running from 3076 B. C., not from 376 B.C. as the commencement of a
+  new cycle, the second; thus, an almanac for the year beginning in A.D.
+  1793 describes that year as "the year 4869 according to the course of
+  the Seven Rishis, and similarly the year 69." And elsewhere sometimes
+  the full. figures are found, sometimes the abbreviated ones; thus,
+  while a manuscript written in A.D. 1648 is dated in "the year 24" (for
+  4724), another, written in A.D. 1224 is dated in "the year 4300." But,
+  as in the _Rajataramgini_, so also in inscriptions, which range from
+  A.D. 1204 onwards, only the abbreviated figures have hitherto been
+  found. Essentially, therefore, the Saptarshi reckoning is a centennial
+  reckoning, by suppressed or omitted hundreds, with its earlier
+  centuries commencing in 3076, 2976 B.C., and so on, and its later
+  centuries commencing in A.D. 25, 125, 225, &c.; on precisely the same
+  lines with those according to which we may use, e.g. 98 to mean A.D.
+  1798, and 57 to mean A.D. 1857, and 9 to mean A.D. 1909. And the
+  practical difficulties attending the use of such a system for
+  chronological purposes are obvious; isolated dates recorded in such a
+  fashion cannot be allocated without some explicit clue to the
+  centuries to which they belong. Fortunately, however, as regards
+  Kashmir, we have the necessary guide in the facts that Kalhana
+  recorded his own date in the Saka era as well as in this reckoning,
+  and gave full historical details which enable us to determine
+  unmistakably the equivalent of the first date in this reckoning cited
+  by him, and to arrange with certainty the chronology presented by him
+  from that time.
+
+  The belief underlying this reckoning according to the course of the
+  Seven Rishis is traced back in India, as an astrological detail, to at
+  least the 6th century A.D. But the reckoning was first adopted for
+  chronological purposes in Kashmir and at some time about A.D. 800; the
+  first recorded date in it is one of "the year 89," meaning 3889, =
+  A.D. 813-814, given by Kalhana. It was introduced into India between
+  A.D. 925 and 1025.
+
+
+  The Grahaparivritti cycle.
+
+The Grahaparivritti is a reckoning which is used in the southernmost
+parts of Madras, particularly in the Madura district. It consists of
+cycles of 90 Meshadi solar years, and is said, in conformity with its
+name, which means "the revolution of planets," to be made up by the sum
+of the days in 1 revolution of the sun, 22 of Mercury, 5 of Venus, 15 of
+Mars, 11 of Jupiter, and 29 of Saturn. The first cycle is held to have
+commenced in 24 B.C., the second in A.D. 67, and so on; and, in
+accordance with that view, the year 34, which began in A.D. 1900, was
+the 34th year of the 22nd cycle.
+
+  No inscriptional use of this cycle has come to notice. There seems no
+  substantial reason for believing that the reckoning was really started
+  in 24 B.C. The alleged constitution of the cycle, which appears to be
+  correct within about twelve days, and might possibly be made
+  apparently exact, suggests an astrological origin. And, if a guess may
+  be hazarded, we would conjecture that the reckoning is an offshoot of
+  the southern lunisolar variety of the 60-years cycle of Jupiter, and
+  had its real origin in some year in which a Prabhava _samvatsara_ of
+  that variety commenced, and to which the first year of a
+  Grahaparivritti cycle can be referred: that was the case in A.D. 967
+  and at each subsequent 180th year.
+
+
+  The Onko cycle.
+
+In part of the Ganjam district, Madras, there is a reckoning, known as
+the Onko or Anka, i.e. literally "the number or numbers," consisting of
+lunar years, each commencing with Bhadrapada sukla 12, which run
+theoretically in cycles of 59 years. But the reckoning has the
+peculiarity that, whether the explanation is to be found in a
+superstition about certain numbers or in some other reason, the year 6,
+and any year the number of which ends with 6 or 0 (except the year 10),
+is omitted from the numbering; so that, for instance, the year 7 follows
+next after the year 5. The origin of the reckoning is not known. But the
+use of it seems to be traceable in records of the Ganga kings who
+reigned in that part of the country and in Orissa in the 12th and
+following centuries. And the initial day, Bhadrapada sukla 12, which
+figures again in the Vilayati and Amli reckoning of Orissa (see farther
+on), is perhaps to be accounted for on the view that this day was the
+day of the anointment, in the 7th century, of the first Ganga king,
+Rajasimha-Indravarman I.
+
+
+  The Maghi reckoning.
+
+In the Chittagong district, Bengal, there is a solar reckoning, known by
+the name Maghi, of which the year 1262 either began or ended in A.D.
+1900; so that it has an initial point in A.D. 639 or 638. It appears
+that Chittagong was conquered by the king of Arakan in the 9th century,
+and remained usually in the possession of the Maghs--the Arakanese or a
+class of them--till A.D. 1666, when it was finally annexed to the Mogul
+empire. In these circumstances it is plain that the Magh reckoning took
+its name from the Maghs; its year, which is Meshadi, from Bengal; and
+its numbering from the Sakkaraj, the ordinary era of Arakan and Burma,
+which has its initial point in A.D. 638.
+
+
+  Hinduized offshoots of the Hijra era.
+
+The Hijra (Hegira) era, the reckoning from the flight of Mahomet, which
+dates from the 16th of July, A.D. 662, is, of course, used by the
+Mahommedans in India, and is customarily shown, with the details of its
+calendar, in the Hindu almanacs. An account of it does not fall within
+the scope of this article. But we have to mention it because we come now
+to certain Hinduized reckonings which are hybrid offshoots of it. We
+need only say, however, in explanation of some of the following figures,
+that the years of the Hijra era are purely lunar, consisting of twelve
+lunar months and no more; with the result that the initial day of the
+year is always travelling backwards through the Julian year, and makes a
+complete circuit in thirty-four years. The reckonings derived from it,
+which we have to describe, have apparent initial points in A.D. 591,
+593, 594, and 600. They had their real origin, however, in the 14th,
+16th, and 17th centuries.
+
+The emperor Akbar succeeded to the throne in February, A.D. 1556, in the
+Hijra year 963, which ran from 16th November 1555 to 3rd November 1556.
+Amongst the reforms aimed at by him and his officials, one was to
+abolish, or at least minimize, by introducing uniformity of numbering,
+the confusion due to the existence of various reckonings, both
+Mahommedan and Hindu. And one step taken in that direction was to assign
+to the Hindu year the same number with the Hijra year. It is believed
+that this was first done by the Persian clerks of the revenue and
+financial offices at an early time in Akbar's reign, and that it
+received authoritative sanction in the Hijra year 971 (21st August 1563
+to 8th August 1564). At any rate, the innovation was certainly first
+made in Upper India; and the numbering started there was introduced into
+Bengal and those parts as Akbar extended his dominions, but without
+interfering with local customs as to the commencement of the Hindu year.
+The result is that we now have the following reckonings, the years of
+which are used as revenue years:--
+
+
+    The Fasli reckoning of Upper India.
+
+  In the United Provinces and the Punjab, there is an Asvinadi lunar
+  reckoning, known as the Fasli, according to which the year 1308 began
+  in A.D. 1900; so that the reckoning has an apparent initial point in
+  A.D. 593. The name of this reckoning is derived from _fasl_, "a
+  harvest," of which there are two; the _fasl-i-rabi_ or "spring
+  harvest," commencing in February, and the _fasl-i-kharif_, or "autumn
+  harvest" commencing in October. The years of this reckoning begin with
+  the _purnimanta_ Asvina krishna 1, which now falls in September. A
+  peculiar feature of it is that, though the months are lunar, they are
+  not divided into fortnights, and the numbering of the days runs on, as
+  in the Mahommedan month, from the first to the end of the month
+  without being affected by any expunction and repetition of _tithis_;
+  and, for this and other reasons, it seems that in this case a new form
+  of Hindu year was devised, of such a kind as to enable the
+  agriculturists to realize their produce and pay their assessments
+  comfortably within the year. The Hijra era has, of course, now drawn
+  somewhat widely away from this and the other reckonings derived from
+  it; the Hijra year commencing in A.D. 1900 was 1318, ten years in
+  advance of the Fasli year.
+
+
+    The Vilayati-san and Amli-san of Orissa.
+
+  In Orissa and some other parts of Bengal, there is a reckoning, or two
+  almost identical reckonings, the facts of which are not quite clear.
+  According to one account, the term Amli-san, "the official year," is
+  only another name of the Vilayati-san, "the year received from the
+  _vilayat_ or province of Hindustan." But we are also told that the
+  Vilayati-san is a Kanyadi solar year, whereas the Amli-san, though it
+  too has solar months, changes its number on the lunar day Bhadrapada
+  sukla 12 (mentioned above in connexion with the Onko cycle of Orissa),
+  which comes sometimes in Kanya, but sometimes in the preceding month,
+  Simha. Elsewhere, again, it is the Vilayati-san which is shown as
+  changing its number on Bhadrapada sukla 12. In either case, the year
+  1308 of this reckoning, also, began in A.D. 1900; and so, like the
+  Fasli of Upper India, this reckoning, too, has an apparent initial
+  point in A.D. 593. The day Bhadrapada sukla 12 now usually falls in
+  September, but may come during the last three days of August. The
+  first day of the solar month Kanya now falls on 15th or 16th
+  September.
+
+
+    The Bengali-san.
+
+  In Bengal there is in more general use a Meshadi solar reckoning,
+  known as the Bengali-san or "Bengal year," according to which the year
+  1307 began in A.D. 1900; so that this reckoning has an apparent
+  initial point in A.D. 594. The initial day of the year is the first
+  day of the solar month Mesha, now falling on 12th or 13th April.
+
+
+    The Fasli of Bombay and Madras.
+
+  The system of Fasli reckonings was introduced into Southern India
+  under the emperor Shah Jahan, at some time in the Hijra year 1046,
+  which ran from 26th May, A.D. 1636, to 15th May, A.D. 1637. But the
+  numbering which was current in Northern India was not taken over. A
+  new start was made; and, as the year of the Hijra had gone back,
+  during the intervening seventy-three Julian years, by two years and a
+  quarter (less by only five days) from the date of its commencement in
+  the year 971, the Fasli reckoning of Southern India began with a
+  nominal year 1046 (instead of 971 + 73 = 1044), commencing in A.D.
+  1636. The Fasli reckoning of Southern India exists in two varieties.
+  The years of the Bombay Fasli are popularly known as Mrigasal years,
+  because they commence when the sun enters the _nakshatra_ Mrigasiras,
+  which occurs now on 6th or 7th June: the reckoning seems to have taken
+  over this initial day from the Maratha Sur-san (see below). The Fasli
+  years of Madras originally began at the Karka-samkranti, the nominal
+  summer solstice: under the British government, the commencement of
+  them was first fixed to 12th July, on which day the _samkranti_ was
+  then usually occurring; but it was afterwards changed to 1st July as a
+  more convenient date. The years of the Bombay and Madras Fasli have no
+  division of their own into months, fortnights, &c.; the year is always
+  used along with one or other of the real Hindu reckonings, and the
+  details are cited according to that reckoning.
+
+
+    The Maratha Sur-san or Arabi-san.
+
+  Another offshoot of the Hijra era, but one of earlier date and not
+  belonging to the class of Fasli reckonings, is found, in the Maratha
+  country, in the Sur-san or Shahur-san, "the year of months," also
+  known as Arabi-san, "the Arab year." This reckoning, which is met with
+  chiefly in old _sanads_ or charters, appears to have branched off in
+  or closely about the Hijra year 745, which ran from 15th May, A.D.
+  1344, to 3rd May, A.D. 1345; but the exact circumstance in which it
+  originated is not known. The years of this reckoning begin, like those
+  of the Bombay Fasli, with the entrance of the sun into the _nakshatra_
+  Mrigasiras, which now occurs on 6th or 7th June; but the months and
+  days are those of the Hijra year. The Sur-san year 1301 began in A.D.
+  1900; and so the reckoning has an apparent initial point in A.D. 600.
+  A peculiarity attending this reckoning is that, whatever may be the
+  vernacular of a clerk, he uses the Arabic numeral words in reading out
+  the year; and the same words are given alongside of the figures in the
+  Hindu almanacs.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The Hindu astronomy had already begun to attract
+  attention before the close of the 18th century. The investigation,
+  however, of the calendar and the eras, along with the verification of
+  dates, was started by Warren, whose _Kala Sankalita_ was published in
+  1825. The inquiry was carried on by Prinsep in his _Useful Tables_
+  (1834-1836), by Cowasjee Patell in his _Chronology_ (1866), and by
+  Cunningham in his _Book of Indian Eras_ (1883). But Warren's
+  processes, though mostly giving accurate results, were lengthy and
+  troublesome; and calculations made on the lines laid down by his
+  successors gave results which might or might not be correct, and could
+  only be cited as approximate results. The exact calculation of Hindu
+  dates by easy processes was started by Shankar Balkrishna Dikshit, in
+  an article published in the _Indian Antiquary_, vol. 16 (1887). This
+  was succeeded by methods and tables devised by Jacobi, which were
+  published in the next volume of the same journal. There then followed
+  several contributions in the same line by other scholars, some for
+  exact, others for closely approximate, results, and some valuable
+  articles by Kielhorn on some of the principal Hindu eras and other
+  reckonings, which were published in the same journal, vols. 17 (1888)
+  to 26 (1897). And the treatment of the matter culminated for the time
+  being in the publication, in 1896, of Sewell and Dikshit's _Indian
+  Calendar_, which contains an appendix by Schram on eclipses of the sun
+  in India, and was supplemented in 1898 by Sewell's _Eclipses of the
+  Moon in India_. The present article is based on the above-mentioned
+  and various detached writings, supplemented by original research. For
+  the exact calculation of Hindu dates and the determination of the
+  European equivalents of them, use may be made either of Sewell and
+  Dikshit's works mentioned above, or of the improved tables by Jacobi
+  which were published in the _Epigraphia Indica_, vols. 1 and 2
+  (1892-1894).     (J. F. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The disregard of precession, and the consequent travelling
+    forward of the year through the natural seasons, is, of course, a
+    serious defect in the Hindu calendar, the principles of which are
+    otherwise good. Accordingly, an attempt was made by a small band of
+    reformers to rectify this state of things by introducing a
+    precessional calendar, taking as the first lunar month the synodic
+    lunation in which the sun enters the tropical Aries, instead of the
+    sidereal Mesha; and the publication was started, in or about 1886, of
+    the Sayana-Panchang or "Precessional Almanac."
+
+    Further, the Hindu sidereal solar year is in excess of the true mean
+    sidereal year by (if we use Aryabhata's value) 3 min. 20.4 sec. If we
+    take this, for convenience, at 3 min. 20 sec., the excess amounts to
+    exactly one day in 432 years. And so even the sidereal
+    Mesha-samkranti is now found to occur three or four days later than
+    the day on which it should occur. Accordingly, another reformer had
+    begun, in or about 1865, to publish the Navin athava Patwardhani
+    Panchang, the "New or Patwardhani Almanac," in which he determined
+    the details of the year according to the proper Mesha-samkranti.
+
+  [2] It might also be called Pausha, because the sun enters Makara in
+    the course of it; and it may be observed that, in accordance with a
+    second rule which formerly existed, it would have been named Pausha
+    because it ends while the sun is in Makara, and the omitted name
+    would have been Margasira. But the more important condition of the
+    present rule, that Pausha begins while the sun is in Dhanus, is not
+    satisfied.
+
+  [3] The well-known Metonic cycle, whence we have by rearrangement our
+    system of Golden Numbers, naturally suggests itself; and we have been
+    told sometimes that that cycle was adopted by the Hindus, and
+    elsewhere that the intercalation of a month by them generally takes
+    place in the years 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 19 of each cycle,
+    differing only in respect of the 14th year, instead of the 13th, from
+    the arrangement which is said to have been fixed by Meton. As regards
+    the first point, however, there is no evidence that a special period
+    of 19 years was ever actually used by the Hindus during the period
+    with which we are dealing, beyond the extent to which it figures as a
+    component of the number of years, 19 X 150 = 2850, forming the
+    lunisolar cycle of an early work entitled _Romaka-Siddhanta_; and, as
+    was recognized by Kalippos not long after the time of Meton himself,
+    the Metonic cycle has not, for any length of time, the closeness of
+    results which has been sometimes supposed to attach to it; it
+    requires to be readjusted periodically. As regards the second point,
+    the precise years of the intercalated months depend upon, and vary
+    with, the year that we may select as the apparent first year of a set
+    of 19 years, and it is not easy to arrange the Hindu years in sets
+    answering to a direct continuation of the Metonic cycle.
+
+  [4] It is customary to render the term _tithi_ by "lunar day:" it is,
+    in fact, explained as such in Sanskrit works; and, as the _tithis_ do
+    mark the age of the moon by periods approximating to 24 hours, they
+    are, in a sense, lunar days. But the _tithi_ must not be confused
+    with the lunar day of western astronomy, which is the interval, with
+    a mean duration of about 24 hrs. 54 min., between two successive
+    meridian passages of the moon.
+
+  [5] We illustrate the ordinary occurrences. But there are others.
+    Thus, a repeated _tithi_ may occasionally be followed by a suppressed
+    one: in this case the numbering of the civil days would be 6, 7, 7,
+    9, &c., instead of 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, &c. Or it may occasionally be
+    preceded by a suppressed one: in this case the numbering would be 5,
+    7, 7, 8, &c., instead of 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, &c.
+
+  [6] It is always to be borne in mind that, as already explained,
+    while the Hindu Mesha answers to our Aries, it does not coincide with
+    either the sign or the constellation Aries.
+
+  [7] We select A.D. 1900 as a gauge-year, in preference to the year in
+    which we are writing, because its figures are more convenient for
+    comparative purposes. In accordance with the general tendency of the
+    Hindus to cite expired years, the almanacs would mostly show 5001
+    (instead of 5002) as the number for the Kaliyuga year answering to
+    A.D. 1900-1901. And, for the same reason, this reckoning has often
+    been called the Kaliyuga era of 3101 B.C. There is, perhaps, no
+    particular objection to that, provided that we then deal with the
+    Vikrama and Saka eras on the same lines, and bear in mind that in
+    each case the initial point of the reckoning really lies in the
+    preceding year. But we prefer to treat these reckonings with exact
+    correctness.
+
+  [8] It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views
+    regarding the date of Kanishka and the origin of the Vikrama era.
+    Some writers hold that Kanishka began to reign in A.D. 78, and
+    founded the so-called Saka era beginning in that year; one writer
+    would place his initial date about A.D. 123, others would place it in
+    A.D. 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held at one
+    time by Sir A. Cunningham: and, as some others have already begun to
+    recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating in support of the
+    correctness of it.
+
+  [9] See the preceding note.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various
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