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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:12:33 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:12:33 -0700 |
| commit | f7bf88f0e9bd1501293ff9344be3a5cf7ae1af30 (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4 + "Hero" to "Hindu Chronology" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 2, 2012 [EBook #39353] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Hero to Hindu Chronology</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HERO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HIAWATHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HERO AND LEANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HIBBING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HERO OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HIBERNACULUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HERO</a> (the Younger)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HIBERNATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HEROD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HIBERNIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HERODAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HICKERINGILL, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HERODIANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HICKES, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HERODIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HERODIANUS, AELIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HICKORY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HERODOTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HICKS, ELIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HÉROET, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HICKS, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HEROIC ROMANCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HICKS, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HEROIC VERSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HIDALGO</a> (state of Mexico)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HÉROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HIDALGO</a> (Spanish title)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HERON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HERPES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HIDDENITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HERRERA, FERNANDO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HIDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HERRERA, FRANCISCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HIEL, EMMANUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HIEMPSAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HERRICK, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HIERAPOLIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HIERARCHY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HIERATIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HERRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HIERAX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HERRING-BONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HIERO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HIERO II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HERRNHUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HIEROCLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HIEROGLYPHICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HIERONYMITES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HERSENT, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HIERRO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HERSFELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HIGDON, RANULF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HERSTAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HERTFORD</a> (Hertfordshire, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HIGHAM FERRERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HERTFORDSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HIGHGATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HERTHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HIGHLANDS, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HIGHNESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HERTZ, HENRIK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HIGH PLACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HIGH SEAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HERTZEN, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HIGHWAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HERULI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HERVÁS Y PANDURO, LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HILARION, ST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HERVEY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HILARIUS, ST</a> (bishop of Pictavium)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HILARIUS</a> (bishop of Rome)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HILARIUS</a> (Latin poet)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HERVIEU, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HILARIUS, ST</a> (bishop of Arles)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HILDA, ST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HERWEGH, GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HILDBURGHAUSEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HERZBERG</a> (town in the province of Hanover)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HILDEBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HERZBERG</a> (town in the province of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HILDEBRAND, LAY OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HERZL, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HERZOG, HANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HILDEGARD, ST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HILDEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HESILRIGE, SIR ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HILDESHEIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HESIOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HILDRETH, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HESPERIDES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HESPERUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HILL, AARON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HESS</a> (family of German artists)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HILL, AMBROSE POWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HILL, DANIEL HARVEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HESSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HILL, DAVID BENNETT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HESSE-CASSEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HESSE-DARMSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HILL, JAMES J.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HESSE-HOMBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HILL, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HESSE-NASSAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HESSE-ROTENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HILL, OCTAVIA and MIRANDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HESSIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HILL, ROWLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HILL, SIR ROWLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HESTIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HILL, ROWLAND HILL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HESYCHASTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HILL</a> (elevation)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HESYCHIUS</a> (grammarian of Alexandria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HILLAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HETAERISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HILLEBRAND, KARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HETEROKARYOTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HILLEL</a> (Jewish rabbi)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HETERONOMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HILLER, FERDINAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HETMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HILLER, JOHANN ADAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HILLIARD, LAWRENCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HETTSTEDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HILLIARD, NICHOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HILLSDALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HEULANDITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HILL TIPPERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HEUSCH, WILLEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HILTON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HEVELIUS, JOHANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HILTON, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HILVERSUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HIMALAYA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HIMERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HEXAMETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HIMERIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HEXAPLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HEXAPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HEXASTYLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HINCKLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HEXATEUCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HINCKS, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HEXHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">HINCMAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HEYLYN, PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">HIND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">HINDĪ, EASTERN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">HINDĪ, WESTERN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HEYSHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">HINDKI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HEYWOOD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">HINDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HEYWOOD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">HINDOSTANI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HEYWOOD</a> (Lancashire, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">HINDŌSTĀNĪ LITERATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HEZEKIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">HINDU CHRONOLOGY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HIATUS</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HERO<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêrôs">ἥρως</span>), a term specially applied to warriors of +extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who +were distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical +or intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the +word has been suggested.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Ancient Greek Heroes.</i></p> + +<p>In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult, +and as such were intimately connected with its religious life. +Various theories have been put forward as to the nature of these +heroes. According to some authorities, they were idealized +historical personages; according to others, symbolical representations +of the forces of nature. The view most commonly +held is that they were degraded or “depotentiated” gods, +occupying a position intermediate between gods and men. +According to E. Rohde (in <i>Psyche</i>) they are souls of the dead, +which after separation from the body enter upon a higher, +eternal existence. But it is only a select minority who +attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the distinguished +men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality an +ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was +preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being +degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real +heroes, the heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes +were all persons who had lived the life of man on earth, and it +was necessary for the degraded gods to pass through this stage. +They did not at once become cult-heroes, but only after they had +undergone death like other mortals. Only one who has been a +man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of the dead, not +demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods and +men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class.</p> + +<p>In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to +kings and kings’ sons, even to distinguished persons of lower +rank, and free men generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly confined +to those who fought before Troy and Thebes; in view +of their supposed divine origin, he calls them demi-gods +(<span class="grk" title="hêmitheoi">ἡμίθεοι</span>). This name is also given them in an interpolated +passage in the <i>Iliad</i> (xii. 23), which is quite at variance with the +general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more than men, +even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess. +But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea +that the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over +the lives of those who survived them; and consequently, no +cult. Nevertheless, traces of an earlier ancestor worship +appear, <i>e.g.</i> in funeral games in honour of Patroclus and other +heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five ages of man is a +reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence of souls in a +higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a time +obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry +(<i>De abstinentia</i>, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica +to honour the gods and heroes of their country “in accordance +with the usage of their fathers” with offerings of first fruits and +sacrificial cakes every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom +of high antiquity. Solon also ordered that the tombs of the +heroes should be treated with the greatest respect, and Cleisthenes +(<i>q.v.</i>) sought to create a pan-Athenian enthusiasm by +calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and setting up their +statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first bestowed upon +the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of families; if +their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In +many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the +supposed ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica +and elsewhere (Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus +Ceryces at Eleusis), of the eponymi of the tribes and demes. +Again, side by side with gods of superior rank, certain heroes +were worshipped as protecting spirits of the country or state; +such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans, Ajax son of +Oïleus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at +Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> +responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes, +while, on the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was +equally beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic +oracle, which was largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship +and keeping alive its due observance. Special importance was +attached to the grave of the hero and to his bodily remains, with +which the spirit of the departed was inseparably connected. The +grave was regarded as his place of abode, from which he could +only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones were fetched +from abroad (<i>e.g.</i> Cimon brought those of Theseus from Scyros), +or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was erected +in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the +house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone +on which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special +shrines (<span class="grk" title="hêrôa">ἡρῷα</span>) were also erected in their honour, usually over their +graves. In these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in +accordance with the idea that the hero was essentially a warrior, +who on occasion came forth from his grave and fought at the +head of his countrymen, putting the enemy to flight as during his +lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes were supposed to exercise +an influence on human affairs, though not to the same extent, +their sphere of action being confined to their own localities. +Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the elevation +of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of +Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton +and Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local +Athenian hero Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank +of a hero became far more common, and was even accorded to the +living, such as Lysimachus in Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias +of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene instituted an order of priests +to celebrate the anniversary of his birth and coronation in a +special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed divine +honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime. +The birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month +sacrifice was offered to him and games held in his honour. In +addition to persons of high rank, poets, legendary and others +(Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus and Sophocles), legislators +and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the patrons of various +trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers, potters), the heads of +philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus, Epicurus) received the +honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered before the statue +of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some countries the +honour became so general that every man after death was +described as a hero in his epitaph—in Thessaly even slaves.</p> + +<p>The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that +of the chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that +of the ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not +“depotentiated” gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at +night or in the evening; not on a high, but on a low altar (<span class="grk" title="eschara">ἐσχάρα</span>), +surrounded by a trench to receive the blood of the victim, which +was supposed to make its way through the ground to the +occupant of the grave; the victims were black male animals, +whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards; their blood +was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed +(<span class="grk" title="haimakouria">αἱμακουρία</span>); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no +mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the +sacrifice was not <span class="grk" title="thuein">θύειν</span> but <span class="grk" title="enagizein">ἐναγίζειν</span> (less commonly <span class="grk" title="entemnein">ἐντέμνειν</span>). +The chthonian aspect of the hero is further shown by his attribute +the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form himself. +On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set out +for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake. +The fullest description of such a festival is the account given by +Plutarch (<i>Aristides</i>, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans +in honour of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of +Plataea. On the 16th of the month Maimacterion, a long procession, +headed by a trumpeter playing a warlike air, set out for +the graves; wagons decked with myrtle and garlands of flowers +followed, young men (who must be of free birth) carried jars of +wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull destined +for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who +wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand, +in the other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew +some water with which he washed the gravestones, afterwards +anointing them with perfume; he then sacrificed the bull on the +altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and Hermes Psychopompos, and +inviting them in company with the heroes to the festival of blood. +Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words: “I drink +to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See especially E. Rohde, <i>Psyche</i> (1905) and in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, +li. (1895), 28; P. Stengel, <i>Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer</i> +(Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schömann, <i>Griechische Altertümer</i>, +ii. (1897), 159; J. Wassner, <i>De heroum apud Graecos cultu</i> (Kiel, +1883); article by F. Deneken in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, +in which a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild, +<i>Étude sur les démons</i> (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio’s +<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Teutonic Legend.</i></p> + +<p>Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek +heroes are reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the +parallel being in some cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance, +like Achilles, is vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith, +like Hephaestus, is lame. Superhuman qualities and powers, +too, are commonly ascribed to both, an important difference, +however, being that whatever worship may have been paid to the +Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult. This applies +equally to those who have a recognized historical origin and to +those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the +number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship. +The fashion during the 19th century set strongly in the other +direction, and the “degraded gods” theory was applied not +only to such conspicuous heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and +Beowulf, but to a host of minor characters, such as the good +marquis Rüdeger of the Nibelungenlied and our own Robin +Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The reaction +from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until +not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being +traced to very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus +M. Henri de Tourville, in his<i> Histoire de la formation particulariste</i> +(1903), basing his argument on the <i>Ynglinga Saga</i>, interpreted +in the light of “Social Science,” reveals Odin, “the traveller,” +as a great “caravan-leader” and warrior, who, driven from +Asgard—a trading city on the borders of the steppes east of the +Don—by “the blows that Pompey aimed at Mithridates,” +brought to the north the arts and industries of the East. The +argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be +doubted whether it has permanently “rescued Odin from the +misty dreamland of mythology and restored him to history.” +It is now, however, admitted that, whatever influence the one +may have from time to time exercised on the other, Teutonic +myth and Teutonic heroic legend were developed on independent +lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main, historical personages, +never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they are sometimes +endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as symbolical +representations of natural forces.</p> + +<p>The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded +as including that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and +Scandinavians, is to be looked for in the period of the so-called +migration of nations (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 350-650). It consequently rests +upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga (in the older and wider +sense of any story said or sung) being indeed the oldest form +of historical tradition; though this of course does not exclude +the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round +persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the +heroic sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds +of Arminius were still celebrated in song a hundred years after +his death (<i>Annals</i>, ii. 88) and in the <i>Germania</i> he speaks of “old +songs” as the only kind of “annals” which the ancient Germans +possessed; but, whatever relics of the old songs may be embedded +in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no recognizable mark on the +heroic poetry of the German peoples. The attempt to identify +Arminius with Siegfried is now generally abandoned. Teutonic +heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions connected +with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are found +in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus +and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> +Cassiodorus’s <i>History of the Goths</i>) at the funeral of Attila his +vassals, as they rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds. +The next step in the development of epic narrative was the +single lay of an episodic character, sung by a single individual, +who was frequently a member of a distinguished family, not +merely a professional minstrel. Then, as different stories grew +up round the person of a particular hero, they formed a connected +cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person of the hero +(<i>e.g.</i> Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these +cycles are the following.</p> + +<p>(1) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its +present form was probably brought from the continent by the +Angles. It is an amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the +slayer of the water-demon and the dragon, with the historical +legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of Hygelac (Chochilaicus), +king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain (<i>c.</i> 520) +while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel +and the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally +wounded, have been supposed to represent the powers of autumn +and darkness, the floods which at certain seasons overflow the +low-lying countries on the coast of the North Sea and sweep +away all human habitations; Beowulf is the hero of spring and +light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging waters, +finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others +regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours +of the fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf-Scyld +(<i>i.e.</i> Scyld Scefing, “the protector with the sheaf”) lands +on the Anglian or Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudderless +ship, asleep on a sheaf of grain, symbolical of the means +whereby his kingdom shall become great; the son indicates +the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured against the attacks +of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest German epic. +A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when +threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty +years’ absence, he returns to his home In Italy; his son Hadubrand, +believing his father to be dead, suspects treachery and +refuses to accept presents offered by the father in token of +good-will. A fight takes place, in which the son is slain by the +father. In a later version, recognition and reconciliation take +place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and Telegonis, +Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths, +who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (<i>c.</i> 375) +in terror at the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected +the old German Dioscuri myth of the Harlungen. (4) Dietrich +of Bern (Verona), the legendary name of Theodoric the Great. +Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is supposed to have been +his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been deprived by +Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a +typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes +refuge in Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally +recovers his kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented +as fighting with giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears +on a black horse. Some attempts have been made to identify +him as a kind of Donar or god of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H. +Ger. Sîvrit), the hero of the <i>Niebelungenlied</i>, the Sigurd of the +related northern sagas, is usually regarded as a purely mythical +figure, a hero of light who is ultimately overcome by the powers +of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He is, however, +closely associated with historical characters and events, <i>e.g.</i> +with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the +overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars +have exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify +him with various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (<i>Das +Nibelungenlied</i>, Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to +three groups of Burgundian legends, each based on fact: the +Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the murder of Segeric, son +of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by his father +at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian +story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. 11), of the defeat of the +Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity +and murder of Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation +of their mother Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her +father Chilperich and of her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish-Burgundian +story of the ruin of Gundahari’s kingdom by Attila’s +Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried (Sigurd) with Segeric, +while—according to him—the heroine of the Nibelung sagas, +Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two historical +persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde), +the wife of Attila. (See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kriemhild</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>).</p> + +<p>(6) Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like +that of Siegfried, is of Frankish origin. It is preserved in four +versions, the best of which is the oldest, and has an historical +foundation. Hugdietrich is the “Frankish Dietrich” (= Hugo +Theodoric), king of Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and +successor Theodebert, was illegitimate; both had to fight for +their inheritance with relatives. The transference of the scene to +Constantinople is a reminiscence of the events of the Crusades +and Theodebert’s projected campaign against that city. The +version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife by +disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As +the myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so +another Dioscuri myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the +Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend. The Hartungen are probably +identical with the divine youths (mentioned in Tacitus as +worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from +whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent. +Asdingi (<span class="grk" title="Astiggoi">Ἄστιγγοι</span>) would be represented in Gothic by Hazdiggos, +“men with women’s hair” (cf. <i>muliebri ornatu</i> in Tacitus), and +in middle high German by Hartungen. (7) Rother, king of +Lombardy. Desiring to wed the daughter of Constantine, king of +Constantinople, he sends twelve envoys to ask her in marriage. +They are arrested and thrown into prison by the king. Rother, +who appears under the name of Dietrich, sets out with an army, +liberates the envoys and carries off the princess. One version +places the scene in the land of the Huns. The character of +Constantine in many respects resembles that of Alexius Comnenus; +the slaying of a tame lion by one of the gigantic followers +of Rother is founded on an incident which actually took place at +the court of Alexius during the crusade of 1101 under duke Welf +of Bavaria, when <i>King Rother</i> was composed about 1160 by a +Rhenish minstrel. Rother may be the Lombard king Rothari +(636-650), transferred to the period of the Crusades. (8) Walther +of Aquitaine, chiefly known from the Latin poem <i>Waltharius</i>, +written by Ekkehard of St Gall at the beginning of the 10th +century, and fragments of an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Epic +<i>Waldere</i>. Walther is not an historical figure, although the legend +undoubtedly represents typical occurrences of the migration +period, such as the detention and flight of hostages of noble +family from the court of the Huns, and the rescue of captive +maidens by abduction. (9) Wieland (Volundr), Wayland the +Smith, the only Teutonic hero (his original home was lower +Saxony) who firmly established himself in England. There is +absolutely no historical background for his legend. He is a fire-spirit, +who is pressed into man’s service, and typifies the advance +from the stone age to a higher stage of civilization (working in +metals). As the lame smith he reminds us of Hephaestus, and in +his flight with wings of Daedalus escaping from Minos. (10) Högni +(Hagen) and Hedin (Hetel), whose personalities are overshadowed +by the heroines Hilde and Gudrun (Kudrun, Kutrun). In one +version occurs the incident of the never-ending battle between +the forces of Hagen and Hedin. Every night Hilde revives the +fallen, and “so will it continue till the twilight of the gods.” The +battle represents the eternal conflict between light and darkness, +the alternation of day and night. Hilde here figures as a typical +Valkyr delighting in battle and bloodshed, who frustrates a +reconciliation. Hedin had sent a necklace as a peace-offering to +Hagen, but Hilde persuades her father that it is only a ruse. +This necklace occurs in the story of the goddess Freya (Frigg), +who is said to have caused the battle to conciliate the wrath of +Odin at her infidelity, the price paid by her for the possession of +the necklace Brisnigamen; again, the light god Heimdal is said to +have fought with Loki for the necklace (the sun) stolen by the +latter. Hence the battle has been explained as the necklace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +myth in epic form. The historical background is the raids of the +Teutonic maritime tribes on the coasts of England and Ireland.</p> + +<p>Famous heroes who are specially connected with England are +Alfred the Great, Richard Cœur-de-Lion, King Horn, Havelok +the Dane, Guy of Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton (or Southampton), +Robin Hood and his companions.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Celtic Heroes.</i></p> + +<p>The Celtic heroic saga in the British islands may be divided into +the two principal groups of Gaelic (Irish) and Brython (Welsh), the +first, excluding the purely mythological, into the Ultonian (connected +with Ulster) and the Ossianic. The Ultonianis grouped +round the names of King Conchobar and the hero Cuchulainn, “the +Irish Achilles,” the defender of Ulster against all Ireland, regarded +by some as a solar hero. The second cycle contains the epics +of Finn (Fionn, Fingal) mac Cumhail, and his son Oisin (Ossian), +the bard and warrior, chiefly known from the supposed Ossianic +poems of Macpherson. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>, sec. <i>Celtic Literature</i>.)</p> + +<p>Of Brython origin is the cycle of King Arthur (Artus), the +adopted national hero of the mixed nationalities of whom the +“English” people was composed. Here he appears as a chiefly +mythical personality, who slays monsters, such as the giant of +St Michel, the boar Troit, the demon cat, and goes down to the +underworld. The original Welsh legend was spread by British +refugees in Brittany, and was thus celebrated by both English and +French Celts. From a literary point of view, however, it is +chiefly French and forms “the matter of Brittany.” Arthur, +the leader (<i>comes Britanniae, dux bellorum</i>) of the Siluri or +Dumnonii against the Saxons, flourished at the beginning of the +6th century. He is first spoken of in Nennius’s <i>History of the +Britons</i> (9th century), and at greater length in Geoffrey of +Monmouth’s <i>History of the Kings of Britain</i> (12th century), +at the end of which the French Breton cycle attained its fullest +development in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes and others.</p> + +<p>Speaking generally, the Celtic heroes are differentiated from +the Teutonic by the extreme exaggeration of their superhuman, +or rather extra-human, qualities. Teutonic legend does not +lightly exaggerate, and what to us seems incredible in it may be +easily conceived as credible to those by whom and for whom the +tales were told; that Sigmund and his son Sinfiotli turned themselves +into wolves would be but a sign of exceptional powers to +those who believed in werewolves; Fafnir assuming the form of +a serpent would be no more incredible to the barbarous Teuton +than the similar transformation of Proteus to the Greek. But in +the characterization of their heroes the Celtic imagination runs +riot, and the quality of their persons and their acts becomes +exaggerated beyond the bounds of any conceivable probability. +Take, for instance, the description of some of Arthur’s knights in +the Welsh tale of <i>Kilhwch and Olwen</i> (in the <i>Mabinogion</i>). Along +with Kai and Bedwyr (Bedivere), Peredur (Perceval), Gwalchmai +(Gawain), and many others, we have such figures as Sgilti +Yscandroed, whose way through the wood lay along the tops of the +trees, and whose tread was so light that no blade of grass bent +beneath his weight; Sol, who could stand all day upon one leg; +Sugyn the son of Sugnedydd, who was “broad-chested” to such +a degree that he could suck up the sea on which were three +hundred ships and leave nothing but dry land; Gweyyl, the son of +Gwestad, who when he was sad would let one of his lips drop +beneath his waist and turn up the other like a cap over his head; +and Uchtry Varyf Draws, who spread his red untrimmed beard +over the eight-and-forty rafters of Arthur’s hall. Such figures as +these make no human impression, and criticism has busied itself +in tracing them to one or other of the shadowy divinities of the +Celtic pantheon. However this may be, remnants of their +primitive superhuman qualities cling to the Celtic heroes long +after they have been transfigured, under the influence of Christianity +and chivalry, into the heroes of the medieval Arthurian +romance, types—for the most part—of the knightly virtues as +these were conceived by the middle ages; while shadowy +memories of early myths live on, strangely disguised, in certain of +the episodes repeated uncritically by the medieval poets. So +Merlin preserves his diabolic origin; Arthur his mystic coming and +his mystic passing; while Gawain, and after him Lancelot, journey +across the river, as the Irish hero Bran had done before them to +the island of fair women—the Celtic vision of the realm of death.</p> + +<p>The chief heroes of the medieval Arthurian romances are +the following. Arthur himself, who tends however to become +completely overshadowed by his knights, who make his court +the starting-point of their adventures. Merlin (Myrddin), the +famous wizard, bard and warrior, perhaps an historical figure, +first introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth, originally called +Ambrose from the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, under +whom he is said to have first served. Perceval (Parzival, +Parsifal), the Welsh Peredur, “the seeker of the basin,” the most +intimately connected with the quest of the Grail (<i>q.v.</i>). Tristan +(Tristram), the ideal lover of the middle ages, whose name is +inseparably associated with that of Iseult. Lancelot, son of +Ban king of Brittany, a creation of chivalrous romance, who +only appears in Arthurian literature under French influence, +known chiefly from his amour with Guinevere, perhaps in +imitation of the story of Tristan and Iseult. Gawain (Welwain, +Welsh Gwalchmai), Arthur’s nephew, who in medieval romance +remains the type of knightly courage and chivalry, until his +character is degraded in order to exalt that of Lancelot. Among +less important, but still conspicuous, figures may be mentioned +Kay (the Kai of the <i>Mabinogion</i>), Arthur’s foster-brother and +<span class="correction" title="amended from sensechal">seneschal</span>, the type of the bluff and boastful warrior, and Bedivere +(Bedwyr), the type of brave knight and faithful retainer, who +alone is with Arthur at his passing, and afterwards becomes +“a hermit and a holy man.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthur</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Merlin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perceval</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tristan</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lancelot</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gawain</a></span>.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Heroes of Romance.</i></p> + +<p>Another series of heroes, forming the central figures of stories +variously derived but developed in Europe by the Latin-speaking +peoples, may be conveniently grouped under the heading +of “romance.” Of these the most important are Alexander +of Macedon and Charlemagne, while alongside of them Priam +and other heroes of the Trojan war appear during the middle ages +in strangely altered guise. Of all heroes of romance Alexander +has been the most widely celebrated. His name, in the form of +Iskander, is familiar in legend and story all over the East to this +day; to the West he was introduced through a Latin translation +of the original Greek romance (by the pseudo-Callisthenes) +to which the innumerable Oriental versions are likewise traceable +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander III., King of Macedon</a></span>; sec. <i>The Romance of +Alexander</i>). More important in the West, however, was the +cycle of legends gathering round the figure of Charlemagne, +forming what was known as “the matter of France.” The +romances of this cycle, of Germanic (Frankish) origin and +developed probably in the north of France by the French +(probably in the north of France) contain reminiscences +of the heroes of the Merovingian period, and in their later +development were influenced by the Arthurian cycle. Just +as Arthur was eclipsed by his companions, so Charlemagne’s +vassal nobles, except in the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, are exalted at +the expense of the emperor, probably the result of the changed +relations between the later emperors and their barons. The +character of Charlemagne himself undergoes a change; in the +<i>Chanson de Roland</i> he is a venerable figure, mild and dignified, +while later he appears as a cruel and typical tyrant (as is also the +case with Ermanaric). The basis of his legend is mainly historical, +although the story of his journey to Constantinople and the +East is mythical, and incidents have been transferred from the +reign of Charles Martel to his. Charlemagne is chiefly venerated as +the champion of Christianity against the heathen and the Saracens. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charlemagne</a></span>, <i>ad fin.</i> “The Charlemagne Legends.”)</p> + +<p>The most famous heroes who are associated with him are +Roland, praefect of the marches of Brittany, the Orlando of +Ariosto, slain at Roncevaux (Roncevalles) in the Pyrenees, +and his friend and rival Oliver (Olivier); Ogier the Dane, the +Holger Danske of Hans Andersen, and Huon of Bordeaux, +probably both introduced from the Arthurian cycle; Renaud +(Rinaldo) of Montauban, one of the four sons of Aymon, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +whom the wonderful horse Bayard was presented by Charlemagne; +the traitor Doon of Mayence; Ganelon, responsible for the +treachery that led to the death of Roland; Archbishop Turpin, +a typical specimen of muscular Christianity; William Fierabras, +William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and William of +Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of the +latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances +originated the legends, in English form, of <i>Sowdone of Babylone</i>, +<i>Sir Otnel</i>, <i>Sir Firumbras</i> and <i>Huon of Bordeaux</i> (in which Oberon, +the king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the +Fay, was first made known to England).</p> + +<p>The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems +on the Cid, on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fernán +Gonzalez, count of Castile. The legend of Charlemagne as told +in the <i>Crónica general</i> of Alfonso X. created the desire for a +national hero distinguished for his exploits against the Moors, +and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del Carpio. +Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of +romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish, +although the Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from +their own language. There is no trace of a French original.</p> + +<p><i>Slavonic Heroes.</i>—The Slavonic heroic saga of Russia centres +round Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), the first Christian ruler +of that country, whose personality is eclipsed by that of Ilya +(Elias) of Mourom, the son of a peasant, who was said to have +saved the empire from the Tatars at the urgent request of his +emperor. It is not known whether he was an historical personage; +many of the achievements attributed to him border on the +miraculous. A much-discussed work is the <i>Tale of Igor</i>, the oldest +of the Russian medieval epics. Igor was the leader of a raid +against the heathen Polovtsi in 1185; at first successful, he was +afterwards defeated and taken prisoner, but finally managed +to escape. Although the Finns are not Slavs, on topographical +grounds mention may here be made of Wainamoinen, the great +magician and hero of the Finnish epic <i>Kalevala</i> (“land of +heroes”). The popular hero of the Servians and Bulgarians is +Marko Kralyevich (<i>q.v.</i>), son of Vukashin, characterized by +Goethe as a counterpart of the Greek Heracles and the Persian +Rustem. For the Persian, Indian, &c., heroes see the articles on +the literature and religions of the various countries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grässe, <i>Die +grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters</i> (Dresden, 1842), forming part of +his <i>Lehrbuch einer Literärgeschichte der berühmtesten Völker des +Mittelalters</i>; W. P. Ker, <i>Epic and Romance</i> (2nd ed., 1908). <span class="sc">Teutonic.</span>—B. +Symons, “Germanische Heldensage” in H. Paul’s +<i>Grundris der germanischen Philologie</i>, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd +revised edition, separately printed (<i>ib.</i>, 1905); W. Grimm, <i>Die +deutsche Heldensage</i> (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most +important works; W. Müller, <i>Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage</i> +(Heilbronn, 1886) and supplement, <i>Zur Mythologie der griechischen +und deutschen Heldensage</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1889); O. L. Jiriczek, <i>Deutsche +Heldensagen</i>, i. (Strassburg, 1898) and <i>Die deutsche Heldensage</i> +(3rd revised edition, Leipzig, 1906); Chantepie de la Saussaye, <i>The +Religion of the Teutons</i> (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902); J. G. +Robertson, <i>History of German Literature</i> (1902). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heldenbuch</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Celtic.</span>—M. H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Cours de littérature +celtique</i> (12 vols., 1883-1902), one vol. trans. into English by R. I. +Best, <i>The Irish Mythological Cycle and Celtic Mythology</i> (1903); +L. Petit de Julleville, <i>Hist. de la langue et de la litt. française</i>, i. +<i>Moyen âge</i> (1896); C. Squire, <i>The Mythology of the British Isles: +an Introduction to Celtic Myth and Romance</i> (1905); J. Rhys, <i>Celtic +Britain</i> (3rd ed., 1904). <span class="sc">Slavonic.</span>—A. N. Rambaud, <i>La Russie +épique</i> (1876); W. Wollner, <i>Untersuchungen über die Volksepik der +Grossrussen</i> (1879); W. R. Morfill, <i>Slavonic Literature</i> (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERO AND LEANDER,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> two lovers celebrated in antiquity. +Hero, the beautiful priestess of Aphrodite at Sestos, was seen by +Leander, a youth of Abydos, at the celebration of the festival +of Aphrodite and Adonis. He became deeply enamoured of +her; but, as her position as priestess and the opposition of her +parents rendered their marriage impossible they agreed to carry +on a clandestine intercourse. Every night Hero placed a lamp +in the top of the tower where she dwelt by the sea, and Leander, +guided by it, swam across the dangerous Hellespont. One +stormy night the lamp was blown out and Leander perished. +On finding his body next morning on the shore, Hero flung +herself into the waves. The story is referred to by Virgil (<i>Georg.</i> +iii. 258), Statius (<i>Theb.</i> vi. 535) and Ovid (<i>Her.</i> xviii. and xix.). +The beautiful little epic of Musaeus has been frequently translated, +and is expanded in the <i>Hero and Leander</i> of C. Marlowe +and G. Chapman. It is also the subject of a ballad by Schiller +and a drama by F. Grillparzer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. H. Jellinek, <i>Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Dichtung</i> +(1890), and G. Knaack “Hero und Leander” in <i>Festgabe für Franz +Susemihl</i> (1898). A careful collection of materials will be found in +F. Köppner, <i>Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Literatur und +Kunst des Altertums</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERO OF ALEXANDRIA,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> Greek geometer and writer on +mechanical and physical subjects, probably flourished in the +second half of the 1st century. This is the more modern view, +in contrast to the earlier theory most generally accepted, according +to which he flourished about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The earlier theory started +from the superscription of one of his works, <span class="grk" title="Hêrônos Ktêsibiou +belopoiïka">Ἥρωνος Κτησιβίου βελοποιϊκά</span>, from which it was inferred that Hero was a pupil of +Ctesibius. Martin, Hultsch and Cantor took this Ctesibius to be +a barber of that name who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes +II. (d. 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and is credited with having invented an improved +water-organ. But this identification is far from certain, as a +Ctesibius <i>mechanicus</i> is mentioned by Athenaeus as having lived +under Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Nor can the +relation of master and pupil be certainly inferred from the superscription +quoted (observe the omission of any article), which +really asserts no more than that Hero re-edited an earlier treatise +by Ctesibius, and implies nothing about his being an <i>immediate</i> +predecessor. Further, it is certain that Hero used physical and +mathematical writings by Posidonius, the Stoic, of Apamea, +Cicero’s teacher, who lived until about the middle of the 1st +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The positive arguments for the more modern view +of Hero’s date are (1) the use by him of Latinisms from which +Diels concluded that the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> was the earliest possible +date, (2) the description in Hero’s <i>Mechanics</i> iii. of a small +olive-press with one screw which is alluded to by Pliny (<i>Nat. +Hist.</i> viii.) as having been introduced since <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 55, (3) an +allusion by Plutarch (who died <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120) to the proposition that +light is reflected from a surface at an angle equal to the angle of +incidence, which Hero proved in his <i>Catoptrica</i>, the words used +by Plutarch fitting well with the corresponding passage of that +work (as to which see below). Thus we arrive at the latter half of +the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> as the approximate date of Hero’s activity.</p> + +<p>The geometrical treatises which have survived (though not +interpolated) in Greek are entitled respectively <i>Definitiones</i>, +<i>Geometria</i>, <i>Geodaesia</i>, <i>Stereometrica</i> (i. and ii.), <i>Mensurae</i>, <i>Liber +Geoponicus</i>, to which must now be added the <i>Metrica</i> recently discovered +by R. Schöne in a MS. at Constantinople. These books, +except the <i>Definitiones</i>, mostly consist of directions for obtaining, +from given parts, the areas or volumes, and other parts, of plane or +solid figures. A remarkable feature is the bare statement of a +number of very close approximations to the square roots of +numbers which are not complete squares. Others occur in the +<i>Metrica</i> where also a method of finding such approximate square, +and even approximate cube, roots is shown. Hero’s expressions +for the areas of regular polygons of from 5 to 12 sides in terms of +the squares of the sides show interesting approximations to the +values of trigonometrical ratios. Akin to the geometrical works +is that <i>On the Dioptra</i>, a remarkable book on land-surveying, +so called from the instrument described in it, which was used for +the same purposes as the modern theodolite. It is in this book +that Hero proves the expression for the area of a triangle in +terms of its sides. The <i>Pneumatica</i> in two books is also extant in +Greek as is also the <i>Automatopoietica</i>. In the former will be +found such things as siphons, “Hero’s fountain,” “penny-in-the-slot” +machines, a fire-engine, a water-organ, and arrangements +employing the force of steam. Pappus quotes from three books +of <i>Mechanics</i> and from a work called <i>Barulcus</i>, both by Hero. +The three books on <i>Mechanics</i> survive in an Arabic translation +which, however, bears a title “On the lifting of heavy objects.” +This corresponds exactly to <i>Barulcus</i>, and it is probable that +<i>Barulcus</i> and <i>Mechanics</i> were only alternative titles for one and +the same work. It is indeed not credible that Hero wrote two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +separate treatises on the subject of the mechanical powers, +which are fully discussed in the <i>Mechanics</i>, ii., iii. The <i>Belopoiica</i> +(on engines of war) is extant in Greek, and both this and the +<i>Mechanics</i> contain Hero’s solution of the problem of the two +mean proportionals. Hero also wrote <i>Catoptrica</i> (on reflecting +surfaces), and it seems certain that we possess this in a Latin +work, probably translated from the Greek by Wilhelm van +Moerbeek, which was long thought to be a fragment of +Ptolemy’s <i>Optics</i>, because it bore the title <i>Ptolemaei de speculis</i> +in the MS. But the attribution to Ptolemy was shown to be +wrong as soon as it was made clear (especially by Martin) that +another translation by an Admiral Eugenius Siculus (12th +century) of an optical work from the Arabic was Ptolemy’s +<i>Optics</i>. Of other treatises by Hero only fragments remain. One +was four books on <i>Water Clocks</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hydriôn horoskopeiôn">Περὶ ὑδρίων ὡροσκοπείων</span>), of +which Proclus (<i>Hypotyp. astron.</i>, ed. Halma) has preserved a +fragment, and to which Pappus also refers. Another work was a +commentary on Euclid (referred to by the Arabs as “the book of +the resolution of doubts in Euclid”) from which quotations have +survived in an-Nairīzī’s commentary.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Pneumatica</i>, <i>Automatopoietica</i>, <i>Belopoiica</i> and <i>Cheiroballistra</i> +of Hero were published in Greek and Latin in Thévenot’s <i>Veterum +mathematicorum opera graece et latine pleraque nunc primum edita</i> +(Paris, 1693); the first important critical researches on Hero +were G. B. Venturi’s <i>Commentari sopra la storia e la teoria dell’ottica</i> +(Bologna, 1814) and H. Martin’s “Recherches sur la vie et les +ouvrages d’Héron d’Alexandrie disciple de Ctésibius et sur tous les +ouvrages mathématiques grecs conservés ou perdus, publiés ou inédits, +qui ont été attribués à un auteur nommé Héron” (<i>Mém. presentés à +l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</i>, i. série, iv., 1854). The +geometrical works (except of course the <i>Metrica</i>) were edited (Greek +only) by F. Hultsch (<i>Heronis Alexandrini geometricorum et stereometricorum +reliquiae</i>, 1864), the <i>Dioptra</i> by Vincent (<i>Extraits des +manuscrits relatifs à la géométrie pratique des Grecs, Notices et extraits +des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Impériale</i>, xix. 2, 1858), the +treatises on <i>Engines of War</i> by C. Wescher (<i>Poliorcétique des Grecs</i>, +Paris, 1867). The <i>Mechanics</i> was first published by Carra de Vaux +in the <i>Journal asiatique</i> (ix. série, ii., 1893). In 1899 began the +publication in Teubner’s series of <i>Heronis Alexandrini opera quae +supersunt omnia</i>. Vol. i. and Supplement (by W. Schmidt) contains +the <i>Pneumatica</i> and <i>Automata</i>, the fragment on <i>Water Clocks</i>, the +<i>De ingeniis spiritualibus</i> of Philon of Byzantium and extracts on +Pneumatics by Vitruvius. Vol. ii. pt. i., by L. Nix and W. Schmidt, +contains the <i>Mechanics</i> in Arabic, Greek fragments of the same, the +<i>Catoptrica</i> in Latin with appendices of extracts from Olympiodorus, +Vitruvius, Pliny, &c. Vol. iii. (by Hermann Schöne) contains the +<i>Metrica</i> (in three books) and the <i>Dioptra</i>. A German translation is +added throughout. The approximation to square roots in Hero +has been the subject of papers too numerous to mention. But +reference should be made to the exhaustive studies on Hero’s +arithmetic by Paul Tannery, “L’Arithmétique des Grecs dans Héron +d’Alexandrie” (<i>Mém. de la Soc. des sciences phys. et math. de Bordeaux</i>, +ii. série, iv., 1882), “La Stéréométrie d’Héron d’Alexandrie” and +“Études Héroniennes” (<i>ibid.</i> v., 1883), “Questions Héroniennes” +(<i>Bulletin des sciences math.</i>, ii. série, viii., 1884), “Un Fragment des +Métriques d’Héron” (<i>Zeitschrift für Math. und Physik</i>, xxxix., 1894; +<i>Bulletin des sciences math.</i>, ii. série, xviii., 1894). A good account +of Hero’s works will be found in M. Cantor’s <i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i>, +i.² (1894), chapters 18 and 19, and in G. Loria’s studies, <i>Le +Scienze esatte nell’ antica Grecia</i>, especially libro iii. (Modena, 1900), +pp. 103-128.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERO,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> <span class="sc">the Younger</span>, the name given without any sufficient +reason to a Byzantine land-surveyor who wrote (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 938) +a treatise on land-surveying modelled on the works of Hero of +Alexandria, especially the <i>Dioptra</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Géodésie de Héron de Byzance,” published by Vincent in +<i>Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothéque Impériale</i>, xix. 2 +(Paris, 1858), and T. H. Martin in <i>Mémoires présentés à l’ Académie +des Inscriptions</i>, 1st series, iv. (Paris, 1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEROD,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the name borne by the princes of a dynasty which +reigned in Judaea from 40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Herod</span> (surnamed <span class="sc">the Great</span>), the son of Antipater, who +supported Hyrcanus II. against Aristobulus II. with the aid first +of the Nabataean Arabs and then of Rome. The family seems to +have been of Idumaean origin, so that its members were liable to +the reproach of being half-Jews or even foreigners. Justin Martyr +has a tradition that they were originally Philistines of Ascalon +(<i>Dial.</i> c. 52), and on the other hand Nicolaus of Damascus (<i>apud</i> +Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiv. 1. 3) asserted that Herod, his royal patron, was +descended from the Jews who first returned from the Babylonian +Captivity. The tradition and the assertion are in all probability +equally fictitious and proceed respectively from the foes and the +friends of the Herodian dynasty.</p> + +<p>Antipas (or Antipater), the father of Antipater, had been +governor of Idumaea under Alexander Jannaeus. His son allied +himself by marriage with the Arabian nobility and became the +real ruler of Palestine under Hyrcanus II. When Rome intervened +in Asia in the person of Pompey, the younger Antipater +realized her inevitable predominance and secured the friendship +of her representative. After the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Pompey installed Hyrcanus, who was little better than a +figurehead, in the high-priesthood; and when in 55 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the son +of Aristobulus renewed the civil war in Palestine, the Roman +governor of Syria in the exercise of his jurisdiction arranged a +settlement “in accordance with the wishes of Antipater” (Jos. +<i>Ant.</i> xiv. 6. 4). To this policy of dependence upon Rome +Antipater adhered, and he succeeded in commending himself to +Mark Antony and Caesar in turn. After the battle of Pharsalia +Caesar made him procurator and a Roman citizen.</p> + +<p>At this point Herod appears on the scene as ruler of Galilee +(Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiv. 9. 2) appointed by his father at the age of fifteen +or, since he died at seventy, twenty-five. In spite of his youth he +soon found an opportunity of displaying his mettle; for he +arrested Hezekiah the arch-brigand, who had overrun the Syrian +border, and put him to death. The Jewish nobility at Jerusalem +seized upon this high-handed action as a pretext for satisfying +their jealousy of their Idumaean rulers. Herod was cited in the +name of Hyrcanus to appear before the Sanhedrin, whose prerogative +he had usurped in executing Hezekiah. He appeared +with a bodyguard, and the Sanhedrin was overawed. Only +Sameas, a Pharisee, dared to insist upon the legal verdict of condemnation. +But the governor of Syria had sent a demand for +Herod’s acquittal, and so Hyrcanus adjourned the trial and +persuaded the accused to abscond. Herod returned with an +army, but his father prevailed upon him to depart to Galilee +without wreaking his vengeance upon his enemies. About this +time (47-46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) he was created <i>strategus</i> of Coelesyria by the +provincial governor. The episode is important for the light +which it throws upon Herod’s relations with Rome and with +the Jews.</p> + +<p>In 44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cassius arrived in Syria for the purpose of filling +his war-chest: Antipater and Herod collected the sum of money +at which the Jews of Palestine had been assessed. In 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Antipater was poisoned at the instigation of one Malichus, who +was perhaps a Jewish patriot animated by hatred of the Herods +and their Roman patrons.</p> + +<p>With the connivance of Cassius Herod had Malichus assassinated; +but the country was in a state of anarchy, thanks to the +extortions of Cassius and the encroachments of neighbouring +powers. Antony, who became master of the East after Philippi, +was ready to support the sons of his friend Antipater; but he +was absent in Egypt when the Parthians invaded Palestine to +restore Antigonus to the throne of his father Aristobulus (40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Herod escaped to Rome: the Arabians, his mother’s people, had +repudiated him. Antony had made him tetrarch, and now with +the assent of Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare him king +of Judaea.</p> + +<p>In 39 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Herod returned to Palestine and, when the presence +of Antony put the reluctant Roman troops entirely at his disposal, +he was able to lay siege to Jerusalem two years later. Secure of +the support of Rome he was concerned also to legitimize his +position in the eyes of the Jews by taking, for love as well as +policy, the Hasmonaean princess Mariamne to be his second wife. +Jerusalem was taken by storm; the Roman troops withdrew +to behead Antigonus the usurper at Antioch. In 37 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Herod +was king of Judaea, being the client of Antony and the husband +of Mariamne.</p> + +<p>The Pharisees, who dominated the bulk of the Jews, were +content to accept Herod’s rule as a judgment of God. Hyrcanus +returned from his prison: mutilated, he could no longer hold +office as high-priest; but his mutilation probably gave him the +prestige of a martyr, and his influence—whatever it was worth—seems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +to have been favourable to the new dynasty. On the other +hand Herod’s marriage with Mariamne brought some of his +enemies into his own household. He had scotched the faction +of Hasmonaean sympathizers by killing forty-five members of +the Sanhedrin and confiscating their possessions. But so long +as there were representatives of the family alive, there was always +a possible pretender to the throne which he occupied; and the +people had not lost their affection for their former deliverers. +Mariamne’s mother used her position to further her plots for the +overthrow of her son-in-law; and she found an ally in Cleopatra +of Egypt, who was unwilling to be spurned by him, even if she +was not weary of his patron, Antony.</p> + +<p>The events of Herod’s reign indicate the temporary triumphs +of his different adversaries. His high-priest, a Babylonian, +was deposed in order that Aristobulus III., Mariamne’s brother, +might hold the place to which he had some ancestral right. +But the enthusiasm with which the people received him at the +Feast of Tabernacles convinced Herod of the danger; and the +youth was drowned by order of the king at Jericho. Cleopatra +had obtained from Antony a grant of territory adjacent to +Herod’s domain and even part of it. She required Herod to +collect arrears of tribute. So it fell out that, when Octavian and +the Senate declared war against Antony and Cleopatra, Herod +was preoccupied in obedience to her commands and was thus +prevented from fighting against the future emperor of Rome.</p> + +<p>After the battle of Actium (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Herod executed Hyrcanus +and proceeded to wait upon the victorious Octavian at Rhodes. +His position was confirmed and his territories were restored. +On his return he took in hand to heal with the Hasmonaeans, +and in 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the old intriguers, their victims like Mariamne, +and all pretenders were dead. From this time onwards Herod +was free to govern Palestine, as a client-prince of the Roman +Empire should govern his kingdom. In order to put down the +brigands who still infested the country and to check the raids +of the Arabs on the frontier, he built or rebuilt fortresses, which +were of material assistance to the Jews in the great revolt against +Rome. Within and without Judaea he erected magnificent +buildings and founded cities. He established games in honour +of the emperor after the ancient Greek model in Caesarea and +Jerusalem and revived the splendour of the Olympic games. +At Athens and elsewhere he was commemorated as a benefactor; +and as Jew and king of the Jews he restored the temple at +Jerusalem. The emperor recognized his successful government +by putting the districts of Ulatha and Panias under him in 20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>But Herod found new enemies among the members of his +household. His brother Pheroras and sister Salome plotted for +their own advantage and against the two sons of Mariamne. +The people still cherished a loyalty to the Hasmonaean lineage, +although the young princes were also the sons of Herod. The +enthusiasm with which they were received fed the suspicion, +which their uncle instilled into their father’s mind, and they +were strangled at Sebaste. On his deathbed Herod discovered +that his eldest son, Antipater, whom Josephus calls a “monster +of iniquity,” had been plotting against him. He proceeded to +accuse him before the governor of Syria and obtained leave +from Augustus to put him to death. The father died five days +after his son in 4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He had done much for the Jews, thanks +to the favour he had won and kept in spite of all from the +successive heads of the Roman state; he had observed the +Law publicly—in fact, as the traditional epigram of Augustus +says, “it was better to be Herod’s <i>swine</i> than a <i>son</i> of Herod.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8, <i>B.J.</i> i. 18-33; Schürer, <i>Gesch. +d. jüd. Völk.</i>, 4th ed., i. pp. 360-418.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Herod Antipas</span>, son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan +Malthace, and full brother of Archelaus, received as his share +of his father’s dominions the provinces of Galilee and Peraea, +with the title of tetrarch. Like his father, Antipas had a turn +for architecture: he rebuilt and fortified the town of Sepphoris +in Galilee; he also fortified Betharamptha in Peraea, and called +it Julias after the wife of the emperor. Above all he founded the +important town of Tiberias on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, +with institutions of a distinctly Greek character. He reigned +4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 39. In the gospels he is mentioned as Herod. He +it was who was called a “fox” by Christ (Luke xiii. 32). He is +erroneously spoken of as a king in Mark vi. 14. It was to him +that Jesus was sent by Pilate to be tried. But it is in connexion +with his wife Herodias that he is best known, and it was through +her that his misfortunes arose. He was married first of all to a +daughter of Aretas, the Arabian king; but, making the acquaintance +of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip (not the tetrarch), +during a visit to Rome, he was fascinated by her and arranged +to marry her. Meantime his Arabian wife discovered the plan +and escaped to her father, who made war on Herod, and completely +defeated his army. John the Baptist condemned his +marriage with Herodias, and in consequence was put to death +in the way described in the gospels and in Josephus. When +Herodias’s brother Agrippa was appointed king by Caligula, she +was determined to see her husband attain to an equal eminence, +and persuaded him, though naturally of a quiet and unambitious +temperament, to make the journey to Rome to crave a crown +from the emperor. Agrippa, however, managed to influence +Caligula against him. Antipas was deprived of his dominions +and banished to Lyons, Herodias voluntarily sharing his exile.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Herod Philip</span>, son of Herod the Great by Cleopatra of +Jerusalem, received the tetrarchate of Ituraea and other districts +to E. and N.E. of the Lake of Galilee, the poorest part of his +father’s kingdom. His subjects were mainly Greeks or Syrians, +and his coins bear the image of Augustus or Tiberius. He is +described as an excellent ruler, who loved peace and was careful +to maintain justice, and spent his time in his own territories. +He was also a builder of cities, one of which was Caesarea Philippi, +and another was Bethsaida, which he called Julias. He died after +a reign of thirty-seven years (4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 34); and his dominions +were incorporated in the province of Syria.</p> +<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERODAS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hêrôdas">Ἡρῴδας</span>), or <span class="sc">Herondas</span> (the name is spelt +differently in the few places where he is mentioned), Greek poet, +the author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written +under the Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apart +from the intrinsic merit of these pieces, they are interesting in the +history of Greek literature as being a new species, illustrating +Alexandrian methods. They are called <span class="grk" title="Mimiamboi">Μιμίαμβοι</span>, “Mimeiambics.” +Mimes were the Dorian product of South Italy and +Sicily, and the most famous of them—from which Plato is said +to have studied the drawing of character—were the work of +Sophron. These were scenes in popular life, written in the +language of the people, vigorous with racy proverbs such as we +get in other reflections of that region—in Petronius and the +<i>Pentamerone</i>. Two of the best known and the most vital +among the <i>Idylls</i> of Theocritus, the 2nd and the 15th, we know +to have been derived from mimes of Sophron. What Theocritus +is doing there, Herodas, his younger contemporary, is doing +in another manner—casting old material into novel form, upon a +small scale, under strict conditions of technique. The method +is entirely Alexandrian: Sophron had written in a peculiar kind +of rhythmical prose; Theocritus uses the hexameter and Doric, +Herodas the <i>scazon</i> or “lame” iambic (with a dragging spondee +at the end) and the old Ionic dialect with which that curious +metre was associated. That, however, hardly goes beyond the +choice and form of words; the structure of the sentences is +close-knit Attic. But the grumbling metre and quaint language +suit the tone of common life which Herodas aims at realizing; +for, as Theocritus may be called idealist, Herodas is a realist +unflinching. His persons talk in vehement exclamations and +emphatic turns of speech, with proverbs and fixed phrases; +and occasionally, where it is designed as proper to the part, with +the most naked coarseness of expression.</p> + +<p>The scene of the second and the fourth is laid at Cos, and the +speaking characters in each are never more than three. In +Mime I. the old nurse, now the professional go-between or bawd, +calls on Metriche, whose husband has been long away in Egypt, +and endeavours to excite her interest in a most desirable young +man, fallen deeply in love with her at first sight. After hearing +all the arguments Metriche declines with dignity, but consoles the +old woman with an ample glass of wine, this kind being always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +represented with the taste of Mrs Gamp. II. is a monologue by +the <span class="grk" title="Pornoboskos">Πορνοβοσκός</span> (“Whoremonger”) prosecuting a merchant-trader +for breaking into his establishment at night and attempting +to carry off one of the inmates, who is produced in court. +The vulgar blackguard, who is a stranger to any sort of shame, +remarking that he has no evidence to call, proceeds to a peroration +in the regular oratorical style, appealing to the Coan judges +not to be unworthy of their traditional glories. In fact, the +whole oration is also a burlesque in every detail of an Attic +speech at law; and in this case we have the material from which +to estimate the excellence of the parody. In III. a desperate +mother brings to the schoolmaster a truant urchin, with whom +neither she nor his incapable old father can do anything. In a +voluble stream of interminable sentences she narrates his misdeeds +and implores the schoolmaster to flog him. The boy +accordingly is hoisted on another’s back and flogged; but his +spirit does not appear to be subdued, and the mother resorts +to the old man after all. IV. is a visit of two poor women with +an offering to the temple of Asclepius at Cos. While the humble +cock is being sacrificed, they turn, like the women in the <i>Ion</i> of +Euripides, to admire the works of art; among them a small boy +strangling a vulpanser—doubtless the work of Boëthus that we +know—and a sacrificial procession by Apelles, “the Ephesian,” +of whom we have an interesting piece of contemporary eulogy. +The oily sacristan is admirably painted in a few slight strokes. +V. brings us very close to some unpleasant facts of ancient life. +The jealous woman accuses one of her slaves, whom she has +made her favourite, of infidelity; has him bound and sent +degraded through the town to receive 2000 lashes; no sooner is +he out of sight than she recalls him to be branded “at one job.” +The only pleasing person in the piece is the little maidservant—permitted +liberties as a <i>verna</i> brought up in the house—whose +ready tact suggests to her mistress an excuse for postponing +execution of a threat made in ungovernable fury. VI. is a +friendly chat or a private conversation. The subject is an ugly +one, but the dialogue is as clever and amusing as the rest, with +some delicious touches. Our interest is engaged here in a certain +Kerdon, the artistic shoemaker, to whom we are introduced in +VII. (the name had already become generic for the shoemaker +as the typical representative of retail trade), a little bald man with +a fluent tongue, complaining of hard times, who bluffs and +wheedles by turns. VII. opens with a mistress waking up her +maids to listen to her dream; but we have only the beginning, +and the other fragments are very short.</p> + +<p>Within the limits of 100 lines or less Herodas presents us with +a highly entertaining scene and with characters definitely drawn. +Some of these had been perfected no doubt upon the Attic stage, +where the tendency in the 4th century had been gradually to +evolve accepted types—not individuals, but generalizations +from a class, an art in which Menander’s was esteemed the +master-hand. The <span class="grk" title="Pornoboskos">Πορνοβοσκός</span> and the <span class="grk" title="Mastropos">Μαστροπός</span> we can +piece together from succeeding literature, and see how skilfully +the established traits are indicated here. This is achieved by +true dramatic means, with touches never wasted and the more +delightful often because they do not clamour for attention. +The execution has the qualities of first-rate Alexandrian work +in miniature, such as the epigrams of Asclepiades possess, the +finish and firm outlines; and these little pictures bear the test +of all artistic work—they do not lose their freshness with +familiarity, and gain in interest as one learns to appreciate their +subtle points.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The papyrus MS., obtained from the Fayum, is in the possession of +the British Museum, and was first printed by F. G. Kenyon in 1891. +Editions by O. Crusius (1905, text only, in Teubner series) and +J. A. Nairn (1904), with introduction, notes and bibliography. +There is an English verse translation of the mimes by H. Sharpley +(1906) under the title <i>A Realist of the Aegean</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERODIANS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hêrôdianoi">Ἡρωδιανοί</span>), a sect or party mentioned in +Scripture as having on two occasions—once in Galilee, and again +in Jerusalem—manifested an unfriendly disposition towards +Jesus (Mark iii. 6, xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 6; cf. also Mark viii. 15). +In each of these cases their name is coupled with that of the +Pharisees. According to many interpreters the courtiers or +soldiers of Herod Antipas (“Milites Herodis,” Jerome) are +intended; but more probably the Herodians were a public +political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great +historical parties of post-exilian Judaism by the fact that they +were and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great and to +his dynasty (cf. such formations as “Caesariani,” “Pompeiani”). +It is possible that, to gain adherents, the Herodian +party may have been in the habit of representing that the +establishment of a Herodian dynasty would be favourable to +the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may account +for Tertullian’s (<i>De praescr.</i>) allegation that the Herodians +regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called +by the Rabbis Boethusians as being friendly to the family of +Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of Herod the +Great’s wives.</p> +<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERODIANUS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> Greek historian, flourished during the third +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He is supposed to have been a Syrian Greek. +In 203 he was in Rome, where he held some minor posts. He does +not appear to have attained high official rank; the statement +that he was imperial procurator and legate of the Sicilian provinces +rests upon conjecture only. His historical work (<span class="grk" title="Hêrôdianou +tês meta Markon basileias historiôn biblia oktô">Ἡρωδιανοῦ τῆς μετὰ Μάρκον βασιλείας ἱστοριῶν βιβλία ὀκτώ</span>) narrates +the events of the fifty-eight years between the death of Marcus +Aurelius and the proclamation of Gordianus III. (180-238). +The narrative is of special value as supplementing Dion Cassius, +whose history ends with Alexander Severus. His work has +the value that attaches to a record written by one chronicling +the events of his own times, gifted with ordinary powers of +observation, indubitable candour and independence of view. +But while he gives a lively account of external events—such as +the death of Commodus and the assassination of Pertinax—the +barbarian invasions, the spread of Christianity, the extension +of the franchise by Caracalla are unnoticed. The dates are often +wrong, and little attention is paid to geographical details, which +makes the narrative of military expeditions beyond the borders +of the empire difficult to understand. Herodian has been accused +of prejudice against Alexander Severus. His style, modelled +on that of Thucydides and unreservedly praised by Photius, is +on the whole pure, though somewhat rhetorical and showing a +fondness for Latinisms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Extensive use has been made of Herodianus by later chroniclers, +especially the “Scriptores historiae Augustae” and John of Antioch. +His history was first translated into Latin at the end of the 15th +century by Politian. The most complete edition is by G. W. Irmisch +(1789-1805), with elaborate indices, but the notes are very diffuse; +critical editions by I. Bekker (1855), L. Mendelssohn (1883); see +also C. Dändliker.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERODIANUS, AELIUS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> called <span class="grk" title="ho technikos">ὁ τεχνικός</span>, Alexandrian +grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He early took +up his residence at Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of +Marcus Aurelius (161-180), to whom he dedicated his great +treatise on prosody. This work in twenty-one books (<span class="grk" title="Katholikê +prosôdia">Καθολικὴ προσῳδία</span>) included also an account of the etymological part of +grammar. The work itself is lost, but several epitomes of it have +been preserved. His <span class="grk" title="Hepimerismoi">Ἐπιμερισμοί</span> dealt with difficult words +and peculiar forms in Homer. Herodianus also wrote numerous +grammatical treatises, of which only one has come down to us in a +complete form (<span class="grk" title="Perí monêrous lexeôs">Περὶ μονήρους λέξεως</span>, on peculiar style), articles +on exceptional or anomalous words. Numerous quotations and +fragments still exist, chiefly in the Homeric scholiasts and +Stephanus of Byzantium. Herodianus enjoyed a great reputation +as a grammarian, and Priscian styles him “maximus auctor +artis grammaticae.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition is by A. Lentz, <i>Herodiani. Technici reliquiae</i> +(1867-1870); a supplementary volume is included in Uhling’s <i>Corpus +grammaticorum Graecorum</i>; for further bibliographical information +see W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERODOTUS<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 484-425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek historian, called the +Father of History, was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, then +dependent upon the Persians, in or about the year 484 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Herodotus was thus born a Persian subject, and such he continued +until he was thirty or five-and-thirty years of age. At the +time of his birth Halicarnassus was under the rule of a queen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> +Artemisia (<i>q.v.</i>). The year of her death is unknown; but she +left her crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who +was succeeded upon the throne by his son Lygdamis about the +time that Herodotus grew to manhood. The family of Herodotus +belonged to the upper rank of the citizens. His father was +named Lyxes, and his mother Rhaeo, or Dryo. He had a brother +Theodore, and an uncle or cousin Panyasis (<i>q.v.</i>), the epic poet, +a personage of so much importance that the tyrant Lygdamis, +suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to death. +It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative’s political +opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted +it voluntarily at the time of his execution.</p> + +<p>Of the education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it +was thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects +essential to a Greek liberal education—grammar, gymnastic +training and music. His studies would be regarded as completed +when he attained the age of eighteen, and took rank among the +<i>ephebi</i> or <i>eirenes</i> of his native city. In a free Greek state he +would at once have begun his duties as a citizen, and found +therein sufficient employment for his growing energies. But in a +city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no political life +worthy of the name existed. Herodotus may thus have had his +thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory +career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the +example of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his +writings when Herodotus was still an infant. At any rate it is +clear from the extant work of Herodotus that he must have +devoted himself early to the literary life, and commenced that +extensive course of reading which renders him one of the most +instructive as well as one of the most charming of ancient writers. +The poetical literature of Greece was already large; the prose +literature was more extensive than is generally supposed; yet +Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of it. +The <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> are as familiar to him as Shakespeare to +the educated Englishman. He is acquainted with the poems of +the epic cycle, the <i>Cypria</i>, the <i>Epigoni</i>, &c. He quotes or otherwise +shows familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, +Bacis, Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, +Aesop, Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, +Aeschylus and Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the +best of the prose writers who had preceded him, and makes +numerous allusions to other authors of the same class.</p> + +<p>It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a +mere student. It is probable that from an early age his inquiring +disposition led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in +foreign countries. He traversed Asia Minor and European +Greece probably more than once; he visited all the most important +islands of the Archipelago—Rhodes, Cyprus, Delos, Paros, +Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and Aegina. He +undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the +Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western +shores of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he +travelled in Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna +Graecia, explored the antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores +of Palestine, saw Gaza, and made a long stay in Egypt. At the +most moderate estimate, his travels covered a space of thirty-one +degrees of longitude, or 1700 miles, and twenty-four of latitude, +or nearly the same distance. At all the more interesting sites he +took up his abode for a time; he examined, he inquired, he made +measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in his mind +the scheme of his great work, he gave ample time to the elaboration +of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal observation +a full knowledge of the various countries.</p> + +<p>The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished +between his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +It was probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject +he visited Susa and Babylon, taking advantage of the Persian +system of posts which he describes in his fifth book. His residence +in Egypt must, on the other hand, have been subsequent to 460 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, since he saw the skulls of the Persians slain by Inarus in that +year. Skulls are rarely visible on a battlefield for more than two +or three seasons after the fight, and we may therefore presume +that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> when the +Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he visited the +country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and therefore +receiving favour and attention on the part of the Egyptians, who +were so much beholden to his countrymen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>). On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the +Syrian shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence +to have gone to Thasos. His Scythian travels are thought to have +taken place prior to 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>It is a question of some interest from what centre or centres +these various expeditions were made. Up to the time of the +execution of Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about +the year 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, there is every reason to believe that Herodotus +lived at Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European +Greece, and among the islands of the Aegean, probably belong to +this period, as also his journey to Susa and Babylon. We are +told that when he quitted Halicarnassus on account of the +tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the year 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he took up +his abode in Samos. That island was an important member of the +Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home Herodotus +would have put himself under the protection of Athens. The +fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian influence (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or +456 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, to that country. The stories that he had heard in Egypt +of Sesostris may then have stimulated him to make voyages from +Samos to Colchis, Scythia and Thrace. He was thus acquainted +with almost all the regions which were to be the scene of his +projected history.</p> + +<p>After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in +Samos, events occurred in his native city which induced him to +return thither. The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from bad +to worse, and at last he was expelled. According to Suidas, +Herodotus was himself an actor, and indeed the chief actor, in the +rebellion against him; but no other author confirms this statement, +which is intrinsically improbable. It is certain, however, +that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary member of +the Athenian confederacy. Herodotus would now naturally +return to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those +rights of free citizenship on which every Greek set a high value. +He would also, if he had by this time composed his history, or any +considerable portion of it, begin to make it known by recitation +among his friends. There is reason to believe that these first +attempts were not received with much favour, and that it was +in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately withdrew from his +native town, and sought a refuge in Greece proper (about 447 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> We learn that Athens was the place to which he went, and +that he appealed from the verdict of his countrymen to Athenian +taste and judgment. His work won such approval that in the +year 445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted +a sum of ten talents (£2400) by decree of the people. At one of +the recitations, it was said, the future historian Thucydides was +present with his father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst +into tears, whereupon Herodotus remarked to the father—“Olorus, +your son has a natural enthusiasm for letters.”<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and +could boast an almost unique galaxy of talent—Pericles, +Thucydides the son of Melesias, Aspasia, Antiphon, the musician +Damon, Pheidias, Protagoras, Zeno, Cratinus, Crates, Euripides +and Sophocles. Accepted into this brilliant society, on familiar +terms with all probably, as he certainly was with Olorus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted, like many +another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home. It is to +his credit that he did not yield to this temptation. At Athens +he must have been a dilettante, an idler, without political rights +or duties. As such he would have soon ceased to be respected +in a society where literature was not recognized as a separate +profession, where a Socrates served in the infantry, a Sophocles +commanded fleets, a Thucydides was general of an army, and an +Antiphon was for a time at the head of the state. Men were not +men according to Greek notions unless they were citizens; and +Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling, was +anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to +obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens the franchise, jealously +guarded at this period, was not to be attained without great +expense and difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following +year he sailed from Athens with the colonists who went out +to found the colony of Thurii (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>), and became a +citizen of the new town.</p> + +<p>From this point of his career, when he had reached the age +of forty, we lose sight of him almost wholly. He seems to have +made but few journeys, one to Crotona, one to Metapontum, +and one to Athens (about 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) being all that his work +indicates.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> No doubt he was employed mainly, as Pliny testifies, +in retouching and elaborating his general history. He may also +have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of +Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is +quoted by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that he +lived to a great age, and argued that “the never-to-be-mistaken +fundamental tone of his performance is the quiet talkativeness +of a highly cultivated, tolerant, intelligent, <i>old</i> man” (Dahlmann). +But the indications derived from the later touches added to his +work, which form the sole evidence on the subject, would rather +lead to the conclusion that his life was not very prolonged. +There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been +written as early as 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; there is no touch which, even +probably, points to a later date than 424 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As the author was +evidently engaged in polishing his work to the last, and even +promises touches which he does not give, we may assume that +he did not much outlive the date last mentioned, or in other +words, that he died at about the age of sixty. The predominant +voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii, where his tomb +was shown in later ages.</p> + +<p><i>The History.</i>—In estimating the great work of Herodotus, +and his genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to +conceive aright what that work was intended to be. It has +been called “a universal history,” “a history of the wars +between the Greeks and the barbarians,” and “a history of +the struggle between Greece and Persia.” But these titles are all +of them too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits wholly +the histories of Phoenicia, Carthage and Etruria, three of the +most important among the states existing in his day, cannot have +intended to compose a “universal history,” the very idea of +which belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object +was to record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians; +but as he omits the Trojan war, in which he fully believes, +the expedition of the Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace +and Thessaly, the wars connected with the Ionian colonization +of Asia Minor and others, it is evident that he does not really +aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars between Greeks +and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it +even seem to have been his object to give an account of the +entire struggle between Greece and Persia. That struggle was +not terminated by the battle of Mycale and the capture of Sestos +in 479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It continued for thirty years longer, to the peace +of Callias (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Callias</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>). The fact that Herodotus +ends his history where he does shows distinctly that his intention +was, not to give an account of the entire long contest between +the two countries, but to write the history of a particular war—the +great Persian war of invasion. His aim was as definite as +that of Thucydides, or Schiller, or Napier or any other writer +who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined +to treat it in a certain way. Every partial history requires +an “introduction”; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples, +resolved to give his history a magnificent introduction. Thucydides +is content with a single introductory book, forming little +more than one-eighth of his work; Herodotus has six such books, +forming two-thirds of the entire composition.</p> + +<p>By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in +the <i>grand</i> way, which is so characteristic of him. Making it his +main object in his “introduction” to set before his readers the +previous history of the two nations who were the actors in the +great war, he is able in tracing their history to bring into his +narrative some account of almost all the nations of the known +world, and has room to expatiate freely upon their geography, +antiquities, manners and customs and the like, thus giving his +work a “universal” character, and securing for it, without +trenching upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which +are a principal charm of the best histories, and of none more than +his. In tracing the growth of Persia from a petty subject +kingdom to a vast dominant empire, he has occasion to set out +the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Scythia, +Thrace, and to describe the countries and the peoples inhabiting +them, their natural productions, climate, geographical position, +monuments, &c.; while, in noting the contemporaneous changes +in Greece, he is led to tell of the various migrations of the Greek +race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the arts, revolutions, +internal struggles, wars with one another, legislation, religious +tenets and the like. The greatest variety of episodical matter +is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion and the +mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made; +the episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly +interrupt the main narrative.</p> + +<p>It has been questioned, both in ancient and in modern times, +whether the history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite +of trustworthiness. Several ancient writers accuse him of +intentional untruthfulness. Moderns generally acquit him of this +charge; but his severer critics still urge that, from the inherent +defects of his character, his credulity, his love of effect and his +loose and inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the +historian’s office, and has produced a work of but small historical +value. Perhaps it may be sufficient to remark that the defects +in question certainly exist, and detract to some extent from the +authority of the work, more especially of those parts of it which +deal with remoter periods, and were taken by Herodotus on +trust from his informants, but that they only slightly affect +the portions which treat of later times and form the special +subject of his history. In confirmation of this view, it may be +noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances +of the great Persian war, and for all local and other details which +come under his immediate notice, is accepted by even the most +sceptical of modern historians, and forms the basis of their +narratives.</p> + +<p>Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most +prominent are the diligence with which he collected his materials, +the candour and impartiality with which he has placed his facts +before the reader, the absence of party bias and undue national +vanity, and the breadth of his conception of the historian’s +office. On the other hand, he has no claim to rank as a critical +historian; he has no conception of the philosophy of history, +no insight into the real causes that underlie political changes, +no power of penetrating below the surface, or even of grasping +the real interconnexion of the events which he describes. He +belongs distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and +picturesque description, the lively presentation of scenes and +actions, characters and states of society, not the subtle analysis +of motives, the power of detecting the undercurrents or the +generalizing faculty.</p> + +<p>But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> +conspicuous. “O that I were in a condition,” says Lucian, +“to resemble Herodotus, if only in some measure! I by no means +say in all his gifts, but only in some single point; as, for instance, +the beauty of his language, or its harmony, or the natural and +peculiar grace of the Ionic dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by +whatever name those thousand beauties are called which to +the despair of his imitator are united in him.” Cicero calls +his style “copious and polished,” Quintilian, “sweet, pure +and flowing”; Longinus says he was “the most Homeric of +historians”; Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucydides, +and regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree +the excellences of sublimity, beauty and the true historical +method of composition. Modern writers are almost equally +complimentary. “The style of Herodotus,” says one, “is +universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and +sweetness.” “The charm of his style,” argues another, “has +so dazzled men as to make them blind to his defects.” Various +attempts have been made to analyse the charm which is so +universally felt; but it may be doubted whether any of them +are very successful. All, however, seem to agree that among +the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be admired +are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of rhythm. +Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical, +and possessed of a delicate ear which instinctively suggested +the most musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences, +without art or effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt, +never too diffuse, much less prolix or wearisome, and being +himself simple, fresh, <i>naif</i> (if we may use the word), honest and +somewhat quaint, he delights us by combining with this melody of +sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts, perspicuously expressed, +often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and always +manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and unsophisticated +mind. Reminding us in some respects of the +quaint medieval writers, Froissart and Philippe de Comines, +he greatly excels them, at once in the beauty of his language +and the art with which he has combined his heterogeneous +materials into a single perfect harmonious whole. See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>, section <i>History</i>, “Authorities.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The history of Herodotus has been translated +by many persons and into many languages. About 1450, at the time +of the revival of learning, a Latin version was made and published +by Laurentius Valla. This was revised in 1537 by Heusbach, and +accompanies the Greek text of Herodotus in many editions. The +first complete translation into a modern language was the English +one of Littlebury, published in 1737. This was followed In 1786 +by the French translation of Larcher, a valuable work, accompanied +by copious notes and essays. Beloe, the second English translator, +based his work on that of Larcher. His first edition, in 1791, was +confessedly very defective; the second, in 1806, still left much to +be desired. A good German translation, but without note or comment, +was brought out by Friedrich Lange at Berlin in 1811. Andrea +Mustoxidi, a native of Corfu, published an Italian version in 1820. +In 1822 Auguste Miot endeavoured to improve on Larcher; and in +1828-1832 Dr Adolf Schöll brought out a German translation with +copious notes (new ed., 1855), which has to some extent superseded +the work of Lange. About the same time a new English version +was made by Isaac Taylor (London, 1829). In 1858-1860, the history +of Herodotus was translated by Canon G. Rawlinson, assisted in +the copious notes and appendices accompanying the work by +Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Sir Henry Rawlinson. More recently +we have translations in English by G. C. Macaulay (2 vols., 1890); +in German by Bähr (Stuttgart, 1867) and Stein (Oldenburg, 1875); +in French by Giguet (1857) and Talbot (1864); in Italian by Ricci +(Turin, 1871-1876), Grandi (Asti, 1872) and Bertini (Naples, 1871-1872). +A Swedish translation by F. Carlstadt was published at +Stockholm in 1871.</p> + +<p>The best of the older editions of the Greek text are the following:—<i>Herodoti +historiae</i>, ed. Schweighäuser (5 vols., Strassburg, 1816); +<i>Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX.</i> (ed. Gaisford, Oxford, +1840); <i>Herodotus, with a Commentary</i>, by J. W. Blakesley (2 vols. +London, 1854); <i>Herodoti musae</i> (ed. Bähr, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1856-1861, +2nd ed.); and <i>Herodoti historiae</i> (ed. Abicht, Leipzig, 1869).</p> + +<p>The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with +and without commentaries are the following:—H. Stein, <i>Herodoti +Historiae</i> (ed. Major, 2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1871, with <i>apparatus +criticus</i>; still the best edition of the text); H. Kellenberg, <i>Historiarum +libri IX.</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); van Herwerden, <span class="grk" title="Historiai">Ἱστορίαι</span> +(Leiden, 1885); H. Stein, <i>Herodotus, erklärt</i> (Berlin, 1856-1861, +and several editions since; the best short commentary and introduction); +A. H. Sayce, <i>The Ancient Empires of the East, Herodotus +I.-III., with introductions and appendices</i> (1883; an attempt to prove +the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to the extent of his +travels, which has found little support amongst more recent English +or German writers); R. W. Macan, <i>Herodotus IV.-VI.</i> (2 vols., +1895) and <i>Herodotus VII.-IX.</i> (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive introduction, +appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of these +books in English; E. Abbott, <i>Herodotus V. and VI.</i> (Oxford, 1893); +A. Wiedemann, <i>Herodots zweites Buch mit sachlichen Bemerkungen</i> +(Leipzig, 1890; the best and fullest commentary on book ii.).</p> + +<p>Among works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned +Bouhier, <i>Recherches sur Hérodote</i> (Dijon, 1746); Rennell, <i>Geography +of Herodotus</i> (London, 1800); Niebuhr, <i>Geography of Herodotus +and Scythia</i> (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830); Dahlmann, <i>Herodot, +aus seinem Buche sein Leben</i> (Altona, 1823); Eltz, <i>Quaestiones +Herodoteae</i> (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, <i>Egypt of Herodotus</i> (London, +1841); Mure, <i>Literature of Greece</i>, vol. iv. (London, 1852); Abicht, +<i>Übersicht über den Herodoteischen Dialekt</i> (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed., +1874), and <i>De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctoritate</i> (Naumburg, +1869); Melander, <i>De anacoluthis Herodoteis</i> (Lund, 1869); Matzat, +“Über die Glaubenswürdigkeit der geograph. Angaben Herodots +über Asien,” in <i>Hermes</i>, vi.; Büdinger, <i>Zur ägyptischen Forschung +Herodots</i> (Vienna, 1873, reprinted from the <i>Sitzungsber.</i> of the Vienna +Acad.); Merzdorf, <i>Quaestiones grammaticae de dialecto Herodotea</i> +(Leipzig, 1875); A. Kirchhoff, <i>Über die Entstehungszeit des Herodotischen +Geschichtswerkes</i> (Berlin, 1878); Adolf Bauer, <i>Herodots +Biographie</i> (Vienna, 1878); H. Delbrück, <i>Perser und Burgunderkriege</i> +(Berlin, 1887; of great importance for the criticism of the +Persian Wars); N. Wecklein, <i>Über die Tradition der Perserkriege</i> +(Munich, 1876); A. Hauvette-Besnault, <i>Hérodote historien des +guerres médiques</i> (Paris, 1894); J. A. R. Munro, <i>Some Observations +on the Persian Wars</i> (in various vols. of the <i>Journal of Hellenic +Studies</i>; acute and suggestive); G. B. Grundy, <i>The Great Persian +War</i> (London, 1901); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>History of Greek Classical +Literature</i>, ii. 16 ff. (London, 1880); E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur +alten Geschichte</i>, i. 151 ff., and ii. 196 ff. (Halle, 1892-1899); Busolt, +<i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, ii. 602 ff. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1895); J. B. Bury, +<i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> (1908), lecture 2. For notices of current +literature see Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht</i>. Students of the original may +also consult with advantage the lexicons of Aemilius Portus (Oxford, +1817) and of Schweighäuser (London, 1824). On Herodotus’ debt +to Hecataeus see Wells, in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, 1909, pt. i.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. R.; E. M. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The date of his travels is difficult to determine. E. Meyer +inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between +440 and 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by +C. F. Lehmann <i>c.</i> 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and by H. Stein before 450.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Most recent critics (<i>e.g.</i> Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to +Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarus and Amyrtaeus +(<i>i.e.</i> after 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), on the strength of Herod. 2. 30, which implies +the restoration of Persian authority.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his +departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, <i>e.g.</i> the ascendancy +of the anti-Athenian party in the state.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This story is on chronological grounds rejected by all recent +critics.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his settlement +at Thurii. Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his work +(especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after 430 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> See further Wachsmuth, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, lvi. (1901) +215-218. Macan, <i>Herodotus</i> VII.-IX. (<i>Introduction</i>, pp. xlv.-lxvi.), +seeks to prove that the last three books were the first part of the +<i>Histories</i> to be composed. He is followed in this view by Bury.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉROET, ANTOINE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> surnamed <span class="sc">La Maison-neuve</span> (d. 1568), +French poet, was born in Paris of a family connected with the +famous chancellor, François Olivier. His poetry belongs to his +early years, for after he had taken orders he ceased to write +profane poetry, no doubt because he considered it out of keeping +with his calling, in which he attained the dignity of bishop of +Digue. His chief work is <i>La Parfaicte Amye</i> (Lyons, 1542) in which +he developed the idea of a purely spiritual love, based chiefly on +the reading of the Italian Neo-Platonists. The book aroused +great controversy. La Borderie replied in <i>L’Amye de cour</i> with +a description of a very much more human woman, and Charles +Fontaine contributed a <i>Contr’ amye de cour</i> to the dispute. +Héroet, in addition to some translations from the classics, wrote +the <i>Complainte d’une dame nouvellement surprise d’amour</i>, an +<i>Épistre a François I<span class="sp">er</span></i>, and some pieces included in the now +very rare <i>Opuscules d’amour par Héroet, La Borderie et autres +divins poëtes</i> (Lyons, 1547). Héroet belongs to the Lyonnese +school of which Maurice Scève may be regarded as the leader. +Clément Marot praises him, and Ronsard was careful to exempt +him with one or two others from the scorn he poured on his +immediate predecessors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. F. Cary, <i>The Early French Poets</i> (1846).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEROIC ROMANCES,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> the name by which is distinguished a +class of imaginative literature which flourished in the 17th +century, principally in France. The beginnings of modern +fiction in that country took a pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated +<i>Astrée</i> (1610) of Honoré d’Urfé (1568-1625), which is the +earliest French novel, is properly styled a pastoral. But this +ingenious and diffuse production, in which all is artificial, was +the source of a vast literature, which took many and diverse +forms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and +sentimental, there was a side of the <i>Astrée</i> which encouraged +that extravagant love of glory, that spirit of “panache,” which +was now rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which +animated Marin le Roy, sieur de Gomberville (1600-1674), +who was the inventor of what have since been known as the +Heroical Romances. In these there was experienced a violent +recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty, +but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere +of the age in which the books were written. In order to give +point to the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always +hinted that they were well-known public characters of the day +in a romantic disguise.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Astrée</i> of Honoré d’Urfé, which was a pure pastoral, +in the religious romances of Pierre Camus (1582-1653), in the +comic <i>Francion</i> of Charles Sorel, piquancy had been given to +the recital by this belief that real personages could be recognized +under the disguises. But in the <i>Carithée</i> of Gomberville (1621) +we have a pastoral which is already beginning to be a heroic +romance, and a book in which, under a travesty of Roman +history, an appeal is made to an extravagantly chivalrous +enthusiasm. A further development was seen in the <i>Polyxène</i> +(1623) of François de Molière, and the <i>Endymion</i> (1624) of +Gombauld; in the latter the elderly queen, Marie de’ Medici, +was celebrated under the disguise of Diana, for whom a beautiful +shepherd of Caria (the author himself) nourishes a hopeless +passion. The earliest of the Heroic Romances, pure and simple, +is, however, the celebrated <i>Polexandre</i> (1629) of Gomberville. +The author began by intending his hero to represent Louis XIII., +but he changed his mind, and drew a portrait of Cardinal +Richelieu. In this novel, for the first time, the romantic character +proper to this class of books is seen undiluted; there is no +intrusion of a personage who is not celebrated for his birth, his +beauty or his exploits. The story deals with the adventures of +a hero who visits all the sea-coasts of the world, the most remote +as well as the most fabulous, in search of an ineffable princess, +Alcidiane. This absurd and pretentious, yet very original piece +of invention enjoyed an immense success, and historical romances +of a similar class competed for the favour of the public. There +was an equal amount of geography and more of ancient history +in the <i>Ariane</i> (1632) of Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), +a book which, long neglected, has in late years been rediscovered, +and which has been greeted by M. Paul Morillot as the most +readable and the least tiresome of all the Heroic Romances. +The type of that class of literature, however, has always been +found in the highly elaborate writings of Gauthier de Coste de +la Calprenède (1609-1663), which enjoyed for a time a prodigious +celebrity, and were read and imitated all over Europe. La +Calprenède was a Gascon soldier, imbued with all the extravagance +of his race, and in full sympathy with the audacity and +violence of the aristocratic society of France in his day. His +<i>Cassandre</i>, which appeared in ten volumes between 1642 and 1645, +is perhaps the most characteristic of all the Heroic Romances. +It deals with a highly romantic epoch of ancient history, the +decline of the empire of Alexander the Great. The wars of the +Persians and of the Scythians are introduced, and among the +characters are discovered such personages as Artaxerxes, Roxana +and Ephestion. It must not be supposed, however, that la +Calprenède makes the smallest effort to deal with the subject +accurately or realistically. The figures are those of his own day; +they are seigneurs and great ladies of the court of Louis XIII., +masquerading in Macedonian raiment. The passion of love is +dominant throughout, and it is treated in the most exalted and +hyperbolical spirit. The central heroes of the story, Oroondate +and Lysimachus, are dignified, eloquent and amorous; they +undergo unexampled privations in the quest of incomparable +ladies whose beauty and whose nobility is only equalled by their +magnificent loyalty. These books were written with an aim +that was partly didactic. Their object was to entertain the +ladies and to gratify a taste for endlessly wire-drawn sentimentality, +but it was also to teach fortitude and grandeur of soul +and to inculcate lessons of practical chivalry. La Calprenède +followed up the success of his <i>Cassandre</i> with a <i>Cléopâtre</i> (1647) +in twelve volumes, and a <i>Faramond</i> (1661) which he did not live +to finish. He became more extravagant, more rhapsodical as +he proceeded, and he lost all the little hold on history which he +had ever held. <i>Cléopâtre</i>, nevertheless, enjoyed a prodigious +popularity, and it became the fashion to emulate as far as +possible the prowess of its magnificent hero, the proud Artaban. +It should be said that la Calprenède objected to his books being +styled romances, and insisted that they were specimens of +“history embellished with certain inventions.” He may, in +opposition to his wishes, claim the doubtful praise of being, in +reality, the creator of the modern historical novel. He was +immediately imitated or accompanied by a large number of +authors, of whom two have achieved a certain immortality, +which, unhappily, must be confessed to be partly of ridicule. +The vogue of the historical romance was carried to its height by +a brother and a sister, Georges de Scudéry (1601-1667) and +Madeleine de Scudéry (1608-1701), who represented in their +own persons all the extravagant, tempestuous and absurd +elements of the age, and whose elephantine romances remain as +portents in the history of literature. These novels—there +are five of them—were signed by Georges de Scudéry, but it is +believed that all were in the main written by Madeleine. The +earliest was <i>Ibrahim, ou l’Illustre Bassa</i> (1641); it was followed +by <i>Le Grand Cyrus</i> (1648-1653) and the final, and most preposterous +member of the series was <i>Clélie</i> (1649-1654). The +romances of Mlle de Scudéry (for to her we may safely attribute +them) are much inferior in style to those of la Calprenède. They +are pretentious, affected and sickly. The author abuses the +element of analysis, and pushes a psychology, which was beyond +the age in penetration, to a wearisome and excessive extent. +Nothing, it is probable, in the whole evolution of the Historical +Romances has attracted so much attention as the “Carte de +Tendre” which occurs in the opening book of <i>Clélie</i>. This +celebrated map, drawn by the heroine in order to show the route +from New Friendship to Tender, and a geographical symbol, +therefore, of the progress of love, with its city of Tender-upon-Esteem, +its sea of Enmity, its river of Inclination, its rock-built +citadel of Pride, its cold lake of Indifference, is a miracle of +elaborate and incongruous ingenuity. But, amusing as it is, +it shows into what depths of puerility the amorous casuistry of +these romances had fallen. These novels formed the chief +topic of conversation and of correspondence in the literary +society which gathered at and around the Hotel de Rambouillet, +and in the personages of Mlle de Scudéry’s romances could be +recognized all the famous leaders of that society. The mawkish +love-making and the false heroism of these monstrous novels +went rapidly out of fashion in France soon after 1660, when the +epoch of the Heroic Romance came to an end. In England the +Heroic Romance had a period of flourishing popularity. All +the principal French examples were very promptly translated, +and “he was not to be admitted into the academy of wit who +had not read <i>Astrea</i> and <i>The Grand Cyrus</i>.” The great vogue +of these books in England lasted from about 1645 to 1660. +It led, of course, to the composition of original works in imitation +of the French. The most remarkable and successful of these +was <i>Parthenissa</i>, published in 1654 by Roger Boyle, Lord +Broghill and afterwards Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), which was +greatly admired by Dorothy Osborne and her correspondents. +Addison speaks in the “Spectator” of the popularity of all +these huge books, “the <i>Grand Cyrus</i>, with a pin stuck in one of +the middle leaves, <i>Clélie</i>, which opened of itself in the place that +describes two lovers in a bower.” When the drama, and in +particular tragedy, was reinstituted in England, sentimental +readers found a field for their emotions on the stage, and the +heroic romances immediately began to go out of fashion. They +lingered, however, for a quarter of a century more, and M. +Jusserand has analysed what may be considered the very +latest of the race, <i>Pandion and Amphigenia</i>, published in 1665 +by the dramatist, John Crowne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gordon de Percel, <i>De l’usage des romans</i> (1734); André Le +Breton, <i>Le Roman au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1890); Paul Morillot, <i>Le Roman +en France depuis 1610</i> (1894); J. J. Jusserand, <i>Le Roman anglais au +XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEROIC VERSE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, a term exclusively used in English to +Indicate the rhymed iambic line or <span class="sc">Heroic Couplet</span>. In ancient +literature, the heroic verse, <span class="grk" title="hêrôikon metron">ἡρωικὸν μέτρον</span>, was synonymous +with the dactylic hexameter. It was in this measure that those +typically heroic poems, the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> and the <i>Aeneid</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +were written. In English, however, it was not enough to +designate a single iambic line of five beats as heroic verse, because +it was necessary to distinguish blank verse from the distich, +which was formed by the heroic couplet. This had escaped the +notice of Dryden, when he wrote “The English Verse, which we +call Heroic, consists of no more than ten syllables.” If that +were the case, then <i>Paradise Lost</i> would be written in heroic +verse, which is not true. What Dryden should have said is +“consists of two rhymed lines, each of ten syllables.” In French +the alexandrine has always been regarded as the heroic measure +of that language. The dactylic movement of the heroic line in +ancient Greek, the famous <span class="grk" title="rhythmos hêrôos">ῥυθμὸς ἡρῷος</span> of Homer, is expressed +in modern Europe by the iambic movement. The consequence +is that much of the rush and energy of the antique verse, which +at vigorous moments was like the charge of a battalion, is lost. +It is owing to this, in part, that the heroic couplet is so often +required to give, in translation, the full value of a single Homeric +hexameter. It is important to insist that it is the couplet, not +the single line, which constitutes heroic verse. It is interesting +to note that the Latin poet Ennius, as reported by Cicero, called +the heroic metre of one line <i>versum longum</i>, to distinguish it +from the brevity of lyrical measures. The current form of +English heroic verse appears to be the invention of Chaucer, +who used it in his <i>Legend of Good Women</i> and afterwards, with +still greater freedom, in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>. Here is an +example of it in its earliest development:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“And thus the longë day in fight they spend,</p> +<p class="i05">Till, at the last, as everything hath end,</p> +<p class="i05">Anton is shent, and put him to the flight,</p> +<p class="i05">And all his folk to go, as best go might.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This way of writing was misunderstood and neglected by Chaucer’s +English disciples, but was followed nearly a century later by the +Scottish poet, called Blind Harry (<i>c.</i> 1475), whose <i>Wallace</i> holds +an important place in the history of versification as having +passed on the tradition of the heroic couplet. Another Scottish +poet, Gavin Douglas, selected heroic verse for his translation of +the <i>Aeneid</i> (1513), and displayed, in such examples as the following, +a skill which left little room for improvement at the hands of +later poets:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“One sang, ‘The ship sails over the salt foam,</p> +<p class="i05">Will bring the merchants and my leman home’;</p> +<p class="i05">Some other sings, ‘I will be blithe and light,</p> +<p class="i05">Mine heart is leant upon so goodly wight.’”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The verse so successfully mastered was, however, not very +generally used for heroic purposes in Tudor literature. The early +poets of the revival, and Spenser and Shakespeare after them, +greatly preferred stanzaic forms. For dramatic purposes blank +verse was almost exclusively used, although the French had +adopted the rhymed alexandrine for their plays. In the earlier +half of the 17th century, heroic verse was often put to somewhat +unheroic purposes, mainly in prologues and epilogues, or other short +poems of occasion; but it was nobly redeemed by Marlowe in his +<i>Hero and Leander</i> and respectably by Browne in his <i>Britannia’s +Pastorals</i>. It is to be noted, however, that those Elizabethans +who, like Chapman, Warner and Drayton, aimed at producing a +warlike and Homeric effect, did so in shambling fourteen-syllable +couplets. The one heroic poem of that age written at considerable +length in the appropriate national metre is the <i>Bosworth Field</i> of +Sir John Beaumont (1582-1628). Since the middle of the 17th +century, when heroic verse became the typical and for a while +almost the solitary form in which serious English poetry was +written, its history has known many vicissitudes. After having +been the principal instrument of Dryden and Pope, it was almost +entirely rejected by Wordsworth and Coleridge, but revised, +with various modifications, by Byron, Shelley (in <i>Julian and +Maddalo</i>) and Keats (in <i>Lamia</i>). In the second half of the 19th +century its prestige was restored by the brilliant work of Swinburne +in <i>Tristram</i> and elsewhere.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1791-1833), French +musician, the son of François Joseph Hérold, an accomplished +pianist, was born in Paris, on the 28th of January 1791. It was +not till after his father’s death that Hérold in 1806 entered the +Paris conservatoire, where he studied under Catal and Méhul. +In 1812 he gained the grand prix de Rome with the cantata +<i>La Duchesse de la Vallière</i>, and started for Italy, where he remained +till 1815 and composed a symphony, a cantata and +several pieces of chamber music. During his stay in Italy also +Hérold for the first time ventured on the stage with the opera +<i>La Gioventù di Enrico V.</i>, first performed at Naples in 1815 with +moderate success. During a short stay in Vienna he was much +in the society of Salieri. Returning to Paris he was invited by +Boieldieu to collaborate with him on an opera called <i>Charles de +France</i>, performed in 1816, and soon followed by Hérold’s first +French opera, <i>Les Rosières</i> (1817), which was received very +favourably. Hérold produced numerous dramatic works for the +next fifteen years in rapid succession. Only the names of some of +the more important need here be mentioned:—<i>La Clochette</i> (1817), +<i>L’Auteur mort et vivant</i> (1820), <i>Marie</i> (1826), and the ballets <i>La +Fille mal gardée</i> (1828) and <i>La Belle au bois dormant</i> (1829). +Hérold also wrote a vast quantity of pianoforte music, in spite of +his time being much occupied by his duties as accompanist at the +Italian opera in Paris. In 1831 he produced the romantic opera +<i>Zampa</i>, and in the following year <i>Le Pré aux clercs</i> (first performance +December 15, 1832), in which French <i>esprit</i> and French +chivalry find their most perfect embodiment. These two operas +secured immortality for the name of the composer, who died on +the 18th of January 1833, of the lung disease from which he had +suffered for many years, and the effects of which he had accelerated +by incessant work. Hérold’s incomplete opera <i>Ludovic</i> was +afterwards printed by J. F. F. Halévy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERON<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Fr. <i>héron</i>; Ital. <i>aghirone</i>, <i>airone</i>; Lat. <i>ardea</i>; +Gr. <span class="grk" title="erôdios">ἐρωδιός</span>: A.-S. <i>hragra</i>; Icelandic, <i>hegre</i>; Swed. <i>häger</i>; +Dan. <i>heire</i>; Ger. <i>Heiger</i>, <i>Reiher</i>, <i>Heergans</i>; Dutch, <i>reiger</i>), a +long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical +representative of the group <i>Ardeidae</i>. It is difficult or even impossible +to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of +<i>Ardeidae</i> which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863 +enumerated 61, besides 5 of what he terms “conspecies,” as +contained in the collection at Leyden (<i>Mus. des Pays-Bas</i>, +Ardeae, 64 pp.),—on the other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871 +(<i>Handlist</i>, &c. iii. 26-34) admitted above 90, while Dr Anton +Reichenow (<i>Journ. für Ornithologie</i>, 1877, pp. 232-275) recognizes +67 as known, besides 15 “subspecies” and 3 varieties, arranging +them in 3 genera, <i>Nycticorax</i>, <i>Botaurus</i> and <i>Ardea</i>, with 17 sub-genera. +But it is difficult to separate the family, with any +satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have to +be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost +insensibly into each other—though in common language it is +easy to speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +boatbills. With the exception of the last, Professor Schlegel +retains all in the genus <i>Ardea</i>, dividing it into <i>eight</i> sections, the +names of which may perhaps be Englished—great herons, small +herons, egrets, semi-egrets, rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns +and night-herons.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:476px" src="images/img386.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Heron.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The common heron of Europe, <i>Ardea cinerea</i> of Linnaeus, is +universally allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also +be regarded as that of Professor Schlegel’s first section. The +species inhabits suitable localities throughout the whole of +Europe, Africa and Asia, reaching Japan, many of the islands +of the Indian Archipelago and even Australia. Though by no +means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is still sufficiently +common,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and there must be few persons who have not seen it +rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing overhead +in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its +daily haunts; while they are many who have been entertained +by watching it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly +of fishes (especially eels and flounders) and amphibians—though +young birds and small mammals come not amiss—wading midleg +in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out of its depth, or +standing motionless to strike its prey with its formidable and sure +beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in societies, +known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by law +and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the +sport their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly +owing to the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and +still more, it would seem, from agricultural improvement, which, +by draining meres, fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding-places +of a great population of herons, many of the larger +heronries have broken up—the birds composing them dispersing +to neighbouring localities and forming smaller settlements, most +of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of heronry, though +commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called +heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and +Wales, has become far greater than formerly, but no one can +doubt that the number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen +by the heron for its nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the +top of a lofty tree, but not unfrequently (and this seems to have +been much more usual in former days) near or on the ground +among rough vegetation, on an island in a lake, or again on a +rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a huge mass of +sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs, and in it +are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are clothed +in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a considerable +time, therein differing remarkably from the “pipers” of the +crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched. +The first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way +resemble those of the adult, but the pure white breast, the +black throat-streaks and especially the long pendent plumes, +which characterize only the very old birds, and are most beautiful +in the cocks, are subsequently acquired. The heron measures +about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the expanse of its wings is +sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs only between 3 and +4 ℔.</p> + +<p>Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in +size by the great blue heron of America (<i>Ardea herodias</i>), which +generally resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are +smaller than the <i>A. sumatrana</i> or <i>A. typhon</i> of India and the +Malay Archipelago, while the <i>A. goliath</i>, of wide distribution in +Africa and Asia, is the largest of all. The purple heron, <i>A. +purpurea</i>, as a well-known European species having a great +range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The +species included in Professor Schlegel’s second section inhabit the +tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets, +forming his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they +are by their pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by +the beautiful dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily +droop over the tail, and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by +Oriental magnates. The largest species is <i>A. occidentalis</i>, only +known apparently from Florida and Cuba; but one not much +less, the great egret (<i>A. alba</i>), belongs to the Old World, breeding +regularly in south-eastern Europe, and occasionally straying to +Britain. A third, <i>A. egretta</i>, represents it in America, while much +the same may be said of two smaller species, <i>A. garzetta</i>, the little +egret of English authors, and <i>A. candidissima</i>; and a sixth, +<i>A. intermedia</i>, is common in India, China and Japan, besides +occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing +some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron +(<i>A. bubulcus</i>), is the only species that is known to have occurred in +Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except +by their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species +with slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons +form Professor Schlegel’s next section, but it can scarcely be +satisfactorily differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its +members have no rail-like affinities, though the typical species, +which inhabits the south of Europe, and occasionally finds its +way to England, has long been known as <i>A. ralloides</i>.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Nearly +all these birds are tropical or subtropical. Then there is the +somewhat better defined group of little bitterns, containing +about a dozen species—the smallest of the whole family. One +of them, <i>A. minuta</i>, though very local in its distribution, is a +native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England. +It has a close counterpart in the <i>A. exilis</i> of North America, and +is represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world, +the <i>A. pusilla</i> of Australia especially differing very slightly from +it. Ranged by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all +remarkable for their skulking habits, but more resembling the true +herons in their nature, are the common green bittern of America +(<i>A. virescens</i>) and its very near ally the African <i>A. atricapilla</i>, +from which last it is almost impossible to distinguish the <i>A. +javanica</i>, of wide range throughout Asia and its islands, while +other species, less closely related, occur elsewhere as <i>A. flavicollis</i>—one +form of which, <i>A. gouldi</i>, inhabits Australia.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:373px; height:505px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Bittern.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The true bitterns, forming the genus <i>Botaurus</i> of most authors, +seem to be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their +wholly nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage +than on strictly structural grounds, though some differences of +proportion are observable. The common bittern (<i>q.v.</i>) of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +Europe (<i>B. stellaris</i>), is widely distributed over the eastern +hemisphere.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Australia and New Zealand have a kindred species, +<i>B. poeciloptilus</i>, and North America a third, <i>B. mugitans</i><a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> or +<i>B. lentiginosus</i>. Nine other species from various parts of the +world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some of them +should perhaps be excluded from the genus <i>Botaurus</i>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 440px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:390px; height:445px" src="images/img388.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Boatbill.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all +of which may be reasonably placed in the genus <i>Nycticorax</i>, +characterized by a shorter beak and a few other peculiarities, +among which the large eyes deserve mention. The first is <i>N. +griseus</i>, a bird widely spread over the Old World, and not unfrequently +visiting England, where it would undoubtedly breed if +permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the common night-heron +of America; but this, though very closely allied, is generally +deemed distinct, and is the <i>N. naevius</i> or <i>N. gardeni</i> of most +writers. A clearly different American species, with a more +southern habitat, is the <i>N. violaceus</i> or <i>N. cayennensis</i>, while others +are found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands +and in West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species, +<i>N. pauper</i>, and +another, so far +as is known, +peculiar to +Rodriguez, <i>N. +megacephalus</i>, +existed in that +island at the +time of its being +first colonized, +but is now +extinct.</p> + +<p>The boatbill, +of which only +one species is +known, seems +to be merely +a night-heron +with an exaggerated +bill,—so +much +widened as to +suggest its +English name,—but +has always +been allowed generic rank. This curious bird, the +<i>Cancroma cochlearia</i> of most authors, is a native of tropical +America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are +essentially those of a <i>Nycticorax</i>.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in +the peat of the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and +Langy in France have been referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards +to herons under the names of <i>Ardea perplexa</i> and <i>A. formosa</i>; a +tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am Albuch by Dr Fraas to an +<i>A. similis</i>, while Sir R. Owen recognized a portion of a sternum +from the London Clay as most nearly approaching this family.</p> + +<p>It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley’s section +<i>Pelargomorphae</i>, belonging to his larger group <i>Desmognathae</i>, and +to draw attention to the singular development of the patches +of “powder-down” which in the family <i>Ardeidae</i> attain a +magnitude hardly to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly +unknown.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In many parts of England it is generally called a “hernser”—being +a corruption of “heronsewe,” which, as Professor Skeat states +(<i>Etymol. Dictionary</i>, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct word from +“heronshaw,” commonly confounded with it. The further corruption +of “hernser” into “handsaw,” as in the well-known proverb, +was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was +unfamiliar.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is the “Squacco-Heron” of modern British authors—the +distinctive name, given “Sguacco” by Willughby and Ray from +Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England +was in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (<i>Birds of Norfolk</i>, ii. +164).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (<i>Fauna Boreali-Americana</i>, +ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet) exactly +resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American ornithologists +seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes when +disturbed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The very wonderful shoe-bird (<i>Balaeniceps</i>) has been regarded by +many authorities as allied to <i>Cancroma</i>; but there can be little doubt +that it is more nearly related to the genus <i>Scopus</i> belonging to the +storks. The sun-bittern (<i>Eurypyga</i>) forms a family of itself, allied +to the rails and cranes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERPES<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="herpein">ἕρπειν</span>, to creep), an inflammation of +the true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or +its ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped +vesicles of various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a +clear fluid, and either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked +varieties of herpes are frequently met with. (<i>a</i>) In <i>herpes +labialis et nasalis</i> the eruption occurs about the lips and nose. +It is seen in cases of certain acute febrile ailments, such as fevers, +inflammation of the lungs or even in a severe cold. It soon passes +off. (<i>b</i>) In the <i>herpes zoster, zona</i> or “shingles” the eruption +occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous nerves, often on one +side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs or other parts. +It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently met +with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually +preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and, +not only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long +after they have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes +continue and give rise to great suffering. The disease seldom +recurs. The most that can be done for its relief is to protect the +parts with cotton wool or some dusting powder, while the pain +may be allayed by opiates or bromide of potassium. Quinine +internally is often of service.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRERA, FERNANDO DE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical +poet, was born at Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed +many impassioned poems to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro +Colon de Portugal; but it is suggested that these should be +regarded as Platonic literary exercises in the manner of Petrarch. +As is shown by his <i>Anotaciones á las obras de Garcilaso de la Vega</i> +(1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for the Italian +poets, and continued the work of Boscán in naturalizing the +Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso +involved him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal +innovations laid him open to attack. But, even if his amatory +sonnets are condemned as insincere in sentiment, their workmanship +is admirable, while his odes on the battle of Lepanto, on +Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King Sebastian of Portugal +entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian poets and as the +most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vega</a></span>). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with +additions in 1619; they are reissued in the <i>Biblioteca de autores +españoles</i>, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera’s prose works only the <i>Vida y +muerta de Tomas Moro</i> (1592) survives; it is a translation of the +life in Thomas Stapleton’s <i>Tres Thomae</i> (1588).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—E. Bourciez, “Les Sonnets de Fernando de +Herrera,” <i>Annales de la Faculté des Lettres de Bordeaux</i> (1891); +<i>Fernando de Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones á les obras +de Garcilaso de la Vega</i> (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, <i>L’Hymne +sur Lépante</i> (Paris, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRERA, FRANCISCO<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the +old), Spanish historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis +Fernandez in Seville, his native city, where he spent most of his +life. Although so rough and coarse in manners that neither +scholar nor child could remain with him, the great talents of +Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used them, brought +him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in +bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with +coining base money. From this accusation, whether true or +false, he sought sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermenegildo, +which he adorned with a fine picture of its patron saint. +Philip IV., on his visit to Seville in 1624, having seen this picture, +and learned the position of the artist, pardoned him at once, warning +him, however, that such powers as his should not be degraded. +In 1650 Herrera removed to Madrid, where he lived in great honour +till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first to relinquish the +timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of painting, and +to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which reached such +perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his pupil. +His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of +execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is +said to have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also +said that, when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours +on the canvas with a broom under his directions, and that he +worked them up into his designs before they dried. The drawing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +in his pictures is correct, and the colouring original and skilfully +managed, so that the figures stand out in striking relief. What +has been considered his best easel-work, the “Last Judgment,” in +the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an original and striking +composition, showing in its treatment of the nude how ill-founded +the common belief was that Spanish painters, through ignorance +of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his best +fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura; +but many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the +weather and others by the artist’s own carelessness in preparing +his surfaces. He has, however, preserved several of his own +designs in etchings. For his easel-works Herrera often chose such +humble subjects as fairs, carnivals, ale-houses and the like.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Francisco Herrara</span> (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo +(the young), was also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to +endure his father’s cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what +money he could find, fled from Seville to Rome. There, instead +of devoting himself to the antiquities and the works of the old +Italian masters, he gave himself up to the study of architecture +and perspective, with the view of becoming a fresco-painter. He +did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became renowned for +his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his skill in +painting fish was called by the Italians <i>Lo Spagnuolo degli pesci</i>. +In later life he painted portraits with great success. He returned +to Seville on hearing of his father’s death, and in 1660 was +appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo. +His vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and +throwing up his appointment he went to Madrid. There he was +employed to paint a San Hermenegildo for the barefooted +Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco the roof of the choir of San +Felipe el Real. The success of this last work procured for him a +commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco the roof of the +Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the Assumption +of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title of +painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the +royal buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo +was of a somewhat similar temperament to his father, and offended +many people by his inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy. +His pictures are inferior to the older Herrera’s both in design and +in execution; but in some of them traces of the vigour of his +father, who was his first teacher, are visible. He was by no +means an unskilful colourist, and was especially master of the +effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund Head in +his <i>Handbook</i> names his “San Francisco,” in Seville Cathedral. +An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who +died very young, gave great promise as a painter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1549-1625), +Spanish historian, was born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia +in Spain. His father, Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother, +Agnes de Herrera, were both of good family. After studying for +some time in his native country, Herrera proceeded to Italy, and +there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago, with whom, on +his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to Spain. +Gonzago, sensible of his secretary’s abilities, commended him to +Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first +historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of +Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary, +Herrera devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature, +retaining his offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was +appointed secretary of state very shortly before his death, +which took place at Madrid on the 29th of March 1625. Of +Herrera’s writings, the most valuable is his <i>Historia general de +los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del Mar +Oceano</i> (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a work which relates the +history of the Spanish-American colonies from 1492 to 1554. +The author’s official position gave him access to the state papers +and to other authentic sources not attainable by other writers, +while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS., +especially from that of Bartolomé de Las Casas. He used his +facilities carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on +the whole accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable +to the student either of the history of the early colonies, or of the +institutions and customs of the aboriginal American peoples. +Although it is written in the form of annals, mistakes are not +wanting, and several glaring anachronisms have been pointed +out by M. J. Quintana. “If,” to quote Dr Robertson, +“by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New +World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events +in his work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected +and obscure that it is an unpleasant task to collect from different +parts of his book and piece together the detached shreds of a +story, he might justly have been ranked among the most eminent +historians of his country.” This work was republished in 1730, +and has been translated into English by J. Stevens (London, +1740), and into other European languages.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Herrera’s other works are the following: <i>Historia de lo sucedido +en Escocia é Inglaterra en quarenta y quatro años que vivió la reyna +Maria Estuarda</i> (Madrid, 1589); <i>Cinco libros de la historia de +Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Açores, 1582-1583</i> (Madrid, +1591); <i>Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594</i> (Madrid, +1598); <i>Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II, +desde 1559 hasta su muerte</i> (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); <i>Tratado, +relacion, y discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon</i> (Madrid, +1612); <i>Comentarios de los hechos de los Españoles, Franceses, y +Venecianos en Italia, &c., 1281-1559</i> (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H. +Prescott, <i>History of the Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRICK, ROBERT<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1591-1674), English poet, was born at +Cheapside, London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591. +He belonged to an old Leicestershire family which had settled in +London. He was the seventh child of Nicholas Herrick, goldsmith, +of the city of London, who died in 1592, under suspicion +of suicide. The children were brought up by their uncle, Sir +William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to +whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably +been educated at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to +Cambridge; and it was no doubt during his apprenticeship that +the young poet was introduced to that circle of wits which he was +afterwards to adorn. He seems to have been present at the first +performance of <i>The Alchemist</i> in 1610, and it was probably about +this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical “son.” +He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John’s +College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his +degree, he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen +letters to his uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beaumanoir, +and shows that Herrick suffered much from poverty at +the university. He took his B.A. in 1617, and in 1620 he became +master of arts. From this date until 1627 we entirely lose sight of +him; it has been variously conjectured that he spent these years +preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much looser +pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by +the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in +Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when +he was ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed +him at first; the village was dull and remote, and he felt very +bitterly that he was cut off from all literary and social associations; +but soon the quiet existence in Devonshire soothed and +delighted him. He was pleased with the rural and semi-pagan +customs that survived in the village, and in some of his most +charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances, wakes +and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night +revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick +never married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy +family of pets, and tended by an excellent old servant named +Prudence Baldwin. His first appearance in print was in some +verses he contributed to <i>A Description of the King and Queen +of Fairies</i>, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of <i>Wit’s Recreations</i> +contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by +Herrick in the <i>Hesperides</i>, and one not reprinted until our own +day. These partial appearances make it probable that he visited +London from time to time. We have few hints of his life as a +clergyman. Anthony Wood says that Herricks’s sermons were +florid and witty, and that he was “beloved by the neighbouring +gentry.” A very aged woman, one Dorothy King, stated that +the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation, cursing them +for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his +favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +was a devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil +War, and immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his +celebrated collection of lyrical poems, entitled <i>Hesperides; or the +Works both Human and Divine of Robert Herrick</i>. The “divine +works” bore the title of <i>Noble Numbers</i> and the date 1647. +That he was reduced to great poverty in London has been stated, +but there is no evidence of the fact. In August 1662 Herrick +returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own supplanter, Dr +John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was buried +at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his +memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a +descendant of a collateral branch of the family. The <i>Hesperides</i> +(and <i>Noble Numbers</i>) is the only volume which Herrick published, +but he contributed poems to <i>Lachrymae Musarum</i> (1649) and to +<i>Wit’s Recreations</i>.</p> + +<p>As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets. +His genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious, +but in its own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems—and of the +thirteen hundred that he has left behind him not one is long—are +like jewels of various value, heaped together in a casket. +Some are of the purest water, radiant with light and colour, +some were originally set in false metal that has tarnished, some +were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of the unarranged, +heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not worth +reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is astonished +at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains. +Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his +sylvan muse when he says:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers,</p> +<p class="i05">Of April, May, of June and July flowers,</p> +<p class="i05">I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes,</p> +<p class="i05">Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no +one before him had seen it, and he described it in his verse +with a certain purple glow of Arcadian romance over it, in +tones of immortal vigour and freshness. His love poems are +still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour and +tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of +modern lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace +and in the poets of the Greek anthology.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the +fame of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his +poems to the readers of the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> of 1796 and 1797. +Dr Drake followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810 +interest had so far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured +to print a selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable +notice of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>. In 1823 the <i>Hesperides</i> and the +<i>Noble Numbers</i> were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland, +afterwards Lord Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick’s +have been too numerous to be mentioned here; there are few +English poets of the 17th century whose writings are now more +accessible. See F. W. Moorman, <i>Robert Herrick</i> (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1778-1855), English politician, +son of a London merchant, began his career as a junior clerk +in the treasury, and became known for his financial abilities +as private secretary to successive ministers. He was appointed +commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the abolition of that office +(1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he entered parliament +as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became chancellor of the +exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of internal +differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries, the +ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master +of the mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade, +and for the earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war. +From 1841 to 1847 he was out of parliament, but during 1852 +he was president of the board of control under Lord Derby. +He was a consistent and upright Tory of the old school, who +carried weight as an authority on financial subjects. His eldest +son, <span class="sc">Sir Charles John Herries</span> (1815-1882), was chairman +of the board of inland revenue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life</i> by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Lord</span> (<i>c.</i> 1512-1583), +Scottish politician, was the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th +Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he married Agnes (d. 1594), +daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries (d. 1543), a +grandson of Herbert Herries (d. <i>c.</i> 1500) of Terregles, Kirkcudbrightshire, +who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament +about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries. +But before this event Maxwell had become prominent among +the men who rallied round Mary queen of Scots, although +during the earlier part of his public life he had been associated +with the religious reformers and had been imprisoned by the +regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover—at least until +1563—very friendly with John Knox, who calls him “a man +zealous and stout in God’s cause.” But the transition from one +party to the other was gradually accomplished, and from March +1566, when Maxwell joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder +of David Rizzio and her escape from Holyrood, he remained one +of her staunchest friends, although he disliked her marriage with +Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and after this battle +she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with the queen +into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of +Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York. +He continued to labour in Mary’s cause after returning to +Scotland, and was imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also +incurred Elizabeth’s displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard +Dacres, but he soon made his peace with the English queen. +He showed himself in general hostile to the regent Morton, but +he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox until his +death on the 20th of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord +Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches.</p> + +<p>William’s grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became +3rd earl of Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell, +the 2nd earl, in 1667. John’s grandson was William, 5th earl of +Nithsdale, the Jacobite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nithsdale</a></span>). William was deprived +of his honours in 1716, but in 1858 the House of Lords decided +that his descendant William Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was +rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In 1876 William’s son Marmaduke +Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became 12th Lord Herries, +and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRING<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (<i>Clupea harengus</i>, <i>Häring</i> in German, <i>le hareng</i> +in French, <i>sill</i> in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus <i>Clupea</i>, +of which more than sixty different species are known in various +parts of the globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad +are species of the same genus. Of all sea-fishes <i>Clupeae</i> are the +most abundant; for although other genera may comprise a +greater variety of species, they are far surpassed by <i>Clupea</i> +with regard to the number of individuals. The majority of the +species of <i>Clupea</i> are of greater or less utility to man; it is only +a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their food, +highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons +eating them. But no other species equals the common herring +in importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in +incredible numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the +Atlantic and the seas north of Asia. The herring inhabiting +the corresponding latitudes of the North Pacific is another +species, but most closely allied to that of the eastern hemisphere. +Formerly it was the general belief that the herring inhabits +the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates +at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and +America. This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we +know now that this fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity +of our shores, but at a greater depth, and at a greater distance +from the coast, than at the time when it approaches land for +the purpose of spawning.</p> + +<p>Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the +other species of <i>Clupea</i> by having an ovate patch of very small +teeth on the vomer (that is, the centre of the palate). In the +dorsal fin they have from 17 to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from +16 to 18; there are from 53 to 59 scales in the lateral line and +54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral column. They have a +smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of bone which +are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other <i>Clupeae</i>. The +sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth +on the vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line.</p> + +<p>The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +rough gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and +always in comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning +is different in different places, and even in the same district, <i>e.g.</i> +the east coast of Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring +and others in autumn. These are not the same fish but different +races. Those which breed in winter or spring deposit their +spawn near the coast at the mouths of estuaries, and ascend the +estuaries to a considerable distance at certain times, as in the +Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which spawn in summer or +autumn belong more to the open sea, <i>e.g.</i> the great shoals that +visit the North Sea annually.</p> + +<p>Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer’s +observations, they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during +the first month after hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second, +45 to 50 mm. during the third, 55 to 61 mm. during the fourth, +and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The size which they finally +attain and their general condition depend chiefly on the abundance +of food (which consists of crustaceans and other small +marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the season +at which they have been hatched, &c. Their usual size is +about 12 in., but in some particularly suitable localities they +grow to a length of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring +17 in. are on record. In the Baltic, where the water is gradually +losing its saline constituents, thus becoming less adapted for +the development of marine species, the herring continues to +exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not growing +either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring. +The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically +identical with that of Europe. A second species (<i>Clupea leachii</i>) +has been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises +only individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or +late spawn. Also the so-called “white-bait” is not a distinct +species, but consists chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings +and sprats, and is obtained “in perfection” at localities where +these small fishes find an abundance of food, as in the estuary +of the Thames.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published, +as by Valenciennes in the 20th vol. of the <i>Histoire naturelle des +poissons</i>, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, <i>The Herring, +its Natural History and National Importance</i> (Edinburgh, 1864). +Recent investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery +<i>Board for Scotland</i>, and in the reports of the German <i>Kommission +zur Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere</i> (published at Kiel).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRING-BONE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a term in architecture applied to alternate +courses of bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding +courses above and below: this is said to give a better bond to +the wall, especially when the stone employed is stratified, such +as Stonefield stone, and too thin to be laid in horizontal courses. +Although it is only occasionally found in modern buildings, it +was a type of construction constantly employed in Roman, +Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is regarded +as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the Byzantine +walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed +decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the +diagonal courses are reversed one above the other. Examples +in France exist in the churches at Querqueville in Normandy +and St Christophe at Suèvres (Loir et Cher), both dating from +the 10th century, and in England herring-bone masonry is +found in the walls of castles, such as at Guildford, Colchester and +Tamworth. The term is also applied to the paving of stable +yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating so that the +head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the +effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> the name applied to the +action of Rouvray, fought in 1429 between the French (and +Scots) and the English, who, under Sir John Falstolfe (or +Falstaff), were convoying Lenten provisions, chiefly herrings, +to the besiegers of Orleans. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orleans</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hundred +Years’ War</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERRNHUT,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, +18 m. S.E. of Bautzen, and situated on the Löbau-Zittau railway. +Pop. 1200. It is chiefly known as the principal seat of +the Moravian or Bohemian brotherhood, the members of which +are called <i>Herrnhuter</i>. A colony of these people, fleeing from +persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut in 1722 on a site +presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the society +include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the sisters +and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an ethnographical +museum and other collections of interest. The town +is remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous +cleanliness. Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives +its name), tobacco and various minor articles are manufactured. +The Hutberg, at the foot of which the town lies, commands a +pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village about a mile distant, has +been the seat of the directorate of the community since about +1789.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1750-1848), English +astronomer, sister of Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and +fourth daughter of her parents, was born at Hanover on the +16th of March 1750. On account of the prejudices of her mother, +who did not desire her to know more than was necessary for +being useful in the family, she received, in youth only the first +elements of education. After the death of her father in 1767 she +obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a +view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother +in the management of the household until the autumn of 1772, +when she joined her brother William, who had established himself +as a teacher of music at Bath. At once she became a valuable +co-operator with him both in his professional duties and in the +astronomical researches to which he had already begun to devote +all his spare time. She was the principal singer at his oratorio +concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she +was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which, +however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office +of astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant +in his observations, and also executed the laborious calculations +which were connected with them. For these services +she received from the king in 1787 a salary of £50 a year. Her +chief amusement during her leisure hours was sweeping the +heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this means she +detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the +eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with unquestioned +priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal +Society an Index to Flamsteed’s observations, together with a +catalogue of 561 stars accidentally omitted from the “British +Catalogue,” and a list of the errata in that publication. Though +she returned to Hanover in 1822 she did not abandon her astronomical +studies, and in 1828 she completed the reduction, to +January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother. In +1828 the Astronomical Society, to mark their sense of the benefits +conferred on science by such a series of laborious exertions, +unanimously resolved to present her with their gold medal, and +in 1835 elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846 +she received a gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on +the 9th of January 1848.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel</i>, by Mrs +John Herschel (1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1738-1822), +generally known as Sir William Herschel, English astronomer, +was born at Hanover on the 15th of November 1738. His +father was a musician employed as hautboy player in the +Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony +in the early part of the 17th century on account of religious +troubles, they themselves being Protestants. Herschel’s earlier +education was necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly +owing to the warlike commotions of his country; but being at +all times an indomitable student, he, by his own exertions, more +than repaired this deficiency. He became a very skilful musician, +both theoretical and practical; while his attainments as a +self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to the prosecution +of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently advanced +and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and +thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret +of what Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific +success.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span></p> + +<p>In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the +Hanoverian guard, and with his detachment visited England +in 1755, accompanied by his father and eldest brother; in the +following year he returned to his native country; but the +hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years’ War imperilling +his health, his parents privately removed him from the +regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to +England. There, as might have been expected, the earlier part +of his career was attended with formidable difficulties and much +privation. We find him engaged in several towns in the north +of England as organist and teacher of music, which were not +lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began to +flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to +the Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth +and fashion of the city.</p> + +<p>During the next five or six years he became the leading musical +authority, and the director of all the chief public musical entertainments +at Bath. His circumstances having thus become +easier, he revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back +with him his sister Caroline, whose services he much needed in +his multifarious undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August +1772, being at that time in her twenty-third year. She thus +describes her brother’s life soon after her arrival: “He used +to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass of water, with +Smith’s <i>Harmonics</i> and Ferguson’s <i>Astronomy</i>, &c., and so went +to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first thoughts +on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those +objects himself of which he had been reading.” It is not without +significance that we find him thus reading Smith’s <i>Harmonics</i>; +to that study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a +reward for his thoroughness this led him to Smith’s <i>Optics</i>; +and this, by a natural sequence, again led him to astronomy, +for the purposes of which the chief optical instruments were +devised. It was in this way that he was introduced to the +writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to those of +Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer +of undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very +expensive and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet +perfected even their beautiful little achromatics of 2¾ in. aperture. +So Herschel was obliged to content himself with hiring a small +Gregorian reflector of about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen +exposed for loan in a tradesman’s shop. Not satisfied with this +implement, he procured a small lens of about 18 ft. focal length, +and set his sister to work on a pasteboard tube to match it, so as +to make him a telescope. This unsatisfactory material was soon +replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort of vision was obtained of +Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought in London for +a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such instrument +was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a +reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too +exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own. +So he was driven to the only alternative that remained; he +must himself build a large telescope. His first step in this +direction was to purchase the débris of an amateur’s implements +for grinding and polishing small mirrors; and thus, by slow +degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he in 1774 had, as +he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a Newtonian +telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he +was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary, +he had from the very first conceived the gigantic project of +surveying the entire heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining +the plan of their general structure by a settled mode of procedure, +if only he could provide himself with adequate instrumental +means. For this purpose he, his brother and his sister toiled +for many years at the grinding and polishing of hundreds of +specula, always retaining the best and recasting the others, until +the most perfect of the earlier products had been surpassed. +This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of the year +when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place, and +had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774 +every available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped-for +scrutiny of the skies. In those days no machinery had been +invented for the construction of telescopic mirrors; the man +who had the hardihood to undertake polishing them doomed +himself to walk leisurely and uniformly round an upright post +for many hours, without removing his hands from the mirror, until +his work was done. On these occasions Herschel received his food +from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward was nigh.</p> + +<p>In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his +observations on the variable star “Mira” and the mountains of +the moon were communicated to the Royal Society through +the influential introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel +had made his acquaintance in a characteristic manner. In order +to obtain a sight of the moon the astronomer had taken his +telescope into the street opposite his house; the celebrated +physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his eye +removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission +to take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversation +which ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a +solid and enduring regard.</p> + +<p>The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel +as a guide to what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun, +he knew, rotated on its axis, and he knew that dark spots often +exist on its photosphere; the questions that he put to himself +were—Are there dark spots also on variable stars? Do the stars +also rotate on their axes? or are they sometimes partially +eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And he went on +to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and +have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet? +To these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts; +and he communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less +than six memoirs, occupying very many pages in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i>, and extending in date from 1780 to 1801. It was +in the latter year that these remarkable papers culminated in the +inquiry whether any relation could be traced in the recurrence of +sun-spots, regarded as evidences of solar activity, and the varying +seasons of our planet, as exhibited by the varying price of corn. +Herschel’s reply was inconclusive; nor has a final solution of the +related problems yet been obtained.</p> + +<p>In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a +series of papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several +satellites. The object which he had in view was not so much to +ascertain the times of their rotation as to discover whether +those rotations are strictly uniform. From the result he expected +to gather, by analogy, the probability of an alteration in the +length of our own day. These inquiries occupy the greater part of +seven memoirs extending from 1781 to 1797. While engaged on +them he noticed the curious appearance of a white spot near to +each of the poles of the planet Mars. On investigating the inclination +of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and finding that it differed +little from that of the earth, he concluded that its changes of +climate also would resemble our own, and that these white +patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have confirmed +his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his +observations extended, the times of the rotations of the various +satellites round their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by +equalling the times of their revolution round their primaries. +Here again we perceive that his discoveries arose out of the +systematic and comprehensive nature of his investigation. +Nothing with such a man is accidental.</p> + +<p>In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which +completely altered the character of his professional life. In the +course of a methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an +object which at first he supposed to be a comet, but which, by +its subsequent motions and appearance, averred itself to be a +new planet, moving outside the orbit of Saturn. The name of +Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has by general +consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was +detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 6½ in.; subsequently, +when he had provided himself with a much more +powerful telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he +believed, no less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations, +while abolishing four of these supposed attendants, have added +two others apparently not observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> +on the subject were communicated by him to the Royal Society, +extending from the date of the discovery in 1781 to 1815. A +noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel’s mode of observation led to +the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious +diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magnifying +powers, but that the case is different with other celestial +objects; hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as +unusual in aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power +in order to decide its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered; and +had a similar method been applied to Neptune, that planet +would have been found at Cambridge some months before it was +recognized at Berlin.</p> + +<p>We now come to the beginning of Herschel’s most important +series of observations, culminating in what ought probably to be +regarded as his capital discovery. A material part of the task +which he had set himself embraced the determination of the +relative distances of the stars from our sun and from each other. +Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the heavens, he had observed +many stars in apparently very close contiguity, but often +differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that, on +the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the +smaller enormously more distant; and considering that an +astronomer on the earth, in consequence of its immense orbital +displacement of some 180 millions of miles every six months, +would see such a pair of stars under different perspective aspects, +he perceived that the measurement of these changes should lead +to an approximate determination of the stars’ relative distances. +He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of all the +double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and +1785 very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very +last scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in +the year 1822, when he was its first president and already in the +eighty-fourth year of his age, related to these investigations. +In the memoir of 1782 he threw out the hint that these apparently +contiguous stars might be genuine pairs in mutual revolution; +but he significantly added that the time had not yet arrived for +settling the question. Eleven years afterwards (1793), he remeasured +the relative positions of many such couples, and we +may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding his +prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars +circulated round each other, after the manner required by the +laws of gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the +distant members of the starry firmament of the same mechanical +laws which bind together the harmonious motions of our solar +system. This sublime discovery, announced in 1802, would of +itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If only he had lived +long enough to learn the approximate distances of some of +these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to +calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the +quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would +have found another of his analogical conjectures realized.</p> + +<p>In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by +George III., and accepted the king’s offer to become his private +astronomer, and henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific +career. His salary was fixed at £200 per annum, to which an +addition of £50 per annum was subsequently made for the +astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr Watson, to whom alone +the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark, “Never +before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate.” +In this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to +Datchet and soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy +access of his royal patron at Windsor.</p> + +<p>The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but +with renewed vigour and without the former professional +interruptions. The greater part, in fact, of the papers already +referred to are dated from Datchet and Slough; for the magnificent +astronomical speculations in which he was engaged, though +for the most part conceived in the earlier portion of his philosophical +career, required years of patient observation before +they could be fully examined and realized.</p> + +<p>It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable +paper on the “Motion of the Solar System in Space,”—a sublime +speculation, yet through his genius realized by considerations +of the utmost simplicity. He returned to the same subject +with fuller details in 1805. It was also after his removal to +Slough that he published his first memoir on the construction +of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring idea +of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers, +addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from +the year 1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demonstrated +the fact that our sun is a star situated not far from the +bifurcation of the Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to +us lie more or less in clusters scattered throughout a comparatively +thin, but immensely extended stratum. At one time he imagined +that his powerful instruments had pierced through this stellar +stratum, and that he had approximately determined the form +of some of its boundaries. In the last of his memoirs, having +convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his telescopes +the Milky Way was “fathomless.” On either side of this +assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their +common centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of +discrete nebulous masses, such as those from the condensation +of which he supposed the whole stellar universe to have been +formed,—a magnificent conception, pursued with a force of +genius and put to the practical test of observation with an +industry almost incredible.</p> + +<p>Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting +telescope, of 40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction +of which is often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief +performance. The full description of this celebrated instrument +will be found in the 85th volume of the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal +Society. On the day that it was finished (August 28, 1789) +Herschel saw at the first view, in a grandeur not witnessed +before, the Saturnian system with six satellites, five of which +had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D. +Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had, +two years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little +telescope of 6½ in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable +brightness with the towering giant he had just completed. On +the 17th of September he discovered a seventh, which proved +to be the nearest to the globe of Saturn. It has since received +the name of Mimas. It is somewhat remarkable that, notwithstanding +his long and repeated scrutinies of this planet, the +eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should have +escaped him.</p> + +<p>Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr +John Pitt, a wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an +only son, John Frederick William. The prince regent conferred +a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in 1816. But a far more +valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley medal assigned +to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781.</p> + +<p>He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-fourth +year of his age, and was buried under the tower of St +Laurence’s Church, Upton, within a few hundred yards of the +old site of the 40-ft. telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of +the church bears a Latin inscription from the pen of the late +Dr Goodall, provost of Eton College.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mrs John Herschel, <i>Memoir of Caroline Herschel</i> (1876); +E. S. Holden, <i>Herschel, his Life and Works</i> (1881); A. M. Clerke, +<i>The Herschels and Modern Astronomy</i> (1895); E. S. Holden and +C. S. Hastings, <i>Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William +Herschel</i> (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, <i>Éloge historique</i>, Paris +Memoirs (1823), p. lxi.; F. Arago, <i>Analyse historique, Annuaire du +Bureau des Longitudes</i> (1842), p. 249; Arago, <i>Biographies of Scientific +Men</i>, p. 167; Madame d’Arblay’s <i>Diary, passim; Public Characters</i> +(1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, <i>William Herschel and +his Work</i> (1900). Herschel’s photometric Star Catalogues were +discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in <i>Harvard Annals</i>, vols. +xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. P.; A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> +(1792-1871), English astronomer, the only son of Sir William +Herschel, was born at Slough, Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792. +His scholastic education commenced at Eton, but maternal +fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of a private +tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to +St John’s College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span> +mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material +influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In +due time the young student won the highest academical distinction +of his year, graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was +during his undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow-students +who subsequently attained to very high eminence, +Dean Peacock and Charles Babbage, entered into a compact +that they would “do their best to leave the world wiser than they +found it,”—a compact loyally and successfully carried out by +all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable +attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in +the production of a work on the differential calculus, and on +cognate branches of mathematical science, which changed the +style and aspect of mathematical learning in England, and brought +it up to the level of the Continental methods. Two or three +memoirs communicated to the Royal Society on new applications +of mathematical analysis at once placed him in the front +rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of these +his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the +others were presented in his own right as a fellow.</p> + +<p>With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his +name at Lincoln’s Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed +himself under the guidance of an eminent special pleader. +Probably this temporary choice of a profession was inspired +by the extraordinary success in legal pursuits which had attended +the efforts of some noted Cambridge mathematicians. Be that +as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr Wollaston in London +soon changed the direction of his studies. He experimented +in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820, +assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a +mirror of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subsequently +improved by his own hands, became the instrument +which enabled him to effect the astronomical observations +forming the chief basis of his fame. In 1821-1823 we find him +associated with Sir James South in the re-examination of his +father’s double stars, by the aid of two excellent refractors, of +7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he was +presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society’s gold medal; +and with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825; +while the Royal Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the +Copley medal for his mathematical contributions to their +<i>Transactions</i>. From 1824 to 1827 he held the responsible post +of secretary to that society; and was in 1827 elected to the chair +of the Astronomical Society, which office he also filled on two +subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to the last-named +society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote +obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their +combination of eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of +knighthood was conferred on him by William IV., and two years +later he again received the recognition of the Royal Society by +the award of one of their medals for his memoir “On the Investigation +of the Orbits of Revolving Double Stars.” The +award significantly commemorated his completion of his father’s +discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of a +graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the +two component stars of the binary system revolving under the +prescription of the Newtonian law.</p> + +<p>Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years +of age, Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father’s double +stars and nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his +own lists; thus accomplishing, under the conditions then prevailing, +the full work of a lifetime. For it should be remembered +that astronomers were not as yet provided with those valuable +automatic contrivances which at present materially abridge +the labour and increase the accuracy of their determinations. +Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork, +electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena +observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had +no assistant.</p> + +<p>His scientific life now entered upon another and very characteristic +phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was +wont to declare, was towards chemistry and the phenomena +of light, rather than towards astronomy. Indeed, very shortly +after taking his degree at Cambridge, he proposed himself as a +candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in that university; +but, as he said with some humour, the result of the election was +to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact Herschel +had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by +filial loyalty to his father’s memory that he was now impelled +to undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough. +William Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John +Herschel determined to explore the southern, besides re-exploring +northern skies. “I resolved,” he said, “to attempt the +completion of a survey of the whole surface of the heavens; +and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere the +same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give +a unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to +render them comparable with each other.” In accordance with +this resolution, he and his family embarked for the Cape on the +13th November 1833; they arrived in Table Bay on the 15th +January 1834; and proceedings, he says, “were pushed forward +with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was enabled to +gratify my curiosity by a view of κ Crucis, the nebula about η +Argûs, and some other remarkable objects in the 20-ft. reflector, +and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular +course of sweeping.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour completed +during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen +would require the transcription of a considerable portion of the +<i>Cape Observations</i>, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance; +although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from +Sir William’s “Memoirs,” now scattered through some thirty +volumes of the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. It was published, at +the sole expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till +1847, nine years after the author’s return to England, for the cogent +reason, that as he said, “The whole of the observations, as well +as the entire work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for +the press, have been executed by myself.” There are 164 pages of +catalogues of southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then +careful and elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of +the region surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour +and the thought bestowed upon some of these objects are almost +incredible; several months were spent upon a minute spot in the +heavens containing 1216 stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held +at a distance of an arm’s length, would eclipse. These catalogues +and charts being completed, he proceeded to discuss their significance. +He confirmed his father’s hypothesis that these wonderful masses of +glowing vapours are not irregularly scattered over the visible heavens, +but are collected in a sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of +that vast stratum of stars in which our solar system finds itself buried, +as Herschel supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average +distance from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his +catalogue of the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern +double stars, to one of which, γ Virginis, he applied the beautiful +method of orbital determination invented by himself, and he had +the satisfaction of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the +components would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up +into a single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next +chapter he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying +and relative brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed +how his father began his scientific career by similar observations on +stellar light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years +afterwards in the question whether the radiative changes of our +sun, due to the presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests +and the price of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther, +pointing out that variations to the extent of half a magnitude in +the sun’s brightness would account for those strange alternations +of semi-arctic and semi-tropical climates which geological researches +show to have occurred in various regions of our globe.</p> +</div> + +<p>Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838. +As was natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic +greeting. By the queen at her coronation he was created a +baronet; and, what to him was better than all such rewards, +other men caught the contagion of his example, and laboured +in fields similar to his own, with an adequate portion of his success.</p> + +<p>Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery +in 1819 of the solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the +otherwise insoluble salts of silver was the prelude to its use +as a fixing agent in photography; and he invented in 1839, +independently of Fox Talbot, the process of photography on +sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the now +well-known terms <i>positive</i> and <i>negative</i> to photographic images, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> +and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a +sensitive film. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes’s +discovery of fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to +the spectrum, and by his announcement in 1845 of “epipolic dispersion,” +as exhibited by sulphate of quinine. Several other +important researches connected with the undulatory theory of +light are embodied in his treatise on “Light” published in the +<i>Encyclopaedia metropolitana</i>.</p> + +<p>Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or +philosopher if devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel +possessed this endowment to a large extent; and he solaced +his declining years with the translation of the <i>Iliad</i> into verse, +having earlier executed a similar version of Schiller’s <i>Walk</i>. But +the main work of his later life was the collection of all his father’s +catalogues of nebulae and double stars combined with his own +observations and those of other astronomers each into a single +volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to the +Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the +<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, vol. cliv. The latter work he left +unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astronomical +Society. That society printed a portion of it, which +serves as an index to the observations of various astronomers on +double stars up to the year 1866.</p> + +<p>A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will +be found in the Royal Society’s great catalogue, and from them +may be gathered most of the records of his busy scientific life. +Sir John Herschel met with an amount of public recognition +which was unusual in the time of his illustrious father. Naturally +he was a member of almost every important learned society in +both hemispheres. For five years he held the same office of +master of the mint, which more than a century before had +belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose +him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of +parliament for the university of Cambridge, but neither position +was desired by him.</p> + +<p>In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active +friend; he had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds; +he gladly lent a helping hand to those who consulted him in +scientific difficulties; he never discouraged, and still less disparaged, +men younger than or inferior to himself; he was +pleased by appreciation of his work without being solicitous for +applause; it was said of him by a discriminating critic, and +without extravagance, that “his was a life full of serenity of the +sage and the docile innocence of a child.”</p> + +<p>He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in +Kent, on the 11th of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his +age, and his remains are interred in Westminster Abbey close to +the grave of Sir Isaac Newton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the laborious <i>Cape Observations</i>, Sir John Herschel was +the author of several books, one of which at least, <i>On the Study +of Natural Philosophy</i> (1830), possesses an interest which no future +advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In +1849 came the <i>Outlines of Astronomy</i>, a volume still replete with +charm and instruction. His articles, “Meteorology,” “Physical +Geography,” and “Telescope,” contributed to the 8th edition of +the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, were afterwards published separately. +When he was at the Cape he was more than once assisted in the +attempts there made to diffuse a love of knowledge among men not +engaged in literary pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his +return to England, published, in <i>Good Words</i> and elsewhere, a series +of papers on interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently +collected in a volume called <i>Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects</i>. +Another less widely known volume is his <i>Collected Addresses</i>, in which +he is seen in his happiest and most instructive mood.</p> + +<p>See also Mrs John Herschel, “Memoir of Caroline Herschel,” +<i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); <i>Proceedings +Roy. Society</i>, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson); <i>Proceedings +Roy. Society of Edinburgh</i> vii. 543 (P. G. Tait); <i>Nature</i> iv. 69; +E. Dunkin, <i>Obituary Notices</i>, p. 47; <i>Report Brit. Association</i> +(1871), p. lxxxv. (Lord Kelvin); <i>The Times</i>. (May 13, 1871); R. +Grant, <i>History of Phys. Astronomy</i>; A. M. Clerke, <i>Popular Hist. +of Astronomy</i>; A. M. Clerke, <i>The Herschels and Modern Astronomy</i>; +J. H. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, Bd. ii.; <i>Mémoires de la +Société Physique de Genève</i>, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions, +based on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by +Herschel in sequences of relative brightness, were published by W. +Doberck in the <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>, xi. 192, 270, and in <i>Harvard +Annals</i>, vol. xli., No. viii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. P.; A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1837-1899), +lord chancellor of England, was born on the 2nd of +November 1837. His father was the Rev. Ridley Haim Herschell, +a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who, when a young +man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a leading +part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the +Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled +down to the charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware +Road, in London, where he ministered to a large congregation. +His mother was a daughter of William Mowbray, a merchant of +Leith. He was educated at a private school and at University +College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A. degree at the University +of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in the +school debating society, and he displayed there the same command +of language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics +during his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed +during his school days was maintained after he became a law-student +at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of +Thomas Chitty, the famous common law pleader, father of the +late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils, amongst whom +were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and Arthur +Charles, afterwards judge of the queen’s bench division, gave +him the sobriquet of “the chief baron” in recognition of his +superiority. He subsequently read with James Hannen, afterwards +Lord Hannen. In 1860 he was called to the bar and +joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy days of undividedness. +For four or five years he did not obtain much work. +Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced +into journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a +living. Two of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved +great eminence, found themselves in like case. One of these, +Charles Russell, became lord chief justice of England; the other, +William Court Gully, speaker of the House of Commons. It is +said that these three friends, dining together during a Liverpool +assize some years after they had been called, agreed that their +prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that about +this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and +practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon +made himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the +northern circuit, and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff-gownsman. +For the latter he was content to note briefs and +draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain donned “silk,” it was +on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle descended.</p> + +<p>In 1872 Herschell was made a queen’s counsel. He had all the +necessary qualifications for a leader—a clear, though not resonant +voice; a calm, logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal principles; +and (greatest gift of all) an abundance of common sense. +He never wearied the judges by arguing at undue length, and +he knew how to retire with dignity from a hopeless cause. His +only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a hostile +witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins +nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he +made up for all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts +as told in his client’s favour with the most consummate skill. +He very seldom made use of notes, but trusted to his memory, +which he had carefully trained. By this means he was able to +conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid advocate than as an +outsider interested in the case anxious to assist the jury in +arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell’s business had become +so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February +of that year there was a general election, with the result that the +Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty. +The usual crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson +and Henderson) who had been returned for Durham city were +unseated, and an attack was then made on the seats of two other +Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had been returned for Durham +county. For one of these last Herschell was briefed. He made +so excellent an impression on the local Radical leaders that they +asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight’s +electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874 +and 1880 Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the +House of Commons. He was not a frequent speaker, but a few +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +great efforts sufficed in his case to gain for him a reputation as a +debater. The best examples of his style as a private member +will be found in <i>Hansard</i> under the dates 18th February 1876, +23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879. On the last occasion he carried a +resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of promise of +marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the +damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such +loss. The grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he +acquitted himself during these displays obtained for him the +notice of Gladstone, who in 1880 appointed Herschell +solicitor-general.</p> + +<p>Herschell’s public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great +value, particularly in dealing with the “cases for opinion” +submitted by the Foreign Office and other departments. He was +also very helpful in speeding government measures through the +House, notably the Irish Land Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices +and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County Franchise Act 1884 and +the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last was a bitter pill +for Herschell, since it halved the representation of Durham city, +and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the +local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North +Lonsdale division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful +influence of Lord Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll, +though Mr Gladstone again obtained a majority in the country. +Herschell now thought he saw the solicitor-generalship slipping +away from him, and along with it all prospect of high promotion. +Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however, successively +declined Gladstone’s offer of the Woolsack, and in 1886 Herschell, +by a sudden turn of fortune’s wheel, found himself in his forty-ninth +year lord chancellor.</p> + +<p>Herschell’s chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in +August 1886 Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill was rejected in the +Commons and his administration fell. In August 1892, when +Gladstone returned to power, Herschell again became lord +chancellor. In September 1893, when the second Home Rule +Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords, Herschell +took advantage of the opportunity to justify the “sudden conversion” +to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by +comparing it to the duke of Wellington’s conversion to Catholic +Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free +Trade in 1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship +came to an end with the defeat of the Rosebery ministry.</p> + +<p>Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the +judicial committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords, +Lord Herschell’s judgments were distinguished for their acute +and subtle reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and, +whenever the occasion arose, for their broad treatment of constitutional +and social questions. He was not a profound lawyer, +but his quickness of apprehension was such that it was an +excellent substitute for great learning. In construing a real +property will or any other document, his first impulse was to +read it by the light of nature, and to decline to be influenced by +the construction put by the judges on similar phrases occurring +elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had +acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed without +fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield +to the established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He +was perhaps seen at his judicial best in <i>Vagliano</i> v. <i>Bank of +England</i> (1891) and <i>Allen</i> v. <i>Flood</i> (1898). Latterly he showed a +tendency, which seems to grow on some judges, to interrupt +counsel overmuch. The case last mentioned furnishes an +example of this. The question involved was what constituted a +molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling. At the +close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently +interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit, +observed that although there might be a doubt as to what +amounted to such molestation in point of law, the House could +well understand, after that day’s proceedings, what it was in +actual practice. In addition to his political and judicial work, +Herschell rendered many public services. In 1888 he presided +over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with regard to +the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two +royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccination. +He took a great interest in the National Society for the +Prevention of Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts +of 1889 and 1894, but also bestowing a good deal of time in +sifting the truth of certain allegations which had been brought +against the management of that society. In June 1893 he was +appointed chancellor of the university of London in succession to +the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new duties with the +usual thoroughness. “His views of reform,” according to +Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university, +“were always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at +first they were not altogether popular with an important section +of university opinion. He disarmed opposition by his intellectual +power, rather than conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes +was perhaps a little masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his +treatment of the various burning questions that agitated the +university during his tenure of office. His characteristic power +of detachment was well illustrated by his treatment of the +proposal to remove the university to the site of the Imperial +Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time +chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the +removal never questioned his absolute impartiality.” With the +Imperial Institute Herschell had been officially connected from +its inception. He was chairman of the provisional committee +appointed by the prince of Wales to formulate a scheme for its +organization, and he took an active part in the preparation of its +charter and constitution in conjunction with Lord Thring, Lord +James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He was the +first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in India +in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the +Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting. +For his special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in +1893, this being the only instance of a lord chancellor being +decorated with an order.</p> + +<p>In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to +represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission, +which assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a +business involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study +of maps and historic documents. Not content with this, he +accepted in 1898 a seat on the joint high commission appointed to +adjust certain boundary and other important questions pending +between Great Britain and Canada on the one hand and the +United States on the other hand. He started for America in +July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington. +His fellow commissioners elected him their president. In +February 1899, while the commission was in full swing, he had +the misfortune to slip in the street and in falling to fracture a hip +bone. His constitution, which at one time was a robust one, +had been undermined by constant hard work, and proved unequal +to sustaining the shock. On the 1st of March, only a fortnight +after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel, Washington, +a <i>post-mortem</i> examination revealing disease of the heart. Mr +Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the +United States ambassador in London, the “deep sorrow” felt by +President McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day, +in the parliament chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell’s +death “as a misfortune to Canada and to the British Empire.” +A funeral service held in St John’s Episcopal Church, Washington, +was attended by the president and vice-president of the United +States, by the cabinet ministers, the judges of the Supreme +Court, the members of the joint high commission, and a large +number of senators and other representative men. The body +was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second +funeral service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was +conveyed to its final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the +parish church of which he had been married. Herschell left a +widow, granddaughter of Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son, +Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who succeeded him as second baron; +and two daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A “reminiscence” of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (Lord Selby) +will be found in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i> for April 1899. <i>The +Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i> (of which he had been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July +of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord +Davey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend), +and also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks +(both of the United States).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSENT, LOUIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1777-1860), French painter, was born at +Paris on the 10th of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David, +obtained the Prix de Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802 +appeared his “Metamorphosis of Narcissus,” and he continued to +exhibit with rare interruptions up to 1831. His most considerable +works under the empire were “Achilles parting from Briseis,” and +“Atala dying in the arms of Chactas” (both engraved in Landon’s +<i>Annales du Musée</i>); an “Incident of the life of Fénelon,” painted +in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and “Passage of the Bridge +at Landshut,” which belongs to the same date, is now at Versailles. +Hersent’s typical works, however, belong to the period of the Restoration; +“Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted” (Versailles) and +“Daphnis and Chloë” (engraved by Langier and by Gelée) were +both in the Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the “Abdication of +Gustavus Vasa” brought to Hersent a medal of honour, but the +picture, purchased by the duke of Orleans, was destroyed at the +Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by Henriquel-Dupont is +now its sole record. “Ruth,” produced in 1822, became the +property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent +rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him +officer of the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the +Institute, where he replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in +favour under Charles X., for whom was executed “Monks of Mount +St Gotthard,” exhibited in 1824. In 1831 Hersent made his last +appearance at the Salon with portraits of Louis Philippe, Marie-Amélie +and the duke of Montpensier; that of the king though +good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Berlin), which is +probably Hersent’s <i>chef-d’œuvre</i>. After this date Hersent ceased +to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an +excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to +the rooms of the Société d’Artistes, he could not be tempted +from his usual reserve even by the international contest of 1855. +He died on the 2nd of October 1860.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSFELD,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau, is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the +Geis and Haun with the Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main +to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688. +Some of the old fortifications of the town remain, but the ramparts +and ditches have been laid out as promenades. The principal +buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic building, +erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and a +large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the +ruins of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of +the cathedral in the beginning of the 12th century; it was built +in the Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761. +Outside the town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on +both of which are monastic ruins. Among the public institutions +are a gymnasium and a military school. The town has important +manufactures of cloth, leather and machinery; it has also dye-works, +worsted mills and soap-boiling works.</p> + +<p>Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see +below). It became a town in the 12th century and in 1370 the +burghers, having meanwhile shaken off the authority of the +abbots, placed themselves under the protection of the landgraves +of Hesse. It was taken and retaken during the Thirty Years’ +War and later it suffered from the attacks of the French.</p> + +<p>The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus, +afterwards archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly +endowed by Charlemagne and became an ecclesiastical principality +in the 12th century, passing under the protection of the +landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in 1648, having +been previously administered for some years by a member of the +ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed +to Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in +1866. In the middle ages the abbey was famous for its library.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Vigelius, <i>Denkwürdigkeiten von Hersfeld</i> (Hersfeld, 1888); +Demme, <i>Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld</i> (Hersfeld, +1891-1901), and P. Hafner, <i>Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte +des 13ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Hersfeld, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERSTAL,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Heristal</span>, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N. +of Liége and practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed +to be derived from <i>Heerstelle</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Permanent Camp.” The +second Pippin was born here, and this mayor of the palace +acquired the control of the kingdom of the Franks. His grandson, +Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 768, and it disputes +with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of +Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and steel +manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and +cannon foundry are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> The English +earldom of Hertford was held by members of the powerful family +of Clare from about 1138, when Gilbert de Clare was created +earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl Gilbert was killed +at Bannockburn. In 1537 <span class="sc">Edward Seymour</span>, viscount Beauchamp, +a brother of Henry VIII.’s queen, Jane Seymour, was +created earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the +dignity of duke of Somerset and becoming protector of England. +His son <span class="sc">Edward</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from +1547 until the protector’s attainder and death in January 1552, +when the title was forfeited; in 1559, however, he was created +earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly married to Lady +Catherine Grey (<i>c.</i> 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey, duke of +Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth +greatly disliked this union, and both husband and wife were +imprisoned, while the validity of their marriage was questioned. +Catherine died on the 27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the +6th of April 1621. Their son Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561-1612), +who inherited his mother’s title to the English throne, +predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded in the +earldom by his grandson <span class="sc">William Seymour</span> (1588-1660), who +was created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his +ancestor’s dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess +of Hertford became extinct when <span class="sc">John</span>, 4th duke of Somerset, +died in 1675, and the earldom when <span class="sc">Algernon</span>, the 7th duke, +died in February 1750.</p> + +<p>In August 1750 <span class="sc">Francis Seymour Conway</span>, 2nd Baron +Conway (1718-1794), who was a direct descendant of the +protector Somerset, was created earl of Hertford; this nobleman +was the son of Francis Seymour Conway (1679-1732), who +had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of Seymour, +and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway. +Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord-lieutenant +of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of +the household from 1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his +“decorum and piety” and refers to him as a “perfect courtier,” +but says that he had “too great propensity to heap emoluments +on his children.” In 1793 he became earl of Yarmouth and +marquess of Hertford, and he died on the 14th of June 1794. His +son, <span class="sc">Francis Ingram Seymour Conway</span> (1743-1822), who was +known during his father’s lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a +prominent part in the debates of the House of Commons from +1766 until he succeeded to the marquessate in 1794. He was +sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in 1793 and from 1812 +to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son <span class="sc">Francis Charles</span>, +the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the +prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the +“Marquis of Steyne” in Thackeray’s <i>Vanity Fair</i> and of “Lord +Monmouth” in Disraeli’s <i>Coningsby</i>. The 4th marquess was his +son, <span class="sc">Richard</span> (1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress, +Maria Emily Fagniani, and whose brother was Lord Henry +Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the Jockey Club at Paris. +When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August 1870 his title +passed to his kinsman, <span class="sc">Francis Hugh George Seymour</span> (1812-1884), +a descendant of the 1st marquess, whose son, <span class="sc">Hugh de +Grey</span> (b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th marquess +left his great wealth and his priceless collection of art +treasures to Sir Richard Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half-brother, +and Wallace’s widow, who died in 1897, bequeathed +the collection to the British nation. It is now in Hertford +House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of +Hertford.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTFORD,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough, and the +county town of Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parliamentary +division of the county, 24 m. N. from London, the +terminus of branch lines of the Great Eastern and Great +Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly situated +in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the modern +churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old +ones, a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and +the old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating +from the Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque +Jacobean building of brick, largely modernized. There are +several educational establishments, including the preparatory +school for Christ’s Hospital, a picturesque building (in great part, +however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town, Hale’s grammar +school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat school +for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of +the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the +East India Company for their civil service students, who were +then temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies +high above the Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a +stretch of finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable +agricultural trade, and there are maltings, breweries, iron +foundries, and oriental printing works. The town is governed +by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors. Area, 1134 +acres.</p> + +<p>Hertford (<i>Herutford</i>, <i>Heorotford</i>, <i>Hurtford</i>) was the scene of a +synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the +Lea and the Thames gave it strategic importance during the +Danish occupation of East Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a +royal garrison and burgh. It made separate payments for aids +to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331 was governed by +a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter incorporated +the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed +under Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor, +aldermen and commonalty was effective until the Municipal +Corporation Act. Hertford returned two burgesses to the +parliament of 1298, and to others until, after 1375/6, such +right became abeyant, to be restored by order of parliament in +1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation +Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution +Act in 1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or +confirmed those held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and +of St Simon and St Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs +were confirmed by Elizabeth and Charles II. Another on the +vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity of the Virgin was granted +by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day under James I. +Modern fairs are on the third Saturday before Easter, the 12th of +May, the 5th of July and the 8th of November. Markets were +held in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on +Thursday and Saturday; and they returned to Wednesdays and +Saturdays in 1680.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTFORDSHIRE<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Herts</span>], a county of England, bounded +N. by Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex, +S. by Middlesex, and S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is +634.6 sq. m., the county being the sixth smallest in England. +Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface generally undulating, +while in some parts, where these undulations form a quick +succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes +very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood +of Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and +north considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing +north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of +the county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and +Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills +under the name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft. +near Dunstable, sinking gradually north-eastward. These +uplands are generally bare, and in parts remarkably sparsely +populated as compared with the home counties at large. In the +greater part of the county, however, rich arable lands are intermingled +with the parks and woodlands of numerous fine country +seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of the +principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire, +enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield, +then E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and +passing along the eastern boundary of the county falls into the +Thames below London. It receives in its course the Maran, or +Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the Stort, all joining on the +north side; the Stort for some distance forming the county +boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the south-western +part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines. +It receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel, +rising in the N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the +Great Ouse. To the south of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two +streams of moderate size are lost in pot-holes, except in the +highest floods. The New River, one of the water supplies of +London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel +with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout +in the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are +carefully preserved.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow +syncline known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-easterly +direction. The two most important formations are the +Chalk, which forms the high ground in the north and west; and the +Eocene Reading beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining +southern part of the county. On the northern boundary, at the foot +of the chalk hills, a small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand +above it falls just within the county. The lowest subdivision of the +chalk is the Chalk Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it, +lies at the base of the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and +Miswell to Tring. Above these beds, the Lower Chalk, without +flints, rises up sharply to form the downs which are the easterly +continuation of the Chiltern Hills. Next comes the Chalk Rock, +which being a hard bed, lies near the hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley +End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk slopes southward towards +the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The Reading beds +consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter are frequently +hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous cement, +known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay, a +stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon the +Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at Micklefield +Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by +the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of +Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a +great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been +disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was +formerly used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime. +Reading beds and London clay are dug for brick-making at Watford, +Hertford and Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated +from the base of the Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop; +the Marl is worked for cement.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—The climate is mild, dry and +generally healthy. On this account London physicians were +formerly accustomed to recommend the county to persons in +weak health, and it was so much coveted by the noble and +wealthy as a place of residence that it was a common saying that +“he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years’ purchase +for the air.” Of the total area about four-fifths is under cultivation, +and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture. +The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of +the area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties +mostly grown are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of +any English county. Wheathampstead on the upper Lea +receives its name from the fine quality of the wheat grown in that +district. Barley is largely used in the county for malting +purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables, and the +greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are +some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near +Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area +occupied by green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds, +many cows being kept for the supply of milk and butter to +London. The quantity of stock is generally small, but increasing +except in the case of sheep, of which the numbers have greatly +decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the Suffolk +variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between +Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities +of cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London +market; and on the best soils near London vegetables are forced +by the aid of manure, and more than one crop is sometimes +obtained in a year. A considerable industry lies in the growth of +watercresses in the pure water of the upper parts of the rivers and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> +the smaller streams. There are a number of rose-gardens and +nurseries.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The manufacturing industries are slight; +though the great brewing establishments at Watford may be +mentioned, and straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building, +tanning and brick-making are carried on in various towns.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Owing to its proximity to the metropolis, +Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the +eastern border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line) +with branches to Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line +of the Great Northern passes through the centre by Hatfield, +Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches from Hatfield to Hertford, +to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and from Hitchin to +Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes +through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel +Hempstead. The London & North-Western traverses the south-west +by Watford, Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to +Rickmansworth and to St Albans. The Metropolitan & Great +Central joint line serves Rickmansworth, and suburban lines +of the Great Northern the Barnet district. The existence of +these communications has combined with the natural attractions +of the county to cause many villages to become large residential +centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford, +Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the +Lea and Stort Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from +London to the north-west traverses the south-western corner +of the county by Rickmansworth and Berkhampstead. Three +great highways from London to the north traverse the county. +The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and +St Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great +North Road branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and +passes Potter’s Bar, Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a +branch from Welwyn to Hitchin and beyond. Another road +follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs to Royston, +being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known +as the Old North Road.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162, +and in 1901 of 250,152. The area of the administrative county +is 404,518 acres. The county comprises eight hundreds. The +municipal boroughs are: Hemel Hempstead (11,264), Hertford +(9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The other urban districts are: +Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead (Great Berkhampstead, +5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564), +Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden +(4725), Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711), Rickmansworth +(5627), Royston (3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957), +Tring (4349), Ware (5573) and Watford (29,327). The county +is in the home circuit, and assizes are held at Hertford. It has +two courts of quarter-sessions, and is divided into 15 petty-sessional +divisions. The boroughs of Hertford and St Albans +have separate commissions of the peace. The total number +of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of, +or in which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, +London, are included in the metropolitan police district. The +county contains 170 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or +in part; it is nearly all in the diocese of St Albans, but small +parts are in the dioceses of Ely, Oxford and London. It is +divided into four parliamentary divisions—Northern or Hitchin, +Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans, Western or Watford, +each returning one member. There is no parliamentary borough +within the county.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in +Hertfordshire for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin. +The diocesan limits show that part of the shire was included in +the West Saxon kingdom. The East Saxons, as early as the +6th century, were settled about Hertford, which in 673 was +sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod convened +by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the +Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with +Hatfield. In the 9th century the district was frequently visited +by the Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east +of the Lea was included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the +Elder erected forts on both sides of the river at Hertford.</p> + +<p>After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertfordshire +and ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest +received its formal ratification. In the sweeping confiscation +of estates which followed, the church was generously endowed, +the abbey of St Albans alone holding 172 hides, while Count +Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a vast fief in the +north-east of the county. Large estates were held by Geoffrey +de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of the +county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east +of England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony. +Berkhampstead was the head of an honour carved from the +fief of Robert of Mortain. The Hertfordshire estates, however, +for the most part changed hands very frequently and the county +is noticeably lacking in historic families. Edmund Langley, +fifth son of Edward III., was born at King’s Langley in this +county.</p> + +<p>During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of +Salisbury and Falkes de Breauté had the king’s orders to ravage +Hertfordshire, and in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and +Berkhampstead Castle besieged by Louis of France, who had +come over by invitation of the barons. At the time of the rising +of 1381 the abbot’s tenants broke into the abbey of St Albans and +forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the Wars of the +Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the +second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by +Queen Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the +earl at Barnet. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th +century, Hertfordshire joined with Bedfordshire and Essex in +petitioning for peace, and St Albans again played an important +part in the struggle, being at different times the headquarters +of Essex and Fairfax.</p> + +<p>As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the +district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected +at Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1011. +At the time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were approximately +those of the present day, but part of Meppershall in +Bedfordshire formed a detached portion of the shire and is still +assessed for land and income tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine +Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and Tring were consolidated +about 1200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern hundred of +Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known +as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond +approximately both in name and extent with those of the present +day.</p> + +<p>Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of +London and Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln +diocese formed part of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and +comprised the deaneries of Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and +Baldock, and the archdeaconry and deanery of St Albans; while +that part within the London diocese formed the deanery of +Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535 +the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London +diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the +whole county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and +archdeaconry of St Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of +Welwyn, Bennington, Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware +were created, and that of Braughing abolished. In 1864 the +archdeaconries of Rochester and St Albans were united under +the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and St Albans. In +1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of St +Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries +being unchanged.</p> + +<p>Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time +of its first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and +were united under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held +at Hertford. The hundred of St Albans was at an early date +constituted a separate liberty, with independent courts and +coroners under the control of the abbot; it preserved a separate +commission of the peace until 1874, when by act of parliament +the county was arranged in two divisions, the eastern division +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of St Albans. +These divisions have since been abolished.</p> + +<p>Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few +manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth +was derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their +water meadows, woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and +water-mills, the shire on its eastern side being noticeably free from +waste land. In Norman times the woollen trade was considerable, +and the great corn market at Royston has been famous since the +reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil War the malting +industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was produced in +the county. In the 17th century Hertfordshire was famous +for its horses, and the 18th century saw the introduction of +several minor industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making +and silk weaving.</p> + +<p>In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament, +and in 1298 the borough of Hertford was represented. St +Albans, Bishop Stortford and Berkhampstead acquired representation +in the 14th century, but from 1375 to 1553 no returns +were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained representation +in 1553 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of 1832 +the county returned three members. St Albans was disfranchised +on account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one +member in 1868, and was disfranchised by the act of 1885.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Among the objects of antiquarian interest may +be mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a +hermitage; Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where +rested the body of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to +Westminster for interment; and the Great Bed of Ware referred +to in Shakespeare’s <i>Twelfth Night</i> and preserved at Rye House. +The principal monastic buildings are the noble pile of St Albans +abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine nunnery near St +Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of Ware, +dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of +St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory +at Hitchin built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the +more interesting churches may be mentioned those of Abbots +Langley and Hemel Hempstead, both of Late Norman architecture; +Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic building supposed +to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the reign of +Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons +regular; Hitchin of the 15th century; Hatfield, dating from the +13th century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in +the Perpendicular style, with a tower of the 16th century. +Sandridge church shows good Norman work with the use of +Roman bricks; Wheathampstead church, mainly very fine +Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains of secular +buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle, +Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight +traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey. +Among the numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in +the reign of Henry VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the +principal agents in the plot to assassinate Charles II. Moor +Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of St Albans abbey, +was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of Oxford, and +was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who +built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently +cased with Portland stone and received various other additions. +Knebworth, the seat of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman +fortress, rebuilt in the time of Elizabeth in the Tudor style and +restored in the 19th century. Hatfield House is the seat of the +marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history is of great interest, +as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger House, until +recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid mansion +in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the 19th century. The +manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was +formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was +rebuilt in the beginning of the 19th century from designs by +Wyatt. Gorhambury House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl +of Verulam, formerly the seat of the Bacons, and the residence of +the great chancellor, was rebuilt at the close of the 18th century. +At Kings Langley and Hunsdon were also former royal residences.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir H. Chauncy, <i>Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire</i> (London, +1700, 2nd ed., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, <i>History of +Hertfordshire</i> (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, <i>History and +Antiquities of the County of Hertford</i> (London, 1815-1827); W. +Berry, <i>Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families</i> (London, 1844); +J. E. Cussans, <i>History of Hertfordshire</i> (London, 1870-1881); +<i>Victoria County History, Hertfordshire</i> (London, 1902, &c.); see +also “Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634,” in <i>Harleian Society’s +Publ.</i> vol. xvii., and various papers in <i>Middlesex and Hertfordshire +Notes and Queries</i> (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incorporated +in the <i>Home Counties</i> Magazine.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTHA,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nerthus</span>, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess +of fertility, “Mother Earth.” Tacitus states that many Teutonic +tribes worshipped her with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated +at night. The chief seat of her cult was an island which has not +been identified. A single priest performed the service. Her +veiled statue was moved from place to place by sacred cows on +which none but the priest might lay hands. At the conclusion of +the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were bathed in +a lake.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1857-1894), German physicist, +was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving +school he determined to adopt the profession of engineering, and +in the pursuance of this decision went to study in Munich in 1877. +But soon coming to the conclusion that engineering was not his +vocation he abandoned it in favour of physical science, and in +October 1878 began to attend the lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and +H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In preparation for these he spent +the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up original treatises like those +of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and mechanics, and in +attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von Jolly and +J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few days +of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into +original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best +solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the +University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper +which was published in 1880 on the “Kinetic Energy of Electricity +in Motion.” His next investigation, on “Induction in Rotating +Spheres,” he offered in 1880 as his dissertation for his doctor’s +degree, which he obtained with the rare distinction of <i>summa +cum laude</i>. Later in the same year he became assistant to +Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin Institute. +During the three years he held this position he carried out +researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation +and the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the +special commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel, +becoming <i>Privatdozent</i>, and there he began the studies in Maxwell’s +electromagnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the +discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually +made between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics +in the Carlsruhe Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their +origin is to be sought in a prize problem proposed by the Berlin +Academy of Sciences in 1879, having reference to the experimental +establishment of some relation between electromagnetic +forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators. Imagining +that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by +him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised +him the assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the +subject; but Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time, +because he could not think of any procedure likely to prove +effective. It was of course well known, as a necessity of Maxwell’s +mathematical theory, that the polarization and depolarization of +an insulator must give rise to the same electromagnetic effects in +the neighbourhood as a voltaic current in a conductor. The experimental +proof, however, was still lacking, and though several +experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was the first +who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing his +inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the progressive +propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to +measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to +show that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their susceptibility +to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in +complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The +result, was in Helmholtz’s words, to establish beyond doubt that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +ordinary light consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading +ether which possesses the properties of an insulator and of a +magnetic medium. Hertz himself gave an admirable account of +the significance of his discoveries in a lecture on the relations +between light and electricity, delivered before the German Society +for the Advancement of Natural Science and Medicine at Heidelberg +in September 1889. Since the time of these early experiments, +various other modes of detecting the existence of electric +waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which +he first employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest +interest of which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of +an abstruse mathematical theory, have been applied to the +practical purposes of signalling over considerable distances +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telegraphy</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wireless</a></span>). In 1889 Hertz was appointed to +succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary professor of physics in the +university of Bonn. There he continued his researches on the +discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just missing the +discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Röntgen a few years +later, and produced his treatise on the <i>Principles of Mechanics</i>. +This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on +the 1st of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one +of her most promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one +of all his pupils who had penetrated farthest into his own circle of +scientific thought, and looked to him with the greatest confidence +for the further extension and development of his work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hertz’s scientific papers were translated into English by Professor +D. E. Jones, and published in three volumes: <i>Electric Waves</i> (1893), +<i>Miscellaneous Papers</i> (1896), and <i>Principles of Mechanics</i> (1899). +The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the +introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard +and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with +statements of the scope and significance of his investigations.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTZ, HENRIK<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of +Jewish parents in Copenhagen on the 25th of August 1798. In +1817 he was sent to the university. His father died in his +infancy, and the family property was destroyed in the bombardment +of 1807. The boy was brought up by his relative, M. L. +Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz +passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for +polite literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, +<i>Mr Burchardt and his Family</i> and <i>Love and Policy</i>; in 1828 +followed the comedy of <i>Flyttedagen</i>. In 1830 he brought out +what was a complete novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in +rhymed verse, <i>Amor’s Strokes of Genius</i>. In the same year Hertz +published anonymously <i>Gengangerbrevene</i>, or Letters from a +Ghost, which he pretended were written by Baggesen, who had +died in 1826. The book was written in defence of J. L. Heiberg, +and was full of satirical humour and fine critical insight. Its +success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his anonymity, +and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832 +he published a didactic poem, <i>Nature and Art</i>, and <i>Four Poetical +Epistles</i>. <i>A Day on the Island of Als</i> was his next comedy, followed +in 1835 by <i>The Only Fault</i>. Hertz passed through Germany and +Switzerland into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and +returned the following autumn through France to Denmark. In +1836 his comedy of <i>The Savings Bank</i> enjoyed a great success. +But it was not till 1837 that he gave the full measure of his genius +in the romantic national drama of <i>Svend Dyrings Hus</i>, a beautiful +and original piece. His historical tragedy <i>Valdemar Atterdag</i> was +not so well received in 1839; but in 1845 he achieved an immense +success with his lyrical drama <i>Kong René’s Datter</i> (King René’s +Daughter), which has been translated into almost every European +language. To this succeeded the tragedy of <i>Ninon</i> in 1848, the +romantic comedy of <i>Tonietta</i> in 1849, <i>A Sacrifice</i> in 1853, <i>The +Youngest</i> in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive +collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he +edited a literary journal entitled <i>Weekly Leaves</i>. His last drama, +<i>Three Days in Padua</i>, was produced in 1869, and he died on +the 25th of February of the next year.</p> + +<p>Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems +are full of colour and passion, his versification has more witchcraft +in it than any other poet’s of his age, and his style is grace +itself. He has all the sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity +to the antique. As a romantic dramatist he is scarcely less +original. He has bequeathed to the Danish theatre, in <i>Svend +Dyrings Hus</i> and <i>King René’s Daughter</i>, two pieces which have +become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he has little +or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best +when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing +south.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Dramatic Works</i> (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in +1854-1873; and his <i>Poems</i> (4 vols.) in 1851-1862.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Von</span> (1725-1795), +Prussian statesman, who came of a noble family which had been +settled in Pomerania since the 13th century, was born at Lottin, +in that province, on the 2nd of September 1725. After 1739 he +studied, chiefly classics and history at the gymnasium at Stettin, +and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as a student of jurisprudence, +becoming in due course a doctor of laws in 1745. In +addition to this principal study, he was also interested while at +the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff) +studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled <i>Jus publicum +Brandenburgicum</i>, was not printed, because it contained a +criticism of the existing condition of the state. Shortly afterwards +Hertzberg entered the government service, in which he +was first employed in the department of the state archives (of +which he became director in 1750), soon after in the foreign +office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister (<i>Cabinetsminister</i>). +In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen, a marriage +which was happy, but childless.</p> + +<p>For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part +in the Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive +influence on Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and +Frederick William II. At the beginning of the Seven Years’ +War (1756) he took part as a political writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg +quarrel, both in his <i>Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen +bewogen haben, sich wider die Absichten des Wienerischen Hofes +zu setzen und deren Ausführung zuvorzukommen</i> (“Motives which +have induced the king of Prussia to oppose the intentions of the +court of Vienna, and to prevent them from being carried into +effect”), and in his <i>Mémoire raisonné sur la conduite des cours de +Vienne et de Saxe</i>, based on the secret papers taken by Frederick +the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the defeat at +Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the +national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the +protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the +same year he conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden, +and was of great service in bringing about the peace of Hubertsburg +(1763), on the conclusion of which the king received him +with the words, “I congratulate you. You have made peace +as I made war, one against many.”</p> + +<p>In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great’s reign, Hertzberg +played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a +memoir based upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended +the Prussian claims to certain provinces of Poland. He also took +part successfully as a publicist in the negotiations concerning the +question of the Bavarian succession (1778) and those of the peace +of Teschen (1779). But in 1780 he failed to uphold Prussian +interests at the election of the bishop of Münster. In 1784 +appeared Hertzberg’s memoir containing a thorough study of the +<i>Fürstenbund</i>. He championed this latest creation of Frederick +the Great’s mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the +empire, though the idea of German unity was naturally still +far from his mind. In 1785 followed “An explanation of the +motives which have led the king of Prussia to propose to the other +high estates of the empire an association for the maintenance of +the system of the empire” (<i>Erklärung der Ursachen, welche S.M. +in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen Mitständen des Reichs +eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems anzutragen</i>). +By upholding the Fürstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies, +prominent among whom was the king’s brother, Prince Henry. +Though the <i>Fürstenbund</i> failed to effect a reform of the empire, +it at any rate prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II.’s old desire +for the incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of +state in which Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span> +was the commercial treaty concluded in 1785 between Prussia +and the United States.</p> + +<p>With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood +in very intimate personal relations and was often the king’s guest +at Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential +position at the court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king +at once received him with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertzberg’s +elevation to the rank of count in 1786; and Mirabeau would +never have attacked him with such violence in his <i>Secret History +of the Court of Berlin</i>, which appeared in 1788, if he had not +seen in him the most powerful man after the king. In this attack +Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg’s personal +enemies at the court. Hertzberg’s political system remained +on the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had +been under his predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a +sharp opposition to the house of Habsburg and by a desire to +win for Prussia the support of England, a policy supported by +him in important memoirs of the years 1786 and 1787. His +diplomacy was directed also against Austria’s old ally, France. +Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in spite of +the king’s unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in Holland +in support of the stadtholder William V. against the democratic +French party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holland</a></span>: <i>History</i>). The success of +this intervention, which was the practical realization of a plan +very characteristic of Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in +his career.</p> + +<p>But the opposition between him and the new king, which had +already appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple +alliance between Holland, England and Prussia, became more +marked in the following years, when Hertzberg, relying upon this +alliance, and in conscious imitation of Frederick II.’s policy at the +time of the first partition of Poland, sought to take advantage of +the entanglement of Austria with Russia in the war with Turkey +to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by diplomatic +intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her +mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments +that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and +Thorn as her portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the +restoration of the hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and +secretly cherished the hope of restoring Frederick the Great’s +Russian alliance.</p> + +<p>With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims +even when, owing to military and diplomatic events, they were +already partly out of date. His personal position became +increasingly difficult, as deep-rooted differences between him and +the king were revealed during these diplomatic campaigns. +Hertzberg wished to effect everything by peaceful means, while +Frederick William II. was for a time determined on war with +Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into +conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the +total annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the +attitude of king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences +at Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition +became more and more acute, and Hertzberg was only with +difficulty persuaded to come to an agreement merely on the +basis of the <i>status</i> quo, as demanded by Pitt. The king’s renunciation +of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg’s eyes +impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. +A letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which +Hertzberg severely criticized the king’s foreign policy, and +especially his plans for attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on +the 5th of July 1791. He afterwards made several attempts to +exert an influence over foreign affairs, but in vain. The king +showed himself more and more personally hostile to the ex-minister, +and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now quite +embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering +his letters to be opened.</p> + +<p>Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in +the ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, +made it so difficult for him to use the archives that in the end +Hertzberg entirely gave up the attempt. He found, however, +some recompense for all his disillusionment and discouragement +in learning, and, Wilhelm von Humboldt excepted, he was the +most learned of all the Prussian ministers. As a member of the +Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786 onwards, as its curator, +Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable activity in the world of +learning. His yearly reports dealt with history, statistics and +political science. The most interesting is that of 1784: <i>Sur la +forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure</i>. This is directed +exclusively against the absolute system (following Montesquieu), +upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending to +the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke +for the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages +of monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation, +since Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the +financial situation, which in the days of absolutism seemed an +unprecedented innovation. Besides this, Hertzberg exerted +himself as an academician to change the strongly French character +of the Academy and make it into a truly German institution. He +showed a keen interest in the old German language and literature. +A special “German deputation” was set aside at the Academy +and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and +dictionary. He also stood in very close relations with many of +the German poets of the time, and especially with Daniel +Schubart. Among the German historians in whom he took a great +interest, he had the greatest esteem for Pufendorf. He was +equally concerned in the improvement of the state of education. +In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature, +which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous +writing <i>De la littérature allemande</i>.</p> + +<p>Hertzberg’s frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be +a successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified +many of his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is +honoured. He died at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—(1) By Hertzberg himself: The <i>Mémoires de +l’Académie</i> from 1780 on contain Hertzberg’s discourses. The most +noteworthy of them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: +<i>Histoire de la dissertation</i> [<i>du roi</i>] <i>sur la littérature allemande</i>; see +also <i>Recueil des déductions, &c., qui ont été rédigés ... pour la cour +de Prusse par le ministre</i> (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an “Autobiographical +Sketch” published by Höpke in Schmidt’s <i>Zeitschrift +für Geschichtswissenschaft</i>, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with +Hertzberg: Mirabeau, <i>Histoire secrète de la cour de Berlin</i> (1788); +P. F. Weddigen, <i>Hertzbergs Leben</i> (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt, +<i>Hertzbergs Leben</i> (Tübingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in <i>Neustettiner +Programm</i> (1862); E. Fischer, in <i>Staatsanzeiger</i> (1873); M. Duncker, +in <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i> (1877); Paul Bailleu, in <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i> +(1879); and <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (1880); H. +Petrich, <i>Pommersche Lebensbilder</i> i. (1880); G. Dressler, <i>Friedrich +II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den holländischen Wirren</i>, +Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, <i>Hertzberg als Minister +Friedrich Wilhelms II</i>. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in +<i>Historische Vierteljahrschrift</i>, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, <i>Ewald +Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg</i> (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F. +K. Wittichen, <i>Preussen und England, 1785-1788</i> (Heidelberg, 1902); +F. Luckwaldt, <i>Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den +Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte</i>, Bd. 15, +and in the <i>Delbrückfestschrift</i> (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, <i>System der +preussischen Geheimpolitik</i> 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation, +1903); P. Wittichen, <i>Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790</i> +(Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, <i>Preussische und russische Politik in +Polen</i> 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck, +<i>Deutschland vor 100 Jahren</i> (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack, +<i>Geschichte der preussischen Akademie</i> (4 vols., 1899); Consentius, +<i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i> (1904); J. Hashagen, “Hertzbergs Verhältnis +zur deutschen Literatur,” in <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie</i> +for 1903.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERTZEN, ALEXANDER<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1812-1870), Russian author, was +born at Moscow, a very short time before the occupation of that +city by the French. His father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal +interview with Napoleon, was allowed to leave, when the invaders +arrived, as the bearer of a letter from the French to the Russian +emperor. His family attended him to the Russian lines. Then +the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German Protestant +of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von +Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak +Russian, was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant’s +hut. A year later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen +passed his youth—remaining there, after completing his studies +at the university, till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +charge of having assisted, with some other youths, at a festival +during which verses by Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary +to the emperor, were sung. The special commission appointed to +try the youthful culprits found him guilty, and in 1835 he was +banished to Viatka. There he remained till the visit to that +city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards Alexander II.), +accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being allowed to +quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of the +official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the +ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of +having spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer’s +violence, he was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, +with the title of “state councillor,” till 1842. In 1846 his father +died, leaving him by his will a very large property. Early in +1847 he left Russia, never to return. From Italy, on hearing of +the revolution of 1848, he hastened to Paris, whence he afterwards +went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted Geneva for +London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned to +Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the +21st of January 1870.</p> + +<p>His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an +essay, in Russian, on <i>Dilettantism in Science</i>, under the pseudonym +of “Iskander,” the Turkish form of his Christian name—convicts, +even when pardoned, not being allowed in those days to +publish under their own names. His second work, also in Russian, +was his <i>Letters on the Study of Nature</i> (1845-1846). In 1847 +appeared, his novel <i>Kto Vinovat?</i> (Whose Fault?), and about the +same time were published in Russian periodicals the stories +which were afterwards collected and printed in London in 1854, +under the title of <i>Prervannuie Razskazui</i> (Interrupted Tales). +In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian +manuscript, <i>Vom anderen Ufer</i> (From another Shore) and <i>Lettres +de France et d’Italie</i>. In French appeared also his essay <i>Du +Développement des idées révolutionnaires en Russie</i>, and his +<i>Memoirs</i>, which, after being printed in Russian, were translated +under the title of <i>Le Monde russe et la Révolution</i> (3 vols., 1860-1862), +and were in part translated into English as <i>My Exile to +Siberia</i> (2 vols., 1855). From a literary point of view his most +important work is <i>Kto Vinovat?</i> a story describing how the +domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the unacknowledged +daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull, +ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the +new school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there +being any possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the +tragic termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen +gained the vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having +founded in London his “Free Russian Press,” of the fortunes of +which, during ten years, he gave an interesting account in a +book published (in Russian) in 1863, he issued from it a great +number of Russian works, all levelled against the system of +government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays, +such as his <i>Baptized Property</i>, an attack on serfdom; others were +periodical publications, the <i>Polyarnaya Zvyezda</i> (or Polar Star), +the <i>Kolokol</i> (or Bell), and the <i>Golosa iz Rossii</i> (or Voices from +Russia). The <i>Kolokol</i> soon obtained an immense circulation, and +exercised an extraordinary influence. For three years, it is +true, the founders of the “Free Press” went on printing, “not +only without selling a single copy, but scarcely being able to get +a single copy introduced into Russia”; so that when at last a +bookseller bought ten shillings’ worth of <i>Baptized Property</i>, the +half-sovereign was set aside by the surprised editors in a special +place of honour. But the death of the emperor Nicholas in 1855 +produced an entire change. Hertzen’s writings, and the journals +he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and their words +resounded throughout that country, as well as all over Europe. +Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden, +evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into +light and disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly +expressed the thoughts which had long been secretly stirring +Russian minds, and were now beginning to find a timid utterance +at home. For some years his influence in Russia was a living +force, the circulation of his writings was a vocation zealously +pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a merchant, who had +bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod, found that +they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at another +time a supposititious copy of the <i>Kolokol</i> was printed for the +emperor’s special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading +statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was +omitted. At length the sweeping changes introduced by +Alexander II. greatly diminished the need for and appreciation +of Hertzen’s assistance in the work of reform. The freedom he +had demanded for the serfs was granted, the law-courts he had so +long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury was established, +liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It became +clear that Hertzen’s occupation was gone. When the Polish +insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents’ +cause, his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From +that time it was only with the revolutionary party that he was in +full accord.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in +Paris. A volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published +at Geneva in 1870. His <i>Memoirs</i> supply the principal information +about his life, a sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach’s +<i>Zeitgenossen</i>, pt. 7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the <i>Revue des deux +mondes</i> for July 15 and Sept. 1, 1854. <i>Kto Vinovat?</i> has been translated +into German under the title of <i>Wer ist schuld?</i> in Wolffsohn’s +<i>Russlands Novellendichter</i>, vol. iii. The title of <i>My Exile in Siberia</i> +is misleading; he was never in that country.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.-R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERULI,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the +history of the migration period. The name does not occur in +writings of the first two centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Where the original home +of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. Jordanes says +that they had been expelled from their territories by the Danes, +from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what +is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the +Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of +Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths +ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly +afterwards, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 289, they appear in the region about the mouth +of the Rhine. During the 4th century they frequently served +together with the Batavi in the Roman armies. In the 5th +century we again hear of piratical incursions by the Heruli in the +western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom in central +Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the Elbe. Together +with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by Theodoric +the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form +an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very +shortly afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by +the Langobardi. A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where +they settled among the Götar, while others crossed the Danube +and entered the Roman service, where they are frequently +mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars. After the +middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely +disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian +works they are never mentioned, and there can be little +doubt that they were known, especially among the western +Teutonic peoples, by some other name. Probably they are +identical either with the North Suabi or with the Iuti. The +name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S. <i>eorlas</i> +(nobles), O.S. <i>erlos</i> (men), the singular of which (erilaz) frequently +occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a title +of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow +of their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. +When threatened with death by disease or old age, they were +required to call in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. +Suttee was also customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare +and served not only in the Roman armies, but also in +those of all the surrounding nations. They disdained the use of +helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves only with +shields.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus <i>Paneg. Maximi</i>; Ammianus +Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, <i>Chronica</i>; Jordanes, <i>De +origine Getarum</i>; Procopius, esp. <i>Bellum Goticum</i>, ii. 14 f.; <i>Bellum +Persicum</i>, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, <i>Hist. Langobardorum</i>, i. 20; +K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 476 ff. (Munich, +1837).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HERVÁS Y PANDURO, LORENZO<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1735-1809), Spanish +philologist, was born at Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May +1735. He joined the Jesuits on the 29th of September 1745 +and in course of time became successively professor of philosophy +and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and Murcia. When +the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervás settled +at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his <i>Idea dell’ +Universo</i> (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, +he published his famous <i>Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones +conocidas</i> (6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological +peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up +grammars of forty languages. In 1802 he was appointed +librarian of the Quirinal Palace in Rome, where he died on the 24th +of August 1809. Max Müller credits him with having anticipated +Humboldt, and with making “one of the most brilliant discoveries +in the history of the science of language” by establishing +the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of speech.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERVEY, JAMES<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1714-1758), English divine, was born at +Hardingstone, near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, +and was educated at the grammar school of Northampton, and +at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he came under the influence +of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists; ultimately, however, +while retaining his regard for the men and his sympathy with +their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic creed, +and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken +orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded +his father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. +He was never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous +writer. His style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare +appreciation of natural beauty, and his simple piety made him +many friends. His earliest work, <i>Meditations and Contemplations</i>, +said to have been modelled on Robert Boyle’s <i>Occasional +Reflexions on various Subjects</i>, within fourteen years passed +through as many editions. <i>Theron and Aspasio, or a series of +Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects</i>, which +appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some +adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies +which were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly +objected to by Wesley in his <i>Preservative against unsettled Notions +in Religion</i>. Besides carrying into England the theological +disputes to which the <i>Marrow of Modern Divinity</i> had given rise +in Scotland, it also led to what is known as the Sandemanian +controversy as to the nature of saving faith. Hervey died on +the 25th of December 1758.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A “new and complete” edition of his <i>Works</i>, with a memoir, +appeared in 1797. See also <i>Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, +to which is prefixed an account of his Life and Death</i>, by Dr Birch +(1760).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LÉON,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis +d’</span> (1823-1892), French Orientalist and man of letters, was born +in Paris in 1823. He devoted himself to the study of Chinese, +and in 1851 published his <i>Recherches sur l’agriculture et l’horticulture +des Chinois</i>, in which he dealt with the plants and animals +that might be acclimatized in the West. At the Paris Exhibition +of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese exhibits; in +1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese at +the Collège de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of +the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works +include <i>Poésies de l’époque des T’ang</i> (1862), translated from the +Chinese; <i>Ethnographie des peuples étrangers à la Chine</i>, translated +from Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); <i>Li-Sao</i> (1870), from the +Chinese; <i>Mémoires sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius +et de l’école des lettres</i> (1887); and translations of some Chinese +stories not of classical interest but valuable for the light they +throw on oriental custom. Hervey de Saint Denys also translated +some works from the Spanish, and wrote a history of the +Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1696-1743), +English statesman and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl +of Bristol, by his second marriage, was born on the 13th of +October 1696. He was educated at Westminster school and at +Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1715. +In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to Hanover to +pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the +court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in +1720 he married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess’s +ladies-in-waiting, and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received +the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of his half-brother +Carr, and in 1725 he was elected M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He +had been at one time on very friendly terms with Frederick, +prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him, apparently +because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These +differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws +of the prince’s callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating +between William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole, +but in 1730 he definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he +was thenceforward a faithful adherent. He was assumed by +Pulteney to be the author of <i>Sedition and Defamation display’d +with a Dedication to the patrons of The Craftsman</i> (1731). Pulteney, +who, up to this time, had been a firm friend of Hervey, replied +with <i>A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous Libel</i>, and the quarrel +resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly escaped with his +life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of both the +pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth, +apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He +was able to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence +over the queen. Through him the minister governed Queen +Caroline and indirectly George II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain +in the royal household and a member of the privy council. In +1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ in virtue of his +father’s barony. In spite of repeated requests he received no +further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord privy +seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed +(July 1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, +<i>Miscellaneous Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and +Domestic Affairs</i>, shows that he still retained his mental vigour, +but he was liable to epilepsy, and his weak appearance and rigid +diet were a constant source of ridicule to his enemies. He +died on the 5th of August 1743. He predeceased his father, but +three of his sons became successively earls of Bristol.</p> + +<p>Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court +of George II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering +account of the king, and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their +family squabbles. For the queen and her daughter, Princess +Caroline, he had a genuine respect and attachment, and the +princess’s affection for him was commonly said to be the reason +for the close retirement in which she lived after his death. The +MS. of Hervey’s memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son, +Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that +they should not be published until after the death of George III. +In 1848 they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, +but the MS. had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation +before it came into his hands. Croker also softened in some cases +the plainspokenness of the original. Hervey’s bitter account of +court life and intrigues resembles in many points the memoirs of +Horace Walpole, and the two books corroborate one another in +many statements that might otherwise have been received with +suspicion.</p> + +<p>Until the publication of the <i>Memoirs</i> Hervey was chiefly known +as the object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works +he figured as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The +quarrel is generally put down to Pope’s jealousy of Hervey’s +friendship with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In the first of the +<i>Imitations of Horace</i>, addressed to William Fortescue, “Lord +Fanny” and “Sappho” were generally identified with Hervey +and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal intention. +Hervey had already been attacked in the <i>Dunciad</i> and the +<i>Bathos</i>, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a +share in the <i>Verses to the Imitator of Horace</i> (1732) and it is +possible that he was the sole author. In the <i>Letter from a nobleman +at Hampton Court to a Doctor of Divinity</i> (1733), he scoffed at +Pope’s deformity and humble birth. Pope’s reply was a <i>Letter to +a Noble Lord</i>, dated November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in +the <i>Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot</i> (1735), which forms the prologue to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +the satires. Many of the insinuations and insults contained in it +are borrowed from Pulteney’s libel. The malicious caricature of +Sporus does Hervey great injustice, and he is not much better +treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting his death in a letter +(14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had outlived his +last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him to +have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole’s tactics +and distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the +weapons of which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost +adroitness. His wife Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), +of whom an account is to be found in Lady Louisa Stuart’s +<i>Anecdotes</i>, was a warm partisan of the Stuarts. She retained her +wit and charm throughout her life, and has the distinction of +being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hervey’s <i>Memoirs of the Court of George II.</i>, edited by J. W. +Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the <i>Dict. +Nat. Biog.</i> (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the <i>Memoirs</i> he wrote numerous +political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERVIEU, PAUL<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1857-  ), French dramatist and novelist, +was born at Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He +was called to the bar in 1877, and, after serving some time in the +office of the president of the council, he qualified for the diplomatic +service, but resigned on his nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship +in the French legation in Mexico. He contributed novels, tales +and essays to the chief Parisian papers and reviews, and published +a series of clever novels, including <i>L’Inconnu</i> (1887), <i>Flirt</i> (1890), +<i>L’Exorcisée</i> (1891), <i>Peints par eux-mêmes</i> (1893), an ironical study +written in the form of letters, and <i>L’Armature</i> (1895), dramatized +in 1905 by Eugène Brieux. But his most important work consists +of a series of plays: <i>Les Paroles restent</i> (Vaudeville, 17th of +November 1892); <i>Les Tenailles</i> (Théâtre Français, 28th of +September 1895); <i>La Loi de l’homme</i> (Théâtre Français, 15th of +February 1897); <i>La Course du flambeau</i> (Vaudeville, 17th of +April 1901); <i>Point de lendemain</i> (Odéon, 18th of October 1901), a +dramatic version of a story by Vivaut Denon; <i>L’Ênigme</i> (Théâtre +Français, 5th of November 1901); <i>Théroigne de Méricourt</i> +(Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd of September 1902); <i>Le Dédale</i> +(Théâtre Français, 19th of December 1903), and <i>Le Réveil</i> (Théâtre +Français, 18th of December 1905). These plays are built upon a +severely logical method, the mechanism of which is sometimes so +evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion. The closing +words of <i>La Course du flambeau</i>—“<i>Pour ma fille, j’ai tué ma mère</i>”—are +an example of his selection of a plot representing an extreme +theory. The riddle in <i>L’Éngime</i> (staged at Wyndham’s Theatre, +London, March 1st 1902, as <i>Caesar’s Wife</i>) is, however, worked out +with great art, and <i>Le Dédale</i>, dealing with the obstacles to the +remarriage of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces +of the modern French stage. He was elected to the +French Academy in 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Binet, in <i>L’Année psychologique</i>, vol. x. Hervieu’s <i>Théâtre</i> +was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1796-1884), +Prussian general field-marshal, came of an aristocratic +family which had supplied many distinguished officers to the +Prussian army. He entered the Guard infantry in 1811, and +served through the War of Liberation (1813-15), distinguishing +himself at Lützen and Paris. During the years of peace he rose +slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 +he was on duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. +Major-general in 1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received +the grade of general of infantry and the command of the VIIth +(Westphalian) Army Corps in 1860. In the Danish War of 1864 +he succeeded to the command of the Prussians when Prince +Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the Allies, +and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the +passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 +Herwarth commanded the “Army of the Elbe” which overran +Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. +His troops won the actions of Hühnerwasser and Münchengrätz, +and at Königgrätz formed the right wing of the Prussian army. +Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left +flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but was in +charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing +and forwarding all the reserves and material required for the +armies in France. In 1871 his great services were recognized +by promotion to the rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life +was spent in retirement at Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since +1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian) Infantry has borne his name.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld</i> (Münster, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERWEGH, GEORG<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1817-1875), German political poet, was +born at Stuttgart on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant +keeper. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native city, +and in 1835 proceeded to the university of Tübingen as a theological +student, where, with a view to entering the ministry, +he entered the protestant theological seminary. But the strict +discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was expelled +in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest +of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned +to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a <span class="correction" title="amended from journalisitic">journalistic</span> post. +Called out for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment +when he committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled +to Switzerland to avoid punishment. Here he published his +<i>Gedichte eines Lebendigen</i> (1841), a volume of political poems, +which gave expression to the fervent aspirations of the German +youth of the day. The work immediately rendered him famous, +and although confiscated, it soon ran through several editions. +The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions of Prince +Pückler-Muskau (<i>q.v.</i>) in his <i>Briefe eines Verstorbenen</i>. He +next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, +visiting Jena, Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin—a journey which was +described as being a “veritable triumphal progress.” His +military insubordination appears to have been forgiven and +forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William IV. had him +introduced to him and used the memorable words: “<i>ich liebe +eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition</i>” (“I admire an opposition, when +dictated by principle.”) Herwegh next returned to Paris, where +he published in 1844 the second volume of his <i>Gedichte eines +Lebendigen</i>, which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the +German police. At the head of a revolutionary column of German +working men, recruited in Paris, Herwegh took an active part +in the South German rising in 1848; but his raw troops were +defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in Baden and, after +a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to escape to +Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of his +literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to +Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th +of April 1875. A monument was erected to his memory there +in 1904. Besides the above-mentioned works, Herwegh published +<i>Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der Schweiz</i> (1843), and translations +into German of A. de Lamartine’s works and of seven of +Shakespeare’s plays. Posthumously appeared <i>Neue Gedichte</i> +(1877).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Herwegh’s correspondence was published by his son Marcel in +1898. See also Johannes Scherr, <i>Georg Herwegh; literarische +und politische Blätter</i> (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in +the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERZBERG,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, +on the Sieber, 25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to +Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop. (1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and a botanical garden, +and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and weaving and +dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively carried on +here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the town +lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession +of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of +the residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERZBERG,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Saxony, on the Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Jüterbog +by the railway Berlin-Röderau-Dresden. It has a church +(Evangelical) dating from the 13th century and a medieval +town hall. Its industries include the founding and turning of +metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making. Pop. (1905) +4043.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERZL, THEODOR<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1860-1904), founder of modern political +Zionism (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +and died at Edlach on the 3rd of July 1904. The greater part of +his career was associated with Vienna, where he acquired high +repute as a literary journalist. He was also a dramatist, and +apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist would have +found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to +renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his +work as the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political +autonomy. Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of +Jews under persecution, but he was even more powerfully moved +by the difficulties experienced under conditions of assimilation. +Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was both like and unlike the +medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews continued in +Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several national +groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl +believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the +end of the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries +had failed. The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but +the Jews could find no entry into the comity of nations. The +new nationalism of 1848 did not deprive the Jews of political +rights, but it denied them both the amenities of friendly intercourse +and the opportunity of distinction in the university, the +army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this diagnosis, +and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (<i>q.v.</i>) which spread +over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against +the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl +published his famous pamphlet “Der Judenstaat.” Holding +that the only alternatives for the Jews were complete merging +by intermarriage or self-preservation by a national re-union, +he boldly advocated the second course. He did not at first insist +on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he attach himself +to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic restoration +to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent, +in the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject +entirely on its secular side, and his solution was economic and +political rather than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for +the complete separation of Church and State. The influence +of Herzl’s pamphlet, the progress of the movement he initiated, +the subsequent modifications of his plans, are told at length in +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zionism</a></span>.</p> + +<p>His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm, +and though he almost completely failed to win to his cause the +classes, he rallied the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly +gained the accession of many Jews by race who were +indifferent to the religious aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed +to convince the leaders of Jewish thought, who from first to last +remained (with such conspicuous exceptions as Nordau and +Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox were at first cool +because they had always dreamed of a nationalism inspired by +messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to dissociate +those universalistic ideals from all national limitations. Herzl, +however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel +(beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable +scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader. +At all these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: “the +establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured +home in Palestine.” Herzl’s personal charm was irresistible. +Among his political opponents he had some close personal friends. +His sincerity, his eloquence, his tact, his devotion, his power, +were recognized on all hands. He spent his whole strength in the +furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic interviews, exhausting +journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant literary propaganda—all +these methods were employed by him to the utmost +limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the +pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The +British government was ready to grant land for an autonomous +settlement in East Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl’s +peace of mind. Even as a temporary measure, the choice of an +extra-Palestinian site for the Jewish state was bitterly opposed +by many Zionists; others (with whom Herzl appears to have +sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all events +momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement +elsewhere. Herzl’s health had been failing and he did not long +survive the initiation of the somewhat embittered “territorial” +controversy. He died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation +of supporters and the deep grief of opponents of his +Zionistic aims.</p> + +<p>Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality +of the 19th century. He had no profound insight into the +problem of Judaism, and there was no lasting validity in his +view that the problem—the thousands of years’ old mystery—could +be solved by a retrogression to local nationality. But he +brought home to Jews the perils that confronted them; he +compelled many a “semi-detached” son of Israel to rejoin the +camp; he forced the “assimilationists” to realize their position +and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to “Jewish +culture,” including the popularization of Hebrew as a living +speech; and he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an +earnest and vital interest in their present and their future. +Herzl thus left an indelible mark on his time, and his renown is +assured whatever be the fate in store for the political Zionism +which he founded and for which he gave his life.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERZOG, HANS<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at +Aarau. He became a Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then +spent six years in travelling (visiting England among other +countries), before he became a partner in his father’s business in +1846. In 1847 he saw his first active service (as artillery captain) +in the short Swiss <i>Sonderbund</i> war. In 1860 he abandoned +mercantile pursuits for a purely military career, becoming +colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery. In 1870 he +was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the +Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and +in February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrières +with General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the +remains of Bourbaki’s army, when it took refuge in Switzerland. +In 1875 he became the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery, +which he did much to reorganize, helping also in the re-organization +of the other branches of the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at +his native town of Aarau.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1805-1882), German Protestant +theologian, was born at Basel on the 12th of September 1805. +He studied at Basel and Berlin, and eventually (1854) settled at +Erlangen as professor of church history. He died there on the +30th of September 1882, having retired in 1877. His most noteworthy +achievement was the publication of the <i>Realencyklopädie +für protestantische Theologie und Kirche</i> (1853-1868, 22 vols.), +of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt (1836-1880) +in 1877, and after Plitt’s death with Albert Hauck +(b. 1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in +1896 (completed in 22 vols., 1909).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His other works include <i>Joh. Calvin</i> (1843), <i>Leben Ökolampads</i> +(1843), <i>Die romanischen Waldenser</i> (1853), <i>Abriss der gesamten +Kirchengeschichte</i> (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig, +1890-1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1819-1874), German +author, was born on the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his +father, distinguished as a writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran +pastor. Hesekiel studied history and philosophy in Halle, Jena +and Berlin, and devoted himself in early life to journalism and +literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where he lived until his +death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a considerable reputation +as a writer and as editor of the <i>Neue Preussische Zeitung</i>. +He attempted many different kinds of literary work, the most +ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs <i>Preussenlieder</i>, of which +he published a volume during the revolutionary excitement of +1848-1849. Another collection—<i>Neue Preussenlieder</i>—appeared +in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in 1870—<i>Gegen die +Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Königslieder</i>. Among his +novels may be mentioned <i>Unter dem Eisenzahn</i> (1864) and <i>Der +Schultheiss vom Zeyst</i> (1875). The best known of his works is his +biography of Prince Bismarck (<i>Das Buch vom Fürsten Bismarck</i>) +(3rd ed., 1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESILRIGE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Heselrig</span>), <b>SIR ARTHUR,</b> 2nd Bart. (d. 1661), +English parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas +Hesilrige, 1st baronet (<i>c.</i> 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +member of a very ancient family settled in Northumberland +and Leicestershire, and of Frances, daughter of Sir William +Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early imbibed +strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism +to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long +Parliaments in 1640, and took a principal part in Strafford’s +attainder, the Root and Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the +7th of December 1641, and was one of the five members impeached +on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed much activity +in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex, fought +at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed +his <i>fidus Achates</i>, and distinguished himself at the head +of his cuirassiers, “The Lobsters,” at Lansdown on the 5th +of July 1643, at Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both +of which battles he was wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th +1644. On the occasion of the breach between the army and +the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former, took Cromwell’s +part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on the passing +of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and +became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament. +On the 30th of December 1647 he was appointed +governor of Newcastle, which he successfully defended, besides +defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of July 1648 and regaining +Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to Scotland, +and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in +1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king’s execution, +had declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the +leading men in the Commonwealth, but Cromwell’s expulsion +of the Long Parliament threw him into antagonism, and he +opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay taxes. He was +returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and +1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a +seat in the Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him, +and succeeded in again obtaining admission to the Commons +in January 1658. On Cromwell’s death Hesilrige refused support +to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting his downfall. +He was now one of the most influential men in the council +and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican +parliamentary administration, “to keep the sword subservient +to the civil magistrate,” and opposed Lambert’s schemes. +On the latter succeeding in expelling the parliament, Hesilrige +turned to Monk for support, and assisted his movements by +securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched +to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the +2nd of January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner +for the army. He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting +to his assurance of fidelity to “the good old cause” consented +to the retirement of his regiment from London. At the Restoration +his life was saved by Monk’s intervention, but he was +imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the 7th of January +1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as “an absurd, bold man.” +He was rash, “hare-brained,” devoid of tact and had little +claim to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field +and in parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary +cause. He exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his +exactions and appropriations of confiscated landed property, +though the accusation brought against him by John Lilburne +was examined by a parliamentary committee and adjudged +to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances, daughter of Thomas +Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had two sons +and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville, +2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters. +The family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur +Grey Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dict. +of Nat. Biography</i>, and authorities there quoted; <i>Early History +of the Family of Hesilrige</i>, by W. G. D. Fletcher; <i>Cal. of State Papers, +Domestic</i>, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important +references, as also in <i>Hist. MSS.</i>, <i>Comm. Series</i>, <i>MSS. of Earl +Cowper</i>, <i>Duke of Leeds</i> and <i>Duke of Portland</i>; <i>Egerton MSS.</i> 2618, +<i>Harleian</i> 7001 f. 198, and in the <i>Sloane</i>, <i>Stowe</i> and <i>Additional</i> collections +in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, <i>Hist. of England</i>, +<i>Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth</i>; Clarendon’s <i>History, +State Papers and Cal. of State Papers</i>, J. L. Sanford’s <i>Studies of the +Great Rebellion</i>. His life is written by Noble in the <i>House of Cromwell</i>, +i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in parliament see the +catalogue of the British Museum.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESIOD,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably +flourished during the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His father had migrated +from the Aeolic Cyme in Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod +and his brother Perses were born at Ascra, near mount Helicon +(<i>Works and Days</i>, 635). Here, as he fed his father’s flocks, +he received his commission from the Muses to be their prophet +and poet—a commission which he recognized by dedicating to +them a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at +some funeral games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at +Helicon in the age of Pausanias (<i>Theogony</i>, 20-34, <i>W. and D.</i>, +656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3). After the death of his father Hesiod +is said to have left his native land in disgust at the result of a +law-suit with his brother and to have migrated to Naupactus. +There was a tradition that he was murdered by the sons of his +host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in +Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains +were removed for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to +Orchomenus in Boeotia, where the Ascraeans settled after the +destruction of their town by the Thespians, and where, according +to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.</p> + +<p>Hesiod’s earliest poem, the famous <i>Works and Days</i>, and according +to Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the +experiences of his daily life and work, and, interwoven with +episodes of fable, allegory, and personal history, forms a sort +of Boeotian shepherd’s calendar. The first portion is an ethical +enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive of strife and idleness +(1-383); the second consists of hints and rules as to husbandry +(384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the +months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary +for rural or nautical employments. The connecting link of the +whole poem is the author’s advice to his brother, who appears +to have bribed the corrupt judges to deprive Hesiod of his already +scantier inheritance, and to whom, as he wasted his substance +lounging in the agora, the poet more than once returned good +for evil, though he tells him there will be a limit to this unmerited +kindness. In the <i>Works and Days</i> the episodes which +rise above an even didactic level are the “Creation and Equipment +of Pandora,” the “Five Ages of the World” and the much-admired +“Description of Winter” (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic). +The poem also contains the earliest known fable +in Greek literature, that of “The Hawk and the Nightingale.” +It is in the <i>Works and Days</i> especially that we glean indications +of Hesiod’s rank and condition in life, that of a stay-at-home +farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea was +a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned +bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony +have been conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having +a wife as extravagant as himself.</p> + +<p>The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which +has come down in great part to modern times is <i>The Theogony</i>, +a work of grander scope, inspired alike by older traditions and +abundant local associations. It is an attempt to work into +system, as none had essayed to do before, the floating legends of +the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This task Herodotus +(ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato in +the <i>Symposium</i> (178 B) as the author of the <i>Theogony</i>. The +first to question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias, +the geographer (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had +no doubt on the subject; and indications of the hand that +wrote the <i>Works and Days</i> may be found in the severe strictures +on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver Plutus +and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt, +of Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different +recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. +The <i>Theogony</i> consists of three divisions—(1) a cosmogony, +or creation; (2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of +the dynasties of Zeus and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly +terminated heroögony, the starting-point not improbably of +the supplementary poem, the <span class="grk" title="katalogos">κατάλογος</span>, or “Lists of Women” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +who wedded immortals, of which all but a few fragments are +lost.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The proem (1-116) addressed to the Heliconian and Pierian +muses, is considered to have been variously enlarged, altered +and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has interwoven +several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of +Zeus and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description +of the prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined, +with the Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors +(735 seq.).</p> + +<p>The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod’s +name is the <i>Shield of Heracles</i>, the opening verses of which are +attributed by a nameless grammarian to the fourth book of +<i>Eoiai</i>. The theme of the piece is the expedition of Heracles +and Iolaus against the robber Cycnus; but its main object +apparently is to describe the shield of Heracles (141-317). It +is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of the shield of +Achilles (<i>Iliad</i>, xviii. 479) and is now generally considered +spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod +have come down to us: didactic, as the <i>Maxims of Cheiron</i>; +genealogical, as the <i>Aegimius</i>, describing the contest of that +mythical ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and +mythical, as the <i>Marriage of Ceyx</i> and the <i>Descent of Theseus +to Hades</i>.</p> + +<p>Recent editions of Hesiod include the <span class="grk" title="Agôn Homêrou kai +Hêsiodou">Ἀγὼν Ὁμήρου καὶ Ἡσιόδου</span>, the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the +funeral games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. +This little tract belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually +mentioned as having been present during its recitation, but is +founded on an earlier account by the sophist Alcidamas (<i>q.v.</i>). +Quotations (old and new) are made from the works of both +poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, the judge +decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of +Homer and Hesiod are also given.</p> + +<p>A strong characteristic of Hesiod’s style is his sententious +and proverbial philosophy (as in <i>Works and Days</i>, 24-25, 40, +218, 345, 371). There is naturally less of this in the <i>Theogony</i>, +yet there too not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or +adage. He has undying fame as the first of didactic poets +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didactic Poetry</a></span>), the accredited systematizer of Greek +mythology and the rough but not unpoetical sketcher of the +lines on which Virgil wrought out his exquisitely finished +Georgics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Complete works: <i>Editio princeps</i> (Milan, 1493); +Göttling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of publication; +C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and explanatory +notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902), including +the fragments. Separate works: <i>Works and Days</i>: Van Lennep +(1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, <i>Die Werke und Tage des +Hesiodos</i> (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement +of the poem; G. Wlastoff, <i>Prométhée, Pandore, et la légende +des siècles</i> (1883). <i>Theogony</i>: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker +(1865), valuable edition; G. F. Schömann (1868), with text, critical +notes and exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, <i>Die Hesiodische +Theogonie</i> (1873), with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma +in Hesiod, <i>System der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie</i> (1874), and <i>Glossen +und Scholien zur Theogonie</i> (1876); Meyer, <i>De compositione +Theogoniae</i> (1887). <i>Shield of Heracles</i>: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van +Lennep-Hullemann (1854); F. Stegemann, <i>De scuti Herculis Hesiodei +poëta Homeri carminum imitatore</i> (1904); the fragments were +published by W. Marckscheffel in 1840; for the <span class="grk" title="Agôn Homêrou">Ἀγὼν Ὁμήρου</span> +(ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F. Nietzsche in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> (new +series), xxv. p. 528. For papyrus fragments of the “Catalogue,” +some 50 lines on the wooing of Helen, and a shorter fragment in +praise of Peleus, see Wilamowitz-Möllendorff in <i>Sitzungsber. der +königl. preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>, for 26th of July 1900; +for fragments relating to Meleager and the suitors of Helen, <i>Berliner +Klassikertexte</i>, v. (1907); of the <i>Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap.</i> vi. (1908).</p> + +<p>On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schömann, <i>Opuscula</i>, ii. +(1857); H. Flach, <i>Die Hesiodischen Gedichte</i> (1874); A. Rzach, +<i>Der Dialekt des Hesiodos</i> (1876); P. O. Gruppe, <i>Die griechischen +Kulte und Mythen</i>, i. (1887); O. Friedel, <i>Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods</i> +(1879), from <i>Jahrbücher für classische Philologie</i> (10th suppl. Band, +1879); J. Adam, <i>Religious Teachers of Greece</i> (1908). There is a +full bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898) +by A. Rzach in Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der +klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, xxvii. (1900).</p> + +<p>There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke +(1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W. +Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of Translations, +1908); in German (metrical version) with valuable introductions +and notes by R. Peppmüller (1896) and in other modern +languages.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Da.; J. H. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of +each heroine began with <span class="grk" title="ê oiê">ἤ οἴη</span>, "or like as." (See Bibliography.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESPERIDES,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded +the golden apples which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to +Zeus. According to Hesiod (<i>Theogony</i>, 215) they were the +daughters of Erebus and Night; in later accounts, of Atlas and +Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on Apoll. Rhod. iv. +1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to be +three in number—Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa); +according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away +in the west at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence +the sun (according to Mimnermus <i>ap.</i> Athenaeum xi. p. 470) +sails in the golden bowl made by Hephaestus from the abode +of the Hesperides to the land where he rises again. According +to other accounts their home was among the Hyperboreans. +The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the ever-watchful +dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian +legends described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the +nightly heaven, while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the +light back from men till some beneficent power takes it from +him. Heracles is the hero who brings back the golden apples +to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies to the Nymphs, +who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there he +slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, +like Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, +like the Sirens, possessed of the gift of delightful song. The +apples appear to have been the symbol of love and fruitfulness, +and are introduced at the marriages of Cadmus and Harmonia +and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the gift of Aphrodite +to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also plucked +from the garden of the Hesperides.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESPERUS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hesperos">Ἕσπερος</span>, Lat. Vesper), the evening star, +son or brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii. +60, iv. 27), he ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of +the stars, and was suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever +afterwards he was honoured as a god, and the most brilliant star +in the heavens was called by his name. Although as a mythological +personality he is regarded as distinct from Phosphoros +or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of +light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars +were early identified by the Greeks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Diog. Laërt. viii. 1. 14; Cicero, <i>De nat. deorum</i>, ii. 20; Pliny, +<i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 6 [8].</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESS,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the name of a family of German artists.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Heinrich Maria Hess</span> (1798-1863)—von Hess, after he +received a patent of personal nobility—was born at Düsseldorf +and brought up to the profession of art by his father, the engraver +Karl Ernst Christoph Hess (1755-1828). Karl Hess had already +acquired a name when in 1806 the elector of Bavaria, having been +raised to a kingship by Napoleon, transferred the Düsseldorf +academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess accompanied the +academy to its new home, and there continued the education +of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently +master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian. +He was sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made +of Raphael’s Parnassus, and the study of great examples of +monumental design, probably caused him to become a painter +of ecclesiastical subjects on a large scale. In 1828 he was made +professor of painting and director of all the art collections at +Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the Glyptothek and the +Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his cartoons +were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne +and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the +basilica of St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture +of the Virgin and Child enthroned between the four doctors, +and receiving the homage of the four patrons of the Munich +churches (now in the Pinakothek). His last work, the “Lord’s +Supper,” was found unfinished in his atelier after his death in +1863. Before testing his strength as a composer Heinrich Hess +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering Rome, +now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and +twice had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack +collections). But his fame rests on the frescoes representing +scenes from the Old and New Testaments in the Allerheiligencapelle, +and the episodes from the life of St Boniface and other +German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here he holds +rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting, +being always true to nature though mindful of the traditions +of Christian art, earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and +powerful in expression. Through him and his pupils the sentiment +of religious art was preserved and extended in the Munich school.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Peter Hess</span> (1792-1871)—afterwards von Hess—was born +at Düsseldorf and accompanied his younger brother Heinrich +Maria to Munich in 1806. Being of an age to receive vivid +impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of the time and became a +painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he was allowed to +join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the Bavarians in +the military operations which led to the abdication of Napoleon; +and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for +extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited +Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho’s election to +the Greek throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather +materials for pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches +which he then made were placed, forty in number, in the Pinakothek, +after being copied in wax on a large scale (and little to +the edification of German feeling) by Nilsen, in the northern +arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho’s entrance +into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now +in the Pinakothek, which Hess executed in person. From these, +and from battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal +Palace, as well as from military episodes executed for the czar +Nicholas, and the battle of Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery, +we gather that Hess was a clever painter of horses. His conception +of subject was lifelike, and his drawing invariably correct, +but his style is not so congenial to modern taste as that of the +painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully with thin +medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a +certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was +not unaptly compared. He died suddenly, full of honours, +at Munich, in April 1871. Several of his genre pictures, horse +hunts, and brigand scenes may be found in the gallery of Munich.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Karl Hess</span> (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess, +born at Düsseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped +that he would obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however, +after engraving one plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting +under the guidance of Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied +under his elder brother Peter. But historical composition +proved to be as contrary to his taste as engraving, and he gave +himself exclusively at last to illustrations of peasant life in the +hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in representing +the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and with +constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood +of Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced +anything that was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly +realism. Some of his pictures in the museum of Munich will +serve as examples of his manner. He died at Reichenhall on +the 16th of November 1874.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> +(1788-1870), Austrian soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was +soon employed as a staff officer on survey work. He distinguished +himself as a subaltern at Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a +captain, again served on the staff. In 1815 he was with Schwarzenberg. +He had in the interval between the two wars been +employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at the +peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved +invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky +became commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as +his chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two +famous soldiers which, like that of Blücher and Gneisenau, is a +classical example of harmonious co-operation of commander and +chief-of-staff. Hess put into shape Radetzky’s military ideas, in +the form of new drill for each arm, and, under their guidance, +the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a war footing, +became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was +employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of +revolution and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to +Radetzky as chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King +Charles Albert which followed, culminating in the victory of +Novara, Hess’s assistance to his chief was made still more +valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and the old field-marshal +acknowledged his services in general orders. Lieut.-Fieldmarshal +Hess was at once promoted <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>, made a member of +the emperor’s council, and <i>Freiherr</i>, assuming at the same time +the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became +chief of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in +missions to various capitals, and he appeared in the field in 1854 at +the head of the Austrian army which intervened so effectually +in the Crimean war. In 1859 he was sent to Italy after the early +defeats. He became field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on +resigning his position as chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the +Trabant guard. He died in Vienna in 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “General Hess” in <i>Lebensgeschichtlichen Hinrissen</i> (Vienna, +1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSE<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Hessia</i>, Ger. <i>Hessen</i>), a grand duchy forming a +state of the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-Darmstadt, +the history of which is given under a separate heading +below. It consists of two main parts, separated from each other +by a narrow strip of Prussian territory. The northern part is the +province of Oberhessen; the southern consists of the contiguous +provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen. There are also +eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg to +the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on +the north-west frontier of Württemberg. Oberhessen is hilly; +though of no great elevation it extends over the water-parting +between the basins of the Rhine and the Weser, and in the +Vogelsberg it has as its culminating point the Taufstein (2533 ft.). +In the north-west it includes spurs of the Taunus. Between +these two systems of hills lies the fertile undulating tract known +as the Wetterau, watered by the Wetter, a tributary of the +Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main and +the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the +ranges of the Odenwald, the highest part being the Seidenbucher +Höhe (1965 ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by +the Rhine, and has that river as its northern as well as its eastern +frontier, though it extends across it at the north-east corner, +where the Rhine, on receiving the Main, changes its course +abruptly from south to west. The territory consists of a fertile +tract of low hills, rising towards the south-west into the northern +extremity of the Hardt range, but at no point reaching a height of +more than 1050 ft.</p> + +<p>The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are +as follow:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="lb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Area.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Population.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="lb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">sq. m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oberhessen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1267</td> <td class="tcr rb">271,524</td> <td class="tcr rb">296,755</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Starkenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1169</td> <td class="tcr rb">444,562</td> <td class="tcr rb">542,996</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rheinhessen</td> <td class="tcr rb">530</td> <td class="tcr rb">322,934</td> <td class="tcr rb">369,424</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">2966</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,039,020</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,209,175</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the +capital) and Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in +Rheinhessen and Giessen in Oberhessen. More than two-thirds +of the inhabitants are Protestants; the majority of the remainder +are Roman Catholics, and there are about 25,000 Jews. The +grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education is +compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by +state grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical +high school at Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than +three-fifths of the total area being under cultivation. The +largest grain crops are rye and barley, and nearly 40,000 acres +are under vines. Minerals, in which Oberhessen is much richer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +than the two other provinces, include iron, manganese, salt and +some coal.</p> + +<p>The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856, +1862, 1872 and 1900. There are two legislative chambers. The +upper consists of princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of +mediatized houses, the head of the Roman Catholic and the +superintendent of the Protestant church, the chancellor of the +university, two elected representatives of the land-owning +nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke. +The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large towns and +forty from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly +elected, by deputy electors (<i>Wahlmänner</i>) nominated by the +electors, who must be Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying +direct taxes. The executive ministry of state is divided into the +departments of the interior, justice and finance. The three +provinces are divided for local administration into 18 circles and +989 communes. The ordinary revenue and expenditure amount +each to about £4,000,000 annually, the chief taxes being an +income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public debt, +practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to +£19,097,468 in 1907.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The name of Hesse, now used principally for the +grand duchy formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a +country which has had different boundaries and areas at different +times. The name is derived from that of a Frankish tribe, the +Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants of the country were the +Chatti, who lived here during the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (Tacitus, +<i>Germania</i>, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the Eder, was +burned by the Romans about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15. “Alike both in race and +language,” says Walther Schultze, “the Chatti and the Hessi are +identical.” During the period of the <i>Völkerwanderung</i> many of +these people moved westward, but some remained behind to give +their name to the country, although it was not until the 8th +century that the word Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was +the district around the Fulda, the Werra, the Eder and the Lahn, +and was part of the Frankish kingdom both during Merovingian +and during Carolingian times. Soon <i>Hessegau</i> is mentioned, and +this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during his +campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 +it fell to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly +in the duchy of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The +Hessians were converted to Christianity mainly through the +efforts of St Boniface; their land was included in the archbishopric +of Mainz; and religion and culture were kept alive +among them largely owing to the foundation of the Benedictine +abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany +during the 9th century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central +power, and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great, +several counts, among whom were Giso and Werner, had made +themselves practically independent; but after the accession of +Otto in 936 the land quietly accepted the yoke of the medieval +emperors. About 1120 another Giso, count of Gudensberg, +secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on his death in +1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis, landgrave +of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the +Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of +Thuringia. The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of +Thuringia, in 1247, caused a long war over the disposal of his +lands, and this dispute was not settled until 1264 when Hesse, +separated again from Thuringia, was secured by his niece Sophia +(d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of Brabant. In the following +year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry (1244-1308), +who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took +the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent +rulers of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the +Empire, and with him the history of Hesse properly begins.</p> + +<p>For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively +uneventful. The land, which fell into two main portions, upper +Hesse round Marburg, and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice +divided between two members of the ruling family, but no permanent +partition took place before the Reformation. A <i>Landtag</i> +was first called together in 1387, and the landgraves were constantly +at variance with the electors of Mainz, who had large +temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however, +to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden, +Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen +were acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself +under the protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the +landgraves were perhaps Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the +German throne in 1440, and William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of +the German king, Maximilian I. In 1509 William’s young son, +Philip (<i>q.v.</i>), became landgrave, and by his vigorous personality +brought his country into prominence during the religious troubles +of the 16th century. Following the example of his ancestors +Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his land, +and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes +to him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided +between his four sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, +Hesse-Marburg and Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-Rheinfels +and Hesse-Marburg, or upper Hesse, became extinct +in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these lands passed to the two +remaining branches of the family. The small landgraviate of +Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt. +After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by +Prussia in 1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent +part of Hesse, and it generally receives the common name.</p> + +<p>Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was +founded in 1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave +William VI. In 1909 the representative of this family was the +Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846). Hesse-Barchfeld was founded +in 1721 by Philip’s son, William (d. 1761), and in 1909 its representative +was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The lands of both +these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a province +of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of +the duchy of Nassau.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. B. Wenck, <i>Hessische Landesgeschichte</i> (Frankfort, 1783-1803); +C. von Rommel, <i>Geschichte von Hesse</i> (Cassel, 1820-1858); +F. Münscher, <i>Geschichte von Hesse</i> (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach, +<i>Hesse und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde</i> (Marburg, 1899); Walther, +<i>Literarisches Handbuch für Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse</i> +(Darmstadt, 1841; Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann, +<i>Bibliotheca Hessiaca</i> (Cassel, 1884-1899); Hoffmeister, <i>Historischgenealogisches +Handbuch über alle Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse</i> +(Marburg, 1874), and the <i>Zeitschrift des Vereins für hessische Geschichte</i> +(1837-1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSE-CASSEL<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (in German <i>Kurhessen</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Electoral Hesse), +now the government district of Cassel in the Prussian province +of Hesse-Nassau. It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate +of Germany, consisting of several detached masses of territory, +to the N.E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial +area of 3699 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 745,063.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William +IV., surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous. +On his father’s death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with +Cassel as his capital; and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel. +Additions were made to it by inheritance from his +brother’s possessions. His son, Maurice the Learned (1592-1627), +turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in the Thirty +Years’ War, and, after being forced to cede some of his territories +to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son William V. +(1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which created +several cadet lines of the house, of which that of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg +survived till 1834. On the death of William V., +whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his +widow Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI. +(1637-1663), reconquered the country and, with the aid of the +French and Swedes, held it, together with part of Westphalia. +At the peace of Westphalia (1648), accordingly, Hesse-Cassel +was augmented by the larger part of the countship of Schaumburg +and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a principality +of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced +the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650, +was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was +succeeded by his son William VII., an infant, who died in 1670, +and was succeeded by his brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles’s +chief claim to remembrance is that he was the first ruler to adopt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +the system of hiring his soldiers out to foreign powers as mercenaries, +as a means of improving the national finances. Frederick +I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had become by marriage king +of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the landgraviate +by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an ally +of England during the Seven Years’ War. From his successor +Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic, +22,000 Hessian troops were hired by England for about £3,191,000, +to assist in the war against the North American colonies. This +action, often bitterly criticized, has of late years found apologists +(cf. v. Werthern, <i>Die hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerikanischen +Unabhängigkeitskriege</i>, Cassel, 1895). It is argued that +the troops were in any case mercenaries, and that the practice +was quite common. Whatever opinion may be held as to +this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money well: he did +much for the development of the economic and intellectual +improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave, +William IX. (1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history +of Hesse-Cassel. Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part +in the war against France a few years later, but in 1795 peace +was arranged by the treaty of Basel. For the loss in 1801 +of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he was in 1803 +compensated by some of the former French territory round +Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector +(<i>Kurfürst</i>) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality +with Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspecting +William’s designs, occupied his country, and expelled him. +Hesse-Cassel was then added to Jerome Bonaparte’s new kingdom +of Westphalia; but after the battle of Leipzig in 1813 the +French were driven out and on the 21st of November the elector +returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty concluded by +him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to receive +back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the +same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country. +This treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried +out by the powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused, +however, the elector’s request to be recognized as “King of +the Chatti” (<i>König der Katten</i>), a request which was again +rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). He +therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with +the predicate of “royal highness.”</p> + +<p>The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing +with a stroke of the pen all the reforms introduced under the +French régime, repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring +null and void the sale of the crown domains. Everything was +set back to its condition on the 1st of November 1806; even +the officials had to descend to their former rank, and the army +to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails. The +estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt +to devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal +diet at Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of +the debt and the domains came to nothing owing to the intervention +of Metternich; and in May 1816 they were dissolved, +never to meet again. William I. died on the 27th of February +1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II. Under him +the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He +was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover +shocked public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular +Prussian princess, and his relations with his mistress, one +Emilie Ortlöpp, created countess of Reichenbach, whom he +loaded with wealth. The July revolution in Paris gave the +signal for disturbances; the elector was forced to summon +the estates; and on the 5th of January 1831 a constitution +on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now +retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent, +and took no further part in public affairs.</p> + +<p>The regent, without his father’s coarseness, had a full share +of his <span class="correction" title="amended from arbitary">arbitrary</span> and avaricious temper. Constitutional restrictions +were intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with +the diet was aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (<i>q.v.</i>) was +placed at the head of the administration. The whole efforts of +the elector and his minister were directed to nullifying the +constitutional control vested in the diet; and the Opposition was +fought by manipulating the elections, packing the judicial +bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of political +“suspects,” and this policy continued after the retirement of +Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the +revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public +discontent; and Frederick William, who had become elector +on his father’s death (November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss +his reactionary ministry and to agree to a comprehensive programme +of democratic reform. This, however, was but short-lived. +After the breakdown of the Frankfort National Parliament, +Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern Union, +and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt parliament. +But as Austria recovered strength, the elector’s policy +changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again +placed at the head of the administration and threw himself +with renewed zeal into the struggle against the constitution and +into opposition to Prussia. On the 2nd of September the diet +was dissolved; the taxes were continued by electoral ordinance; +and the country was placed under martial law. It was at once +clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his officers +or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the constitution. +Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly with +him, and on the 15th of October appealed for aid to the reconstituted +federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of “intervention.” +On the 1st of November an Austrian and Bavarian +force marched into the electorate.</p> + +<p>This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions +with the elector had the right to the use of the military roads +through Hesse that were her sole means of communication with +her Rhine provinces. War seemed imminent; Prussian troops +also entered the country, and shots were actually exchanged +between the outposts. But Prussia was in no condition to take +up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that followed +issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmütz (1851). Hesse was +surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the +federal forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new +order were dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished +the constitution of 1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and +in April issued a new provisional constitution. The new diet +had, under this, very narrow powers; and the elector was free +to carry out his policy of amassing money, forbidding the construction +of railways and manufactories, and imposing strict +orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however, Hassenpflug—who +had returned with the elector—was dismissed; and +five years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new +constitution was granted with the consent of the federal diet +(May 30, 1860). The new chambers, however, demanded the +constitution of 1831; and, after several dissolutions which always +resulted in the return of the same members, the federal diet +decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24, 1862). +This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it +needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble +the chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposition; +and he revenged himself by refusing to transact any +public business. In 1866 the end came. The elector, full of +grievances against Prussia, threw in his lot with Austria; the +electorate was at once overrun with Prussian troops; Cassel +was occupied (June 20); and the elector was carried a prisoner +to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed +to Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been, +by the terms of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed +property of his house. This was, however, sequestered in 1868 +owing to his intrigues against Prussia; part of the income was +paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the landgrave Frederick +(d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles and palaces, +was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and +Philippsthal-Barchfeld.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. W. Wippermann, <i>Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen</i> +(Cassel, 1850); Röth, <i>Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel</i> (Cassel, 1856; +2nd ed. continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Gräfe, <i>Der Verfassungskampf +in Kurhessen</i> (Leipzig, 1851) and works under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hesse</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSE-DARMSTADT,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a grand-duchy in Germany, the history +of which begins with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I. +(1547-1597), the youngest son of the landgrave Philip, received +the upper county of Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt +as his residence, became the founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt +line. Additions to the landgraviate were made both in the +reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V. (1577-1626), +but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage +for George’s youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis +V., who founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran, +he and his son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the imperialists +in the Thirty Years’ War, during which Hesse-Darmstadt +suffered very severely from the ravages of the Swedes. +In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other side, and the rivalry +between the two landgraviates was increased by a dispute over +Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become extinct +in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread +of the Thirty Years’ War, and was not finally settled until 1648, +when the disputed territory was divided between the two claimants. +Louis VI. (d. 1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed +the policy of the three previous landgraves, but the anxiety of +his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739), to emulate the French court +under Louis XIV. led his country into debt. Under Ernest +Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768), another +dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time +it was over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was +eventually divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg. +During the 18th century the War of the Austrian Succession and +the Seven Years’ War dealt heavy blows at the prosperity of +the landgraviate, which was always loyal to the house of Austria. +Louis IX. (1719-1790), who served in the Prussian army under +Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of Caroline +(1721-1774), “the great landgravine,” who counted Goethe, +Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by +Frederick the Great as <i>femina sexu, ingenio vir</i>. In April 1790, +just after the outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X. +(1753-1830), an educated prince who shared the tastes and +friendships of his mother, Caroline, became landgrave. In 1792 +he joined the allies against France, but in 1799 he was compelled +to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having formally surrendered +the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine which +had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution, +Louis received in return a much larger district which had formerly +belonged to the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz +and the bishopric of Worms. In 1806, being a member of the +confederation of the Rhine, he took the title of Louis I., grand-duke +of Hesse; he supported Napoleon with troops from 1805 +to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined the allies. +In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the +area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again +a district on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of +Mainz and Worms, but he made cessions of territory to Prussia +and to Bavaria and he recognized the independence of Hesse-Homburg, +which had recently been incorporated with his lands. +However, his title of grand-duke was confirmed, and as grand-duke +of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the Germanic confederation. +Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself +felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land; +various forms were carried through; the system of government +was reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the +Prussian <i>Zollverein</i>. Louis I., who did a great deal for the +welfare of his country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was +followed on the throne by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This +grand-duke had some trouble with his <i>Landtag</i>, but, dying on +the 16th of June 1848, he left his son, Louis III. (1806-1877), +to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848. Many concessions +were made to the popular will, but during the subsequent +reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850 +and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk +(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of Hesse-Darmstadt, +was one of repression, although some benefits were +conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia’s +enemies, and during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on +the Austrian side, the result being that he was compelled to +pay a heavy indemnity and to cede certain districts, including +Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just acquired, to Prussia. +In 1867 Louis entered the North German Confederation, but only +for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871 Hesse-Darmstadt +became one of the states of the new German empire. After the +withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more +liberal policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesiastical, +educational, financial and administrative matters were +introduced, and in general the grand-duchy may be said to have +passed largely under the influence of Prussia, which, by an +arrangement made in 1896, controls the Hessian railway system. +The constitution of 1820, subject to four subsequent modifications, +is still the law of the land, the legislative power being +vested in two chambers and the executive power being exercised +by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the +annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy +has been known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the 13th +of June 1877, and was succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV. +(1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen Victoria; he died on the +13th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his son, Ernest +Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke’s marriage with Victoria +(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, +was dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently +in 1902 a law regulating the succession was passed. By this +the landgrave Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative +of the family which ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared +the heir to Hesse in case the grand-duke died without sons. +However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married Elenore, princess of +Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a son George +(b. 1906).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Baur, <i>Urkunden zur hessischen Landes-, Orts- und Familiengeschichte</i> +(Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, <i>Geschichte des Grossherzogtums +Hesse</i>n (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, <i>Das Grossherzogtum +Hessen</i> (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, <i>Historische Übersicht der +Territorialveränderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des Grossherzogtums +Hessen</i> (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, <i>Geschichte des +Grossherzogtums Hessen</i> (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, <i>Kirchengeschichte +beider Hessen</i> (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, <i>Geschichte von +Hessen</i> (Cassel, 1891), and <i>Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde</i> +(Marburg, 1904-1906); F. Küchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber, +<i>Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen</i> (Darmstadt, +1894-1897); H. Künzel, <i>Grossherzogtum Hessen</i> (Giessen, +1893); and W. Zeller, <i>Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung +im Grossherzogtum Hessen</i> (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also +<i>Archiv für hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde</i> (Darmstadt, +1894 fol.) and <i>Hessisches Urkundenbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1879 fol.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSE-HOMBURG,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> formerly a small landgraviate in Germany. +It consisted of two parts, the district of Homburg on the right +side of the Rhine, and the district of Meisenheim, which was +added in 1815, on the left side of the same river. Its area +was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 27,374. +Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, +and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-Homburg +was formed into a separate landgraviate in 1622 +by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George I., landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, +although it did not become independent of Hesse-Darmstadt +until 1768. By two of Frederick’s sons it was divided +into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but +these parts were again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick’s +third son, Frederick II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign +of the landgrave Frederick V., which extended from 1751 to +1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and incorporated with +Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna the +latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of +Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisenheim. +Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a +sovereign prince in 1817, and after his death his five sons in +succession filled the throne. The last of these, Ferdinand, +who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal constitution to his +people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852. When he +died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited +by Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim +fell to Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +was forced to cede his new possession to Prussia, as he had +supported Austria during the war between these two powers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Schwartz, <i>Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und +seine Familie</i> (1878); and von Herget, <i>Das landgräfliche Haus +Homburg</i> (Homburg, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSE-NASSAU<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Hessen-Nassau</i>), a province of Prussia, +bounded, from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia, +Waldeck, Hanover, the province of Saxony, the Thuringian +States, Bavaria, Hesse and the Rhine Province. There are +small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia, &c.; on the +other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen +belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar +belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed +in 1867-1868 out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after +the war of 1866, namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and +the duchy of Nassau, in addition to the greater part of the +territory of Frankfort-on-Main, parts of the grand-duchy of +Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the countship of Hesse-Homburg, +together with certain small districts which belonged +to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel +and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former +territory of Nassau (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population +in 1905 of 2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated +province in Prussia, after Berlin, the Rhine Province and +Westphalia. The east and north parts lie in the basin of the +river Fulda, which near the north-eastern boundary joins with +the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of the +southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the +western part of the province lies mostly in the basin of the +Lahn, a tributary of the Rhine. The province is generally hilly, +the highest hills occurring in the east and west. The Fulda +rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an eminence of the Rhöngebirge, +the highest in the province. In the south-west are the +Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west of the +Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser +Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The +congeries of small groups of lower hills in the north are known as +the Hessische Bergland.</p> + +<p>The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but +in forests it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is +large. The chief trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-breeding +is extensively practised. The vine is cultivated +chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus, in the south-west, where +the names of several towns are well known for their wines—Schierstein, +Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg, Geisenheim, +Rüdesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese +are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those +at Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlangenbad +and Soden. The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel, +Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort, Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and +Hersfeld. The province is divided for administration into +42 circles (<i>Kreise</i>), 24 in the government of Cassel and 18 in that +of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the Reichstag. +Marburg is the seat of a university.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSE-ROTENBURG,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a German landgraviate which was +broken up in 1834. In 1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son +of Maurice, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheinsfels +and lower Katzenelnbogen as his inheritance, and some years +later, on the deaths of two of his brothers, he added Eschwege, +Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to his possessions. +Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, was +a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two +sons, William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their +territories, and founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and +Hesse-Wanfried. The latter family died out in 1755, when +William’s grandson, Constantine (d. 1778), reunited the lands +except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by Hesse-Cassel in +1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At +the peace of Lunéville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on +the left bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in +1815 other parts were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor +Amadeus being compensated by the abbey of Corvey and the +Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the last male member +of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he bequeathed +his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and Chlodwig +of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hohenlohe</a></span>). +When the landgrave died on the 12th of November 1834 the +remaining parts of Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-Cassel +according to the arrangement of 1627. It may be noted +that Hesse-Rotenburg was never completely independent of +Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated member of this +family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son of +the landgrave Constantine, who was called “citoyen Hesse,” +and who took part in the French Revolution.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSIAN,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, +in various degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, +or standard, hessian is 40 in. wide, weighs 10½ oz. per yd., +and in the finished state contains about 12 threads and 12½ +picks per in. The name is probably of German origin, and the +fabric was originally made from flax and tow. Small quantities +of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but the jute +fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost +supplanted all others.</p> + +<p>This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for +packing all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different +qualities, are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, +ore, manure, sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made +from one or other quality of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging +or tarpaulin, form the most convenient, and at the same time +the cheapest covering for any kind of goods which are not +damaged by being crushed.</p> + +<p>Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other +colour, or left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for +paddings and linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags +and other articles. When dyed in art shades the cloth forms +an attractive decoration for stages and platforms, and generally +for any temporary erection, and in many cases it is stencilled +and then used for wall decoration.</p> + +<p>The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this +fabric for the foundation of its products, while large quantities +are used for the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the +upholstery of furniture.</p> + +<p>The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are +Dundee and Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all +kinds of hand- and machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are +made in the former city. The American name for hessian is +burlap; this particular kind is 40 in. wide, and is now largely +made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other places.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1488-1540), German Latin +poet, was born at Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of +January 1488. His family name is said to have been Koch; +Eoban was the name of a local saint; Hessus indicates the land of +his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on Sunday. In 1504 +he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his graduation +was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post he +soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop +of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great +straits owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length +(in 1517) he was appointed professor of Latin in the university. +He was prominently associated with the distinguished men of the +time (Johann Reuchlin, Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten, +Conrad Mutianus), and took part in the political, religious and +literary quarrels of the period, finally declaring in favour of +Luther and the Reformation, although his subsequent conduct +showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The university +was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new +university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without +success) to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through +the influence of Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post +at Nuremberg (1526), but, finding a regular life distasteful, he +again went back to Erfurt (1533). But It was not the Erfurt he +had known; his old friends were dead or had left the place; the +university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him the favour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536 as +professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the +5th of October 1540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost +Latin poet of his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true +poet. He wrote what he thought was likely to pay or secure him +the favour of some important person. He wrote local, historical +and military poems, idylls, epigrams and occasional pieces, +collected under the title of <i>Sylvae</i>. His most popular works were +translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which reached +forty editions) and of the <i>Iliad</i> into hexameters. His most +original poem was the <i>Heroïdes</i> in imitation of Ovid, consisting +of letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to +Kunigunde, wife of the emperor Henry II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Epistolae</i> were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote +his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860), +G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss, +<i>Ulrich von Hutten</i> (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg +and other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-century +illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and +S. Szamatolski’s <i>Lateinische Literaturdenkmäler des XV. u. XVI. +Jahrhunderts</i> (Berlin, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESTIA,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the “fire-goddess,” daughter +of Cronus and Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is +not mentioned in Homer, although the hearth is recognized as +a place of refuge for suppliants; this seems to show that her +worship was not universally acknowledged at the time of the +Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of the +twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the +household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and +Poseidon became suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a +maiden for ever; whereupon Zeus bestowed upon her the +honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To her the opening +sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal the first and +last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always kept +burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred +fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from +the sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of +the family union, the personification of the idea of home; and as +the city union is only the family union on a large scale, she was +regarded as the goddess of the state. In this character her special +sanctuary was in the prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire +round which the magistrates meet is ever burning, and where the +sacred rites that sanctify the concord of city life are performed. +From this fire, as the representative of the life of the city, intending +colonists took the fire which was to be kindled on the hearth +of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected with Zeus, the +god of the family both in its external relation of hospitality and +its internal unity round its own hearth; in the <i>Odyssey</i> a form +of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again, Hestia is +often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and +domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on +the other; or, according to others, the association is local—that +of the god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In +later philosophy Hestia became the hearth of the universe—the +personification of the earth as the centre of the universe, identified +with Cybele and Demeter. As Hestia had her home in the +prytaneum, special temples dedicated to her are of rare occurrence. +She is seldom represented in works of art, and plays no important +part in legend. It is not certain that any really Greek statues of +Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta in the +Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is +represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her +head, the left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman +deity corresponding to the Greek Hestia is Vesta (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Preuner, <i>Hestia-Vesta</i> (1864), the standard treatise on the +subject, and his article in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; J. G. +Frazer, “The Prytaneum,” &c., in <i>Journal of Philology</i>, xiv. (1885); +G. Hagemann, <i>De Graecorum prytaneis</i> (1881), with bibliography +and notes; <i>Homeric Hymns</i>, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes +(1904); Farnell, <i>Cults, the Greek States</i>, v. (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESYCHASTS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="hêsychastai">ἡσυχασταί</span> or <span class="grk" title="hêsychazontes">ἡσυχάζοντες</span>, from <span class="grk" title="hêsychos">ἥσυχος</span>, +quiet, also called <span class="grk" title="omphalopsychoi">ὀμφαλόψυχοι</span>, Umbilicanimi, and sometimes +referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a quietistic +sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine +empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at +Mount Athos, then at the height of its fame and influence under +the reign of Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. +Owing to various adventitious circumstances the sect came into +great prominence politically and ecclesiastically for a few years +about the middle of the 14th century. Their opinion and practice +will be best represented in the words of one of their early teachers +(quoted by Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, c. 63): “When thou art +alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat thyself in a corner; +raise thy mind above all things vain and transitory; recline thy +beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes and thy thought +towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel (<span class="grk" title="omphalos">ὀμφαλός</span>); +and search the place of the heart, the seat of the soul. At first +all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere day and +night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the soul +discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic +and ethereal light.” About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which +is obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental +mysticism, attracted the attention of the learned and versatile +Barlaam, a Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of +abbot in the Basilian monastery of St Saviour’s in Constantinople, +and who had visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of +inspection. Amid much that he disapproved, what he specially +took exception to as heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine +entertained as to the nature of this divine light, the fruition of +which was the supposed reward of hesychastic contemplation. +It was maintained to be the pure and perfect essence of God +Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to the +disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam +held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal +substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic +side the controversy was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards +archbishop of Thessalonica, who laboured to establish +a distinction between eternal <span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span> and eternal <span class="grk" title="energeia">ἐνέργεια</span>. In +1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople +and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the assembly, +influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius +were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, +who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming +bishop of Hierace in the Latin communion. One of his friends, +Gregory Acindynus, continued the controversy, and three other +synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the +Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351 under the +presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated +light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for +the Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an +additional ground of separation from the Roman Church. The +contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras +deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and +Barlaamite sides respectively. It may be mentioned that in the +time of Justinian the word hesychast was applied to monks in +general simply as descriptive of the quiet and contemplative +character of their pursuits.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See article “Hesychasten” in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(3rd ed., 1900), where further references are given.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESYCHIUS,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished +in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was probably a pagan; and the +explanations of words from Gregory of Nazianzus and other +Christian writers (<i>glossae sacrae</i>) are interpolations of a later +time. He has left a Greek dictionary, containing a copious +list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an explanation +of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author +who used them or to the district of Greece where they were +current. Hence the book is of great value to the student +of the Greek dialects; while in the restoration of the text +of the classical authors generally, and particularly of such +writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used many unusual +words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The explanations +of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts +about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory +letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of +Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +but that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, +Heliodorus and others.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been +disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the +Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to +us from a single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the +editio princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt +(1858-1868); in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish +the additions made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> Greek chronicler and biographer, +surnamed <i>Illustrius</i>, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople +in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> during the reign of Justinian. +According to Photius (cod. 69) he was the author of three +important works, (1) <i>A Compendium of Universal History</i> +in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian +empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment +has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled <span class="grk" title="Patria +Kônstantinoupoleôs">Πάτρια Κωνσταντινουπόλεως</span>, a history of Byzantium from its earliest +beginnings till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) <i>A +Biographical Dictionary</i> (<span class="grk" title="Onomatologos">Ὀνοματολόγος</span> or <span class="grk" title="Pinax">Πίναξ</span>) <i>of Learned +Men</i>, arranged according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief +sources of which were the <span class="grk" title="Mousikê historia">Μουσικὴ ἱστορία</span> of Aelius Dionysius +and the works of Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated +in the lexicon of Suidas, as we learn from that +author. It is disputed, however, whether the words in Suidas +(“of which this book is an epitome”) mean that Suidas himself +epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are part +of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas. +The second view is more generally held. The epitome referred +to, in which alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement +in classes and some articles on Christian writers added as a +concession to the times, is assigned from internal indications +to the years 829-837. Both it and the original work are lost, +with the exception of the excerpts in Photius and Suidas. A +smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laërtius and Suidas, +with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the +11th or 12th century. (3) A <i>History</i> of the Reign of Justin +I. (518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost. +Photius praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with +being a veracious historian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in +C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. hist. Graec.</i> iv. 143 and in T. Preger’s <i>Scriptores +originis Constantinopolitanae</i>, i. (1901); <i>Pseudo-Hesychius</i>, by J. +Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen +Literatur</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HETAERISM<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hetaira">ἕταιρα</span> mistress), the term employed +by anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man +in his sexual relations. The earliest social organization of +the human race was characterized by the absence of the institution +of marriage in any form. Women were the common +property of their tribe, and the children never knew their fathers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HETEROKARYOTA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a zoological name proposed by S. J. +Hickson for the Infusoria (<i>q.v.</i>) on the ground of the differentiation +of their nuclear apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus +(or nuclei).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lankester’s <i>Treatise of Zoology</i>, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HETERONOMY<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="heteros">ἕτερος</span> and <span class="grk" title="nomos">νόμος</span>, the rule of +another), the state of being under the rule of another person. +In ethics the term is specially used as the antithesis of +“autonomy,” which, especially in Kantian terminology, treats +of the true self as will, determining itself by its own law, the +moral law. “Heteronomy” is therefore applied by Kant to +all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they place the individual +in subjection to external laws of conduct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HETMAN<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger. +<i>Hauptmann</i>, head-man or captain; the Russian form is <i>ataman</i>), +a military title formerly in use in Poland; the <i>Hetman Wielki</i>, +or Great Hetman, was the chief of the armed forces of the +nation, and commanded in the field, except when the king +was present in person. The office was abolished in 1792. From +Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form <i>ataman</i>, +and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head, +who was practically an independent prince, when under the +suzerainty of Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule +by the Cossacks in 1654, the post was shorn of its power. The +title of “ataman” or “hetman of all the Cossacks” is held +by the Cesarevitch. “Ataman” or “hetman” is also the +name of the elected elder of the <i>stanitsa</i>, the unit of Cossack +administration. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cossacks</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1821-1882), German +literary historian and writer on the history of art, was born at +Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in Silesia, on the 12th of March +1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle and Heidelberg he +devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but in 1843 +turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a +view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy, +and, on his return, published a <i>Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst +der Alten</i> (1848) and an essay on <i>Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen</i>. +He became <i>Privatdozent</i> for aesthetics and the history +of art at Heidelberg and, after the publication of his suggestive +volume on <i>Die romantische Schule in ihrem Zusammenhang +mit Goethe und Schiller</i> (1850), accepted a call as professor to +Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and literature. +In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of +antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which +posts were subsequently added that of director of the historical +museum and a professorship at the royal <i>Polytechnikum</i>. He +died in Dresden on the 29th of May 1882. Hettner’s chief work +is his <i>Literaturgeschichte des 18ten Jahrhunderts</i>, which appeared +in three parts, devoted respectively to English, French and +German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed. of I. and II., +revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III., revised by +O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the +political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, +since Hettner’s day have fallen into discredit, and at times +losing sight of the main issues of literary development over +questions of social evolution, this work belongs to the best +histories that the 19th century produced. Hettner’s judgment +is sound and his point of view always original and stimulating. +His other works include <i>Griechische Reiseskizzen</i> (1853), <i>Das +moderne Drama</i> (1852)—a book that arose from a correspondence +with Gottfried Keller—<i>Italienische Studien</i> (1879), and several +works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His <i>Kleine +Schriften</i> were collected and published in 1884.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Stern, <i>Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild</i> (1885); H. Spitzer, +<i>H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfänge und Literaturästhetik</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HETTSTEDT,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the +Wipper, and at the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim +and Hettstedt-Halle, 23 m. N.W. of the last town. Pop. +(1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and four Evangelical +churches, and has manufactures of machinery, pianofortes and +artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of argentiferous +copper, and the surrounding district and villages are +occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric +acid are the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found +in small quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the +first steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August +1785. Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it +possessed a castle; and in 1380 it received civic privileges. +When the countship of Mansfeld was sequestrated, Hettstedt +came into the possession of Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1815.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1824-1876), German traveller +in north-east Africa, was born on the 20th of March 1824 at +Hirschlanden near Leonberg in Württemberg. His father was +a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to be a mining engineer. +He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific investigator +of unknown regions, and with that object studied the natural +sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where +he learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852 +he accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a +journey to Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed +Dr Reitz’s successor in the consulate. While he held this +post he travelled in Abyssinia and Kordofan, making a +valuable collection of natural history specimens. In 1857 +he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the +Red Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> +leader of an expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions +including Werner Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, +and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the party landed at +Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and thence +to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin, +accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide +detour through Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence +the leadership of the expedition was taken from him. +He and Steudner reached Khartum in 1862 and there joined the +party organized by Miss Tinné. With her or on their own +account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and +explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner +died of fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to +Europe at the end of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable +series of explorations in Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but +1875 found him again in north-east Africa, in the country of +the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was preparing +for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at +Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by +his zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours +that Heuglin has taken rank as an independent authority.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief works are <i>Systematische Übersicht der Vögel Nordost-Afrikas</i> +(1855); <i>Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853</i> (Gotha, +1857); <i>Syst. Übersicht der Säugetiere Nordost-Afrikas</i> (Vienna, +1867); <i>Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Ländern</i>, &c., <i>1861-1862</i> +(Jena, 1868); <i>Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil</i>, &c. <i>1862-1864</i> +(Leipzig, 1869); <i>Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871</i> (Brunswick, +1872-1874); <i>Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika</i> (Cassel, 1869-1875); +<i>Reise in Nordost-Afrika</i> (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A list +of the more important of his numerous contributions to <i>Petermann’s +Mitteilungen</i> will be found in that serial for 1877 at the close of the +necrological notice.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:114px; height:183px" src="images/img416.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">HEULANDITE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting +of hydrous calcium and aluminium silicate, +H<span class="su">4</span>CaAl<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">6</span> + 3H<span class="su">2</span>0. +Small amounts of sodium and potassium are usually +present replacing part of the calcium. Crystals are monoclinic, +and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit. They have a +perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (<i>M</i> in the +figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces +the lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is +usually colourless or white, sometimes brick-red, +and varies from transparent to translucent. The +hardness is 3½-4, and the specific gravity 2.2.</p> + +<p>Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (<i>q.v.</i>) in +appearance, and differs from it chemically only +in containing rather less water of crystallization. +The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished +by the fact that in heulandite the +acute positive bisectrix of the optic axes emerges +perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was +first separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and +named by him euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently, +in 1822, H. J. Brooke arrived at the same result, giving +the name heulandite, after the mineral collector, Henry Heuland.</p> + +<p>Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the +amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally +in gneiss and metalliferous veins. The best specimens are +from the basalts of Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and +the Faroe Islands, and the Deccan traps of the Sahyadri +mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a brick-red colour are +from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the Fassathal in Tirol. +A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small yellow crystals +on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.</p> + +<p>Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and +barium zeolite brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster. +The greyish monoclinic crystals have the composition +H<span class="su">4</span>(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">6</span> + 3H<span class="su">2</span>O, and are found in the basalt +of the Giant’s Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with harmotome +in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEUSCH, WILLEM,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guilliam de</span>, a Dutch landscape +painter in the 17th century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist’s +birth and death are unknown. Nothing certain is recorded +of him except that he presided over the gild of Utrecht, whilst +Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix formed the +council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of +historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan +Both. But each of these statements seems open to doubt; +and although it is obvious that the style of Heusch is identical +with that of Both, it may be that the two masters during their +travels in Italy fell under the influence of Claude Lorraine, +whose “Arcadian” art they imitated. Heusch certainly painted +the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied +by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both. +There is little to distinguish one master from the other, except +that of the two Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist. +The gild of Utrecht in the middle of the 17th century was composed +of artists who clung faithfully to each other. Poelemburg, +who painted figures for Jan Both, did the same duty for Heusch. +Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the battlepieces of +Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in the +galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at +Vienna, the Städel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures +are signed with the full name, beginning with a monogram +combining a G (for Guilliam), D and H. Heusch’s etchings, of +which thirteen are known, are also in the character of those of +Both.</p> + +<p>After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew, +Jacob de Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an +initial J for the initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657, +learnt drawing from his uncle, and travelled early to Rome, +where he acquired friends and patrons for whom he executed +pictures after his return. He settled for a time at Berlin, but +finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701. Jacob was an +“Arcadian,” like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and he +chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now +scarce. Two of his canvases, the “Ponte Rotto” at Rome, in the +Brunswick Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the +Lichtenstein collection at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour +with a tower and distant mountains, in the Belvedere at Vienna, +was executed in 1699. Other examples may be found in English +private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg and the +museums of Rouen and Montpellier.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEVELIUS<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Hevel</span> or <span class="sc">Höwelcke</span>], <b>JOHANN</b> (1611-1687), +German astronomer, was born at Danzig on the 28th of January +1611. He studied jurisprudence at Leiden in 1630; travelled +in England and France; and in 1634 settled in his native town +as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief interest +became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his +life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an +observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental +outfit, including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal +length, constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th +of January 1660, by John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and +queen of Poland. Hevelius made observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645, +devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered +the moon’s libration in longitude, and published his results in +<i>Selenographia</i> (1647), a work which entitles him to be called +the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four comets +in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested +the revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun. +On the 26th of September 1679, his observatory, instruments +and books were maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe +being described in the preface to his <i>Annus climactericus</i> (1685). +He promptly repaired the damage, so far as to enable him to +observe the great comet of December 1680; but his health +suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of January 1687. +Among his works were: <i>Prodromus cometicus</i> (1665); <i>Cometographia</i> +(1668); <i>Machina coelestis</i> (first part, 1673), containing +a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is +extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the +conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius +on the variable star named by him “Mira” are included in +<i>Annus climactericus</i>. His catalogue of 1564 stars appeared +posthumously in <i>Prodromus astronomiae</i> (1690). Its value +was much impaired by his preference of the antique “pinnules” +to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an acrimonious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +controversy with Robert Hooke. In an <i>Atlas</i> of 56 sheets, +corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled <i>Firmamentum +Sobiescianum</i> (1690), he delineated seven new constellations, +still in use. Hevelius had his book printed in his own house, +at lavish expense, and himself not only designed but engraved +many of the plates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. H. Westphal, <i>Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen +Johann Hevelius</i> (1820); C. B. Lengnich, <i>Anekdoten und Nachrichten</i> +(1780); <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (C. Bruhns); J. B. J. +Delambre, <i>Histoire de l’astronomie moderne</i>, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler, +<i>Historia astronomiae</i>, p. 486; F. Baily’s edition of the Catalogue +of Hevelius, <i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf, +<i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog.-lit. +Handwörterbuch</i>. For an account of the epistolary remains of +Hevelius, see C. G. Hecker, <i>Monatl. Correspondenz</i>, viii. 30; also +<i>Astr. Nachrichten</i>, vols. xxiii., xxiv.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> Bart. (1812-1891), +British surgeon, was born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son +of a Yorkshire country gentleman. He lived for some years +in early life in Paris, and started on a career as an artist, but +abandoned it for surgery. He entered St George’s Hospital, +London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett, was +physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy +and curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate +friend of Sir B. C. Brodie, and helped him in much of his work. +Eventually he rose to be anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon +and surgeon to the hospital. In 1876 he was president of the +College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made serjeant-surgeon +extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884 serjeant-surgeon, and +in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very good lecturer, +but shrank from authorship; his lectures on <i>Surgical Affections +of the Head</i> were, however, embodied in his treatise on the subject +in Holmes’s <i>System of Surgery</i>. As a surgeon he was always +extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however +severe, when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect +operator, and one of the most trustworthy of counsellors. He +died on the 19th of June 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1822-1903), American manufacturer +and political leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York, +on the 31st of July 1822. His father, John, a Staffordshire man, +was one of a party of four mechanics who were sent by Boulton +and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a steam engine +for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at Belleville, +N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America; +he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it +by the burning of his factories. The boy’s mother was of Huguenot +descent. He graduated with high rank from Columbia College +in 1842, having supported himself through his course. He +taught mathematics at Columbia, and in 1845 was admitted +to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never practised. +With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt +greatly assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter +he married) he went into the manufacture of iron girders and +beams under the firm name of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study +of the making of gun-barrel iron in England enabled him to be +of great assistance to the United States government during the +Civil War, when he refused any profit on such orders. The men +in his works never struck—indeed in 1873-1878 his plant was +run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat. +In 1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany +after the fall of the “Tweed Ring”; from 1875 until the end +of 1886 (except in 1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress; +in 1876 he left Tammany for the County Democracy; in the +Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he was chairman of the Democratic +National Committee, and in Congress he was one of the +House members of the joint committee which drew up the famous +Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission. +In 1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination +having been forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength +of the other nominees, Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt; +his administration (1887-1888) was thoroughly efficient and +creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not renominated, +ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In 1896 +and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself +with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of +January 1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of +sound money and civil service reform; in municipal politics +he was in favour of business administrations and opposed to +partisan nominations. He was a leader of those who contended +for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous for his +public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only in +New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous +speech was that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in +1883. He was a terse, able and lucid speaker, master of wit and +sarcasm, and a fearless critic. He gave liberally to Cooper +Union, of which he was trustee and secretary, and which owes +much of its success to him; was a trustee of Columbia University +from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of trustees of +Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first +chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive +committee of the Carnegie Institution.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1861-  ), English novelist, +was born on the 22nd of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry +Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall, Addington, Kent. He was educated +at the London International College, Spring Grove, Isleworth, +and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to 1900 he was +keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He published +in 1895 two books on Italy, <i>Earthwork out of Tuscany</i>, +and (in verse) <i>The Masque of Dead Florentines</i>. <i>Songs and +Meditations</i> followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate +reputation by his <i>Forest Lovers</i>, a romance of medieval England, +full of rapid movement and passion. In the same year he printed +the pastoral and pagan drama of <i>Pan and the Young Shepherd</i>, +shortened for purposes of representation and produced at the +Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by the +<i>Youngest of the Angels</i>, dramatized from a chapter in his <i>Fool +Errant</i>. In <i>Little Novels of Italy</i> (1899), a collection of brilliant +short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression +together with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and +vivid portraits of Richard Cœur de Lion in his <i>Richard Yea-and-Nay</i> +(1900), and of Mary, queen of Scots, in <i>The Queen’s Quair</i> +(1904) showed the combination of fiction with real history +at its best. <i>The New Canterbury Tales</i> (1901) was another +volume of stories of English life, but he returned to Italian +subjects with <i>The Road in Tuscany</i> (1904); in <i>Fond Adventures, +Tales of the Youth of the World</i> (1905), two are Italian tales, and +<i>The Fool Errant</i> (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis +Antony Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel +<i>The Stooping Lady</i> (1907), and a volume of poems, <i>Artemision</i> +(1909).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEXAMETER,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> the name of the earliest and most important +form of classical verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due +to each line containing six feet or measures (<span class="grk" title="metra">μέτρα</span>), the last of +which must be a spondee and the penultimate a dactyl, though +occasionally, for some special effect, a spondee may be allowed +in the fifth foot, when the line is said to be spondaic. The four +other feet may be either spondees or dactyls. All the great +heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman poets is in this +metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in Homer +and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential +to this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the +ear. The most usual places for the caesura are at the middle +of the third, or the middle of the fourth foot: the former is +known as the penthemimeral and the latter as hepthemimeral +caesura. There are several more or less successful examples +of English poems in this metre, for example Longfellow’s <i>Evangeline</i>, +Kingsley’s <i>Andromeda</i> and Clough’s <i>Bothie of Tober-na-Vuoilich</i>, +but it does not really suit the genius of the English +language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely +felt, even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek +and Latin, on the distinction between long and short syllables, +but on that between accented and unaccented syllables. The +accent must always (or it sounds very ugly) fall on the first +syllable, whatever may have been the case in Greek and Latin—Voss, +Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter poems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +of varying merit and the metre suits the German language +distinctly better than the English. The customary form of +hexameter in English verse is exemplified by Coleridge’s descriptive +line:—</p> + +<p class="center f90">“In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain’s | silvery | column.”</p> + +<p>Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning, +and Lord Bowen (1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated +hexameter consisting of the usual verse deprived of its last +syllable. Thus Browning:—</p> + +<p class="center f90">“Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared.”</p> + +<p>It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek +poets introduced considerable variations into their treatment +of the hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in +G. Hermann’s <i>De aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum</i>. The differences +in the hexameters of the Latin poets were not so remarkable, +but even these varied, in various epochs, their treatment of +the separate feet, and the position of the caesura. The satirists +in particular allowed themselves an extraordinary licence: +these hexameters, from Persius, are as far removed from the +rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if they are to +remain hexameters:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Mane piger stertis. ‘Surge!’ inquit Avaritia, ‘heia</p> +<p class="i05">Surge!’ negas; instat ‘Surge!’ inquit ‘Non queo.’ ‘Surge!’</p> +<p>‘Et quid agam?’ ‘Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.’”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally +to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed +and repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived +in later ages, by writers who slavishly copied the most antique +examples of the art of verse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wilhelm Christ, <i>Metrik der Griechen und Römer</i>, 2te Aufl. +(1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEXAPLA<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Gr. for “sixfold”), the term for an edition of +the Bible in six versions, and especially the edition of the Old +Testament compiled by Origen, which placed side by side +(1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek character, (3) Aquila, (4) +Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: +<i>Old Testament, Texts and Versions</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEXAPODA<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hex">ἕξ</span>, six, and <span class="grk" title="pous">πούς</span>, foot), a term used in +systematic zoology for that class of the <span class="sc">Arthropoda</span>, popularly +known as insects. Linnaeus in his <i>Systema naturae</i> (1735) +grouped under the class Insecta all segmented animals with +firm exoskeleton and jointed limbs—that is to say, the insects, +centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions and their +allies. This assemblage is now generally regarded as a great +division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal kingdom and +known by K. T. E. von Siebold’s (1848) name of Arthropoda. +For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus’s +old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J. +Brisson (1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others +prefer the name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its +modern sense by P. A. Latreille in 1825 (<i>Familles naturelles +du règne animal</i>), since it has the advantage of expressing, in +a single word, an important characteristic of the group. The +terms “Hexapoda” and “hexapod” had already been used +by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th century +to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice, +fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Characters.</i></p> + +<p>A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be +known by the grouping of its body-segments in three distinct +regions—a head, a thorax and an abdomen—each of which +consists of a definite number of segments. In the terminology +proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement is “nomomeristic” +and “nomotagmic.” The head of an insect carries usually +four pairs of conspicuous appendages—feelers, mandibles +and two pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive +somites is immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects +resemble so closely the similar organs in Crustaceans that +there can hardly be reasonable doubt of their homology, and +the primitively appendicular nature of the eyes in the latter +class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they represent the +appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind +the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an “intercalary” +or tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M. +Wheeler (1893) and others in various insect embryos, while +in the lowest insect order—the Aptera—a pair of minute jaws—the +maxillulae—in close association with the tongue are present, +as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J. W. Folsom +(1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the +earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Börner +(1904), and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The +number of limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus +seen to be seven. All of these are to be regarded as primitively +post-oral, but in the course of development the mouth moves +back to the mandibular segment, so that the first three somites—ocular, +antennal and intercalary—lie in front of it. In Lankester’s +terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is “triprosthomerous.” +The maxillae of the hinder pair become more +or less fused together to form a “lower lip” or labium, and the +segment of these appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly +united with the head-capsule.</p> + +<p>The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair +of jointed legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost +bear each a pair of wings. From these three pairs of +thoracic legs comes the name—Hexapoda—which distinguishes +the class. And the wings, though not always present, are highly +characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no other group of the +Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the more +generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments, +the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers, +(cerci or cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases, +however, it can be shown that the cerci really belong to an +eleventh abdominal segment which usually becomes fused with the +tenth. With very few exceptions the abdomen is without locomotor +limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and ninth abdominal +segments may be specialized as external organs of reproduction, +but these are probably not appendages. The female genital +opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the +male duct opens on the ninth.</p> + +<p>In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda +agree with other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the +class, however, is the presence of a complex system of air-tubes +(tracheae) for respiration, usually opening to the exterior by a +series of paired spiracles on certain of the body segments. The +possession of a variable number of excretory tubes (Malpighian +tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of the hind-gut and +pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a distinctive character +of the Hexapoda.</p> + +<p>The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching, +the younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in +other respects. In such cases the development of wings and the +attainment of the adult form depend upon a more or less profound +transformation or metamorphosis.</p> + +<p>With this brief summary of the essential characters of the +Hexapoda, we may pass to a more detailed account of their +structure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center sc">Exoskeleton</p> + +<p>The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or “hypodermis”) of insects +as of other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be +periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal. +The regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement, +and the definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are +in close contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united +by regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membranous, +so as to permit freedom of movement.</p> + +<p><i>Head.</i>—The head-capsule of an insect (figs. 1, 2) is composed of a +number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive +segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (<i>vertex</i> or <i>epicranium</i>), +on which or on the “front” may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli). +Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a +very distinct upper lip (<i>labrum</i>) is usually jointed. Behind the labrum +arises a process—the <i>epipharynx</i>—which in some blood-sucking +insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a +variable amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye; +in many insects of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are very +large and sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +head. Below each eye is a cheek area (<i>gena</i>), often divided into an +anterior and a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (<i>gula</i>) is +often developed behind the mouth.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:732px; height:370px" src="images/img419a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Head and Jaws of Cockroach (<i>Blatta</i>). Magnified 10 times. A, Front; B, side; +C, back; <i>v</i>, vertex; <i>f</i>, frons; <i>cl</i>, clypeus; <i>lbr</i>, labrum; <i>oc</i>, compound eye; <i>ge</i>, gena; <i>mn</i>, +mandible; <i>ca</i>, <i>st</i>, <i>pa</i>, <i>ga</i>, <i>la</i>, cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; <i>sm</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>pa</i>″, <i>pg</i>, +sub-mentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Feelers.</i>—Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are +the feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers +(antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are +long and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory +and tactile nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers, +often a secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from +a distal broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes +serrate, or from the development of processes bearing sensory +organs, so that the structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other +hand, the number of segments may be reduced, certain of them +often becoming highly modified in form.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:335px; height:370px" src="images/img419b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Marlatt, <i>Entom. Bull.</i> 14, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agric.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Head of Cicad, front view. I<i>a</i>, +frons; <i>b</i>, clypeus (the pointed labrum +beneath it); II, mandible; III, first +maxilla; (<i>a</i>, base; <i>b</i>, sheath; <i>c</i>, piercer), +III′, inner view of sheath; IV, second +maxillae forming rostrum (<i>b</i>, mentum; <i>c</i>, +ligula).</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Jaws.</i>—The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws +with one or more teeth at the apex (fig. 1, A, B, <i>mn</i>), articulating +at their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles, +and provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which +they can be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or +seize objects which have to be carried about. They never bear segmented +limbs (palps) +and only exceptionally +(as in the chafers) +is the skeleton composed +of more than one +sclerite. The mandibles +often furnish a good +example of “secondary +sexual characters,” +being more strongly +developed in the male +than in the female of +the same species. In +most insects that feed +by suction the mandibles +are modified. In +bugs (Heteroptera) and +many flies, for example, +they are changed into +needle-like piercers (fig. +2, II), while in moths +and caddis-flies they +are reduced to mere +vestiges or altogether +suppressed.</p> + +<p>As previously mentioned, +a pair of minute +jaws—the <i>maxillulae</i>—are +present in the +lowest order of insects, +between the mandibles +and the first maxillae. +They usually consist of +an inner and an outer +lobe arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a +small palp (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptera</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In their typical state of development, the <i>first maxillae</i> offer a +striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented +basal piece (<i>cardo</i> and <i>stipes</i>, fig. 1, C, <i>ca</i>, <i>st</i>) bearing a distinct inner +and outer lobe (<i>lacinia</i> and <i>galea</i>, fig. 1, C, <i>la</i>, <i>ga</i>) and externally a +jointed limb or palp (fig. 1, C, <i>pa</i>). Such maxillae are found in most +biting insects. In insects whose mouths are adapted for sucking and +piercing, remarkable modifications may occur. In many blood-sucking +flies, for example, the galea is absent, while the lacinia +becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well developed. +In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a +slender needle-like piercer (fig. 2, III), +while the palp is wanting. In butterflies +and moths the lacinia is absent while +the galea becomes a flexible process, +grooved on its inner face, so as to make +with its fellow a hollow sucking-trunk, +and the palp is usually very small.</p> + +<p>The <i>second pair of maxillae</i> are more +or less completely fused together to +form what is known as the <i>labium</i> or +“lower lip.” In generalized biting +insects, such as cockroaches and locusts +(Orthoptera), the parts of a typical +maxilla can be easily recognized in the +labium. The fused cardines form a +broad basal plate (<i>sub-mentum</i>) and the +stipites a smaller plate (<i>mentum</i>)—see +fig. 1, C, <i>sm</i>, <i>m</i>—jointed on to the sub-mentum, +while the galeae, laciniae and +palps remain distinct. In specialized +biting insects, such as beetles (Coleoptera), +the labium tends to become a +hard transverse plate bearing the pair of +palps, a median structure—known as +the <i>ligula</i>—formed of the conjoined +laciniae, and a pair of small rounded +processes—the reduced galeae—often +called the “paraglossae,” a term better +avoided since it has been applied also +to the maxillulae of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long +sucking “tongue” of bees is probably a modification of the ligula. +In bugs and aphids (Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form +a jointed grooved beak or rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender +piercers (mandibles and first maxillae) work to and fro.</p> + +<p>This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder +or lower boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth +is bounded by the labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae +lie on either side of it. A median process, known as the <i>hypopharynx</i> +or tongue, arises from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium, +and becomes most variously developed or specialized in different +insects. The salivary duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not +appear to represent a pair of appendages, but the maxillulae of +the Aptera become closely associated with it. According to the view +of R. Heymons, the hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the +jaw-bearing somites, but other students consider that it belongs +to the mandibular and first maxillary segments, or entirely to the +segment of the first maxillae.</p> + +<p><i>Neck.</i>—The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct +membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with +small chitinous plates (<i>cervical sclerites</i>). These have been interpreted +as indicating one or more primitive segments between the +head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H. +Huxley (<i>Anat. Invert. Animals</i>, 1877), they really belong to the labial +segment which has not become completely fused with the head-capsule. +It has been shown by C. Janet (1889), from careful studies +of the musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built +up of the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has +the mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main +supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock +and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904).</p> + +<p><i>Thorax.</i>—The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-trunk +are known as the <i>prothorax</i>, <i>mesothorax</i> and <i>metathorax</i> (see +fig. 3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single +sclerite, the <i>pronotum</i> (fig. 3, <i>d</i>), which is large and conspicuous in +those insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles, +which have the prothorax free—<i>i.e.</i> readily movable on the segment +(mesothorax) immediately behind—smaller and of less importance +where the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies. +The dorsal area of the mesothorax, and also of the metathorax, +may be made up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the other—<i>prescutum</i>, +<i>scutum</i>, <i>scutellum</i> and <i>post-scutellum</i> (fig. 3, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>), +the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially conspicuous. +Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a <i>sternum</i> with which a +median <i>pre-sternum</i> and paired <i>episterna</i> and <i>epimera</i> are often +associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W. Verhoeff +(1904) that the hexapodan thorax in reality contains six primitive +segments is entirely without embryological support.</p> + +<p><i>Legs.</i>—Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In +most insects the leg is built up of nine segments: (1) a broad +triangular, sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (<i>coxa</i>); (2) +a small <i>trochanter</i>; (3) an elongate stout thigh (<i>femur</i>); (4) a more +slender shin (<i>tibia</i>); and (5-9) a foot consisting of five <i>tarsal segments</i>. +The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive pad—the +<i>pulvillus</i>—on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the leg, +while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles are +usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of them +so delicate as to be termed “hairs,” others so stout and hard that +they are named “spines” or “spurs.” In the relative development +and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless +variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and +the special function—walking, running, climbing, digging or +swimming—for which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects +has been carefully studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890), +who find that the legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first +and third legs of one side moving with the second leg of the other. +One tripod thus affords a firm base of support while the legs of the +other tripod are brought forward to their new positions.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:413px; height:347px" src="images/img420a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Marlat, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 3, n.s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Thorax of Saw-Fly (<i>Pachynematus</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p> I, Dorsal view.</p> +<p> II, Ventral view.</p> +<p>III, Lateral view.</p> +<p> IV, Lateral view with segments separated.</p> +<p>  <i>Prothorax</i>:</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Episternum.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Sternum.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Coxa of fore-leg.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Pronotum.</p> +<p>  <i>Mesothorax</i>:</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Prescutum.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Scutum.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>g</i>, Scutellum.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Post-scutellum.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Mesophragma.</p> +<p><i>j</i>, <i>Epimeron</i>.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, <i>Episternum</i>.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Coxa of middle leg.</p> +<p>  <i>Metathorax</i>:</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Scutum.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Epimeron.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Coxa of hind leg.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, <i>First Abdominal Segment</i>.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Tegula at base of fore-wing.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:435px; height:664px" src="images/img420b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach + (<i>Blatta</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the + ventral cervical sclerites (<i>c</i>).</p> +<p>   <i>cx</i>, Coxa.   <i>tr</i>, Trochanter.</p> +<p>   <i>fe</i>, Thigh.   <i>tb</i>, Shin.</p> +<p>   <i>ta</i>, Tarsal segments.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p> II, Middle leg and mesosternum.</p> +<p> III, Hind-leg and metasternum.</p> +<p> In III<span class="sc">a</span>, the episternum (<i>a</i>) and + epimeron (<i>b</i>) are slightly separated.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Wings.</i>—Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of +insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax. +At the base of the wing, <i>i.e.</i> its attachment to the trunk, we find a +highly complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied +movements necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata) +have been described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long +axis of the wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this +position the outer margin of the wing is the <i>costa</i>, the inner the +<i>dorsum</i>, and the hind-margin the <i>termen</i>. The angle between the +costa and termen is the <i>apex</i>. When the wing is spread, its long axis +is more or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth +from the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment +that bears it, and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a +double layer of cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact +except where they are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular +nervures, which serve as a supporting framework for the wing +membrane, enclose air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures +consist of a series of trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually +branching as they approach the wing-margins, the branches being +often connected by short transverse nervures, so that the wing-area +is marked off into a number of “cells” or areolets.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:272px; height:261px" src="images/img420c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"> After Quail, <i>Natural Science</i>, vol. xiii., +J. M. Dent & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Wing-Neuration in a +Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3, +radial; 4, median; 5, cubital; +6, 7, 8, anal nervures.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders, +but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899) +shown that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal +or radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see +fig. 5). Along the costa runs a +costal nervure. This is followed +by a sub-costal which sometimes +shows two main branches. +Then comes the radial—usually +the most important nervure of +the wing—typically with five +branches, and the median with +four. These sets arise from a +main trunk towards the front +region of the wing-base. From +another hinder trunk arise the +two-branched cubital nervure +and three separate anal +nervures. In the hind-wing of +many insects the number of +radial branches becomes reduced, +while the anal area is +especially well developed and +undergoes a fan-like folding +when the wings are closed. +Great diversity exists in the +texture and functions of fore +and hind-wings in different insects; +these differences are discussed in the descriptions of the +various orders. The wings often afford secondary sexual characters, +being not infrequently absent or reduced in the female when well +developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the male is the wingless +sex.</p> + +<p>In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the +thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on +the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and +other insects there are small plates (tegulae)—see Fig. 3, <i>t</i>—on the +mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.</p> + +<p><i>Abdomen.</i>—In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure +is very clearly marked, a series of sclerites—dorsal terga and +abdominal sterna—being connected by pale, feebly chitinized +cuticle, so that considerable freedom of movement between the +segments is possible. The first and second abdominal sterna are often +suppressed or reduced, on account of the strong development of the +hind-legs. In many insects ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal +segments can be clearly distinguished in addition to a small terminal +anal segment. The female genital opening usually lies between the +seventh and eighth segments, the male on the ninth. Prominent +paired limbs are often borne on the tenth segment, the elongate +tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and may-flies, or the forceps of +earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a family of Isoptera, it has +been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that these cerci clearly belong +to a partially suppressed eleventh segment, and R. Heymons (1895-1896) +has proved by embryological study that in all cases they +really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the course of +development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages +(such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth +segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments +often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see +fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification +of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +the sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those +of the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments +may be altogether suppressed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:401px; height:243px" src="images/img421a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Outline of Male (♂) and Female (♀) Cockroaches (<i>Blatta</i>) +from the side, showing Abdominal Segments (numbered 1-10).</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Internal Organs</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:307px; height:440px" src="images/img421b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Miall and Denny (after Newton), <i>The Cockroach</i>, +Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Brain of Cockroach from +side. <i>oe</i>, Gullet; <i>op</i>, optic nerve; <i>sb</i>, +sub-oesophageal ganglion; <i>mn</i>, <i>mx</i>, +<i>mx</i>′, nerves to jaws; <i>t</i>, tentorium.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—The nervous system in the Hexapoda is built +up on the typical arthropodan plan of a double ventral nerve-cord +with a pair of ganglia in each segment, the cords passing on either +side of the gullet and connecting with an anterior nerve-centre or +brain (fig. 7) in the head. The brain innervates the eyes and feelers, +and must be regarded as +a “syncerebrum” representing +the ganglia of the +three foremost limb-bearing +somites united with +the primitive cephalic +lobes. Behind the gullet +lies the sub-oesophageal +nerve-centre (fig. 7, <i>sb</i>), +composed of the ganglia +of the four hinder head-somites +and sending +nerves to the jaws. A +pair of ganglia in each +thoracic segment is usual +(fig. 8), and as many as +eight distinct pairs of +abdominal ganglia may +often be distinguished, the +hindmost of which represents +the fused ganglia of +the last four segments. +But in many +highly organized +insects a remarkable +concentration +of the trunk-ganglia +takes place, all the +nerve-centres of the +thorax and abdomen +in the chafers +and in the Hemiptera, +for instance, +being represented +by a single mass +situated in the +thorax. The legs, wings and other organs of the trunk receive +their nerves from the thoracic and abdominal ganglia, and the +fusion of several pairs of these ganglia may be regarded as +corresponding to a centralization of individuality. A special +“sympathetic” system arises by paired nerves from the +oesophageal connectives; these nerves unite, and send back +a median recurrent nerve associated with ganglia on the +gullet and crop, whence proceed cords to various parts of the +digestive system.</p> + +<p>In connexion with the central nervous system there are +usually numerous organs of special sense. Most insects +possess a pair of compound eyes, and many have, in addition, +three simple eyes or ocelli on the vertex. The nature +of these organs is described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>. The +surface of a compound eye is seen to be covered with a +large number of hexagonal corneal facets, each of which overlies +an ommatidium or series of cell elements (fig. 9, A, B). +There are over 25,000 ommatidia in the eye of a hawk moth.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:355px; height:543px" src="images/img421c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Ventral Muscles and Nerve Cord of +Cockroach.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Auditory organs of a simple type are present in most +insects. These consist of fine rods suspended between two +points of the cuticle, and connected with nerve-fibres; they +are known as chordotonal organs. In many cases a more +complex ear is developed, which may be situated in strangely +diverse regions of the insect’s body. In locusts (<i>Acridiidae</i>) a +large ovate, tympanic membrane (fig. 9, G) is conspicuous on +either side of the first abdominal segment; on the inner surface +of this membrane are two horn-like processes in contact with a +delicate sac containing +fluid, connected +with which +are the actual +nerve-endings. In +the nearly-related +crickets and long-horned +grasshoppers +(<i>Locustidae</i>) +the ears are situated +in the shins +of the fore-legs (see +fig. 9, F). Just +below the knee-joint +there is a +swelling, along +which two narrow +slits run lengthwise. +They lead into +chambers, formed +by inpushing of +the cuticle, whose +delicate inner walls +are in contact with +air-tubes; on the +outer surface of +these latter are +ridges, along which +the special nerve-endings +are arranged. +An ear of +another type is +found in the swollen +second segment of +the feeler in many +male gnats and +midges, the cuticle +between this segment +and the third +forming an annular drum which is connected with numerous +nerve-endings, +while the fine bristles on the more distal segments vibrate +in response to the note produced by the humming of the female.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:567px; height:441px" src="images/img421d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Ridley, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Single Ommatidium of Cockroach’s Eye (after Grenacher). B, +Section through compound eye (after Miall and Denny); C, organs of smell +in cockchafer (after Kraepelin); D, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, sensory pits on cercopods of +golden-eye fly; <i>c</i>, sensory pit on palp of stone-fly (after Packard); E, +sensory hair (after Miall and Denny); F, ear of long-horned grasshopper; +<i>a</i>, Front shin showing outer opening and air-tube; <i>b</i>, section (after +Graber); G, ear of locust from within (after Graber). All highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Many of the numerous hairs (fig. 9, E) that cover the body of an +insect have a tactile function. The sense of smell resides chiefly in +the feelers, on whose segments occur tiny pits, often guarded by +peg-like or tooth-like structures and containing rod-like cells (fig. +9, C) in connexion with large nerve-cells. It is said that 13,000 such +olfactory organs are present on the feeler of a wasp, and 40,000 on +the complex antennae of a male cockchafer. Organs of similar type on +the maxillae and epipharynx appear to exercise the function of taste.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:309px; height:645px" src="images/img422a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell +Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Dorsal Muscles, Heart and +Pericardial Tendons of Cockroach.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Muscular System.</i>—The muscles in the Hexapoda are striated, +as in Arthropods generally, the large fibres being associated in +bundles which are attached +from point to +point of the cuticle, so +as to move adjacent sclerites +with respect to one +another (see figs. 8, 10). +For example, the contraction +of the tergo-sternal +muscles, connecting +the dorsal with the +ventral sclerites of the +abdomen, lessens the +capacity of the abdominal +region, while the +contraction of the powerful +muscles arising from +the thoracic walls, and +inserted into the proximal +ends of the thighs, +flexes or extends the legs.</p> + +<p><i>Circulatory System.</i>—Insects +afford an excellent +illustration of the +remarkable type of blood-system +characterizing the +Arthropoda. The dorsal +vessel is an elongate tube, +whose abdominal portion +is usually chambered, +forming a contractile +heart (fig. 10). At the +constrictions between the +chambers are paired slits, +through which the blood +passes from the surrounding +pericardial sinus. The +dorsal vessel is prolonged +anteriorly into an aorta, +through which the blood +is propelled into the great +body-cavity or haemocoel. +After bathing the +various tissues and +organs, the blood returns +dorsalwards into the pericardial +sinus through fine perforations of its floor, and so makes its +way into the heart again. Some +water-bugs, <i>e.g.</i> of the families <i>Belostomatidae</i>, +<i>Nepidae</i>, <i>Corixidae</i> and +<i>Hydrometridae</i> have a pulsating sac +at each knee-joint to assist the flow +of blood through the legs, while in +dragon-flies and locusts (<i>Acridiidae</i>) +there is a ventral pulsating diaphragm, +which forms the roof of a +sinus enclosing the nerve-cords.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:226px; height:559px" src="images/img422b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, +Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Ventral Portion +of Air-Tubes in Cockroach.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Respiratory System.</i>—As mentioned +above, respiration by means of air-tubes +(tracheae) is a most characteristic +feature of the Hexapoda. An +air-tube consists of an epithelium of +large polygonal cells with a thin +basement-membrane externally and +a chitinous layer internally, the last-named +being continuous with the +outer cuticle. The chitinous layer +is usually strengthened by thread-like +thickenings which, in the region close +to the outer opening of the tube, +form a network enclosing polygonal +areas, but which, through most of +the tracheal system, are arranged +spirally, the strengthening thread not +forming a continuous spiral, but +being interrupted after a few turns +around the tube. The tracheal +system in Hexapods is very complex, +forming a series of longitudinal trunks +with transverse anastomosing connexions +(fig. 11), and extending by +the finest sub-division and by repeated +branching into all parts of +the body. In insects of active flight +the tubes swell out into numerous +air-sacs, by which the breathing +capacity is much increased.</p> + +<p>Atmospheric air gains access to the air-tubes through paired +<i>spiracles</i> or <i>stigmata</i>, which usually occur laterally on most of the +body-segments. These spiracles have firm chitinous edges, and can +be closed by valves moved by special muscles. When the spiracles +are open and the body contracts, air is expired. The subsequent +expansion of the body causes fresh air to enter the tracheal system, +and if the spiracles be then closed and the body again contracted, +this air is driven to the finest branches of the air-tubes, where a direct +oxygenation of the tissues takes place. The physiology of respiration +has been carefully studied by F. Plateau (1884). In aquatic insects +various devices for obtaining or entangling air are found; these +modifications are described in the special articles on the various +orders of insects (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hemiptera</a></span>, &c.). Many insects have +aquatic larvae, some of which take in atmospheric air at intervals, +while others breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills. These +modifications are mentioned below in the section on metamorphosis.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:315px; height:627px" src="images/img422c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell +Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Food Canal of Cockroach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>s</i>, Salivary glands and reservoir.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Crop (the gizzard below it).</p> +<p><i>coe</i>, Caecal tubes (below them the stomach).</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Kidney tubes.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, Rectum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Digestive System.</i>—A striking feature in the food-canal of the +Hexapoda, as in other Arthropods, is the great extent of the +“fore-gut” +and “hind-gut,” +lined with a chitinous +cuticle, continuous with +the exoskeleton. The +fore-gut is composed of +a tubular gullet, a large +sac-like crop (fig. 12, <i>c</i>) +and a proventriculus or +“gizzard,” whose function +is to strain the food-substances +before they +pass on into the tubular +stomach, which has no +chitinous lining. This +organ, usually regarded as +a “mid-gut,” gives off a +number of secretory caecal +tubes (fig. 12, <i>coe</i>). At +its hinder end it is continuous +with the hind-gut, +which is usually differentiated +into a tubular coiled +intestine (fig. 12, <i>i</i>) and a +swollen rectum (fig. 12, <i>r</i>). +From the fore-end of the +hind-gut arise the slender +Malpighian tubes (fig. 12, +<i>k</i>), which have a renal +function.</p> + +<p>On either side of the +gullet are from one to +ten pairs of salivary +glands (fig. 12, <i>s</i>) whose +ducts open into the +mouth. Some of these +glands may be modified +for special purposes—as +silk-producing glands in +caterpillars or as poison-glands +in blood-sucking +flies and bugs. The food +passing into the crop is +there acted on by the +saliva and also by an +acid gastric juice which +passes forwards from the +stomach through the proventriculus. +As the +various portions of the +food undergo digestion, +they are allowed to pass through the proventriculus into the +stomach, where the nutrient substances are absorbed.</p> + +<p><i>Excretory System.</i>—Nitrogenous waste-matter is removed from +the body by the Malpighian tubes which open into the food-canal, +usually where the hind-gut joins the stomach. These tubes vary +in number from four to over a hundred in different orders of insects. +The cells which line them and also the cavities of the tubes contain +urates, which are excreted from the blood in the surrounding body-cavity. +This cavity contains an irregular mass of whitish tissue, +the fat-body, consisting of fat-cells which undergo degradation +and become more or less filled with urates. When the worn-out +cells are broken down, the urates are carried dissolved in the blood +to the Malpighian tubes for excretion. The fat-body is therefore the +seat of important metabolic processes in the hexapod body.</p> + +<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>—All the Hexapoda are of separate sexes. +The ovaries (fig. 13) in the female are paired, each ovary consisting +of a variable number of tubes (one in the bristle-tail <i>Campodea</i> and +fifteen hundred in a queen termite) in which the eggs are developed. +From each ovary an oviduct (fig. 13, <i>od</i>) leads, and in some of the +more primitive insects (bristle-tails, earwigs, may-flies) the two +oviducts open separately direct to the exterior. Usually they open +into a median vagina, formed by an ectodermal inpushing and +lined with chitin. The vagina usually opens in front of the eighth +abdominal sternite. Behind it is situated a spermatheca (fig. 14, <i>sp</i>) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +and the ovipositor previously mentioned, with its three pairs of +processes (Fig. 14, G, <i>g</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:518px" src="images/img423a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Ovaries of Cockroach, with Oviducts <i>Od</i> and Colleterial +Glands <i>CG</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:372px; height:625px" src="images/img423b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Hinder Abdominal Segment and Ovipositor of Female +Cockroach. Magnified.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>T<span class="sp">8</span> &c. Tergites.</p> +<p>S<span class="sp">7</span>, 7th Sternite.</p> +<p>S<span class="sp">8</span>, Sclerite between 7th and 8th sterna.</p> +<p>S<span class="sp">9</span>, 8th Sclerite.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>Od</i>, Vagina.</p> +<p><i>sp</i>, Spermatheca.</p> +<p>G, Anterior, and <i>g</i>, posterior gonapophyses.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The paired testes of the male consist of a variable number of seminal +tubes, those of each testis opening into a <i>vas deferens</i>. In some +bristle-tails and may-flies, the two <i>vasa deferentia</i> open separately, +but usually they lead into a sperm-reservoir, whence issues a median +ejaculatory duet. The male opening is on the ninth abdominal +segment, to which belong the processes that form the claspers or +genital armature. Accessory glands are commonly present in connexion +both with the male and the female reproductive organs. +The poison-glands of the sting in wasps and bees are well-known +examples of these.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Embryology</p> + +<p><i>The Egg.</i>—Among the Hexapoda, as in Arthropods generally, +the egg is large, containing an accumulation of yolk for the nourishment +of the growing embryo. Most insect eggs are of an elongate +oval shape; some are globular, others flattened, while others again +are flask-shaped, and the outer envelope (<i>chorion</i>) is often beautifully +sculptured (figs. 20, <i>d</i>; 21, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). Various devices are adopted for +the protection of the eggs from mechanical injury or from the attacks +of enemies, and for fixing them in appropriate situations. For +example, the egg may be raised above the surface on which it is laid +by an elongate stalk; the eggs may be protected by a secretion, which +in some cases forms a hard protective capsule or “purse”; or they +may be covered with shed hairs of the mother, while among water-insects +a gelatinous envelope, often of rope-like form, is common. +In various groups of the Hexapoda—aphids and some flesh-flies +(<i>Sarcophaga</i>), for example—the egg undergoes development within +the body of the mother, and the young insect is born in an active +state; such insects are said to be “viviparous.”</p> + +<p><i>Parthenogenesis.</i>—A number of cases are known among the +Hexapoda of the development of young from the eggs of virgin +females. In insects so widely separated as bristle-tails and moths +this occurs occasionally. In certain gall-flies (<i>Cynipidae</i>) no males +are known to exist at all, and the species seems to be preserved +entirely by successive parthenogenetic generations. In other gall-flies +and in aphids we find that a sexual generation alternates with +one or with many virgin generations. The offspring of the virgin +females are in most of these instances females; but among the bees +and wasps parthenogenesis occurs normally and always results in +the development of males, the “queen” insect laying either a +fertilized or unfertilized egg at will.</p> + +<p><i>Maturation, Fertilization and Segmentation.</i>—Polar bodies were +first observed in the eggs of Hexapoda by F. Blochmann in 1887. +The two nuclei are successively divided from the egg nucleus in the +usual way, but they frequently become absorbed in the peripheral +protoplasm instead of being extruded from the egg-cell altogether. +It appears that in parthenogenetic eggs two polar nuclei are formed. +According to A. Petrunkevich (1901-1903), the second polar nucleus +uniting with one daughter-nucleus of the first polar body gives rise +to the germ-cells of the parthenogenetically-produced male. There +is no reunion of the second polar nucleus with the female pronucleus, +but, according to the recent work of L. Doncaster (1906-1907) on +the eggs of sawflies, the number of chromosomes is not reduced in +parthenogenetic egg-nuclei, while, in eggs capable of fertilization, +the usual reduction-divisions occur. Fertilization takes place as +the egg is laid, the spermatozoa being ejected from the spermatheca +of the female and making their way to the protoplasm of the egg +through openings (micropyles) in its firm envelope. The segmentation +of the fertilized nucleus results in the formation of a number +of nuclei which arrange themselves around the periphery of the egg +and, the protoplasm surrounding them becoming constricted, a +blastoderm or layer of cells, enclosing the central yolk, is formed. +Within the yolk the nuclei of some “yolk cells” can be distinguished.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:340px; height:244px" src="images/img423c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny’s, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell, Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Diagram showing Formation of +Germinal Layers. E, ectoderm; M, inner +layer. Magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Germinal Layers and Food-Canal.</i>—The embryo begins to develop +as an elongate, thickened, ventral region of the blastoderm which is +known as the ventral +plate or germ band. +Along this band a +median furrow appears, +and a mass of +cells sinks within, the +one-layered germ +band thus becoming +transformed into a +band of two cell-layers +(fig. 15). In some +cases the inner layer +is formed not by invagination +but by +proliferation or by delamination. +The +outer of these two +layers (fig. 15, E) is +the ectoderm. With +regard to the inner +layer (<i>endoblast</i> of +some authors, fig. 15, M) much difference of opinion has prevailed. +It has usually been regarded as representing both endoderm +and mesoderm, and the groove which usually leads to its formation +has been compared to the abnormally elongated blastopore +of a typical gastrula. No doubt can be entertained that the greater +part of the inner layer corresponds to the mesoderm of more ordinary +embryos, for the coelomic pouches, the germ-cells, the musculature +and the vascular system all arise from it. Further, there is general +agreement that the chitin-lined fore-gut and hind-gut, which form +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +the greater part of the digestive tract, arise from ectodermal invaginations +(stomodaeum and proctodaeum respectively) at the positions +of the future mouth and anus. The origin of the mid-gut (mesenteron), +that has no chitinous lining in the developed insect, is the disputed +point. According to the classical researches of A. Kowalevsky +(1871 and 1887) on the embryology of the water-beetle <i>Hydrophilus</i> +and of the muscid flies, an anterior and a posterior endoderm-rudiment +both derived from the “endoblast” become apparent +at an early stage, in close association with the stomodaeum and +the proctodaeum respectively. These two endoderm-rudiments +ultimately grow together and give rise to the epithelium of the mid-gut. +These results were confirmed by the observations of K. Heider +and W. M. Wheeler (1889) on the embryos of two beetles—<i>Hydrophilus</i> +and <i>Doryphora</i> respectively. V. Graber, however (1889), +stated that in the <i>Muscidae</i>, while the anterior endoderm-rudiment +arises as Kowalevsky had observed, the posterior part of the “mid-gut” +has its origin as a direct outgrowth from the proctodaeum. +The recent researches of R. Heymons (1895) on the Orthoptera, and +of A. Lécaillon (1898) on various leaf beetles, tend to show that the +whole of the “mid-gut” arises from the proliferation of cells at the +extremity of the stomodaeum and of the proctodaeum. On this view +the entire food-canal in most Hexapoda must be regarded as of +ectodermal origin, the “endoblast” represents mesoderm only, +and the median furrow whence it arises can be no longer compared +with the blastopore. According to Heymons, the yolk-cells must be +regarded as the true endoderm in the hexapod embryo, for he states +(1897) that in the bristle-tail <i>Lepisma</i> and in dragon-flies they give +rise to the mid-gut. These views are not, however, supported +by other recent observers. J. Carrière’s researches (1897) on the +embryology of the mason bee (<i>Chalicodoma</i>) agree entirely with the +interpretations of Kowalevsky and Heider, and so on the whole do +those of F. Schwangart, who has studied (1904) the embryonic +development of Lepidoptera. He finds that the endoderm arises +from an anterior and a posterior rudiment derived from the “endoblast,” +that many of the cells of these rudiments wander into the +yolk, and that the mesenteric epithelium becomes reinforced by +cells that migrate from the yolk. K. Escherich (1901), after a new +research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera, claims that the +fore and hind endodermal rudiments arise from the blastoderm by +invagination, and are from their origin distinct from the mesoderm. +On the whole it seems likely that the endoderm is represented in +part by the yolk, and in part by those anterior and posterior rudiments +which usually form the mesenteron, but that in some Hexapoda +the whole digestive tract may be ectodermal. It must be admitted +that some or the later work on insect embryology has justified the +growing scepticism in the universal applicability of the “germ-layer +theory.” Heider has suggested, however, that the apparent origin +of the mid-gut from the stomodaeum and proctodaeum may be +explained by the presence of a “latent endoderm-group” in those +invaginations.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:551px; height:488px" src="images/img424.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny, <i>The Cockroach</i>, Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Cross section of Embryo of German Cockroach (<i>Phyllodromia</i>). +S, serosa; A, amnion; E, ectoderm; N, rudiment of nerve-cord; +M, mesodermal pouches.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Embryonic Membranes.</i>—A remarkable feature in the embryonic +development of most Hexapoda is the formation of a protective +membrane analogous to the amnion of higher Vertebrates and +known by the same term. Usually there arises around the edge +of the germ band a double fold in the undifferentiated blastoderm, +which grows over the surface of the embryo, so that its inner and +outer layers become continuous, forming respectively the <i>amnion</i> +and the <i>serosa</i> (fig. 16, A, S). The embryo of a moth, a dragon-fly +or a bug is invaginated into the yolk at the head end, the portion of +the blastoderm necessarily pushed in with it forming the amnion. +The embryo thus becomes transferred to the dorsal face of the egg, +but at a later stage it undergoes reversion to its original ventral +position. In some parasitic Hymenoptera there is only a single +embryonic membrane formed by delamination from the blastoderm, +while in a few insects, including the wingless spring-tails, the embryonic +membranes are vestigial or entirely wanting. In the bristle-tails +<i>Lepisma</i> and <i>Machilis</i>, an interesting transitional condition +of the embryonic membranes has lately been shown by Heymons. +The embryo is invaginated into the yolk, but the surface edges of +the blastoderm do not close over, so that a groove or pore puts +the insunken space that represents the amniotic cavity into communication +with the outside. Heymons believes that the “dorsal +organ” in the embryos of the lower Arthropoda corresponds with +the region invaginated to form the serosa of the hexapod embryo. +Wheeler, however, compares with the “dorsal organ” the peculiar +extra embryonic membrane or indusium which he has observed +between serosa and amnion in the embryo of the grasshopper +<i>Xiphidium</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Metameric Segmentation.</i>—The segments are perceptible at a very +early stage of the development as a number of transverse bands +arranged in a linear sequence. The first segmentation of the ventral +plate is not, however, very definite, and the segmentation does not +make its appearance simultaneously throughout the whole length of +the plate; the anterior parts are segmented before the posterior. In +Orthoptera and Thysanura, as well as some others of the lower +insects, twenty-one of these divisions—not, however, all similar—may +be readily distinguished, six of which subsequently enter into +the formation of the head, three going to the thorax and twelve to +the abdomen. In Hemiptera only eleven and in Collembola only +six abdominal segments have been detected. The first and last +of these twenty-one divisions are so different from the others that +they can scarcely be considered true segments.</p> + +<p><i>Head Segments.</i>—In the adult insect the head is insignificant in +size compared with the thorax or abdomen, but in the embryo it +forms a much larger portion of the body than it does in the adult. +Its composition has been the subject of prolonged difference of +opinion. Formerly it was said that the head consisted of four +divisions, viz. three segments and the procephalic or prae-oral lobes. +It is now ascertained that the procephalic lobes consist of three +divisions, so that the head must certainly be formed from at least +six segments. The first of these, according to the nomenclature +of Heymons (see fig. 17), is the mouth or oral piece; the second, +the antennal segment; the third, the intercalary or prae-mandibular +segment; while the fourth, fifth, and sixth are respectively the +segments of the mandibles and of the first and second maxillae. +These six divisions of the head are diverse in kind, and subsequently +undergo so much change that the part each of them takes in +the formation of the head-capsule is not finally determined. The +labrum and clypeus are developed as a single prolongation of the +oral piece, not as a pair of appendages. The antennal segment +apparently entirely disappears, with the exception of a pair of +appendages it bears; these become the antennae; it is possible +that the original segment, or some part of it, may even become a +portion of the actual antennae. The intercalary segment has no +appendages, nor rudiments thereof, except, according to H. Uzel +(1897), in the thysanuran <i>Campodea</i>, and probably entirely disappears, +though J. H. Comstock and C. Kochi believe that the +labrum belongs to it. The appendages of the posterior three or +trophal segments become the parts of the mouth. The appendages +of the two maxillary segments arise as treble instead +of single projections, thus differing from other appendages. +From these facts it appears that the anterior three divisions of +the head differ strongly from the posterior three, which greatly +resemble thoracic segments; hence it has been thought possible +that the anterior divisions may represent a primitive head, to +which three segments and their leg-like appendages were subsequently +added to form the head as it now exists. This is, however, +very doubtful, and an entirely different inference is possible. +Besides the five limb-bearing somites just enumerated, two others +must now be recognized in the head. One of these is the ocular +segment, in front of the antennal, and behind the primitive pre-oral +segment. The other is the segment of the maxillulae (see +above, under <i>Jaws</i>), behind the mandibular somite; the presence +of this in the embryo of the collembolan <i>Anurida</i> has been lately +shown (1900) by J. W. Folsom (fig. 18, v. 5), who terms the +maxillulae “superlinguae” on account of their close association +with the hypopharynx or lingua. In reference to the structure +of the head-capsule in the imago, it appears that the clypeus and +labrum represent, as already said, an unpaired median outgrowth +of the oral piece. According to W. A. Riley (1904) the epicranium +or “vertex,” the compound eyes and the front divisions of the +genae are formed by the cephalic lobes of the embryo (belonging +to the ocular segment), while the mandibular and maxillary segments +form the hinder parts of the genae and the hypopharynx.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:784px" src="images/img425a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Heymons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Morphology of an Insect: +the embryo of <i>Gryllotalpa</i>, somewhat +diagrammatic. The longitudinal segmented +band along the middle line represents +the early segmentation of the +nervous system and the subsequent +median field of each sternite; the lateral +transverse unshaded bands are the +lateral fields of each segment; the +shaded areas indicate the more internally +placed mesoderm layer. The segments +are numbered 1-21; 1-6 will form +the head, 7-9 the thorax, 10-21 the abdomen. +<i>A</i>, anus; <i>Abx</i><span class="su">1</span> <i>Abx</i><span class="su">11</span>, appendage +of 1st and of 11th abdominal segments; +<i>Ans</i>, anal piece = telson or 12th abdominal +segment; <i>Ant</i>, antenna; <i>De</i>, +deuterencephalon; <i>Md</i>, mandible; +<i>Mx</i><span class="su">1</span>, first maxilla; <i>Mx</i><span class="su">2</span>, second +maxilla or labium; <i>O</i>, mouth; <i>Obcl</i>, +rudimentary labrum and clypeus; +<i>Pre</i>, protencephalon; <i>St</i><span class="su">1</span> <i>St</i><span class="su">10</span>, stigmata +1 and 10; <i>Terg</i>, tergite; <i>Thx</i><span class="su">1</span>, +appendage of first thoracic segment; +<i>Tre</i>, tritencephalon; <i>Ul</i>, a thickening +at hinder margin of the mouth.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Great difference of opinion exists as to the hypopharynx, which +has even been thought to represent a distinct segment, or the pair +of appendages of a distinct segment. Heymons considers that it +represents the sternites of the three trophal segments, and that the +gula is merely a secondary development. Folsom looks on the +hypopharynx as a secondary +development. Riley holds +that the hypopharynx belongs +to the mandibular +and maxillary segments, +while the cervical sclerites +or gula represent the sternum +of the labial segment. +The ganglia of the nervous +system offer some important +evidence as to the morphology +of the head, and +are alluded to below.</p> + +<p><i>Thoracic Segments.</i>—These +are always three in +number. The three pairs +of legs appear very early +as rudiments. Though the +thoracic segments bear the +wings, no trace of these +appendages exists till the +close of the embryonic life, +nor even, in many cases, till +much later. The thoracic +segments, as seen in an early +stage of the ventral plate, +display in a well-marked +manner the essential elements +of the insect segment. +These elements are +a central piece or sternite, +and a lateral field on each +side bearing the leg-rudiment. +The external part of +the lateral field subsequently +grows up, and by coalescence +with its fellow forms the +tergite or dorsal part of the +segment.</p> + +<p><i>Abdominal Segments and +Appendages.</i>—We have already +seen that in numerous +lower insects the abdomen +is formed from twelve divisions +placed in linear fashion. +Eleven of these may perhaps +be considered as true segments, +but the twelfth or +terminal one is different, and +is called by Heymons a +telson; in it is placed the +anal orifice, and the mass +subsequently becomes the +upper and lower laminae +anales. In Hemiptera this +telson is absent, and the +anal orifice is placed quite +at the termination of the +eleventh segment. Moreover, +in this order the abdomen +shows at first a +division into only nine segments +and a terminal mass, +which last subsequently becomes +divided into two. +The appendages of the +abdomen are called cerci, +stylets and gonapophyses. +They differ much according +to the kind of insect, and +in the adult according to +sex. Difference of opinion +as to the nature of the +abdominal appendages prevails. +The cerci, when +present, appear in the +mature insect to be attached +to the tenth segment, but +according to Heymons they are really appendages of the eleventh segment, +their connexion with the tenth being secondary and the result +of considerable changes that take place in the terminal segments. +It has been disputed whether any true cerci exist in the higher insects, +but they are probably represented in the Diptera and in the scorpion-flies +(Mecaptera). In those insects in which a median terminal +appendage exists between the two cerci this is considered to be a +prolongation of the eleventh tergite. The stylets, when present, +are placed on the ninth segment, and in some Thysanura exist also +on the eighth segment; their development takes place later in life +than that of the cerci. The gonapophyses are the projections near +the extremity of the body that surround the sexual orifices, and +vary extremely according to the kind of insect. They have chiefly +been studied in the female, and form the sting and ovipositor, +organs peculiar to this sex. They are developed on the ventral +surface of the body and are six in number, one pair arising from the +eighth ventral plate and two pairs from the ninth. This has been +found to be the case in insects so widely different as Orthoptera and +Aculeate Hymenoptera. The genital armature of the male is formed +to a considerable extent by modifications of the segments themselves. +The development of the armature has been little studied, +and the question whether there may be present gonapophyses homologous +with those of the female is open.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:192px; height:305px" src="images/img425b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><p>A. After Wheeler, <i>Journ. +Morph.</i> vol. viii., and Folsom, +<i>Bull. Mus. Harvard</i>, xxxvi.</p> + +<p>B. After Folsom.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Embryos of +Springtail (<i>Anuridamaritima</i>). +Magnified. A, +Head-region of germ +band. B, Section through +head and thorax. The +neuromeres are shown in +Arabic, the appendages +in Roman numerals.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1, Ocular segment.</p> +<p>2, Antennal.</p> +<p>3, Trito-cerebral.</p> +<p>4, Mandibular.</p> +<p>5, Maxillular.</p> +<p>6, Maxillary.</p> +<p>7, Labial.</p> +<p>8, Prothoracic.</p> +<p>9, Mesothoracic.</p> +<p>10, Metathoracic.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the adult state no insect possesses more than six legs, and +they are always attached to the thorax; in many Thysanura there +are, however, processes on the abdomen that, as to their position, +are similar to legs. In the embryos of many insects there are projections +from the segments of the abdomen similar, to a considerable +extent, to the rudimentary thoracic legs. +The question whether these projections +can be considered an indication of former +polypody in insects has been raised. +They do not long persist in the embryo, +but disappear, and the area each one +occupied becomes part of the sternite. +In some embryos there is but a single +pair of these rudiments (or vestiges) +situate on the first abdominal segment, +and in some cases they become invaginations +of a glandular nature. Whether +cerci, stylets and gonapophyses are +developed from these rudiments has been +much debated. It appears that it is +possible to accept cerci and stylets as +modifications of the temporary pseudopods, +but it is more difficult to believe +that this is the case with the gonapophyses, +for they apparently commence +their development considerably later +than cerci and stylets and only after the +apparently complete disappearance of the +embryonic pseudopods. The fact that +there are two pairs of gonapophyses on +the ninth abdominal segment would be +fatal to the view that they are in any way +homologous with legs, were it not that +there is some evidence that the division +into two pairs is secondary and incomplete. +But another and apparently insuperable +objection may be raised—that +the appendages of the ninth segment are +the stylets, and that the gonapophyses +cannot therefore be appendicular. The +pseudopods that exist on the abdomen of +numerous caterpillars may possibly arise +from the embryonic pseudopods, but this +also is far from being established.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—The nervous system is +ectodermal in origin, and is developed and +segmented to a large extent in connexion +with the outer part of the body, so that it affords important evidence +as to the segmentation thereof. The continuous layer of cells from +which the nervous system is developed undergoes a segmentation +analogous with that we have described as occurring in the ventral +plate; there is thus formed a pair of contiguous ganglia for each +segment of the body, but there is no ganglion for the telson. The +ganglia become greatly changed in position during the later life, +and it is usually said that there are only ten pairs of abdominal +ganglia even in the embryo. In Orthoptera, Heymons has demonstrated +the existence of eleven pairs, the terminal pair becoming, +however, soon united with the tenth. The nervous system of the +embryonic head exhibits three ganglionic masses, anterior to the +thoracic ganglionic masses; these three masses subsequently amalgamate +and form the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which supplies the +trophal segments. In front of the three masses that will form +the sub-oesophageal ganglion the mass of cells that is to form the +nervous system is very large, and projects on each side; this anterior +or “brain” mass consists of three lobes (the prot-, deut-, and tritencephalon +of Viallanes and others), each of which might be thought +to represent a segmental ganglion. But the protocerebrum contains +the ganglia of the ocular segment in addition to those of +the procephalic lobes. These three divisions subsequently form +the supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain proper. There are other +ganglia in addition to those of the ventral chain, and Janet supposes +that the ganglia of the sympathetic system indicate the existence +of three anterior head-segments; the remains of the segments +themselves are, in accordance with this view, to be sought in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +stomodaeum. Folsom has detected in the embryo of <i>Anurida</i> a +pair of ganglia (fig. 18, 5) belonging to the maxillular (or superlingual) +segment, thus establishing seven sets of cephalic ganglia, and supporting +his view as to the composition of the head.</p> + +<p><i>Air-tubes.</i>—The air-tubes, like the food-canal, are formed by invaginations +of the ectoderm, which arise close to the developing +appendages, the rudimentary spiracles appearing soon after the +budding limbs. The pits leading from these lengthen into tubes, +and undergo repeated branching as development proceeds.</p> + +<p><i>Dorsal Closure.</i>—The germ band evidently marks the ventral +aspect of the developing insect, whose body must be completed +by the extension of the embryo so as to enclose the yolk dorsally. +The method of this dorsal closure varies in different insects. In the +Colorado beetle (<i>Doryphora</i>), whose development has been studied +by W. M. Wheeler, the amnion is ruptured and turned back from +covering the germ band, enclosing the yolk dorsally and becoming +finally absorbed, as the ectoderm of the germ band itself spreads +to form the dorsal wall. In some midges and in caddis-flies the +serosa becomes ruptured and absorbed, while the germ band, still +clothed with the amnion, grows around the yolk. In moths and +certain saw-flies there is no rupture of the membranes; the Russian +zoologists Tichomirov and Kovalevsky have described the growth +of both amnion and embryonic ectoderm around the yolk, the +embryo being thus completely enclosed until hatching time by both +amnion and serosa. V. Graber has described a similar method of +dorsal closure in the saw-fly <i>Hylotoma</i>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:335px; height:278px" src="images/img426a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Heymons, <i>Zeit. Wiss. Zoolog.</i> vol. 53.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Cross sections through Abdomen +of German Cockroach Embryo. A +(later than fig. 16) magnified. B (still +more advanced, dorsal closure complete) +magnified.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>ec</i>, Ectoderm.</p> +<p><i>en</i>, Endoderm.</p> +<p><i>sp</i>, Splanchnic layer of mesoderm.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Yolk.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Heart.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pericardial septum.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Coelom.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Germ-cells surrounded by rudiment-cells of ovarian tubes.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Muscle-rudiment.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Nerve-chain.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Fat body.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Inpushing of ectoderm to form air-tubes.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Secondary body-cavity.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Mesoderm, Coelom and Blood-System.</i>—From the mesoderm +most of the organs of the body—muscular, circulatory, +reproductive—take +their origin. The +mass of cells undergoes +segmentation corresponding +with the outer +segmentation of the +embryo, and a pair of +cavities—the coelomic +pouches (fig. 16, M)—are +formed in each segment. +Each coelomic +pouch—as traced by +Heymons in his study +on the development of +the cockroach (<i>Phyllodromia</i>)—divides +into +three parts, of which +the most dorsal contains +the primitive +germ-cells, the median +disappears, and the +ventral loses its boundaries +as it becomes +filled up with the growing +fat body (fig. 19). +This latter, as well as the +heart and the walls of +the blood spaces, arises +by the modification of +mesodermal cells, and +the body cavity is +formed by the enlargement +and coalescence +of the blood channels +and by the splitting of +the fat body. It is +therefore a haemocoel, +the coelom of the developed +insect being +represented only by +the cavities of the genital glands and their ducts.</p> + +<p><i>Reproductive Organs.</i>—In the cockroach embryo, before the segmentation +of the germ-band has begun, the primitive germ-cells +can be recognized at the hinder end of the mesoderm, from whose +ordinary cells they can be distinguished by their larger size. At a +later stage further germ-cells arise from the epithelium of the coelomic +pouches from the second to the seventh abdominal segments, and +become surrounded by other mesoderm cells which form the ovarian +or testicular tubes and ducts (fig. 19, <i>g</i>). In the male of <i>Phyllodromia</i> +the rudiment of a vestigial ovary becomes separated from the +developing testis, indicating perhaps an originally hermaphrodite +condition. An exceedingly early differentiation of the primitive +germ-cells occurs in certain Diptera. E. Metchnikoff observed +(1866) in the development of the parthenogenetic eggs produced by +the precocious larva of the gall-midge <i>Cecidomyia</i> that a large +“polar-cell” appeared at one extremity during the primitive cell-segmentation. +This by successive divisions forms a group of four to +eight cells, which subsequently pass through the blastoderm, and +dividing into two groups become symmetrically arranged and +surrounded by the rudiments of the ovarian tubes. E. G. Balbiani +and R. Ritter (1890) have since observed a similar early origin for +the germ-cells in the midge <i>Chironomus</i> and in the <i>Aphidae</i>.</p> + +<p>The paired oviducts and vasa deferentia are, as we have seen, +mesodermal in origin. The median vagina, spermatheca and +ejaculatory duct are, on the other hand, formed by ectodermal +inpushings. The classical researches of J. A. Palmén (1884) on these +ducts have shown that in may-flies and in female earwigs the paired +mesodermal ducts open directly to the exterior, while in male earwigs +there is a single mesodermal duct, due either to the coalescence of the +two or to the suppression of one. In the absence of the external +ectodermal ducts usual in winged insects, these two groups resemble +therefore the primitive Aptera. The presence of rudiments of the +genital ducts of both sexes in the embryo of either sex is interesting +and suggestive. The ejaculatory duct which opens on the ninth +abdominal sternum in the adult male arises in the tenth abdominal +embryonic segment and subsequently moves forward.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Growth and Metamorphosis</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:279px" src="images/img426b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Marlatt, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 4, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—<i>a</i>, Bed-bug (<i>Cimex lectularis</i>, Linn.); newly hatched +young from beneath; <i>b</i>, from above; <i>d</i>, egg, magnified; <i>c</i>, foot +with claws; <i>e</i>, serrate spine, more highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:384px" src="images/img426c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Mally, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 24 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Owl moth (<i>Heliothis armigera</i>); <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, egg, highly +magnified; <i>c</i>, larva or caterpillar; <i>d</i>, pupa in earthen cell.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After hatching or birth an insect undergoes a process of growth +and change until the adult condition is reached. The varied +details of this post-embryonic development furnish some of the +most interesting facts and problems to the students of the +Hexapoda. Wingless insects, such as spring-tails and lice, make +their appearance in the form of miniature adults. Some winged +insects—cockroaches, bugs (fig. 20) and earwigs, for example—when +young closely resemble their parents, except for the absence +of wings. On the other hand, we find in the vast majority of the +Hexapoda a very marked difference between the perfect insect +(imago) and the young animal when newly hatched and for some +time after hatching. From the moth’s egg comes a crawling +caterpillar (fig. 21, <i>c</i>), from the fly’s a legless maggot (fig. 25, <i>a</i>). +Such a young insect is a <i>larva</i>—a term used by zoologists for +young animals generally that are decidedly unlike their parents. +It is obvious that the hatching of the young as a larva necessitates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +a more or less profound transformation or metamorphosis before +the perfect state is attained. Usually this transformation comes +with apparent suddenness, at the penultimate stage of the +insect’s life-history, when the passive pupa (fig. 21, <i>d</i>) is revealed, +exhibiting the wings and other imaginal structures, which have +been developed unseen beneath the cuticle of the larva. Hexapoda +with this resting pupal stage in their life-history are said to +undergo “a complete transformation,” to be metabolic, or +holometabolic, whereas those insects in which the young form +resembles the parent are said to be ametabolic. Such insects as +dragon-flies and may-flies, whose young, though unlike the parent, +develop into the adult form without a resting pupal stage are +said to undergo an “incomplete transformation” or to be +hemimetabolic. The absence of the pupal stage depends upon +the fact that in the ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda the +wing-rudiments appear as lateral outgrowths (fig. 22) of the two +hinder thoracic segments and are visible externally throughout +the life-history, becoming larger after each moult or casting of the +cuticle. Hence, as has been pointed out by D. Sharp (1898), the +marked divergence among the Hexapoda, as regards life-history, +is between insects whose wings develop outside the cuticle +(Exopterygota) and those whose wings develop inside the cuticle +(Endopterygota), becoming visible only when the casting of the +last larval cuticle reveals the pupa. Metamorphosis among the +Hexapoda depends upon the universal acquisition of wings +during post-embryonic development—no insect being hatched +with the smallest external rudiments of those organs—and on the +necessity for successive castings or “moults” (ecdyses) of the +cuticle.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:202px" src="images/img427a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol. vii.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Nymph of Locust (<i>Schistocera americana</i>), showing +wing-rudiments.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Ecdysis.</i>—The embryonic ectoderm of an insect consists of a +layer of cells forming a continuous structure, the orifices in it—mouth, +spiracles, anus and terminal portions of the genital +ducts—being invaginations of the outer wall. This cellular layer +is called the hypodermis; it is protected externally by a cuticle, +a layer of matter it itself excretes, or in the excretion of which it +plays, at any rate, an important part. The cuticle is a dead +substance, and is composed in large part of chitin. The cuticle +contrasts strongly in its nature with the hypodermis it protects. +It is different in its details in different insects and in different stages +of the life of the same insect. The “sclerites” that make up the +skeleton of the insect (which skeleton, it should be remembered, +is entirely external) are composed of this chitinous excretion. The +growth of an insect is usually rapid, and as the cuticle does not +share therein, it is from time to time cast off by moulting or +ecdysis. Before a moult actually occurs the cuticle becomes +separated from its connexion with the underlying hypodermis. +Concomitant with this separation there is commencement of the +formation of a new cuticle within the old one, so that when the +latter is cast off the insect appears with a partly completed new +cuticle. The new instar—or temporary form—is often very +different from the old one, and this is the essential fact of metamorphosis. +Metamorphosis is, from this point of view, the sum +of the changes that take place under the cuticle of an insect +between the ecdyses, which changes only become externally +displayed when the cuticle is cast off. The hypodermis is the +immediate agent in effecting the external changes.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:117px" src="images/img427b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">Adapted from Koerschelt and +Herder and Lowne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Diagram showing +position of imaginal buds +in larva of fly. I., II., III., +the three thoracic segments +of the larva; 1, 2, 3, buds +of the legs of the imago; <i>h</i>, +bud of head-lobes; <i>f</i>, of +feeler; <i>e</i> of eye; <i>b</i>, brain.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The study of the physiology of ecdysis in its simpler forms has unfortunately +been somewhat neglected, investigators having directed +their attention chiefly to the cases that are most striking, such as +the transformation of a maggot into a fly, or of a caterpillar into a +butterfly. The changes have been found to be made up of two sets +of processes: histolysis, by which the whole or part of a structure +disappears: and histogenesis, or the formation of the new structure. +By histolysis certain parts of the hypodermis are destroyed, while +other portions of it develop into the new structures. The hypodermis +is composed of parts of two different kinds, viz. (1) the larger +part of the hypodermis that exists in +the maggot or caterpillar and is dissolved +at the metamorphosis; (2) parts +that remain comparatively quiescent +previously, and that grow and develop +when the other parts degenerate. These +centres of renovation are called imaginal +disks or folds. The adult caterpillar +may be described as a creature the +hypodermis of which is studded with +buds that expand and form the butterfly, +while the parts around them degenerate. +In some insects (<i>e.g.</i> the +maggots of the blowfly, <i>Calliphora +vomitoria</i>) the imaginal disks are to all +appearance completely separated from +the hypodermis, with which they are, +however, really organically connected +by strings or pedicels. This connexion +was not at first recognized and the true nature of imaginal disks was +not at first perceived, even by Weismann, to whom their discovery in +Diptera is due. In other insects the imaginal disks are less completely +disconnected from the superficies of the larval hypodermis, and may +indeed be merely patches thereof. The number of imaginal disks +in an individual is large, upwards of sixty having been discovered +to take part in the formation of the outer body of a fly. With regard +to the internal organs, we need only say that transformation occurs +in an essentially similar manner, by means of a development from +centres distributed in the various organs. The imaginal disks for +the outer wall of the body, some of them, at any rate, include mesodermal +rudiments (from which the muscles are developed) as well as +hypodermis. The imaginal disks make their appearance (that is, +have been first detected) at very different epochs in the life; their +absolute origin has been but little investigated. Pratt has traced +them in the sheep-tick (<i>Melophagus</i>) to an early stage of the embryonic +life.</p> + +<p><i>Histolysis and Histogenesis.</i>—The process of destruction of the larval +tissues was first studied in the forms where metamorphosis is greatest +and most abrupt, viz. in the Muscid Diptera. It was found that +the tissues were attacked by phagocytic cells that became enlarged +and carried away fragments of the tissue; the cells were subsequently +identified as leucocytes or blood-cells. Hence the opinion arose that +histolysis is a process of phagocytosis. It has, however, since been +found that in other kinds of insects the tissues degenerate and break +down without the intervention of phagocytes. It has, moreover, +been noticed that even in cases where phagocytosis exists a greater or +less extent of degeneration of the tissue may be observed before +phagocytosis occurs. This process can therefore only be looked +on as a secondary one that hastens and perfects the destruction +necessary to permit of the accompanying histogenesis. This view +is confirmed by the fate of the phagocytic cells. These do not take a +direct part in the formation of the new tissue, but it is believed merely +yield their surplus acquisitions, becoming ordinary blood-cells or +disappearing altogether. As to the nature of histogenesis, nothing +more can be said than that it appears to be a phenomenon similar +to embryonic growth, though limited to certain spots. Hence we +are inclined to look on the imaginal disks as cellular areas that possess +in a latent condition the powers of growth and development that +exist in the embryo, powers that only become evident in certain +special conditions of the organism. What the more essential of these +conditions may be is a question on which very little light has been +thrown, though it has been widely discussed.</p> +</div> + +<p>Much consideration has been given to the nature of metamorphosis +in insects, to its value to the creatures and to the +mode of its origin. Insect metamorphosis may be briefly +described as phenomena of development characterized by abrupt +changes of appearance and of structure, occurring during the +period subsequent to embryonic development and antecedent to +the reproductive state. It is, in short, a peculiar mode of growth +and adolescence. The differences in appearance between the +caterpillar and the butterfly, striking as they are to the eye, do +not sufficiently represent the phenomena of metamorphosis to the +intelligence. The changes that take place involve a revolution in +the being, and may be summarized under three headings: (1) +The food-relations of the individual are profoundly changed, an +entirely different set of mouth-organs appears and the kind and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +quantity of the food taken is often radically different. (2) A +wingless, sedentary creature is turned into a winged one with +superlative powers of aerial movement. (3) An individual in +which the reproductive organs and powers are functionally +absent becomes one in which these structures and powers are the +only reason for existence, for the great majority of insects die +after a brief period of reproduction. These changes are in the +higher insects so extreme that it is difficult to imagine how they +could be increased. In the case of the common drone-fly, +<i>Eristalis tenax</i>, the individual, from a sedentary maggot living in +filth, without any relations of sex, and with only unimportant +organs for the ingestion of its foul nutriment, changes to a +creature of extreme alertness, with magnificent powers of flight, +living on the products of the flowers it frequents, and endowed +with highly complex sexual structures.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:501px; height:219px" src="images/img428b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Ent. Bull.</i> 4, n. s. (<i>U.S. Dept. Agr.</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Vermiform Larva (maggot) of House-fly (<i>Musca domestica</i>). +Magnified. <i>b</i>, spiracle on prothorax; <i>c</i>, protruded head region; +<i>d</i>, tail-end with functional spiracles; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, head region with +mouth hooks protruded; <i>g</i>, hooks retracted; <i>h</i>, eggs. All magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:87px; height:338px" src="images/img428a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Westwood, +<i>Modern Classification</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>—Campodeiform +Larva of +a Ground-Beetle +(<i>Aepus marinus</i>). +Magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Forms of Larva.</i>—The unlikeness of the young insect to its +parent is one of the factors that necessitates metamorphosis. +It is instructive, further, to trace among +metabolic insects an increase in the degree +of this dissimilarity. An adult Hexapod +is provided with a firm, well-chitinized +cuticle and six conspicuous jointed legs. +Many larval Hexapods might be defined +in similar general terms, unlike as they are +to their parents in most points of detail. +Examples of such are to be seen in the +grubs of may-flies, dragon-flies, lacewing-flies +and ground-beetles (fig. 24). +This type of active, armoured larva—often +bearing conspicuous feelers on the +head and long jointed cercopods on the +tenth abdominal segment—was styled campodeiform +by F. Brauer (1869), on account +of its likeness in shape to the bristle-tail +<i>Campodea</i>. As an extreme contrast to this +campodeiform type, we take the maggot +of the house-fly (fig. 25)—a vermiform +larva, with soft, white, feebly-chitinized +cuticle and without either head-capsule +or legs. Between these two extremes, +numerous intermediate forms can be traced: +the grub (wireworm) of a click-beetle, with narrow elongate +well-armoured body, but with the legs very short; the grub +of a chafer, with the legs fairly developed, but with the cuticle +of all the trunk-segments soft and feebly chitinized; the well-known +caterpillar of a moth (fig. 21, <i>e</i>) or saw-fly, with its +long cylindrical body, bearing the six shortened thoracic legs +and a variable number of pairs of “pro-legs” on the abdomen +(this being the eruciform type of larva); the soft, white, wood-boring +grub of a longhorn-beetle or of the saw-fly <i>Sirex</i>, with +its stumpy vestiges of thoracic legs; the large-headed but +entirely legless, fleshy grub of a weevil; and the legless larva, +with greatly reduced head, of a bee. The various larvae of +the above series, however, have all a distinct head-capsule, +which is altogether wanting in the degraded fly maggot. These +differences in larval form depend in part on the surroundings +among which the larva finds itself after hatching; the active, +armoured grub has to seek food for itself and to fight its own +battles, while the soft, defenceless maggot is provided with +abundant nourishment. But in general we find that elaboration +of imaginal structure is associated with degradation in the nature +of the larva, eruciform and vermiform larvae being characteristic +of the highest orders of the Hexapoda, so that unlikeness +between parent and offspring has increased with the evolution +of the class.</p> + +<p><i>Hypermetamorphosis.</i>—Among a few of the beetles or Coleoptera +(<i>q.v.</i>), and also in the neuropterous genus <i>Mantispa</i>, are +found life-histories in which the earliest instar is campodeiform +and the succeeding larval stages eruciform. These later stages, +comprising the greater part of the larval history, are adapted +for an inquiline or a parasitic life, where shelter is assured +and food abundant, while the short-lived, active condition +enables the newly-hatched insect to make its way to the spot +favourable for its future development, clinging, for example, +in the case of an oil-beetle’s larva, to the hairs of a bee as she +flies towards her nest. The presence of the two successive +larval forms in the life-history constitutes what is called hypermetamorphosis. +Most significant is the precedence of the +eruciform by the campodeiform type. In conjunction with +the association mentioned above of the most highly developed +imaginal with the most degraded larval structure, it indicates +clearly that the active, armoured grub preceded the sluggish +soft-skinned caterpillar or maggot in the evolution of the Hexapoda.</p> + +<p><i>Nymph.</i>—The term nymph is applied by many writers on the +Hexapoda to all young forms of insects that are not sufficiently +unlike their parents to be called larvae. Other writers apply +the term to a “free” pupa (see <i>infra</i>). It is in wellnigh universal +use for those instars of ametabolous and hemimetabolous +insects in which the external wing-rudiments have become +conspicuous (fig. 27). The mature dragon-fly nymph, for +example, makes its way out of the water in which the early +stages have been passed and, clinging to some water-plant, +undergoes the final ecdysis that the imago may emerge into +the air. Like most ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda, +such nymphs continue to move and feed throughout their +lives. But examples are not wanting of a more or less complete +resting habit during the latest nymphal instar. In some cicads +the mature nymph ceases to feed and remains quiescent within +a pillar-shaped earthen chamber. The nymph of a thrips-insect +(Thysanoptera) is sluggish, its legs and wings being sheathed +by a delicate membrane, while the nymph of the male scale-insect +rests enclosed beneath a waxy covering.</p> + +<p><i>Sub-imago.</i>—Among the Hexapoda generally there is no +subsequent ecdysis nor any further growth after the assumption +of the winged state. The may-flies, however, offer a remarkable +exception to this rule. After a prolonged aquatic larval and +nymphal life-history, the winged insect appears as a sub-imago, +whence, after the casting of a delicate cuticle, the true imago +emerges.</p> + +<p><i>Pupa.</i>—In the metabolic Hexapoda the resting pupal instar +shows externally the wings and other characteristic imaginal +organs which have been gradually elaborated beneath the +larval cuticle. It is usual to distinguish between the free +pupae (fig. 26, <i>b</i>)—of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, for example—in +which the wings, legs and other appendages are not fixed +to the trunk, and the obtect pupae (fig. 21, <i>d</i>)—such as may +be noticed in the majority of the Lepidoptera—whose appendages +are closely and immovably pressed to the body by a general +hardening and fusion of the cuticle. In the degree of mobility +there is great diversity among pupae. A gnat pupa swims +through the water by powerful strokes of its abdomen, while +the caddis-fly pupa, in preparation for its final ecdysis, bites +its way out of its subaqueous protective case and rises through +the water, so that the fly may emerge into the air. Some +pupae are thus more active than some nymphs; the essential +character of a pupa is not therefore its passivity, but that it +is the instar in which the wings first become evident externally. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +The division of the winged Hexapoda into Exopteryga and +Endopteryga is thus again justified.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:390px; height:292px" src="images/img429a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Chittenden, <i>Bull.</i> 4 (n.s.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—<i>a</i>, Saw-toothed Grain-Beetle (<i>Silvanus surinamensis</i>); +<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, larva, magnified—; <i>d</i>, feeler of larva.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>If we admit that the larva has, in the phylogeny of insects, gradually +diverged from the imago, and if we recollect that in the ontogeny the +larva has always to become the imago (and of course still does so) +notwithstanding the increased difficulty of the transformation, we +cannot but recognize that a period of helplessness in which the +transformation may take place is to be expected. It is generally +considered that this is sufficient as an explanation of the existence +of the pupa. This, however, is not the case, because the greater +part of the transformation precedes the disclosure of the pupa, +which, as L. C. Miall remarks, is structurally little other “than the +fly enclosed in a temporary skin.” Moreover, in many insects with +imperfect metamorphosis the change from larva or (as the later stage +of the larva is called in these cases) nymph to imago is about as great +as the corresponding change in the Holometabola, as the student +will recognize if he recalls the histories of <i>Ephemeridae</i>, Odonata and +male <i>Coccidae</i>. But in none of these latter cases have the wings to +be changed from a position inside the body to become external and +actively functional organs. The difference between the nymph or +false pupa and the true pupa is that in the latter a whole stage is +devoted to the perfecting of the wings and body-wall after the wings +have become external organs; the stage is one in which no food is or +can be taken, however prolonged may be its existence. Amongst +insects with imperfect metamorphosis the nearest approximations +to the true pupa of the Holometabola are to be found in the sub-imago +of <i>Ephemeridae</i> and in the quiescent or resting stages of Thysanoptera, +<i>Aleurodidae</i> and <i>Coccidae</i>. A much more thorough appreciation +than we yet possess of the phenomena in these cases is necessary in +order completely to demonstrate the special characteristics of the +holometabolous transformation. But even at present we can correctly +state that the true pupa is invariably connected with the +transference of the wings from the interior to the exterior of the body. +It cannot but suggest itself that this transference was induced by +some peculiarity as to formation of cuticle, causing the growth of the +wings to be directed inwards instead of outwards. We may remark +that fleas possess no wings, but are understood to possess a true pupa. +This is a most remarkable case, but unfortunately very little information +exists as to the details of metamorphosis in this group.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Life-Relations.</i>—Only a brief reference can be made here +to the fascinating subject of the life-relations of the larva, +nymph and pupa, as compared with those of the imago. For +details, the reader may consult the special articles on the various +orders and groups of insects. A common result of metamorphosis +is that the larva and imago differ markedly in their +habitat and mode of feeding. The larva may be aquatic, or +subterranean, or a burrower in wood, while the imago is aerial. +It may bite and devour solid food, while the imago sucks liquids. +It may eat roots or refuse, while the imago lives on leaves and +flowers. The aquatic habit of many larvae is associated with +endless beautiful adaptations for respiration. The series of +paired spiracles on most of the trunk-segments is well displayed, +as a rule, in terrestrial larvae—caterpillars and the grubs of most +beetles, for example. In many aquatic larvae we find that all +the spiracles are closed up, or become functionless, except a +pair at the hinder end which are associated with some arrangement—such +as the valvular flaps of the gnat larva or the telescopic +“tail” of the drone-fly larva—for piercing the surface +film and drawing periodical supplies of atmospheric air. A +similar restriction of the functional spiracles to the tail-end +(fig. 25, <i>d</i>) is seen in many larvae of flies (Diptera) that live and +feed buried in carrion or excrement. Other aquatic larvae +have the tracheal system entirely closed, and are able to breathe +dissolved air by means of tubular or leaf-like gills. Such are +the grubs of stone-flies, may-flies (fig. 27) and some dragon-flies +and midges. An interesting feature is the difference often to +be observed between an aquatic larva +and pupa of the same insect in the +matter of breathing. The gnat larva, for +example, breathes at the tail-end, hanging +head-downwards from the surface-film. +But the pupa hangs from the surface by +means of paired respiratory trumpets on +the prothorax, the dorsal thoracic surface, +where the cuticle splits to allow the +emergence of the fly, being thus directed +towards the upper air.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:464px" src="images/img429b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Miall and Denny +(after Vayssière), <i>The Cockroach</i>, +Lovell Reeve & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>—Nymph of +May-fly (<i>Chloeon dipterum</i>), +with wing rudiments +(<i>a</i>) and tracheal +gill-plates (<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>). +Magnified—. (The feelers +and legs are cut short.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>A marked disproportion between the +life-term of larva and imago is common; +the former often lives for months or +years, while the latter only survives for +weeks or days or hours. Generally the +larval is the feeding, the imaginal the +breeding, stage of the life-cycle. The +extreme of this “division of labour” is +seen in those insects whose jaws are +vestigial in the winged state, when, the +need for feeding all behind them, they +have but to pair, to lay eggs and to die. +The acquisition of wings is the sign of +developed reproductive power.</p> + +<p><i>Paedogenesis.</i>—Nevertheless, the function +of reproduction is occasionally exercised +by larvae. In 1865 N. Wagner +made his classical observations on the +production of larvae from unfertilized +eggs developed in the precociously-formed +ovaries of a larval gall-midge +(Cecidomyid), and subsequent observers +have confirmed his results by studies on insects of the same +family and of the related <i>Chironomidae</i>. The larvae produced +by this remarkable method (paedogenesis) of virgin-reproduction +are hatched within the parent larva, and in some cases escape +by the rupture of its body.</p> + +<p><i>Polyembryony.</i>—Occasionally the power of reproduction is +thrown still farther back in the life-history, and it is found +that from a single egg a large number of embryos may be formed. +P. Marchal has (1904) described this power in two small parasitic +Hymenoptera—a Chalcid (<i>Encyrtus</i>) which lays eggs in the +developing eggs of the small moth <i>Hyponomeuta</i>, and a Proctotrypid +(<i>Polygnotus</i>) which infests a gall-midge (Cecidomyid) +larva. In the egg of these insects a small number of nuclei +are formed by the division of the nucleus, and each of these +nuclei originates by division the cell-layers of a separate embryo. +Thus a mass or chain of embryos is produced, lying in a common +cyst, and developing as their larval host develops. In this +way over a hundred embryos may result from a single egg. +Marchal points out the analogy of this phenomenon to the +artificial polyembryony that has been induced in Echinoderm +and other eggs by separating the blastomeres, and suggests +that the abundant food-supply afforded by the host-larva is +favourable for this multiplication of embryos, which may be, +in the first instance, incited by the abnormal osmotic pressure +on the egg.</p> + +<p><i>Duration of Life.</i>—The flour-moth (<i>Ephestia kuhniella</i>) +sometimes passes through five or six generations in a single +year. Although one of the characteristics of insects is the +brevity of their adult lives, a considerable number of exceptions +to the general rule have been discovered. These exceptions +may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) Certain larvae, +provided with food that may be adequate in quantity but +deficient in nutriment, may live and go on feeding for many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +years; (2) certain stages of the life that are naturally +“resting stages” may be in exceptional cases prolonged, and +that to a very great extent; in this case no food is taken, +and the activity of the individual is almost <i>nil</i>; (3) the +life of certain insects in the adult state may be much +prolonged if celibacy be maintained; a female of <i>Cybister +roeselii</i> (a large water-beetle) has lived five and a half +years in the adult state in captivity. In addition to these +abnormal cases, the life of certain insects is naturally +more prolonged than usual. The females of some social +insects have been known to live for many years. In <i>Tibicen +septemdecim</i> the life of the larva extends over from thirteen +to seventeen years. The eggs of locusts may remain for years +in the ground before hatching; and there may thus arise the +peculiar phenomenon of some species of insect appearing in +vast numbers in a locality where it has not been seen for +several years.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Classification</p> + +<p><i>Number of Species.</i>—It is now +considered that 2,000,000 is a moderate estimate of the +species of insects actually existing. Some authorities +consider this total to be too small, and extend the number +to 10,000,000. Upwards of 300,000 species have been +collected and described, and at present the number of named +forms increases at the rate of about 8000 species per annum. +The greater part by far of the insects existing in the world +is still quite unknown to science. Many of the species are +in process of extinction, owing to the extensive changes +that are taking place in the natural conditions of the +world by the extension of human population and of +cultivation, and by the destruction of forests; hence it is +probable that a considerable proportion of the species at +present existing will disappear from the face of the earth +before we have discovered or preserved any specimens of +them. Nevertheless, the constant increase of our knowledge +of insect forms renders classification increasingly +difficult, for gaps in the series become filled, and while +the number of genera and families increases, the +distinctions between these groups become dependent on +characters that must seem trivial to the naturalist who is +not a specialist.</p> + +<p><i>Orders of Hexapoda.</i>—In the present article it is only possible to treat of the +division of the Hexapoda into orders and sub-orders and of +the relations of these orders to each other. For further +classificatory details, reference must be made to the +special articles on the various orders. As regards the vast +majority of insects, the orders proposed by Linnaeus are +acknowledged by modern zoologists. His classification was +founded mainly on the nature of the wings, and five of his +orders—the Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps, &c.), +Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (two-winged flies), +Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), and Hemiptera (bugs, +cicads, &c.)—are recognized to-day with nearly the same +limits as he laid down. His order of wingless insects +(Aptera) included Crustacea, spiders, centipedes and other +creatures that now form classes of the Arthropoda distinct +from the Hexapoda; it also included Hexapoda of parasitic +and evidently degraded structure, that are now regarded as +allied more or less closely to various winged insects. +Consequently the modern order Aptera comprises only a very +small proportion of Linnaeus’s “Aptera”—the spring-tails +and bristle-tails, wingless Hexapoda that stand evidently at +a lower grade of development than the bulk of the class. The +earwigs, cockroaches and locusts, which Linnaeus included +among the Coleoptera, were early grouped into a distinct +order, the Orthoptera. The great advance in modern zoology +as regards the classification of the Hexapoda lies in the +treatment of a heterogeneous assembly which formed +Linnaeus’s order Neuroptera. The characters of the wings are +doubtless important as indications of relationship, but the +nature of the jaws and the course of the life-history must +be considered of greater value. Linnaeus’s Neuroptera +exhibit great diversity in these respects, and the insects +included in it are now therefore distributed into a number +of distinct orders. The many different arrangements that +have been proposed can hardly be referred to in this +article. Of special importance in the history of systematic +entomology was the scheme of F. Brauer (1885), who separated +the spring tails and bristle-tails as a sub-class +Apterygogenea from all the other Hexapoda, these forming the +sub-class Pterygogenea distributed into sixteen orders. +Brauer in his arrangement of these orders laid special +stress on the nature of the metamorphosis, and was the first +to draw attention to the number of Malpighian tubes as of +importance in classification. Subsequent writers have, for +the most part, increased the number of recognized orders; +and during the last few years several schemes of +classification have been published, in the most +revolutionary of which—that of A. Handlirsch (1903-1904)—the +Hexapoda are divided into four classes and thirty-four +orders! Such excessive multiplication of the larger +taxonomic divisions shows an imperfect sense of proportion, +for if the term “class” be allowed its usual zoological +value, no student can fail to recognize that the Hexapoda +form a single well-defined class, from which few +entomologists would wish to exclude even the Apterygogenea. +In several recent attempts to group the orders into +sub-classes, stress has been laid upon a few characters in +the imago. C. Börner (1904), for example, considers the +presence or absence of cerci of great importance, while F. +Klapalek (1904) lays stress on a supposed distinction +between appendicular and non-appendicular genital processes. +A natural system must take into account the nature of the +larva and of the metamorphosis in conjunction with the +general characters of the imago. Hence the grouping of the +orders of winged Hexapoda into the divisions Exopterygota +and Endopterygota, as suggested by D. Sharp, is unlikely to +be superseded by the result of any researches into minute +imaginal structure. Sharp’s proposed association of the +parasitic wingless insects in a group Anapterygota cannot, +however, be defended as natural; and recent researches into +the structure of these forms enables us to associate them +confidently with related winged orders. The classification +here adopted is based on Sharp’s scheme, with the addition +of suggestions from some of the most recent authors—especially +Börner and Enderlein.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center">Class: <b>HEXAPODA.</b></p> + +<p class="center pt1">Sub-class: <span class="sc">Apterygota.</span></p> + +<p>Primitively (?) wingless Hexapods with cumacean mandibles, +distinct maxillulae, and locomotor abdominal appendages. +Without ectodermal genital ducts. Young closely resemble +adults.</p> + +<p>The sub-class contains a single</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Aptera</i>,</p> + +<p class="noind">which is divided into two sub-orders:</p> + +<p>1. <i>Thysanura</i> (Bristle-tails): with ten abdominal segments; number of +abdominal appendages variable. Cerci prominent. Developed +tracheal system.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Collembola</i> (Spring-tails): with six +abdominal segments; appendages of the first forming an +adherent ventral tube, those of the third a minute “catch,” +those of the fourth (fused basally) a “spring.” Tracheal +system reduced or absent.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Sub-class: <span class="sc">Exopterygota.</span></p> + +<p>Hexapoda mostly with wings, the wingless forms clearly +degraded. Maxillulae rarely distinct. No locomotor abdominal +appendages. The wing-rudiments develop visibly outside the +cuticle. Young like or unlike parents.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Dermaptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; minute but distinct-maxillulae; second +maxillae incompletely fused. When wings are present, the +fore-wings are small firm elytra, beneath which the delicate +hind-wings are complexly folded. Many forms wingless. +Genital ducts entirely mesodermal. Cerci always present; +usually modified into unjointed forceps. Numerous (30 or +more) Malpighian tubes. Young resembling parents.</p> + +<p>Includes two families—the <i>Forficulidae</i> or <i>earwigs</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) +and the <i>Hemimeridae</i>.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Orthoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; vestigial maxillulae; second maxillae +incompletely fused. Wings usually well developed, +net-veined; the fore-wings of firmer texture than the +hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise beneath them. +Jointed cerci always present; ovipositor well developed. +Malpighian tubes numerous (100-150). Young resemble parents.</p> + +<p>Includes stick and leaf insects, cockroaches, mantids, +grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orthoptera</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Plecoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. +Fore-wings similar in texture to hind-wings, whose anal area +folds fanwise. Jointed, often elongate, cerci. Numerous +(50-60) Malpighian tubes. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +Young resembling parents, but aquatic in habit, breathing dissolved +air by thoracic tracheal gills.</p> + +<p>Includes the single family of the <i>Perlidae</i> (Stone-flies), formerly +grouped with the Neuroptera.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Isoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-wings +similar in shape and texture to hind-wings, which do not fold. +In most species the majority of individuals are wingless. Short, +jointed cerci. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Young resembling +adults; terrestrial throughout life.</p> + +<p>Includes two families, formerly reckoned among the Neuroptera—the +<i>Embiidae</i> and the <i>Termitidae</i> or “White Ants” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Termite</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Corrodentia</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused; maxillulae +often distinct. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes.</p> + +<p>Includes two sub-orders, formerly regarded as Neuroptera:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Copeognatha</i>: Corrodentia with delicate cuticle. Wings usually +developed; the fore-wings much larger than the hind-wings. One +family, the <i>Psocidae</i> (Book-lice). These minute insects are found +amongst old books and furniture.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Mallophaga</i>: Parasitic wingless Corrodentia (Bird-lice).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Ephemeroptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Jaws vestigial. Fore-wings much larger than hind-wings. Elongate, +jointed cerci. Genital ducts paired and entirely mesodermal. +Malpighian tubes numerous (40). Aquatic larvae with distinct +maxillulae, breathing dissolved air by abdominal tracheal gills. +Penultimate instar a flying sub-imago. [Includes the single family +of the <i>Ephemeridae</i> or may-flies. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuroptera</a></span>, in which +this order was formerly comprised.]</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Odonata</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles. Wings of both pairs closely alike; firm and +glassy in texture. Prominent, unjointed cerci, male with genital +armature on second abdominal segment. Malpighian tubes numerous +(50-60). Aquatic larvae with caudal leaf-gills or with rectal +tracheal system.</p> + +<p>Includes the three families of dragon-flies. Formerly comprised +among the Neuroptera.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Thysanoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Piercing mandibles, retracted within the head-capsule. First +maxillae also modified as piercers; maxillae of both pairs with +distinct palps. Both pairs of wings similar, narrow and fringed. +Four Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor usually present. +Young resembling parents, but penultimate instar passive and +enclosed in a filmy pellicle.</p> + +<p>Includes three families of Thrips (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thysanoptera</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Hemiptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Mandibles and first maxillae modified as piercers; second maxillae +fused to form a jointed, grooved rostrum. Wings usually present. +Four Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor developed.</p> + +<p>Includes two sub-orders:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Heteroptera</i>: Rostrum not in contact with haunches of fore-legs. +Fore-wings partly coriaceous. Young resembling adults.</p> + +<p>Includes the bugs, terrestrial and aquatic.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Homoptera</i>: Rostrum in contact with haunches of fore-legs. +Fore-wings uniform in texture. Young often larvae. Penultimate +instar passive in some cases.</p> + +<p>Includes the cicads, aphides and scale-insects (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hemiptera</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Anoplura</i>.</p> + +<p>Piercing jaws modified and reduced, a tubular, protrusible sucking-trunk +being developed; mouth with hooks. Wingless, parasitic +forms. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. Young resembling +adults.</p> + +<p>Includes the family of the Lice (<i>Pediculidae</i>), often reckoned as +Hemiptera (<i>q.v.</i>). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louse</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Sub-class: <span class="sc">Endopterygota</span>.</p> + +<p>Hexapoda mostly with wings; the wingless forms clearly degraded +or modified. Maxillulae vestigial or absent. No locomotor abdominal +appendages (except in certain larvae). Young animals always unlike +parents, the wing-rudiments developing beneath the larval cuticle +and only appearing in a penultimate pupal instar, which takes no +food and is usually passive.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Neuroptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae completely fused. Prothorax +large and free. Membranous, net-veined wings, those of the two +pairs closely alike. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. +Larva campodeiform, usually feeding by suction (exceptionally +hypermetamorphic with subsequent eruciform instars). Pupa free.</p> + +<p>Includes the alder-flies, ant-lions and lacewing-flies. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuroptera</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Coleoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae very intimately fused. Prothorax +large and free. Fore-wings modified into firm elytra, +beneath which the membranous hind-wings (when present) can be +folded. Cerci absent. Four or six Malpighian tubes. Larva campodeiform +or eruciform. Pupa free.</p> + +<p>Includes the beetles and the parasitic <i>Stylopidae</i>, often regarded +as a distinct order (<i>Strepsiptera</i>). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>.)</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Mecaptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; first maxillae elongate; second maxillae completely +fused. Prothorax small. Two pairs of similar, membranous +wings, with predominantly longitudinal neuration. Six Malpighian +tubes. Larva eruciform. Pupa free. Cerci present.</p> + +<p>Includes the single family of <i>Panorpidae</i> (scorpion-flies), often comprised +among the Neuroptera.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Trichoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Mandibles present in pupa, vestigial in imago; maxillae suctorial +without specialization; first maxillae with lacinia, galea and palp. +Prothorax small. Two pairs of membranous, hair-covered wings, +with predominantly longitudinal neuration. Larvae aquatic and +eruciform. Pupa free. Six Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.</p> + +<p>Includes the caddis-flies. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuroptera</a></span>, among which these +insects were formerly comprised.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Lepidoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Mandibles absent in imago, very exceptionally present in pupa; +first maxillae nearly always without laciniae and often without palps, +or only with vestigial palps, their galeae elongated and grooved +inwardly so as to form a sucking trunk. Prothorax small. Wings +with predominantly longitudinal neuration, covered with flattened +scales. Fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Cerci absent. Four +(rarely 6 or 8) Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform, with rarely +more than five pairs of abdominal prolegs. Pupa free in the lowest +families, in most cases incompletely or completely obtect.</p> + +<p>Includes the moths and butterflies. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lepidoptera</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Diptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Mandibles rarely present, adapted for piercing; first maxillae +with palps; second maxillae forming with hypopharynx a suctorial +proboscis. Prothorax small, intimately united to mesothorax. +Fore-wings well developed; hind-wings reduced to stalked knobs +(“halteres”). Cerci present but usually reduced. Four Malpighian +tubes. Larvae eruciform without thoracic legs, or vermiform +without head-capsule. Pupa incompletely obtect or free, and +enclosed in the hardened cuticle of the last larval instar (puparium).</p> + +<p>Includes the two-winged flies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diptera</a></span>), which may be divided +into two sub-orders:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Orthorrhapha</i>: Larva eruciform. Cuticle of pupa or puparium +splitting longitudinally down the back, to allow escape of imago.</p> + +<p>Comprises the midges, gnats, crane-flies, gad-flies, &c.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Cyclorrhapha</i>: Larva vermiform (no head-capsule). Puparium +opening by an anterior “lid.”</p> + +<p>Comprises the hover-flies, flesh-flies, bot-flies, &c.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Siphonaptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Mandibles fused into a piercer; first maxillae developed as piercers; +palps of both pairs of maxillae present; hypopharynx wanting. +Prothorax large. Wings absent or vestigial. Larva eruciform, +limbless.</p> + +<p>Includes the fleas.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">Order: <i>Hymenoptera</i>.</p> + +<p>Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely or completely +fused; often forming a suctorial proboscis. Prothorax small, and +united to mesothorax. First abdominal segment united to metathorax. +Wings membranous, fore-wings larger than hind-wings. +Ovipositor always well developed, and often modified into a sting. +Numerous (20-150) Malpighian tubes (in rare cases, 6-12 only). +Larva eruciform, with seven or eight pairs of abdominal prolegs, +or entirely legless. Pupa free.</p> + +<p>Includes two sub-orders:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Symphyta</i>: Abdomen not basally constricted. Larvae caterpillars +with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs.</p> + +<p>Comprises the saw-flies.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Apocrita</i>: Abdomen markedly constricted at second segment. +Larvae legless grubs.</p> + +<p>Comprises gall-flies, ichneumon-flies, ants, wasps, bees. See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hymenoptera</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Geological History</p> + +<p>The classification just given has been drawn up with reference +to existing insects, but the great majority of the extinct forms +that have been discovered can be referred with some confidence +to the same orders, and in many cases to recent families. The +Hexapoda, being aerial, terrestrial and fresh-water animals, +are but occasionally preserved in stratified rocks, and our knowledge +of extinct members of the class is therefore fragmentary, +while the description, as insects, of various obscure fossils, +which are perhaps not even Arthropods, has not tended to the +advancement of this branch of zoology. Nevertheless, much +progress has been made. Several Silurian fossils have been +identified as insects, including a Thysanuran from North America, +but upon these considerable doubt has been cast.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span></p> + +<p>The Devonian rocks of Canada (New Brunswick) have yielded +several fossils which are undoubtedly wings of Hexapods. +These have been described by S. H. Scudder, and include gigantic +forms related to the Ephemeroptera.</p> + +<p>In the Carboniferous strata (Coal measures) remains of +Hexapods become numerous and quite indisputable. Many +European forms of this age have been described by C. Brongniart, +and American by S. H. Scudder. The latter has established, +for all the Palaeozoic insects, an order Palaeodictyoptera, +there being a closer similarity between the fore-wings and the +hind-wings than is to be seen in most living orders of Hexapoda, +while affinities are shown to several of these orders—notably +the Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Hemiptera. It +is probable that many of these Carboniferous insects might +be referred to the Isoptera, while others would fall into the +existing orders to which they are allied, with some modification +of our present diagnoses. Of special interest are cockroach-like +forms, with two pairs of similar membranous wings and +a long ovipositor, and gigantic insects allied to the Odonata, +that measured 2 ft. across the outspread wings. A remarkable +fossil from the Scottish Coal-measures (<i>Lithomantis</i>) had +apparently small wing-like structures on the prothorax, and +in allied genera small veined outgrowths—like tracheal gills—occurred +on the abdominal segments. To the Permian period +belongs a remarkable genus <i>Eugereon</i>, that combines hemipteroid +jaws with orthopteroid wing-neuration. With the dawn of the +Mesozoic epoch we reach Hexapods that can be unhesitatingly +referred to existing orders. From the Trias of Colorado, Scudder +has described cockroaches intermediate between their Carboniferous +precursors and their present-day descendants, while +the existence of endopterygotous Hexapods is shown by the +remains of Coleoptera of several families. In the Jurassic rocks +are found Ephemeroptera and Odonata, as well as Hemiptera, +referable to existing families, some representatives of which +had already appeared in the oldest of the Jurassic ages—the +Lias. To the Lias also can be traced back the Neuroptera, +the Trichoptera, the orthorrhaphous Diptera and, according +to the determination of certain obscure fossils, also the Hymenoptera +(ants). The Lithographic stone of Kimmeridgian age, +at Solenhofen in Bavaria, is especially rich in insect remains, +cyclorrhaphous Diptera appearing here for the first time. In +Tertiary times the higher Diptera, besides Lepidoptera and +Hymenoptera, referable to existing families, become fairly +abundant. Numerous fossil insects preserved in the amber +of the Baltic Oligocene have been described by G. L. Mayr +and others, while Scudder has studied the rich Oligocene faunas +of Colorado (Florissant) and Wyoming (Green River). The +Oeningen beds of Baden, of Miocene age, have also yielded +an extensive insect fauna, described fifty years ago by O. Heer. +Further details of the geological history of the Hexapoda will +be found in the special articles on the various orders. Fragmentary +as the records are, they show that the Exopterygota +preceded the Endopterygota in the evolution of the class, +and that among the Endopterygota those orders in which +the greatest difference exists between imago and larva—the +Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera—were the latest +to take their rise.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Geographical Distribution</p> + +<p>The class Hexapoda has a world-wide range, and so have most +of its component orders. The Aptera have perhaps the most +extensive distribution of all animals, being found in Franz Josef +Land and South Victoria Land, on the snows of Alpine glaciers, +and in the depths of the most extensive caves. Most of the +families and a large proportion of the genera of insects are +exceedingly widespread, but a study of the genera and species in +any of the more important families shows that faunas can be +distinguished whose headquarters agree fairly with the regions +that have been proposed to express the distribution of the higher +vertebrates. Many insects, however, can readily extend their +range, and a careful study of their distribution leads us to discriminate +between faunas rather than definitely to map regions. +A large and dominant Holoarctic fauna, with numerous subdivisions, +ranges over the great northern continents, and is +characterized by the abundance of certain families like the +<i>Carabidae</i> and <i>Staphylinidae</i> among the Coleoptera and the +<i>Tenthredinidae</i> among the Hymenoptera. The southern territory +held by this fauna is invaded by genera and species distinctly +tropical. Oriental types range far northwards into China and +Japan. Ethiopian forms invade the Mediterranean area. +Neotropical and distinctively Sonoran insects mingle with +members of the Holoarctic fauna across a wide “transition zone” +in North America. “Wallace’s line” dividing the Indo-Malayan +and Austro-Malayan sub-regions is frequently transgressed in the +range of Malayan insects. The Australian fauna is rich in +characteristic and peculiar genera, and New Zealand, while +possessing some remarkable insects of its own, lacks entirely +several families with an almost world-wide range—for example, the +<i>Notodontidae</i>, <i>Lasiocampidae</i>, and other families of Lepidoptera. +Interesting relationships between the Ethiopian and Oriental, the +Neotropical and West African, the Patagonian and New Zealand +faunas suggest great changes in the distribution of land and +water, and throw doubt on the doctrine of the permanence of +continental areas and oceanic basins. Holoarctic types reappear +on the Andes and in South Africa, and even in New Zealand. +The study of the Hexapoda of oceanic islands is full of interest. +After the determination of a number of cosmopolitan insects +that may well have been artificially introduced, there remains a +large proportion of endemic species—sometimes referable to +distinct genera—which suggest a high antiquity for the truly +insular faunas.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Relationships and Phylogeny</p> + +<p>The Hexapoda form a very clearly defined class of the Arthropoda, +and many recent writers have suggested that they must +have arisen independently of other Arthropods from annelid +worms, and that the Arthropoda must, therefore, be regarded +as an “unnatural,” polyphyletic assemblage. The cogent arguments +against this view are set forth in the article on Arthropoda. +A near relationship between the Apterygota and the Crustacea +has been ably advocated by H. J. Hansen (1893). It is admitted +on all hands that the Hexapoda are akin to the Chilopoda. +Verhoeff has lately (1904) put forward the view that there are +really six segments in the hexapodan thorax and twenty in the +abdomen—the cerci belonging to the seventeenth abdominal +segment thus showing a close agreement with the centipede +<i>Scolopendra</i>. On the other hand, G. H. Carpenter (1899, 1902-1904) +has lately endeavoured to show an exact numerical +correspondence in segmentation between the Hexapoda, the +Crustacea, the Arachnida, and the most primitive of the Diplopoda. +On either view it may be believed that the Hexapoda arose with +the allied classes from a primitive arthropod stock, while the +relationships of the class are with the Crustacea, the Chilopoda +and the Diplopoda, rather than with the Arachnida.</p> + +<p><i>Nature of Primitive Hexapoda.</i>—Two divergent views have +been held as to the nature of the original hexapod stock. Some +of those zoologists who look to <i>Peripatus</i>, or a similar worm-like +form, as representing the direct ancestors of the Hexapoda have +laid stress on a larva like the caterpillar of a moth or saw-fly as +representing a primitive stage. On the other hand, the view of +F. Müller and F. Brauer, that the Thysanura represent more +nearly than any other existing insects the ancestors of the class, +has been accepted by the great majority of students. And there +can be little doubt that this belief is justified. The caterpillar, +or the maggot, is a specialized larval form characteristic of the +most highly developed orders, while the campodeiform larva is +the starting-point for the more primitive insects. The occurrence +in the hypermetamorphic Coleoptera (see <i>supra</i>) of a campodeiform +preceding an eruciform stage in the life-history is most +suggestive. Taken in connexion with the likeness of the young +among the more generalized orders to the adults, it indicates +clearly a thysanuroid starting-point for the evolution of the +hexapod orders. And we must infer further that the specialization +of the higher orders has been accompanied by an increase in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span> +the extent of the metamorphosis—a very exceptional condition +among animals generally, as has been ably pointed out by +L. C. Miall (1895).</p> + +<p><i>Origin of Wings.</i>—The post-embryonic growth of Hexapods +with or without metamorphosis is accompanied in most cases by +the acquisition of wings. These organs, thus acquired during the +lifetime of the individual, must have been in some way acquired +during the evolution of the class. Many students of the group, +following Brauer, have regarded the Apterygota as representing +the original wingless progenitors of the Pterygota, and the many +primitive characters shown by the former group lend support to +this view. On the other hand, it has been argued that the +presence of wings in a vast majority of the Hexapoda suggests +their presence in the ancestors of the whole class. It is most +unlikely that wings have been acquired independently by various +orders of Hexapoda, and if we regard the Thysanura as the +slightly modified representatives of a primitively wingless stock, +we must postulate the acquisition of wings by some early offshoot +of that stock, an offshoot whence the whole group of the Pterygota +took its rise. How wings were acquired by these primitive +Pterygota must remain for the present a subject for speculation. +Insect wings are specialized outgrowths of certain thoracic +segments, and are quite unrepresented in any other class of +Arthropods. They are not, therefore, like the wings of birds, +modified from some pre-existing structures (the fore-limbs) +common to their phylum; they are new and peculiar structures. +Comparison of the tracheated wings with the paired tracheated +outgrowths on the abdominal segments of the aquatic campodeiform +larva of may-flies (see fig. 27) led C. Gegenbaur to the +brilliant suggestion that wings might be regarded as specialized +and transformed gills. But a survey of the Hexapoda as a +whole, and especially a comparative study of the tracheal system, +can hardly leave room for doubt that this system is primitively +adapted for atmospheric breathing, and that the presence of +tracheal gills in larvae must be regarded as a special adaptation +for temporary aquatic life. The origin of insect wings remains, +therefore, a mystery, deepened by the difficulty of imagining any +probable use for thoracic outgrowths, comparable to the wing-rudiments +of the Exopterygota, in the early stages of their +evolution.</p> + +<p><i>Origin of Metamorphosis.</i>—In connexion with the question +whether metamorphosis has been gradually acquired, we have to +consider two aspects, viz. the bionomic nature of metamorphosis, +and to what extent it existed in primitive insects. Bionomically, +metamorphosis may be defined as the sum of adaptations that +have gradually fitted the larva (caterpillar or maggot) for one +kind of life, the fly for another. So that we may conclude that +the factors of evolution would favour its development. With +regard to its occurrence in primitive insects, our knowledge of the +geological record is most imperfect, but so far as it goes it supports +the conclusion that holometabolism (<i>i.e.</i> extreme metamorphosis) +is a comparatively recent phenomenon of insect life. None of +the groups of existing Endopterygota have been traced with +certainty farther back than the Mesozoic epoch, and all the +numerous Palaeozoic insect-fossils seem to belong to forms that +possessed only imperfect metamorphosis. The only doubt arises +from the existence of insect remains, referred to the order +Coleoptera, in the Silesian Culm of Steinkunzendorf near +Reichenbach. The oldest larva known, <i>Mormolucoides articulatus</i>, +is from the New Red Sandstone of Connecticut; it +belongs to the <i>Sialidae</i>, one of the lowest forms of Holometabola. +It is now, in fact, generally admitted that metamorphosis has +been acquired comparatively recently, and Scudder in his +review of the earliest fossil insects states that “their metamorphoses +were simple and incomplete, the young leaving the +egg with the form of the parent, but without wings, the assumption +of which required no quiescent stage before maturity.”</p> + +<p>It has been previously remarked that the phenomena of +holometabolism are connected with the development of wings +inside the body (except in the case of the fleas, where there +are no wings in the perfect insect). Of existing insects 90% +belong to the Endopterygota. At the same time we have no +evidence that any Endopterygota existed amongst Palaeozoic +insects, so that the phenomena of endopterygotism are comparatively +recent, and we are led to infer that the Endopterygota owe +their origin to the older Exopterygota. In Endopterygota the +wings commence their development as invaginations of the +hypodermis, while in Exopterygota the wings begin—and always +remain—as external folds or evaginations. The two modes +of growth are directly opposed, and at first sight it appears that +this fact negatives the view that Endopterygota have been +derived from Exopterygota.</p> + +<p>Only three hypotheses as to the origin of Endopterygota +can be suggested as possible, viz.:—(1) That some of the Palaeozoic +insects, though we infer them to have been exopterygotous, +were really endopterygotous, and were the actual ancestors +of the existing Endopterygota; (2) that Endopterygota are +not descended from Exopterygota, but were derived directly +from ancestors that were never winged; (3) that the predominant +division—<i>i.e.</i> Endopterygota—of insects of the present epoch +are descended from the predominant—if not the sole—group +that existed in the Palaeozoic epoch, viz. the Exopterygota. +The first hypothesis is not negatived by direct evidence, for +we do not actually know the ontogeny of any of the Palaeozoic +insects; it is, however, rendered highly improbable by the +modern views as to the nature and origin of wings in insects, +and by the fact that the Endopterygota include none of the +lower existing forms of insects. The second hypothesis—to +the effect that Endopterygota are the descendants of apterous +insects that had never possessed wings (<i>i.e.</i> the Apterygogenea +of Brauer and others, though we prefer the shorter term Apterygota)—is +rendered improbable from the fact that existing +Apterygota are related to Exopterygota, not to Endopterygota, +and by the knowledge that has been gained as to the morphology +and development of wings, which suggest that—if we may so +phrase it—were an apterygotous insect gradually to develop +wings, it would be on the exopterygotous system. From all +points of view it appears, therefore, probable that Endopterygota +are descended from Exopterygota, and we are brought to the +question as to the way in which this has occurred.</p> + +<p>It is almost impossible to believe that any species of insect +that has for a long period developed the wings outside the body +could change this mode of growth suddenly for an internal +mode of development of the organs in question, for, as we have +already explained, the two modes of growth are directly opposed. +The explanation has to be sought in another direction. Now +there are many forms of Exopterygota in which the creatures +are almost or quite destitute of wings. This phenomenon +occurs among species found at high elevations, among others +found in arid or desert regions, and in some cases in the female +sex only, the male being winged and the female wingless. This +last state is very frequent in <i>Blattidae</i>, which were amongst +the most abundant of Palaeozoic insects. The wingless forms +in question are always allied to winged forms, and there is every +reason to believe that they have been really derived from +winged forms. There are also insects (fleas, &c.) in which +metamorphosis of a “complete” character exists, though the +insects never develop wings. These cases render it highly +probable that insects may in some circumstances become wingless, +though their ancestors were winged. Such insects have been +styled anapterygotous. In these facts we have one possible +clue to the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism, +namely, by an intermediate period of anapterygotism.</p> + +<p>Although we cannot yet define the conditions under which +exopterygotous wings are suppressed or unusually developed, +yet we know that such fluctuations occur. There are, in fact, +existing forms of Exopterygota that are usually wingless, and +that nevertheless appear in certain seasons or localities with +wings. We are therefore entitled to assume that the suppressed +wings of Exopterygota tend to reappear; and, speaking of the +past, we may say that if after a period of suppression the wings +began to reappear as hypodermal buds while a more rigid pressure +was exerted by the cuticle, the growth of the buds would necessarily +be inwards, and we should have incipient endopterygotism. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +The change that is required to transform Exopterygota into +Endopterygota is merely that a cell of hypodermis should +proliferate inwards instead of outwards, or that a minute hypodermal +evaginated bud should be forced to the interior of the +body by the pressure of a contracted cuticle.</p> + +<p>If it should be objected that the wings so developed would +be rudimentary, and that there would be nothing to encourage +their development into perfect functional organs, we may +remind the reader that we have already pointed out that imperfect +wings of Exopterygota do, even at the present time under +certain conditions, become perfect organs; and we may also +add that there are, even among existing Endopterygota, species +in which the wings are usually vestiges and yet sometimes +become perfectly developed. In fact, almost every condition +that is required for the change from exopterygotism to endopterygotism +exists among the insects that surround us.</p> + +<p>But it may perhaps be considered improbable that organs +like the wings, having once been lost, should have been reacquired +on the large scale suggested by the theory just put +forward. If so, there is an alternative method by which the +endopterygotous may have arisen from the exopterygotous +condition. The sub-imago of the Ephemeroptera suggests that +a moult, after the wings had become functional, was at one time +general among the Hexapoda, and that the resting nymph of +the Thysanoptera or the pupa of the Endopterygota represents +a formerly active stage in the life-history. Further, although +the wing-rudiments appear externally in an early instar of an +exopterygotous insect, the earliest instars are wingless and +wing-rudiments have been previously developing beneath +the cuticle, growing however outwards, not inwards as in the +larva of an endopterygote. The change from an exopterygote +to an endopterygote development could, therefore, be brought +about by the gradual postponement to a later and later instar +of the appearance of the wing-rudiments outside the body, +and their correlated growth inwards as imaginal disks. For +in the post-embryonic development of the ancestors of the +Endopterygota we may imagine two or three instars with +wing-rudiments to have existed, the last represented by the +sub-imago of the may-flies. As the life-conditions and feeding-habits +of the larva and imago become constantly more divergent, +the appearance of the wing-rudiments would be postponed to +the pre-imaginal instar, and that instar would become predominantly +passive.</p> + +<p><i>Relationships of the Orders.</i>—Reasons have been given for +regarding the Thysanura as representing, more nearly than +any other living group, the primitive stock of the Hexapoda. +It is believed that insects of this group are represented among +Silurian fossils. We may conclude, therefore, that they were preceded, +in Cambrian times or earlier, by Arthropods possessing well +developed appendages on all the trunk-segments. Of such Arthropods +the living Symphyla—of which the delicate little <i>Scutigerella</i> +is a fairly well-known example—give us some representation.</p> + +<p>No indications beyond those furnished by comparative +anatomy help us to unravel the phylogeny of the Collembola. +In most respects, the shortened abdomen, for example, they +are more specialized than the Thysanura, and most of the +features in which they appear to be simple, such as the absence +of a tracheal system and of compound eyes, can be explained +as the result of degradation. In their insunken mouth and their +jaws retracted within the head-capsule, the Collembola resemble +the entotrophous division of the Thysanura (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptera</a></span>), from +which they are probably descended.</p> + +<p>From the thysanuroid stock of the Apterygota, the Exopterygota +took their rise. We have undoubted fossil evidence that +winged insects lived in the Devonian and became numerous +in the Carboniferous period. These ancient Exopterygota +were synthetic in type, and included insects that may, with +probability, be regarded as ancestral to most of the existing +orders. It is hard to arrange the Exopterygota in a linear +series, for some of the orders that are remarkably primitive +in some respects are rather highly specialized in others. As +regards wing-structure, the Isoptera with the two pairs closely +similar are the most primitive of all winged insects; while +in the paired mesodermal genital ducts, the elongate cerci and +the conspicuous maxillulae of their larvae the Ephemeroptera +retain notable ancestral characters. But the vestigial jaws, +numerous Malpighian tubes, and specialized wings of may-flies +forbid us to consider the order as on the whole primitive. So +the Dermaptera, which retain distinct maxillulae and have no +ectodermal genital ducts, have either specialized or aborted +wings and a large number of Malpighian tubes. The Corrodentia +retain vestigial maxillulae and two pairs of Malpighian tubes, +but the wings are somewhat specialized in the Copeognatha and +absent in the degraded and parasitic Mallophaga. The Plecoptera +and Orthoptera agree in their numerous Malpighian tubes +and in the development of a folding anal area in the hind-wing. +As shown by the number and variety of species, the Orthoptera +are the most dominant order of this group. Eminently terrestrial +in habit, the differentiation of their fore-wings and hind-wings +can be traced from Carboniferous, isopteroid ancestors +through intermediate Mesozoic forms. The Plecoptera resemble +the Ephemeroptera and Odonata in the aquatic habits of their +larvae, and by the occasional presence of tufted thoracic gills +in the imago exhibit an aquatic character unknown in any other +winged insects. The Odonata are in many imaginal and larval +characters highly specialized; yet they probably arose with the +Ephemeroptera as a divergent offshoot of the same primitive +isopteroid stock which developed more directly into the living +Isoptera, Plecoptera, Dermaptera and Orthoptera.</p> + +<p>All these orders agree in the possession of biting mandibles, +while their second maxillae have the inner and outer lobes +usually distinct. The Hemiptera, with their piercing mandibles +and first maxillae and with their second maxillae fused to form +a jointed beak, stand far apart from them. This order can be +traced with certainty back to the early Jurassic epoch, while +the Permian fossil <i>Eugereon</i>, and the living order—specially +modified in many respects—of the Thysanoptera indicate steps +by which the aberrant suctorial and piercing mouth of the Hemiptera +may have been developed from the biting mouth of primitive +Isopteroids, by the elongation of some parts and the suppression +of others. The Anoplura may probably be regarded as a degraded +offshoot of the Hemiptera.</p> + +<p>The importance of great cardinal features of the life-history +as indicative of relationship leads us to consider the Endopterygota +as a natural assemblage of orders. The occurrence of +weevils—among the most specialized of the Coleoptera—in +Triassic rocks shows us that this great order of metabolous +insects had become differentiated into its leading families at +the dawn of the Mesozoic era, and that we must go far back +into the Palaeozoic for the origin of the Endopterygota. In +this view we are confirmed by the impossibility of deriving the +Endopterygota from any living order of Exopterygota. We +conclude, therefore, that the primitive stock of the former sub-class +became early differentiated from that of the latter. So +widely have most of the higher orders of the Hexapoda now +diverged from each other, that it is exceedingly difficult in most +cases to trace their relationships with any confidence. The +Neuroptera, with their similar fore- and hind-wings and their +campodeiform larvae, seem to stand nearest to the presumed +isopteroid ancestry, but the imago and larva are often specialized. +The campodeiform larvae of many Coleoptera are indeed far +more primitive than the neuropteran larvae, and suggest to us +that the Coleoptera—modified as their wing-structure has +become—arose very early from the primitive metabolous +stock. The antiquity of the Coleoptera is further shown by +the great diversity of larval form and habit that has arisen in +the order, and the proof afforded by the hypermetamorphic +beetles that the campodeiform preceded the eruciform larva +has already been emphasized.</p> + +<p>In all the remaining orders of the Endopterygota the larva +is eruciform or vermiform. The Mecaptera, with their predominantly +longitudinal wing-nervuration, serve as a link +between the Neuroptera and the Trichoptera, their retention +of small cerci being an archaic character which stamps them as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +synthetic in type, but does not necessarily remove them from +orders which agree with them in most points of structure but +which have lost the cerci. The standing of the Trichoptera in +a position almost ancestral to the Lepidoptera is one of the +assured results of recent morphological study, the mobile mandibulate +pupa and the imperfectly suctorial maxillae of the +Trichoptera reappearing in the lowest families of the Lepidoptera. +This latter order, which is not certainly known to +have existed before Tertiary times, has become the most highly +specialized of all insects in the structure of the pupa. Diptera +of the sub-order Orthorrhapha occur in the Lias and Cyclorrhapha +in the Kimmeridgian. The order must therefore be +ancient, and as no evidence is forthcoming as to the mode of +reduction of the hind-wings, nor as to the stages by which the +suctorial mouth-organs became specialized, it is difficult to trace +the exact relationship of the group, but the presence of cerci +and a degree of correspondence in the nervuration of the fore-wings +suggest the Mecaptera as possible allies. There seems +no doubt that the suctorial mouth-organs of the Diptera have +arisen quite independently from those of the Lepidoptera, +for in the former order the sucker is formed from the second +maxillae, in the latter from the first. The eruciform larva of +the Orthorrhapha leads on to the headless vermiform maggot +of the Cyclorrhapha, and in the latter sub-order we find metamorphosis +carried to its extreme point, the muscid flies being +the most highly specialized of all the Hexapoda as regards +structure, while their maggots are the most degraded of all +insect larvae. The Siphonaptera appear by the form of the +larva and the nature of the metamorphosis to be akin to the +Orthorrhapha—in which division they have indeed been included +by many students. They differ from the Diptera, however, +in the general presence of palps to both pairs of maxillae, and +in the absence of a hypopharynx, so it is possible that their +relationship to the Diptera is less close than has been supposed. +The affinities of the Hymenoptera afford another problem of +much difficulty. They differ from other Endopterygota in the +multiplication of their Malpighian tubes, and from all other +Hexapoda in the union of the first abdominal segment with +the thorax. Specialized as they are in form, development +and habit, they retain mandibles for biting, and in their lower +sub-order—the Symphyta—the maxillae are hardly more +modified than those of the Orthoptera. From the evidence of +fossils it seems that the higher sub-order—Apocrita—can be +traced back to the Lias, so that we believe the Hymenoptera +to be more ancient than the Diptera, and far more ancient +than the Lepidoptera. They afford an example—paralleled +in other classes of the animal kingdom—of an order which, +though specialized in some respects, retains many primitive +characters, and has won its way to dominance rather by perfection +of behaviour, and specially by the development of family +life and helpful socialism, than by excessive elaboration of +structure. We would trace the Hymenoptera back therefore +to the primitive endopterygote stock. The specialization of +form in the constricted abdomen and in the suctorial “tongue” +that characterizes the higher families of the order is correlated +with the habit of careful egg-laying and provision of food for +the young. In some way it is assured among the highest of the +Hexapoda—the Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera—that +the larva finds itself amid a rich food-supply. And thus perfection +of structure and instinct in the imago has been accompanied +by degradation in the larva, and by an increase in the +extent of transformation and in the degree of reconstruction +before and during the pupal stage. The fascinating difficulties +presented to the student by the metamorphosis of the Hexapoda +are to some extent explained, as he ponders over the evolution +of the class.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—References to the older classical writings on the +Hexapoda are given in the article on Entomology. At present about +a thousand works and papers are published annually, and in this +place it is possible to enumerate only a few of the most important +among (mostly) recent memoirs that bear upon the Hexapoda +generally. Further references will be found appended to the special +articles on the orders (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptera</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>, &c.).</p> + +<p><b>General Works.</b>—A. S. Packard, <i>Text-book of Entomology</i> (London, +1898); V. Graber, <i>Die Insekten</i> (Munich, 1877-1879); D. Sharp, +<i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vols. v., vi. (London, 1895-1899); L. C. +Miall and A. Denny, <i>Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach</i> +(London, 1886); B. T. Lowne, <i>The Anatomy, Physiology, Morphology +and Development of the Blow-fly</i> (2 vols., London, 1890-1895); +G. H. Carpenter, <i>Insects: their Structure and Life</i> (London, 1899); +L. F. Henneguy, <i>Les Insectes</i> (Paris, 1904); J. W. Folsom, <i>Entomology</i> +(New York and London, 1906); A. Berlese, <i>Gli Insetti</i> (Milan, 1906), +&c. (Extensive bibliographies will be found in several of the +above.)</p> + +<p><b>Head and Appendages.</b>—J. C. Savigny, <i>Mémoires sur les animaux +sans vertèbres</i> (Paris, 1816); C. Janet, <i>Essai sur la constitution +morphologique de la tête de l’insecte</i> (Paris, 1899); J. H. Comstock and +C. Kochi (<i>American Naturalist</i>, xxxvi., 1902); V. L. Kellogg (<i>ibid.</i>); +W. A. Riley (<i>American Naturalist</i>, xxxviii., 1904); F. Meinert +(<i>Entom. Tidsskr.</i> i., 1880); H. J. Hansen (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xvi., 1893); +J. B. Smith (<i>Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> xix., 1896); H. Holmgren +(<i>Zeitsch. wiss. Zoolog.</i> lxxvi., 1904); K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Abhandl. K. +Leop.-Carol. Akad.</i> lxxxiv., 1905).</p> + +<p><b>Thorax, Legs and Wings.</b>—K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. +Akad.</i> lxxxii., 1903); F. Voss (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> lxxviii., +1905); F. Dahl (<i>Arch. f. Naturgesch.</i> 1, 1884); J. Demoor (<i>Arch. +de biol.</i> x., 1890); J. Redtenbacher (<i>Ann. Kais. naturhist. Museum, +Wien</i>, i., 1886); R. von Lendenfeld (<i>S. B. Akad. Wissens., Wien</i>, +lxxxiii., 1881); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham (<i>Amer. Nat.</i>, +xxxii., xxxiii., 1898-1899); C. W. Woodworth (<i>Univ. California +Entom. Bull.</i> i., 1906).</p> + +<p><b>Abdomen and Appendages.</b>—E. Haase (<i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> xv., +1889); R. Heymons (<i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> xxiv., 1896; <i>Abhandl. K. +Leop.-Carol. Akad.</i> lxxiv., 1899); K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xix., +xx., 1896-1897); S. A. Peytoureau, <i>Contribution à l’étude de la +morphologie de l’armure génitale des insectes</i> (Bordeaux, 1895); H. +Dewitz (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xxv., xxviii., 1874, 1877); E. Zander (<i>ibid.</i> +lxvi., lxvii., 1899-1900).</p> + +<p><b>Nervous System.</b>—H. Viallanes (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.</i> [6], xvii., +xviii., xix., [7] ii., iv., 1884-1887); S. J. Hickson (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. +Sci.</i> xxv., 1885); W. Patten (<i>Journ. Morph.</i> i., ii., 1887-1888); +F. Plateau (<i>Mém. Acad. Belg.</i> xliii., 1888); V. Graber (<i>Arch. mikr. +Anat.</i> xx., xxi., 1882).</p> + +<p><b>Respiratory System.</b>—J. A. Palmén, <i>Zur Morphologie des +Tracheensystems</i> (Leipzig, 1877); F. Plateau (<i>Mém. Acad. Belg.</i> +xiv., 1884); L. C. Miall, <i>Natural History of Aquatic Insects</i> (London, +1895).</p> + +<p><b>Digestive System, &c.</b>—L. Dufour (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>, 1824-1860); +V. Faussek (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xlv., 1887).</p> + +<p><b>Malpighian Tubes.</b>—E. Schindler (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xxx., 1878); +W. M. Wheeler (<i>Psyche</i> vi., 1893); L. Cuénot (<i>Arch. de biol.</i> xiv., +1895).</p> + +<p><b>Reproductive Organs.</b>—H. V. Wielowiejski (Zool. Anz. ix., 1886); +J. A. Palmén, <i>Über paarige Ausführungsgänge der Geschlechtsorgane +bei Insekten</i> (Helsingfors, 1884); H. Henking (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> +xlix., li., liv., 1890-1892); F. Leydig (<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> iii., 1889).</p> + +<p><b>Embryology.</b>—F. Blochmann (<i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> xii., 1887); A. +Kovalevsky (<i>Mém. Acad. St-Pétersbourg</i>, xvi., 1871; <i>Zeits. wiss. +Zool.</i> xlv., 1887); V. Graber (<i>Denksch. Akad. Wissens., Wien</i>, lvi., +1889); K. Heider, <i>Die Embryonalentwicklung von Hydrophilus +piceus</i> (Jena, 1889); W. M. Wheeler (<i>Journ. Morph.</i> iii., viii., 1889-1893); +E. Korschelt and K. Heider, <i>Handbook of the Comparative +Embryology of Invertebrates</i> (trans. M. Bernard), (vol. iii., London, +1899); R. Heymons, <i>Die Embryonalentwicklung von Dermapteren +und Orthopteren</i> (Jena, 1895) (also <i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> liii., 1891, lxii., +1897; <i>Anhang zu den Abhandl. K. Akad. d. Wissens., Berlin</i>, 1896); +A. Lécaillon (<i>Arch. d’anat. micr.</i> ii., 1898); J. Carrière and O. +Burger (<i>Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad.</i> lxix., 1897); K. Escherich +(<i>ibid.</i> lxxvii., 1901); F. Schwangart (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> lxxvi., +1904); R. Ritter (<i>ib.</i> li., 1890); E. Metchnikoff (<i>ib.</i> xvi., 1866); +H. Uzel (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xx., 1897); J. W. Folsom (<i>Bull. Mus. Comp. +Zool. Harvard</i>., xxxvi., 1900).</p> + +<p><b>Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis.</b>—T. H. Huxley (<i>Trans. Linn. +Soc.</i> xxii., 1858); R. Leuckart, <i>Zur Kenntnis des Generationswechsels +und der Parthogenesis bei den Insekten</i> (Frankfurt, 1858); +N. Wagner (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xv., 1865); L. F. Henneguy (<i>Bull. Soc. +Philomath.</i> [9], i. 1899); A. Petrunkevich (<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> xiv., +xvii., 1901-1903); P. Marchal (<i>Arch. zool. exp. et gén.</i> [4], ii., 1904); +L. Doncaster (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlix., li., 1906-1907).</p> + +<p><b>Growth and Metamorphosis.</b>—A. Weismann (<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> xiii., +xiv., 1863-1864); F. Brauer (<i>Verh. zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Wien</i>, xix., +1869); Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), <i>Origin and Metamorphosis +of Insects</i> (London, 1874); L. C. Miall (<i>Nature</i>, liii., 1895); L. C. +Miall and A. R. Hammond, <i>Structure and Life-history of the Harlequin-fly</i> +(Oxford, 1900); J. Gonin (<i>Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat.</i> xxx., 1894); +C. de Bruyne (<i>Arch. de biol.</i> xv. (1898); D. Sharp (<i>Proc. Inter. Zool. +Congress</i>, 1898); E. B. Poulton (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> v., 1891); T. A. +Chapman (<i>Trans. Ent. Soc.</i>, 1893).</p> + +<p><b>Classification.</b>—F. Brauer (<i>S. B. Akad. Wiss., Wien</i>, xci., 1885); A. +S. Packard (<i>Amer. Nat.</i> xx.; 1886); C. Börner, A. Handlirsch, F. +Klapalek (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxvii., 1904); G. Enderlein (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> +xxvi., 1903).</p> + +<p><b>Palaeontology.</b>—S. H. Scudder, in Zittel’s <i>Palaeontology</i> (French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +trans., vol. ii., Paris, 1887, and Eng. trans., vol. i., London, 1900); +C. Brongniart, <i>Insectes fossiles des temps primaires</i> (St-Étienne, 1894); +A. Handlirsch, <i>Die fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der rezenten +Formen</i> (Leipzig, 1906).</p> + +<p><b>Phylogeny.</b>—Brauer, Lubbock, Sharp, Börner, &c. (<i>opp. cit.</i>); +P. Mayer (<i>Jena, Zeits. Naturw.</i> x., 1876); B. Grassi (<i>Atti R. Accad. +dei Lincei, Roma</i> [4], iv., 1888, and <i>Archiv ital. biol.</i> xi., 1889); +F. Müller, <i>Facts and Arguments for Darwin</i> (trans. W. S. Dallas, +London, 1869); N. Zograf (<i>Congr. Zool. Int.</i>, 1892); E. R. Lankester +(<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlvii., 1904); G. H. Carpenter (<i>Proc. R. +Irish Acad.</i> xxiv., 1903; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlix., 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. S.*; G. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEXASTYLE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hex">ἕξ</span>, six, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, column), an architectural +term given to a temple in the portico of which there +are six columns in front.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEXATEUCH,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> the name given to the first six books of the +Old Testament (the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact +that these form one literary whole, describing the early traditional +history of the Israelites from the creation of the world to the +conquest of Palestine and the origin of their national institutions. +These books are the result of an intricate literary process, +on which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span> (Old Testament: <i>Canon</i>), and the articles +on the separate books (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leviticus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numbers</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deuteronomy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joshua</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEXHAM,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a market town in the Hexham parliamentary +division of Northumberland, England, 21 m. W. from Newcastle +by the Carlisle branch of the North-Eastern railway, served also +from Scotland by a branch of the North British railway. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 7107. It is pleasantly situated beneath +the hills on the S. bank of the Tyne, and its market square and +narrow streets bear many marks of antiquity. It is famous for +its great abbey church of St Andrew. This building, as renovated +in the 12th century, was to consist of nave and transepts, choir +and aisles, and massive central tower. The Scots are believed to +have destroyed the nave in 1296, but it may be doubted if it was +ever completed. In 1536 the last prior was hanged for being +concerned in the insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace. +The church as it stands is a fine monument of Early English +work, with Transitional details. Within, although it suffered +much loss during a restoration <i>c.</i> 1858, there are several objects of +interest. Among these are a Roman slab, carved with figures of +a horseman trampling upon an enemy, several fine tombs and +stones of the 13th and 14th centuries, the frith or fridstool of +stone, believed to be the original bishop’s throne, and the fine +Perpendicular roodscreen of oak, retaining its loft. The crypt, +discovered in 1726, is part of the Saxon church, and a noteworthy +example of architecture of the period. Its material is +Roman, some of the stones having Roman inscriptions. These +were brought from the Roman settlement at Corbridge, 4 m. E. of +Hexham on the N. bank of the Tyne; for Hexham itself was not +a Roman station. In 1832 a vessel containing about 8000 Saxon +coins was discovered in the churchyard. Fragments of the +monastic buildings remain, and west of the churchyard is the +monks’ park, known as the Seal, and now a promenade, commanding +beautiful views. In the town are two strong castellated +towers of the 14th century, known as the Moot Hall and the +Manor Office. Their names explain their use, but they were +doubtless also intended as defensive works. In the interesting +and beautiful neighbourhood of Hexham there should be noticed +Aydon castle near Corbridge, a fortified house of the late 13th +century; and Dilston or Dyvilston, a typical border fortress +dating from Norman times, of which only a tower and small +chapel remain. It is replete with memories of the last earl of +Derwentwater, who was beheaded in 1716 for his part in the +Stuart rising of the previous year, and was buried in the chapel. +There is an Elizabethan grammar school. Hexham and Newcastle +form a Roman Catholic bishopric, with the cathedral at Newcastle. +There are manufactures of leather gloves and other goods, +and in the neighbourhood barytes and coal mines and extensive +market gardens.</p> + +<p>The church and monastery at Hexham (Hextoldesham) were +founded about 673 by Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who is said to +have received a grant of the whole of Hexhamshire from Æthelhryth, +queen of Northumbria, and a grant of sanctuary in his +church from the king. The church in 678 became the head of the +new see of Bernicia, which was united to that of Lindisfarne +about 821, when the bishop of Lindisfarne appears to have taken +possession of the lordship which he and his successors held until +it was restored to the archbishop of York by Henry II. The +archbishops appear to have had almost royal power throughout +the liberty, including the rights of trying all pleas of the crown +in their court, of taking inquisitions and of taxation. In 1545 the +archbishop exchanged Hexhamshire with the king for other +property, and in 1572 all the separate privileges which had +belonged to him were taken away, and the liberty was annexed +to the county of Northumberland. Hexham was a borough by +prescription, and governed by a bailiff at least as early as 1276, +and the same form of government continued until 1853. In 1343 +the men of Hexham were accused of pretending to be Scots and +imprisoning many people of Northumberland and Cumberland, +killing some and extorting ransoms for others. The Lancastrians +were defeated in 1464 near Hexham, and legend says that it was +in the woods round the town that Queen Margaret and her son +hid until their escape to Flanders. In 1522 the bishop of Carlisle +complained to Cardinal Wolsey, then archbishop of York, that +the English thieves committed more thefts than “all the Scots of +Scotland,” the men of Hexham being worst of all, and appearing +100 strong at the markets held in Hexham, so that the men whom +they had robbed dared not complain or “say one word to them.” +This state of affairs appears to have continued until the accession +of James I., and in 1595 the bailiff and constables of Hexham +were removed as being “infected with combination and toleration +of thieves.” Hexham was at one time the market town of a large +agricultural district. In 1227 a market on Monday and a fair on +the vigil and day of St Luke the Evangelist were granted to the +archbishop, and in 1320 Archbishop Melton obtained the right of +holding two new fairs on the feasts of St James the Apostle +lasting five days and of SS. Simon and Jude lasting six days. The +market day was altered to Tuesday in 1662, and Sir William +Fenwick, then lord of the manor, received a grant of a cattle +market on the Tuesday after the feast of St Cuthbert in March +and every Tuesday fortnight until the feast of St Martin. The +market rights were purchased from Wentworth B. Beaumont, +lord of the manor, in 1886. During the 17th and 18th centuries +Hexham was noted for the leather trade, especially for the +manufacture of gloves, but in the 19th century the trade began +to decline. Coal mines which had belonged to the archbishop, +were sold to Sir John Fenwick, Kt., in 1628. Hexham has never +been represented in parliament, but gives its name to one of the +four parliamentary divisions of the county.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Edward Bateson and A. B. Hinds, <i>A History of Northumberland</i> +vol. iii. (1893-1896); A. B. Wright, <i>An Essay towards the History of +Hexham</i> (1823); James Hewitt, <i>A Handbook to Hexham and its +Antiquities</i> (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1637-1712), Dutch painter, was +born at Gorcum in 1637, and died at Amsterdam on the 12th of +September 1712. He was an architectural landscape painter, a contemporary +of Hobbema and Jacob Ruysdael, with the advantage, +which they lacked, of a certain professional versatility; for, +whilst they painted admirable pictures and starved, he varied the +practice of art with the study of mechanics, improved the fire +engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and director of the +firemen’s company at Amsterdam. Till 1672 he painted in partnership +with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian’s death, and +probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him, +he accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At +no period of artistic activity had the system of division of labour +been more fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in +Holland towards the close of the 17th century. Van der Heyden, +who was perfect as an architectural draughtsman in so far as he +painted the outside of buildings and thoroughly mastered linear +perspective, seldom turned his hand to the delineation of anything +but brick houses and churches in streets and squares, or +rows along canals, or “moated granges,” common in his native +country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent +and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +Cologne, where he copied over and over again the tower and +crane of the great cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or +vale, or stream or wood. He could reproduce the rows of bricks +in a square of Dutch houses sparkling in the sun, or stunted trees +and lines of dwellings varied by steeples, all in light or thrown +into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the art of +painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping. +But he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts; +and this was his disadvantage. His good genius under these +circumstances was Adrian van der Velde, who enlivened his +compositions with spirited figures; and the joint labour of both +is a delicate, minute, transparent work, radiant with glow and +atmosphere.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYLYN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Heylin</span>), <b>PETER</b> (1600-1662), English historian +and controversialist, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire. +Having made great progress in his studies, he entered Hart +Hall, Oxford, in 1613, afterwards joining Magdalen College; +and in 1618 he began to lecture on cosmography, being made +fellow of Magdalen in the same year. His lectures, under the +title of <span class="grk" title="Mikrokosmos">Μικρόκοσμος</span>, were published in 1621, and many editions +of this useful book, each somewhat enlarged, subsequently +appeared. Having been ordained in 1624 Heylyn attracted +the notice of William Laud, then bishop of Bath and Wells; +and in 1628 he married Laetitia, daughter of Thomas Highgate, +or Heygate, of Hayes, Middlesex; but he appears to have +kept his marriage secret and did not resign his fellowship. +After serving as chaplain to Danby in the Channel Islands, +he became chaplain to Charles I. in 1630, and was appointed by +the king to the rectory of Hemingford, Huntingdonshire. +John Williams, bishop of Lincoln, however, refused to institute +Heylyn to this living, owing to his friendship with Laud; and +in return Charles appointed him a prebendary of Westminster, +where he made himself very objectionable to Williams, who +held the deanery <i>in commendam</i>. In 1633 he became rector +of Alresford, soon afterwards vicar of South Warnborough, and +he became treasurer of Westminster Abbey in 1637; but before +this date he was widely known as one of the most prominent +and able controversialists among the high-church party. Entering +with great ardour into the religious controversies of the +time he disputed with John Prideaux, regius professor of divinity +at Oxford, replied to the arguments of Williams in his pamphlets, +“A Coal from the Altar” and “Antidotum Lincolnense,” and +was hostile to the Puritan element both within and without +the Church of England. He assisted William Noy to prepare +the case against Prynne for the publication of his <i>Histriomastix</i>, +and made himself useful to the Royalist party in other ways. +However, when the Long Parliament met he was allowed to +retire to Alresford, where he remained until he was disturbed +by Sir William Waller’s army in 1642, when he joined the +king at Oxford. At Oxford Heylyn edited <i>Mercurius Aulicus</i>, +a vivacious but virulent news-sheet, which greatly annoyed +the Parliamentarians; and consequently his house at Alresford +was plundered and his library dispersed. Subsequently he led +for some years a wandering life of poverty, afterwards settling +at Winchester and then at Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire; and +he refers to his hardships in his pamphlet “Extraneus Vapulans,” +the cleverest of his controversial writings, which was written +in answer to Hamon l’Estrange. In 1653 he settled at Lacy’s +Court, Abingdon, where he resided undisturbed by the government +of the Commonwealth, and where he wrote several books +and pamphlets, both against those of his own communion, +like Thomas Fuller, whose opinions were less unyielding than +his own, and against the Presbyterians and others, like Richard +Baxter.</p> + +<p>His works, all of which are marred by political or theological +rancour, number over fifty. Among the most important +are: a legendary and learned <i>History of St. George of Cappadocia</i>, +written in 1631; <i>Cyprianus Anglicus, or the history of the Life +and Death of William Laud</i>, a defence of Laud and a valuable +authority for his life; <i>Ecclesia restaurata, or the History of the +Reformation of the Church of England</i> (1661; ed. J. C. Robertson, +Cambridge, 1849); <i>Ecclesia vindicata, or the Church of England +justified</i>; <i>Aërius redivivus, or History of the Presbyterians</i>; +and <i>Help to English History</i>, an edition of which, with additions +by P. Wright, was published in 1773. In 1636 he wrote a +<i>History of the Sabbath</i>, by order of Charles I. to answer the +Puritans; and in consequence of a journey through France in +1625 he wrote <i>A Survey of France</i>, a work, frequently reprinted, +which was termed by Southey “one of the liveliest books of +travel in its lighter parts, and one of the wisest and most replete +with information that was ever written by a young man.” Some +verses of merit also came from his active pen, and his poetical +memorial of William of Waynflete was published by the Caxton +Society in 1851.</p> + +<p>Heylyn was a diligent writer and investigator, a good ecclesiastical +lawyer, and had always learning at his command. His +principles, to which he was honestly attached, were defended +with ability; but his efforts to uphold the church passed unrecognized +at the Restoration, probably owing to his physical +infirmities. His sight had been very bad for several years; +yet he rejoiced that his “bad old eyes” had seen the king’s +return, and upon this event he preached before a large audience +in Westminster Abbey on the 29th of May 1661. He died on +the 8th of May 1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, +where he had been sub-dean for some years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lives of Heylyn were written by his son-in-law Dr John Barnard +or Bernard, and by George Vernon (1682). Bernard’s work was +reprinted with Robertson’s edition of Heylyn’s <i>History of the +Reformation</i> in 1849.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> [commonly abbreviated +to <span class="sc">Piet</span>] (1578-1629), Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven +in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein, who was engaged in the herring +fishery. The son went early to sea. In his youth he was taken +prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row in the galleys +during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an exchange +of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant +skipper with success. The then dangerous state of the seas +at all times, and the continuous war with Spain, gave him +ample opportunity to gain a reputation as a resolute fighting +man. Wills which he made before 1623 show that he had +been able to acquire considerable property. When the Dutch +West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotterdam +Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of +the fleet which took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos +in Brazil. Till 1628 he continued to serve the Company, both +on the coast of Brazil, and in the West Indies. In the month +of September of that year he made himself famous, gained +immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous +loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was +bringing the bullion from the American mines home to Spain. +The Spanish ships were outnumbered chiefly because the +convoy had become scattered by bad management and bad +seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting of the +four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king’s +share of the treasure was being carried, became separated +from the rest, and on being chased by the superior force of +Heyn endeavoured to take refuge at Matanzas in the island +of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion in the bush +before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de +Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision, +was overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before +the silver could be discharged. The total loss was estimated +by the Spaniards at four millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now +returned home, and bought himself a house at Delft with the +intention of retiring from the sea. In the following year, however, +he was chosen at a crisis to take command of the naval force of +the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of Holland, +in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers, +who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Netherlands. +In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action, +and they were severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live +to enjoy his victory. He was struck early in the battle by a +cannon shot on the shoulder and fell dead on the spot. His +memory has been preserved by his capture of the Treasure +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also +the traditional representative of the Dutch “sea dogs” of the +17th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See de Jonge, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen</i>; I. +Duro, <i>Armada espanola</i>, iv.; der Aa, <i>Biograph. Woordenboek der +Nederlanden</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1729-1812), German classical +scholar and archaeologist, was born on the 25th of September +1729, at Chemnitz in Saxony. His father was a poor weaver, +and the expenses of his early education were paid by one of his +godfathers. In 1748 he entered the university of Leipzig, +where he was frequently in want of the necessaries of life. His +distress had almost amounted to despair, when he procured +the situation of tutor in the family of a French merchant in +Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. After he +had completed his university course, he was for many years +in very straitened circumstances. An elegy written by him +in Latin on the death of a friend attracted the attention of +Count von Brühl, the prime minister, who expressed a desire +to see the author. Accordingly, in April 1752, Heyne journeyed +to Dresden, believing that his fortune was made. He was well +received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary, but nothing +came of it. Another period of want followed, and it was only +by persistent solicitation that Heyne was able to obtain the +post of under-clerk in the count’s library, with a salary of somewhat +less than twenty pounds sterling. He increased his scanty +pittance by translation; in addition to some French novels, +he rendered into German the <i>Chaereas and Callirrhoe</i> of Chariton, +the Greek romance writer. He published his first edition of +<i>Tibullus</i> in 1755, and in 1756 his <i>Epictetus</i>. In the latter year +the Seven Years’ War broke out, and Heyne was once more +in a state of destitution. In 1757 he was offered a tutorship +in the household of Frau Von Schönberg, where he met his future +wife. In January 1759 he accompanied his pupil to the university +of Wittenberg, from which he was driven in 1760 by the +Prussian cannon. The bombardment of Dresden (to which +city he had meanwhile returned) on the 18th of July 1760, +destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished +edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden +Library. In the summer of 1761, although still without any +fixed income, he married, and for some time he found it necessary +to devote himself to the duties of land-steward to the Baron +von Löben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762, however, he was +enabled to return to Dresden, where he was commissioned +by P. D. Lippert to prepare the Latin text of the third volume +of his <i>Dactyliotheca</i> (an account of a collection of gems). On +the death of Johann Matthias Gesner at Göttingen in 1761, +the vacant chair was refused first by Ernesti and then by Ruhnken, +who persuaded Münchhausen, the Hanoverian minister +and principal curator of the university, to bestow it on Heyne +(1763). His emoluments were gradually augmented, and his +growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from +other German governments, which he persistently refused. +After a long and useful career, he died on the 14th of July +1812. Unlike Gottfried Hermann, Heyne regarded the study +of grammar and language only as the means to an end, not as +the chief object of philology. But, although not a critical +scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment of +Greek mythology, and he gave an undoubted impulse to philological +studies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of Heyne’s numerous writings, the following may be mentioned. +Editions, with copious commentaries, of Tibullus (ed. E. C. Wunderlich, +1817), Virgil (ed. G. P. Wagner, 1830-1841), Pindar (3rd ed. +by G. H. Schäfer, 1817), Apollodorus, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (1803), +Homer, <i>Iliad</i> (1802); <i>Opuscula academica</i> (1785-1812), containing +more than a hundred academical dissertations, of which the most +valuable are those relating to the colonies of Greece and the antiquities +of Etruscan art and history. His <i>Antiquarische Aufsätze</i> +(1778-1779) is a valuable collection of essays connected with the +history of ancient art. His contributions to the <i>Göttingische gelehrte +Anzeigen</i> are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in number. +See biography by A. H. Heeren (1813) which forms the basis of the +interesting essay by Carlyle (<i>Misc. Essays</i>, ii.); H. Sauppe, <i>Göttinger +Professoren</i> (1872); C. Bursian in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, +xii.; J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> iii. 36-44.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1830-  ), German +novelist, dramatist and poet, was born at Berlin on the 15th +of March 1830, the son of the distinguished philologist Karl +Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797-1855). After attending the +Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849, to +Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in +1852 took his doctor’s degree. He had already given proof +of great literary ability in the production in 1850 of <i>Der Jungbrunnen, +Märchen eines fahrenden Schülers</i> and of the tragedy +<i>Francesca von Rimini</i>, when after a year’s stay in Italy, he was +summoned, early in 1854, by King Maximilian II. to Munich, +where he subsequently lived. Here he turned his attention to +novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four short stories +in one volume, one of which, at least, <i>L’Arrabbiata</i>, was a masterpiece +of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of similar +volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole constituting +such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as +seldom before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer. +Heyse works in the spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some +picturesque incident or situation, and chisels and polishes until +all the effect which it is capable of producing has been extracted +from it. The success of the story usually depends upon the +theme, for the artist’s skill is generally much the same, and the +situation usually leaves a deeper impression than the characters. +Heyse is also the author of several novels on a larger scale, +all of which have gained success and provoked abundant discussion. +The more important are <i>Kinder der Welt</i> (1873), +<i>Im Paradiese</i> (1875)—the one dealing with the religious and +social problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich—<i>Der +Roman der Stiftsdame</i> (1888), and <i>Merlin</i> (1892), a novel +directed against the modern realistic movement of which Heyse +had been the leading opponent in Germany. He has also been +a prolific dramatist, but his plays are deficient in theatrical +qualities and are rarely seen on the stage. Among the best +of them are <i>Die Sabinerinnen</i> (1859); <i>Hans Lange</i> (1866), +<i>Kolberg</i> (1868), <i>Die Weisheit Salomos</i> (1886), and <i>Maria von +Magdala</i> (1903). There are masterly translations by him of +Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (<i>Italienische Dichter +seit der Mitte des 18ten Jahrhundert</i>) (4 vols., 1889-1890).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Heyse’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> appeared in 29 vols. (1897-1899); +there is also a popular edition of his <i>Romane</i> (8 vols., 1902-1904) +and <i>Novellen</i> (10 vols., 1904-1906). See his autobiography, +<i>Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse</i> (1901); also O. Kraus, <i>Paul +Heyses Novellen und Romane</i> (1888); E. Petzet, <i>Paul Heyse als +Dramatiker</i> (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in <i>Studien und +Studienköpfe</i>, 1877), and G. Brandes (in <i>Moderne Geister</i>, 1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYSHAM,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division +of Lancashire, England, on the south shore of Morecambe Bay, +served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3381. Under +powers obtained from parliament in 1896, the Midland Railway +Company constructed, and opened in 1904, a harbour, enclosed +by breakwaters, for the development of traffic with Belfast +and other Irish ports, a daily passenger-service of the first +class being established to Belfast. The harbour has a depth at +low tide of 17 ft., and extensive accommodation for live-stock +and goods of all kinds is provided. Heysham is in some favour +as a watering-place. The church of St Peter is mainly Norman, +and has fragments of even earlier date. Ruins of a very ancient +oratory stand near it. This was dedicated to St Patrick, and +is traditionally said to have been erected as a place of prayer +for those at sea.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYWOOD, JOHN<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (b. 1497), English dramatist and epigrammatist, +is generally said to have been a native of North Mimms, +near St Albans, Hertfordshire, though Bale says he was born in +London. A letter from a John Heywood, who may fairly be +identified with him, is dated from Malines in 1575, when he +called himself an old man of seventy-eight, which would fix his +birth in 1497. He was a chorister of the Chapel Royal, and is +said to have been educated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke +College), Oxford. From 1521 onwards his name appears in the +king’s accounts as the recipient of an annuity of ten marks as +player of the virginals, and in 1538 he received forty shillings for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +“playing an interlude with his children” before the Princess +Mary. He is said to have owed his introduction to her to Sir +Thomas More, at whose seat at Gobions near St Albans he wrote +his Epigrams, according to Henry Peacham. More took a keen +interest in the drama, and is represented by tradition as stepping +on to the stage and taking an impromptu part in the dialogue. +William Rastell, the printer of four of Heywood’s plays, was the +son of More’s brother-in-law, John Rastell, who organized +dramatic representations, and possibly wrote plays himself. +Mr A. W. Pollard sees in Heywood’s firm adherence to Catholicism +and his free satire of legal and social abuses a reflection of the +ideas of More and his friends, which counts for much in his +dramatic development. His skill in music and his inexhaustible +wit made him a favourite both with Henry VIII. and Mary. +Under Edward VI. he was accused of denying the king’s +supremacy over the church, and had to make a public recantation +in 1554; but with the accession of Mary his prospects brightened. +He made a Latin speech to her in St Paul’s Churchyard at her +coronation, and wrote a poem to celebrate her marriage. Shortly +before her death she granted him the lease of a manor and lands +in Yorkshire. When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne he fled +to Malines, and is said to have returned in 1577. In 1587 he is +spoken of as “dead and gone” in Thomas Newton’s epilogue +to his works.</p> + +<p>John Heywood is important in the history of English drama +as the first writer to turn the abstract characters of the morality +plays into real persons. His interludes link the morality plays +to the modern drama, and were very popular in their day. They +represent ludicrous incidents of a homely kind in a style of the +broadest farce, and approximate to the French dramatic renderings +of the subjects of the <i>fabliaux</i>. The fun in them still +survives in spite of the long arguments between the characters +and what one of their editors calls his “humour of filth.” Heywood’s +name was actually attached to four interludes. <i>The +Playe called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a +palmer, a pardoner, a potycary, a pedler</i> (not dated) is a contest +in lying, easily won by Palmer, who said he had never known +a woman out of patience. <i>The Play of the Wether, a new and a +very mery interlude of all maner of Wethers</i> (printed 1533) describes +the chaotic results of Jupiter’s attempts to suit the weather to +the desires of a number of different people. <i>The Play of Love</i> +(printed 1533) is an extreme instance of the author’s love of +wire-drawn argument. It is a double dispute between “Loving +not Loved” and “Loved not Loving” as to which is the more +wretched, and between “Both Loved and Loving” and “Neither +Loving nor Loved” to decide which is the happier. The only +action in this piece is indicated by the stage direction marking +the entrance of “Neither loved nor loving,” who is to run about +the audience with a huge copper tank on his head full of lighted +squibs, and is to cry “Water, water! Fire, fire!” <i>The Dialogue +of Wit and Folly</i> is more of an academic dispute than a play. +But two pieces universally assigned to Heywood, although they +were printed by Rastell without any author’s name, combine +action with dialogue, and are much more dramatic. In <i>The +Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and +Neybour Pratte</i> (printed 1533, but probably written much +earlier) the Pardoner and the Friar both try to preach at the +same time, and, coming at last to blows, are separated by the +other two personages of the piece. The <i>Mery Play betwene +Johan Johan the Husbande, Tyb the Wyfe, and Syr Jhan the +Preest</i> (printed 1533) is the best constructed of all his pieces. +Tyb and Syr Jhan eat the “Pye” which is the central “property” +of the piece, while Johan Johan is made to chafe wax at the fire +to stop a hole in a pail. This incident occurs in a French <i>Farce +nouvelle très bonne et fort joyeuse de Pernet qui va au vin</i>. Heywood +has sometimes been credited with the authorship of the +dialogue of <i>Gentylnes and Nobylyte</i> printed by Rastell without +date, and Mr Pollard adduces some ground for attributing to +him the anonymous <i>New Enterlude called Thersytes</i> (played 1538). +Heywood’s other works are a collection of proverbs and epigrams, +the earliest extant edition of which is dated 1562; some ballads, +one of them being the “Willow Garland,” known to Desdemona; +and a long verse allegory of over 7000 lines entitled <i>The Spider +and the Flie</i> (1556). A contemporary writer in Holinshed’s +<i>Chronicle</i> said that neither its author nor any one else could +“reach unto the meaning thereof.” But the flies are generally +taken to represent the Roman Catholics and the spiders the +Protestants, while Queen Mary is represented by the housemaid +who with her broom (the sword) executes the commands of +her master (Christ) and her mistress (the church). Dr A. W. +Ward speaks of its “general lucidity and relative variety +of treatment.” Heywood says that he laid it aside for twenty +years before he finished it, and, whatever may be the final +interpretation put upon it, it contains a very energetic statement +of the social evils of the time, and especially of the deficiencies +of English law.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The proverbs and epigrams were reprinted by the Spenser Society +in 1867, the <i>Dialogue on Wit and Folly</i> by the Percy Society from +an MS. in the British Museum in 1846, with an account of Heywood +by F. W. Fairholt, and there are modern reprints of <i>Johan Johan</i> +(Chiswick Press, 1819), <i>The Foure PP</i>. (Dodsley’s <i>Old Plays</i>, 1825, +1874), and <i>The Pardoner and the Frere</i> (Dodsley’s <i>Old Plays</i>, 1874). +<i>The Spider and the Flie</i> was edited by A. W. Ward for the Spenser +Society in 1894. For notes and strictures on that edition see J. +Haber in <i>Litterärhistorische Forschungen</i>, vol. xv. (1900). See also +A. W. Pollard’s introduction to the reprint of the <i>Play of the Wether</i> +and <i>Johan Johan in Representative English Comedies</i> (1903), and +<i>The Dramatic Writings of John Heywood</i>, edited by John S. Farmer +for the Early English Drama Society (1905).</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Jasper Heywood</span> (1535-1598), who translated into +English three plays of Seneca, the <i>Troas</i> (1559), the <i>Thyestes</i> +(1560) and <i>Hercules Furens</i> (1561), was a fellow of Merton +College, Oxford, but was compelled to resign from that society +in 1558. In the same year he was elected a fellow of All Souls +College, but, refusing to conform to the changes in religion at +the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, he gave up his fellowship +and went to Rome, where he was received into the Society of +Jesus. For seventeen years he was professor of moral theology +and controversy in the Jesuit College at Dillingen, Bavaria. +In 1581 he was sent to England as superior of the Jesuit mission, +but his leniency in that position led to his recall. He was on +his way back to the Continent when a violent storm drove him +back to the English coast. He was arrested on the charge of +being a priest, but, although extraordinary efforts were made +to induce him to abjure his opinions, he remained firm. He +was condemned to perpetual exile on pain of death, and died +at Naples on the 9th of January 1598. His translations of +Seneca were supplemented by other plays contributed by +Alexander Neville, Thomas Nuce, John Studley and Thomas +Newton. Newton collected these translations in one volume, +<i>Seneca, his tenne tragedies translated into Englysh</i> (1581). The +importance of this work in the development of English drama +can hardly be over-estimated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr J. W. Cunliffe, <i>On the Influence of Seneca upon Elizabethan +Tragedy</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1650), English dramatist and +miscellaneous author, was a native of Lincolnshire, born about +1575, and said to have been educated at Cambridge and to have +become a fellow of Peterhouse. Heywood is mentioned by +Philip Henslowe as having written a book or play for the Lord +Admiral’s company of actors in October 1596; and in 1598 he +was regularly engaged as a player in the company, in which he +presumably had a share, as no wages are mentioned. He was +also a member of other companies, of Lord Southampton’s, +of the earl of Derby’s and of the earl of Worcester’s players, +afterwards known as the Queen’s Servants. In his preface to +the <i>English Traveller</i> (1633) he describes himself as having had +“an entire hand or at least a main finger in two hundred and +twenty plays.” Of this number, probably considerably increased +before the close of his dramatic career, only twenty-three +survive. He wrote for the stage, not for the press, and protested +against the printing of his works, which he said he had no time +to revise. He was, said Tieck, the “model of a light and rapid +talent,” and his plays, as might be expected from his rate of +production, bear little trace of artistic elaboration. Charles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +Lamb called him a “prose Shakespeare”; Professor Ward, one +of Heywood’s most sympathetic editors, points out that this +epigrammatic statement can only be accepted with reservations. +Heywood had a keen eye for dramatic situations and great +constructive skill, but his powers of characterization were not +on a par with his stagecraft. He delighted in what he called +“merry accidents,” that is, in coarse, broad farce; his fancy +and invention were inexhaustible. It was in the domestic drama +of sentiment that he won his most distinctive success. For this +he was especially fitted by his genuine tenderness and his freedom +from affectation, by the sweetness and gentleness for which +Lamb praised him. His masterpiece, <i>A Woman kilde with +kindnesse</i> (acted 1603; printed 1607), is a type of the <i>comédie +larmoyante</i>, and <i>The English Traveller</i> (1633) is a domestic +tragedy scarcely inferior to it in pathos and in the elevation of +its moral tone. His first play was probably <i>The Foure Prentises +of London: With the Conquest of Jerusalem</i> (printed 1615, but +acted some fifteen years earlier). This may have been intended +as a burlesque of the old romances, but it is more likely that it +was meant seriously to attract the apprentice public to whom +it was dedicated, and its popularity was no doubt aimed at in +Beaumont and Fletcher’s travesty of the City taste in drama +in their <i>Knight of the Burning Pestle</i>. The two parts of <i>King +Edward the Fourth</i> (printed 1600), and of <i>If you know not me, +you know no bodie; Or, The Troubles of Queene Elizabeth</i> (1605 +and 1606) are chronicle histories. His other comedies include: +<i>The Royall King, and the Loyall subject</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1600; printed +1637); the two parts of <i>The Fair Maid of the West; Or, A Girle +worth Gold</i> (two parts, printed 1631); <i>The Fayre Maid of the +Exchange</i> (printed anonymously 1607); <i>The Late Lancashire +Witches</i> (1634), written with Richard Brome, and prompted by +an actual trial in the preceding year; <i>A Pleasant Comedy, called +A Mayden-Head well lost</i> (1634); <i>A Challenge for Beautie</i> (1636); +<i>The Wise-Woman of Hogsdon</i> (printed 1638), the witchcraft +in this case being matter for comedy, not seriously treated as +in the Lancashire play; and <i>Fortune by Land and Sea</i> (printed +1655), with William Rowley. The five plays called respectively +<i>The Golden</i>, <i>The Silver</i>, <i>The Brazen</i> and <i>The Iron Age</i> (the last +in two parts), dated 1611, 1613, 1613, 1632, are series of classical +stories strung together with no particular connexion except that +“old Homer” introduces the performers of each act in turn. +<i>Loves Maistresse; Or, The Queens Masque</i> (printed 1636) is on +the story of Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius; and the +tragedy of the <i>Rape of Lucrece</i> (1608) is varied by a “merry +lord,” Valerius, who lightens the gloom of the situation by +singing comic songs. A series of pageants, most of them devised +for the City of London, or its guilds, by Heywood, were printed +in 1637. In vol. iv. of his <i>Collection of Old English Plays</i> (1885), +Mr A. H. Bullen printed for the first time a comedy by Heywood, +<i>The Captives, or The Lost Recovered</i> (licensed 1624), and in vol. ii. +of the same series, <i>Dicke of Devonshire</i>, which he tentatively +assigns to the same hand.</p> + +<p>Besides his dramatic works, twelve of which were reprinted +by the “Shakespeare Society,” and were published by Mr John +Pearson in a complete edition of six vols. with notes and illustrations +in 1874, he was the author of <i>Troia Britannica, or Great +Britain’s Troy</i> (1609), a poem in seventeen cantos “intermixed +with many pleasant poetical tales” and “concluding with an +universal chronicle from the creation until the present time”; +<i>An Apology for Actors, containing three brief treatises</i> (1612) +edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1841; <span class="grk" title="Gynaikeion">Γυναικεῖον</span> <i>or nine +books of various history concerning women</i> (1624); <i>England’s +Elizabeth, her Life and Troubles during her minority from the +Cradle to the Crown</i> (1631); <i>The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels</i> +(1635), a didactic poem in nine books; <i>Pleasant Dialogue, +and Dramas selected out of Lucian</i>, &c. (1637; ed. W. Bang, +Louvain, 1903); and <i>The Life of Merlin surnamed Ambrosius</i> +(1641).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. W. Ward, <i>History of English Dram. Lit.</i> ii. 550 seq. +(1899); the same author’s Introduction to <i>A woman killed with +kindness</i> (“Temple Dramatists,” 1897); J. A. Symonds in the +Introduction to <i>Thomas Heywood</i> in the “Mermaid” series (new +issue, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEYWOOD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Heywood parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 9 m. N. of Manchester +on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,458. +It is of modern growth and possesses several handsome churches, +chapels and public buildings. The Queen’s Park, purchased and +laid out at a cost of £11,000 with money which devolved to +Queen Victoria in right of her duchy and county palatine of +Lancaster, was opened in 1879. Heywood Hall in the neighbourhood +of the town was the residence of Peter Heywood, who +contributed to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. Heywood +owes its rise to the enterprise of the Peels, its first manufactures +having been introduced by the father of the first Sir Robert +Peel. It is an important seat of the cotton manufacture, and +there are power-loom factories, iron foundries, chemical works, +boiler-works and railway wagon works. Coal is worked extensively +in the neighbourhood. Heywood was incorporated in +1881, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and +18 councillors. Area, 3660 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEZEKIAH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (Heb. for “[my] strength is [of] Yah”), in the +Bible son of Ahaz, one of the greatest of the kings of Judah. +He flourished at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 7th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when Palestine passed through one of the most +eventful periods of its history. There is much that is uncertain +in his reign, and with the exception of the great crisis of 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +its chronology has not been unanimously fixed. Whether he +came to the throne before or after the fall of Samaria (722-721 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is disputed,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> nor is it clear what share Judah took in +the Assyrian conflicts down to 701.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Shortly before this date +the whole of western Asia was in a ferment; Sargon had died +and Sennacherib had come to the throne (in 705); vassal kings +plotted to recover their independence and Assyrian puppets +were removed by their opponents. Judah was in touch with a +general rising in S.W. Palestine, in which Ekron, Lachish, Ascalon +(Ashkelon) and other towns of the Philistines were supported +by the kings of Muṣri and Meluḥḥa.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Sennacherib completely +routed them at Eltekeh (a Danite city), and thence turned against +Hezekiah, who had been in league with Ekron and had imprisoned +its king Padi, an Assyrian vassal. In this invasion of Judah the +Assyrian claims entire success; 46 towns of Judah were captured, +200,150 men and many herds of cattle were carried off among +the spoil, and Jerusalem itself was closely invested. Hezekiah +was imprisoned “like a bird in a cage”<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a>—to quote Sennacherib, +and the Urbi (Arabian?) troops in Jerusalem laid down their +arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred of silver, precious +stones, couches and seats of ivory—“all kinds of valuable +treasure”,—the ladies of the court, male and female attendants +(perhaps “singers”) were carried away to Nineveh. Here the +Assyrian record ends somewhat abruptly, for, in the meanwhile, +Babylonia had again revolted (700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Sennacherib’s +presence was urgently needed nearer home.</p> + +<p>At what precise period the Babylonian Merodach (<i>i.e.</i> Marduk)-Baladan +sent his embassy to Hezekiah is disputed. Although +ostensibly to congratulate the king upon his recovery from a +sickness, it was really sent in the hope of enlisting his support, +and the excessive courtesy and complaisance with which it was +received suggest that it found a ready ally in Judah (2 Kings xx. +12 sqq.; Isa. xxxix.). Merodach-Baladan was overthrown +by Sargon in 710 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but succeeded in making a fresh revolt +some years later (704-703 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and opinion is much divided +whether his embassy was to secure the friendship of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +youthful Hezekiah at his succession or is to be associated with +the later widespread attempt to remove the Assyrian yoke.<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>The brief account of the Assyrian invasion, Hezekiah’s submission, +and the payment of tribute in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16, +supplements the Assyrian record by the statement that Sennacherib +besieged Lachish, a fact which is confirmed by a bas-relief +(now in the British Museum) depicting the king in the act +of besieging that town.<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> This thoroughly historical fragment +is followed by two narratives which tell how the king sent an +official from Lachish to demand the submission of Hezekiah +and conclude with the unexpected deliverance of Jerusalem. +Both these stories appear to belong to a biography of Isaiah, +and, like the similar biographies of Elijah and Elisha, are open +to the suspicion that historical facts have been subordinated to +idealize the work of the prophet. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings, Books of</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The narratives are (<i>a</i>) 2 Kings xviii. 13, 17-xix. 8; cf. Isa. xxxvi. +1-xxxvii. 8, and (<i>b</i>) xix. 9b-35; cp. Isa. xxxvii. 9-36 (2 Chron. xxxii. +9 sqq. is based on both), and Jerusalem’s deliverance is attributed +to a certain rumour (xix. 7), to the advance of Tirhakah, king of +Ethiopia (<i>v.</i> 9), and to a remarkable pestilence (<i>v.</i> 35) which finds +an echo in a famous story related, not without some confusion of +essential facts, by Herodotus (ii. 141; cf. Josephus <i>Antiq.</i> x. i. 5).<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> +It is difficult to decide whether xix. 9<i>a</i> belongs to the first or second of +these narratives; and whether the “rumour” refers to the approach +of Tirhakah, or rather to the serious troubles which had arisen in +Babylonia. It is equally difficult to determine whether Tirhakah +actually appeared on the scene in 701, and the precise application +of the term Muṣri (Mizraim) is much debated. Unless the two narratives +are duplicates of the same event, it may be urged that +Sennacherib’s attack upon Arabia (apparently about 689) involved +an invasion of Judah, by which time Egypt was in a position to be +of material assistance (cf. Isa. xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-3?). This theory of +a second campaign (first suggested by Sir Henry Rawlinson) has +been contested, although it is pointed out that Sennacherib at all +events did not invade Egypt, and that 2 Kings xix. 24 (Isa. xxxvii. +25) can only refer to his successor. The allusion to the murder of +Sennacherib (xix. 36 sq.)<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> points to the year 681, but it is uncertain +to which of the above narratives it belongs. On the whole, the +question must be left open, and with it both the problem of the +extension of the name Muṣri and Mizraim outside Egypt in the +Assyrian and Hebrew records of this period and the true historical +background of a number of the Isaianic prophecies. It is quite possible +that later events which belong to the time of the Egyptian supremacy +and the wars of Esarhaddon have been confused with the history +of Sennacherib’s invasion.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is not certain whether Hezekiah’s conflict with the Philistines +as far as Gaza or his preparations to secure for Jerusalem +a good water supply (xviii. 8, xx. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 30; Ecclus. +xlviii. 17 sq.)<a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> should precede or follow the events which have +been discussed. On the other hand, the reforms which the +compiler of the book has attributed to the early part of the +reign were doubtless much later (2 Kings xviii. 1-8). Not the +fall of Samaria, but the crisis of 701, is the earliest date that +could safely be chosen, and the extent of these reforms must +not be overestimated. They are related in terms that imply +an acquaintance with the great “Deuteronomic” movement +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deuteronomy</a></span>), and are magnified further with characteristic +detail by the chronicler (2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi.). The most +remarkable was the destruction of a brazen serpent, the cult +of which was traditionally traced back to the time of Moses +(Num. xxi. 9).<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> This persistence of serpent-cult, and the +idolatry (necromancy, tree-worship) which the contemporary +prophets denounce, do not support the view that the +apparently radical reforms of Hezekiah were extensive or +permanent, and Jer. xxvi. 17-19 (which suggests that Micah +had a greater influence than Isaiah) throws another light upon +the conditions during his reign. Hezekiah was succeeded by +his son <span class="sc">Manasseh</span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further W. R. Smith, <i>Prophets</i>, 359-364, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>. +According to <span class="sc">Prov</span>. xxv. 1, Hezekiah was a patron of +literature (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Proverbs</a></span>). The hymn which is ascribed to the king +(Isa. xxxviii. 9-20, wanting in 2 Kings) is of post-exilic origin (see +Cheyne, <i>Introd. to Isaiah</i>, 222 sq.), but is further proof of the manner +in which the Judaean king was idealized in subsequent ages, partly, +perhaps, in the belief that the deliverance of Jerusalem was the +reward for his piety. For special discussions, see Stade, <i>Zeits. d. +alttest. Wissenschaft</i>, 1886, pp. 173 sqq.; Winckler, <i>Alttest. Untersuch</i>., +26 sqq.; Schrader, <i>Cuneiform Inscr. and Old Test</i>. (on +2 Kings, <i>l.c</i>.); Driver, <i>Isaiah, his Life and Times</i>, pp. 43-83; A. +Jeremias, <i>Alte Test</i>. 304-310; Nagel, <i>Zug d. Sanherib gegen Jerus</i>. +(Leipzig, 1903, conservative); and especially Prášek, Sanherib’s +“Feldzüge gegen Juda” (<i>Mitteil. d. Vorderasiat. Gesell</i>., 1903, pp. +113-158), K. Fullerton, <i>Bibliotheca sacra</i>, 1906, pp. 577-634, A. +Alt, <i>Israel u. Ägypten</i> (Leipzig, 1909); also the bibliography to +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaiah</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel,[2] 415 sqq.; O. C. Whitehouse, +<i>Isaiah</i>, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, <i>Kings</i>, p. 43 seq.; T. K. +Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 2058, n. 1, and references.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza +and Muṣri) at Ḳarḳar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine); +715, a rising of Muṣri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture +of Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter +occasion is not improbable.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Meluḥḥa is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia; the identification +of Muṣri is uncertain, see below.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal +(Byblus), in the 15th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; <i>Tell-el-Amarna Letters</i> (ed. +Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &c. Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a +different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib’s record, see Wilke, +<i>Jesaja u. Assur</i> (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, <i>Alttest. Unt.</i> +139 sqq., Burney, <i>Kings</i>, 350 sq.; Driver; Küchler, &c.; for the +later, Whitehouse, <i>Isaiah</i>, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader, Wellhausen, +W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M’Curdy, Paton, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to +the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii. +12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18, +xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii. 9-11. +But see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaiah (Book)</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth’s <i>Authority and +Archaeology</i>, p. 167, n. 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The house of <i>Nisroch</i> should probably be that of the god <i>Nusku</i>; +see also Driver in Hogarth, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 109; Winckler, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 84.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit +of Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerusalem</a></span>). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool +was already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see <i>Pal. +Explor. Fund, Quart. Stat.</i> (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. <i>nāhāsh</i>, “serpent”) +is obscure: see the commentaries.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIATUS<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity, +whether in speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy +the term is used for an opening or foramen, as the <i>hiatus Fallopii</i>, +a foramen of the temporal bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when +a step or link in reasoning is wanting; and in grammar it is the +pause made for the sake of euphony in pronouncing two successive +vowels, which are not separated by a consonant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIAWATHA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (“he makes rivers”), a legendary chief (<i>c</i>. 1450) +of the Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The formation +of the League of Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is +attributed to him by Indian tradition. In his miraculous +character Hiawatha is the incarnation of human progress and +civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation, medicine and +the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature which +war against man.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. N. B. Hewitt, in <i>Amer. Anthrop</i>. for April 1892.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIBBING<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., +75 m. N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census) +6566, of whom 3537 were foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes, +498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and 314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832. +Hibbing is served by the Great Northern and the Duluth, +Missabe & Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the great +Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines +were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and +farming are also important industries. The village owns and +operates the water-works and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing +was settled in 1892 and was incorporated in 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIBERNACULUM<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a +term for a winter bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters +for plants; in zoology, the winter bud of a polyzoan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIBERNATION<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (winter sleep), the dormant condition in +which certain animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestivation +(summer sleep) is the similar condition in which other +species pass periods of heat or drought in warm latitudes. The +origins of these kindred phenomena are probably to be sought +in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply or of other +factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of cold +in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other. +They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are +enabled to live through unfavourable climatic conditions which +would end fatally in starvation or desiccation were the animals +to maintain their normal state of activity.</p> + +<p>I. <i>The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestivation</i>.—The +physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mammalia, +has been worked out in detail by several observers in +the case of some European species, notably bats, hedgehogs, +dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of aestivation nothing +definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems probable, +however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the +physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are +to all intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span> +for example, in the European hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>) +is not distinguished by external signs from the state of aestivation +of the allied Mascarene genus, the tenrec (<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>). +The lethargy in both cases appears to be directly due to +fall in the temperature of the organisms; and the fall in +temperature proceeds <i>pari passu</i> with the slowing down and +weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the circulation +of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hibernation +and aestivation is shown not only in their physiological +accompaniments but also in the species of animals which become +seasonally dormant. Birds neither hibernate nor aestivate. +The tenrec (<i>Centetes</i>) of Madagascar, which aestivates, closely +resembles the hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus</i>) in habits and belongs to +the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and +batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep +the winter through in cold countries; and some species of +these groups habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud +in tropical latitudes where drought is of periodical occurrence. +Terrestrial molluscs lie dormant in the winter in cold and +temperate latitudes and their tropical allies aestivate in districts +where conditions enforce the habit. Some fresh-water molluscs +bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds when the +surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way +when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season +in the tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries +insects and arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters +during the cold weather, and in the tropics they similarly disappear +during times of drought.</p> + +<p><i>Predisposing Causes of Hibernation.</i>—The likeness between +hibernation and aestivation and the coincidence of the one +with cold and of the other with heat arrest the conclusion that +the temperature of the surrounding medium, whether atmospheric +or aquatic, is the prime, much less the sole, cause of either. +The effect of extreme cold is to rouse the hibernating animal +from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter brings about +a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears to +be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues +is followed by death because the gases are expelled from the +fluids as bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals. +Some cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to 0° C. +Fish have been resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice, +and frogs have been known to recover when ice has been formed +in the blood and in the lymph of the peritoneal cavity (Landois).</p> + +<p>For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take precautions +against exposure to extreme cold. They either bury +themselves in the soil or under the snow or seek the shelter of +hollow trees or of caves, not infrequently congregating in the +same spot so that the temperature is kept up by corporeal +contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be suspended +unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon +winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not +hibernate unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during +the summer and autumn to fatten them for their winter fast; +and hedgehogs and dormice in captivity have been known to +remain active in the cold until warm sleeping-quarters were +insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their cages. Finally +the wood-chucks (<i>Arctomys monax</i>) in the Adirondacks retire +to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox, +when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the +vernal equinox before the snows of winter have vanished from +the ground. These and other facts justify Marshall Hall’s +conclusion that cold is merely a predisposing cause of hibernation +in the sense that it is a predisposing cause of ordinary sleep. +It has also been shown that the state of hibernation cannot be +forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to artificial cold +even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper season +they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37° +to 77° Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters in +the autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than +that of preceding days during which they retain their activity.</p> + +<p>Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer +sleep depend to a considerable extent upon conditions of existence +other than those of temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign +of a living thing on his arrival at Bahia Blanca, Argentina, +on the 7th of Sept., although by digging several insects, large +spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid state. During +the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean temperature +was 51°, the thermometer seldom rising above 55° at +mid-day. But during the succeeding days when the mean +temperature was 58° and that of the middle of the day between +60° and 70° both insect and reptilian life was in a state of activity. +Nevertheless at Montevideo, lying only four degrees further +north, between the 26th of July and the 19th of August when the +mean temperature was 58.4° and the mean highest temperature +of mid-day 65.5° almost every beetle, several genera of spiders, +land molluscs, toads and lizards were all lying dormant beneath +stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo remained dormant +at a temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from its +torpidity. Darwin unfortunately does not record whether the +species observed were identical in the two localities.</p> + +<p>The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation +is approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium +or at most a degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature +of the chosen hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as +freezing point, life is endangered at least in the case of mammals.</p> + +<p>In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature +is normally only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two +rising and falling together. But, setting aside the young, +especially of those species in which the offspring are born or +hatched at a comparatively early stage of development, the +majority of warm-blooded animals are able to maintain a high +and approximately level temperature irrespective of decline +in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty +of temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or +weakened in most if not in all hibernating mammals both in +their normal nocturnal or diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep. +In the case of European bats it has been shown that the ordinary +day sleep in summer differs only in the matter of duration from +the prolonged slumber of the same animals in winter. The +temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration +practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven +minutes has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate +temperatures ranging from 45° to 50° F., dormice (<i>Muscardinus +avellanarius</i>) and hedgehogs (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>) alternately +wake to feed and sink into slumber. Dormice awake once in +every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the hedgehogs may last +for two or three days. The temperature of the hedgehog, when +awake and active, rises to about 87° F., that of the dormouse +to 92° or 94° F.; but during sleep the temperature of both species +falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all the +phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these +animals during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods +of wakeful activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term +“diurnation” has been proposed, because it has only been +observed in nocturnal animals, lies phenomenally midway +between the normal sleep of non-hibernating mammals and the +dormant condition in winter of hibernating species. The +stimulus of hunger appears to be the prime cause of its periodic +cessation. Since then the faculty of temperature adjustment +is in abeyance during the ordinary diurnal summer sleep in +hibernating mammals, which in this physiological particular +resemble reptiles, it seems probable that hibernation can only +be practised by those species in which the power to maintain, +when sleeping, a permanent average high temperature has been +lost or perhaps never acquired. That there is no broad line +of demarcation between the ordinary sleep of these hibernating +mammals in which the temperature is known to drop considerably +and that of non-hibernating species is indicated by the fact that +the temperature of human beings and possibly of all non-hibernating +species falls to a certain, though to a limited, extent +in ordinary sleep.</p> + +<p>The relation between the internal body-temperature and the +respiratory movements has been worked out in hibernating +dormice, hedgehogs, marmots and bats. When the temperature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +is below 12° C., the torpid animal exhibits long periods of apnoea +of several minutes’ duration and interrupted by a few respirations. +With the temperature rising above 13° C., the periods of apnoea +in the still inactive animal become shorter, the respiration +suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot’s type), or gradually +waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes’ type). When the temperature +is at about 16° C., the periods of apnoea in the gradually +awaking animal are very short and infrequent. When the +temperature is about 20° and rising apace, respiration becomes +continuous and rapid and the animal is awake. These stages +have been especially recorded in the case of dormice. In the +last stage the respiration of hedgehogs and marmots is somewhat +different, there being a series of rapid respirations, often followed +by a single deep sighing respiration.</p> + +<p><i>Respiration</i> appears to be totally suspended in animals in a +complete state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may +however, be readily re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and +to this fact may perhaps be attributed the belief that breathing +does not actually cease. If a hibernating hedgehog be lightly +touched it draws a deep breath, and breathing is maintained for a +longer or shorter time before again ceasing; but if at the same +time the temperature of the atmosphere be raised, respiration +becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by activity +(Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally suspended +is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and +bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon +dioxide, a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals +in a state of normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which +may be drowned in about three minutes when awake and active, +has been removed from water uninjured when in deep winter +sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes’ submergence. A +hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived +sixteen minutes’ immersion. Further proof of the suspension +of respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat +which while in a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was +kept in a pneumatometer for ten hours without appreciably +affecting the percentage of oxygen in the air. The same animal, +when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in the space of +one hour from the instrument.</p> + +<p>As in the case of respiration, <i>alimentation</i> and <i>excretion</i> are +suspended during hibernation.</p> + +<p>The <i>circulation of the blood</i>, on the other hand, continues without +interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact +may be observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats +in a state of winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog +lethargic from hibernation, it was experimentally shown that +when the spinal cord was severed behind the occipital foramen, +the brain removed and the entire spinal cord gently destroyed, +the heart continued to beat strongly and regularly for several +hours, the contraction of the auricles and ventricles being quite +perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse of ten hours. +After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed its +activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve +hours both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the +ventricles remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles +gave no response. On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a +hedgehog in a normal state of activity was severed at the occiput, +the left ventricle ceased to beat almost at once, and the left +auricle in less than fifteen minutes; the right auricle was the +next to cease, whereas the right ventricle continued its contraction +for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots have yielded +very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in a +state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The +pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16 +to 18 per minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent, +until at the end of the third hour only 3 were recorded in the +same length of time. Excised pieces of voluntary muscular +tissue contracted vigorously three hours after death under +electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did they cease +to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same +way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the +number of pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen +minutes, to 8 at the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing +altogether at the end of fifty minutes. Similarly the response of +the muscles to galvanic shock failed at a correspondingly rapid +rate. It is evident, therefore, that during hibernation the +irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked degree, and +that the irritability of the left side of the organ is scarcely less +pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction in the +rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain hibernating +mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that +the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens +with a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52° F. the +number was 22 in the common garden snail (<i>Helix hortensis</i>), +and 21 in the cellar slug (<i>Hyalinia cellaria</i>). At a temperature +of 30° F. the pulsation fell to 4 in the former and to 3 in the +latter animal.</p> + +<p>The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation, +and the principal physiological phenomena connected with them, +may be briefly summarized as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the +tissues is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the +case of mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes +in definite parts of the body, during the weeks of activity immediately +preceding the period of winter sleep.</p> + +<p>2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and +hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or +nocturnal sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their prolonged +and lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of +degree, differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration.</p> + +<p>3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (<i>a</i>) +Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and excretion; +(<i>b</i>) lowering of the body temperature to that of the surrounding +medium or to within a few degrees of it; (<i>c</i>) total or almost total +cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive immersion +for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases, which +prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active; +(<i>d</i>) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially of +those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that +organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (<i>e</i>) a +slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the +cardio-pneumatic +movement.</p> + +<p>4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, +devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the phenomenon +of hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence wherever +the conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought +are inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the contrary, +the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned; +aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation +is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in +these the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily +at all events in abeyance.</p> +</div> + +<p>II. <i>The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation.</i>—Owing to the +extreme difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in +their natural haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost impossible +to get accurate knowledge of the details of this state of +existence. In a general way it is known, or assumed from their +disappearance, that certain species retire to winter quarters in +particular districts, but on such important points as whether the +winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light or profound, +assured information is for the most part not forthcoming. This +is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North +America, which have been objects of study for many years. It +is still more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited +and rarely visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested +in such questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration +of this truth. It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep +of these animals in north and temperate Europe was complete +and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for example, remarked +that “perhaps the bat may be the only animal which sleeps +profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food.” It +was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other +winged insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats +which feed upon them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees, +caves, sheds or other places likely to afford them sufficient +shelter. Here they hang suspended, solitary or in companies +according to the species. But a mild spell of weather in mid-winter +will sometimes entice a few to take wing while it lasts, +although they never appear in any numbers until crepuscular and +nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats +(<i>Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum</i> and <i>R. hipposiderus</i>), that during +the early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hibernation, +in the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that +even later in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted, +especially when the temperature of the air rises above 46° F., +and that during their wakeful intervals they crawl about and feed +apparently upon the insects which live throughout the year in the +caves. This is also true of the long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>), +and probably of other species of this group. At Mussoorie in the +Himalayas, and in other parts of northern India, insectivorous +bats, such as <i>Rhinolophus luctus</i> and <i>Rh. affinis</i>, pass the winter +in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely seen abroad during the cold +season. The fruit-eating bats, on the contrary (<i>Pteropidae</i>), +which are more southern in their distribution and are restricted +in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower slopes of the +mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times of the +year (Blanford).</p> + +<p>Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles +and shrews do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction +between two groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends +upon the difference in their habitats and in those of the creatures +they live upon. By tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer, +moles are still able to find worms and various insects buried +in the earth beyond the reach of frost; and shrews hunt out +spiders, centipedes and insects which in their larval, pupal or +sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in holes and +crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or +under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially +active life of the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular +fact that the common hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>)—the +only member of this order besides genera referable to the moles +(<i>Talpidae</i>) and shrews (<i>Soricidae</i>) that inhabits temperate and +north-temperate latitudes in Europe and Asia—passes the +winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in profundity by that +of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly the +explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the +bionomial differences between the three animals. The subterranean +feeding habits of the mole render hibernation unnecessary +on his part. Therefore the shrew and the hedgehog, +both surface feeders for the most part, need only be considered +in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst the +smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable +size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult +to find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike. +Hence in winter when insects are scarce and demand active +and diligent search, it is quite intelligible that the shrews, +in virtue of their smallness and rapidity of movement, are able +to procure sufficient food for their needs; whereas the hedgehogs, +requiring a far larger quantity and handicapped by lack of +activity, would probably starve under the same conditions. +Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedgehog +(<i>Erinaceus megalotis</i>) hibernates in Afghanistan from +November till February. The tenrec (<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>), a +large insectivore from Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest +weeks of the year; and specimens exhibited in the Zoological +Gardens in London preserved the habit although +kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with +food.</p> + +<p>Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha +(hares, rabbits and picas) are known to hibernate, although +some of the species, like the mountain hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>), +extend far to the north in the palaearctic region, and the picas +(<i>Ochotona</i>) live at high altitudes in the Himalayas and Central +Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive, and where the snow +lies deep for many months. It is probable that the picas live +in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores +of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The +Hystrico-morpha also are non-hibernators. It is true that the +common porcupine (<i>Hystrix cristata</i>) of south Europe and +north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the statement cannot, +however, be accepted without confirmation, because the cold is +seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens +exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active +throughout the year, although kept in enclosures without +artificial heat of any kind. Even the most northerly representative +of this group, the Canadian porcupine (<i>Erethizon +dorsatus</i>), which inhabits forest-covered tracts in the United +States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter. +Some members of this group, like capybaras (<i>Hydrochaerus +capybara</i>) and coypus (<i>Myocastors coypus</i>) which live in tropical +America, are unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries, +and live in the open all the year round in parks and zoological +gardens in England. Several of the genera of Myomorpha +contain species inhabiting the northern hemisphere, which +habitually hibernate. The three European genera of dormice +(<i>Myoxidae</i>), namely <i>Muscardinus</i>, <i>Eliomys</i> and <i>Glis</i>, sleep soundly +practically throughout the winter; and examples of the South +African genus <i>Graphiurus</i> practise the same habit when imported +to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from +their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated +during the autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed +for shelter during the winter. According to the weather, the +sleep lasts from about five to seven months. In the family +<i>Muridae</i>, the true mice and rats (<i>Murinae</i>) and the voles +and lemmings (<i>Arvicolinae</i>) seem to remain active through the +winter, although some species, like the lemmings, range far to +the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice +(<i>Hesperomys</i>) of North America, belonging to the <i>Cricetinae</i>, +spend the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food +is laid up for consumption in the early spring. The Canadian +jumping mouse (<i>Zapus hudsonianus</i>), one of the Jaculidae, +also hibernates, although the sleep is frequently interrupted +by milder days. Some of the most northerly species of jerboas +(Jaculidae), namely <i>Alactaga decumana</i> of the Kirghiz Steppes +and <i>A. indica</i> of Afghanistan, sleep from September or October +till April; and the Egyptian species (<i>Jaculus jaculus</i>) and the +Cape jumping hare (<i>Pedetes caffer</i>), one of the Hystrico-morpha, +remain in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous +to winter sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains +many hibernating species. None of the true squirrels, however, +appear to sleep throughout the winter. Even the red squirrel +(<i>Sciurus hudsonianus</i>) of North America retains its activity +in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that prevail. The same is +true of its European ally <i>Sc. vulgaris</i>. The North American +grey squirrel (<i>Sc. cinereus</i>), although more southerly in its +distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hibernates +partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological +Gardens in London disappear for a day or two when the cold +is exceptionally keen, but for the most part they may be seen +abroad throughout the season. On the other hand, ground +squirrels like the chipmunks (<i>Tamias</i>) and the susliks or gophers +(<i>Spermophilus</i>) of North America and Central Asia, at all events +in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from the +late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where +they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of +warmer weather in the winter which may rouse them from their +slumbers. The North American flying squirrel (<i>Sciuropterus +volucella</i>) and its ally <i>Pteromys inornatus</i> are believed to hibernate +in hollow trees. All the true marmots (<i>Arctomys</i>), a genus of +which the species live at tolerably high altitudes in Central +Europe, Asia and North America, appear to spend the winter +in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their burrows. They +apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a quantity of +fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in +the case of the woodchuck (<i>A. monax</i>) of the Adirondacks, +retire to winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset +of the winter cold. The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (<i>Cynomys +ludovicianus</i>) of North America, which live in the plains, do +not hibernate to the same extent as the true marmots, although +they appear to remain in their burrows during the coldest +portions of the winter. Beavers (<i>Castor</i>), although formerly at +all events extending in North America from the tropic of Cancer +up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +is deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able +to feed on aquatic plants beneath the ice.</p> + +<p>Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be +practised, with one possible exception, only by species belonging +to the group Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in +Europe and Asia, as well as in the Himalayas, brown bears +(<i>Ursus arctos</i>) hibernate, so also does the North American +grizzly bear (<i>U. horribilis</i>), at least in the more northern districts +of its range. The smaller black bear of the Himalayas (<i>U. +tibetanus</i>) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor during the +winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when +occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the +American black bear (<i>U. americanus</i>) the female seeks winter +quarters comparatively early in the season in preparation for the +birth of her progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the +males remain active so long as plenty of food is to be found. In +the case of all bears, except the Polar bear (<i>U. maritimus</i>), the +site chosen as the hibernaculum is either a cave or hole or some +sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or the roots of large trees, +more or less overgrown with brushwood which holds the snow +until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where the sleeping +animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the +intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called “tappen” and +composed principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated +until the spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the +subject of the hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during +the winter from particular spots in the Arctic regions where icebound +ships have spent the winter, and the occasional discovery +of specimens buried beneath the snow, have led to the belief that +these animals habitually retire to winter quarters through the +cold sunless months of the year. This may possibly be the true +explanation at least for certain districts. But it has been alleged +that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen throughout +the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury themselves +in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without +feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the +following year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from +the neighbourhood of icebound ships may be explained on the +supposition that the adult females alone hibernate for breeding +purposes, while the full-grown males and half-grown specimens of +both sexes migrate in the winter to the edges of the ice-floes and +to coast lines, where the water is open. Before retiring to winter +quarters the pregnant females store up sufficient quantity of fat in +their tissues not only to sustain themselves but also to supply milk +for their cubs. In the Adirondack region and probably in other +districts of the same or more northern latitudes in North America, +raccoons (<i>Procyon lotor</i>) retire in the winter to some sheltered +place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass the severest part of +the season in sleep, emerging in February or March when the +snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks +(<i>Mephitis mephitica</i>), a member of the weasel family, also seek +shelter during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam +believes that the hibernation of this animal is determined by cold, +and not by failure of food-supply, for he observes that skunks +may frequently be seen in numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a +time of the year when they feed almost entirely upon mice and +shrews which do not hibernate even when the thermometer +registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North America +the badger (<i>Taxidea americana</i>) is said to hibernate from October +till April; but the duration of the period probably depends, as in +the case of its European ally (<i>Meles meles</i>), upon the length and +severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the +winter repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a +break in the weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth +in search of food. This interrupted hibernation takes place at +least in England and even in Scandinavia; but in countries +where frost is continuous throughout the winter it is probable +that the badger’s sleep is unbroken.</p> + +<p>The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the +Carnivora is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the +raccoon dog (<i>Nyctereutes procyonoides</i>) of Japan and north-eastern +Asia, which is said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amurland +if food has been sufficiently plentiful in late summer and +autumn to enable the animal to lay on enough fat to resist the +cold and sustain a long period of fast. If, however, food has been +scarce, this dog is compelled to remain active all through the +winter. The Arctic fox (<i>Vulpes lagopus</i>), although considerably +more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does not hibernate. +It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in winter, +but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate +southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in +other districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings +or hares, for food during the winter months. In Australia the +porcupine ant-eater (<i>Echidna aculeata</i>) hibernates; and the +habit is retained by specimens imported to Europe if exposed to +the cold in outdoor cages.</p> + +<p>Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case +of man. For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia, +where food is scarce throughout the year and in danger of exhaustion +during the winter, the peasants are said to resort to a +practice closely akin to hibernation, spending at least one-half of +the cold weather in sleep. From time immemorial it has been the +custom when the first snows fall for families to shut themselves +up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse into slumber, +each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once a day +only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little +dry bread.</p> + +<p>Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the +surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in +a state of lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into +northern latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue +of their inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level +than that of the atmosphere. The common land tortoise (<i>Testudo +graeca</i>) of South Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter +in its natural habitat, and even when imported to England is able, +in some cases at least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by +practising the same habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded. +In Pennsylvania the box-tortoise (<i>Cistudo carolina</i>) passes the +winter in a burrow; and <i>Testudo elegans</i>, which inhabits dry hilly +districts in north India, takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or +bushes as the cold weather approaches and remains in a semi-lethargic +state until the return of the warmth. The European +pond tortoise (<i>Emys orbicularis</i>) also hibernates buried in the soil; +and the North American salt-water terrapin (<i>Malacoclemmys +concentrica</i>), abundant in the salt-marshes round Charleston, +S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold +months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises +protect themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into +the soil which afterwards becomes indurated. When drought +sets in with the dry season and the tanks become exhausted and +food unobtainable, crocodiles and alligators sometimes wander +across country in search of water, but more commonly bury +themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence until +the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large +snakes, anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the +Indians in South America buried in the same lethargic state. +Snakes and lizards in all countries where there is any considerable +seasonal variation in temperature become dormant or semi-dormant +during the colder months.</p> + +<p>Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other +countries situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury themselves +in the mud at the bottom of tanks and ponds, often +congregating in numbers in the same spot. Toads retire to +burrows or other secluded places on the land, and newts either +bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up +beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to +Mr G. A. Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not +pass the winter in profound torpor, but merely in a state of +sluggish quiescence. In tropical countries, where wet and dry +seasons alternate, frogs which, like the rest of the batrachians, +are for the most part intolerant of great heat, especially when +accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury themselves deep +in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from their +retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span></p> + +<p>This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud +forming the bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised +by several species of tropical freshwater fishes, belonging principally +to the family <i>Siluridae</i>. The members of this group are +able to exist and thrive in moist mud, and can even support +life for a comparatively long time out of water altogether. The +instinct is exhibited by species occurring both in the eastern and +western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the case of +species of <i>Callicthys</i> and <i>Loricaria</i> in Guiana and by <i>Clarias +lazera</i> in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to Tennent, +in a species of climbing perch (<i>Anabas oligolepis</i>) found in Ceylon +and belonging to the family <i>Anabantidae</i>, all the species of +which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water, +and may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of +fresh pools. The habit is also common to some species of mud +fishes of the order Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays +the part of lungs. <i>Protopterus</i>, from tropical Africa, for instance, +burrows into the mud and remains for nearly half the year +coiled up at the bottom in a slightly enlarged chamber. The +walls of this are lined with a layer of slime secreted from the +fish’s skin, and the orifice is closed with a lid the centre of which +is perforated and forms an inturned tube by means of which +air is conducted to the fish’s mouth. The aestivating burrow +of the Brazilian mudfish (<i>Lepidosiren</i>) is similar, except that +the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian +mudfish (<i>Ceratodus</i>) is not known to hibernate or aestivate.</p> + +<p>In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegetation +terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or +fallen tree trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of +dead leaves, in moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent +until the coming of spring. Amongst pulmonate gastropods, +most species of snails (<i>Helix</i>, <i>Clausilia</i>) close the mouth of the +shell at this period with a membranous or calcified plate, the +epiphragm. Slugs (<i>Limax</i>, <i>Arion</i>), on the contrary, lie buried +in the earth encysted in a coating of slime. Similarly in the +tropics members of this group, such as <i>Achatina</i> in tropical +Africa and <i>Orthalicus</i> in Brazil, aestivate during the dry season, +the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and +examples of two species of <i>Achatina</i> from east and west Africa +exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remained concealed +in their shells during the winter, although kept in an +artificially warmed house, and resumed their activity in the +summer.</p> + +<p>Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such +forms as <i>Limnaea</i> and <i>Planorbis</i> having been frequently seen +crawling about beneath the ice of frozen ponds. During periods +of drought in England, however, they commonly bury themselves +in the mud, a habit which is also practised during the +dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate Gastropods +belonging to the genera <i>Ampullaria</i>, <i>Melania</i> and others, which +lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy. +Freshwater Pelecypoda (<i>Anodonta</i>, <i>Unio</i>) spend the European +winter buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams.</p> + +<p>In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects +pass the winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal +or imaginal (reproductive) stages. In some the state of hibernation +is complete in the sense that although the insects may be +roused from their lethargy to the extent of movement by spells +of warm weather, they do not leave their hibernacula to feed; +in others it is incomplete in the sense that the insects emerge +to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of <i>Euprepia fuliginosa</i>, +or to take the wing as in the case of the midge <i>Trichocera hiemalis</i>. +Others again, like <i>Podura nivalis</i> and <i>Boreus hiemalis</i>, never +appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects which +hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more +than one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (<i>Cossus +ligniperda</i>), cockchafers (<i>Melolontha</i>), stagbeetles (<i>Lucanus</i>) +and dragon-flies (<i>Libellula</i>), &c.; and to some species which, +although they only live a few months in this immature state, +are hatched in the autumn or summer and only reach the final +stage of growth in the following spring, like the butterflies of +the genus <i>Argynnis</i> (<i>paphia</i>, <i>aglaia</i>, &c.) in England. As an +instance of species which survive the winter in the pupal or +chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of +Europe (<i>Papilio machaon</i>); while to the category of species +which hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera +(Rhyncophora, <i>Coccinellidae</i>), &c., as well as some Hemiptera, +Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera (<i>Vanessa io</i>, <i>urticae</i>, +&c.). In the case of the social Hymenoptera it is only the +fertilized queen wasp out of the nest that survives the frost +of winter, all the workers dying with the onset of cold in the +autumn; the common hive bees (<i>Apis mellifica</i>), although they +retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity +of the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the +temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively +at work underground unless the temperature falls several +degrees below zero.</p> + +<p>Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate +latitudes. Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the +family <i>Ctenizidae</i> and some species of <i>Lycosidae</i> seal the doors +of their burrows with silk or close up the orifice with a sheet +of that material. Other non-burrowing species, like some species +of <i>Clubionidae</i> and <i>Drassidae</i>, lie up in silken cases attached +to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose bark, or buried +under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls. Other +species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state +protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother +for her eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the “garden +spider” (<i>Aranea diadema</i>). Commonly, however, when the +cocoons are later in the making, or the cold weather sets in early, +the eggs of this and of allied species do not hatch until the spring; +but in either case the young emerge in the warm weather, become +adult during the summer and die in the autumn after pairing +and oviposition. Some members of this family, nevertheless, +like <i>Zilla x-notata</i>, which live in the corners of windows, or in +outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree of protection +from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage +and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and +tempted by the warmth to spin new webs. Typical members +of the Opiliones or harvest spiders, belonging to the family +<i>Phalangiidae</i>, do not hibernate in temperate and more northern +latitudes in Europe and America, but perish in the autumn, +leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the succeeding +spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature +individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging +to the family <i>Trogulidae</i>, spend the winter in a dormant state +under stones or buried in the soil. False scorpions (<i>Pseudo-scorpiones</i>) +also hibernate in temperate latitudes, passing the +cold months, like many spiders, enclosed in silken cases attached +to the underside of stones or loosened pieces of bark. Centipedes +and millipedes bury themselves in the earth, or lie up in +some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks afford +during the winter; and in the tropics millipedes lie dormant +during seasons of drought.</p> + +<p>What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in +the winter of the northern hemisphere is also true in a general +way of that of the southern hemisphere at the same season +of the year. This is proved—to mention no other cases—by the +observations of Darwin on the hibernation of insects and spiders +at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America, and by +Distant’s account of the paucity of insect life in the winter +in South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating +semi-torpid Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in +the Transvaal, and of the gradual increase in the numbers of +individuals and species of insects in that country as the spring +advanced and the dry season came to an end.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—T. Bell, <i>A History of British Reptiles</i> (<i>and +Amphibians</i>) (1849); W. T. Blanford, <i>Fauna of British India: +Mammalia</i> (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, <i>Monograph of the +Tailless Batrachians of Europe</i>, edited by the Ray Society; +“Teleostei” in <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vii. 541-727 (1904); +T. W. Bridge, “Dipneustei” in <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vii. +505-520 (1904); A. H. Cooke, “Molluscs” in <i>Cambridge Natural +History</i>, iii. 25-27 (1895); T. A. Coward, <i>P.Z.S.</i> pp. 849-855 +(1906), and pp. 312-324 (1907); C. Darwin, <i>A Naturalist’s</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span> +<i>Voyage Round the World</i>, pp. 97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant, +<i>A Naturalist in the Transvaal</i>, ch. iii. (1892); Marshall Hall, +“Hibernation,” in <i>Todd’s Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, +pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); <i>Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.</i> +(1832); John Hunter, <i>Observations on parts of the Animal Economy</i> +(1837); <i>Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s +Office of the U.S. Army</i>, vii. (1902), Bibliography relating to physiology +of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, <i>An Introduction +to Entomology</i>, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois, <i>A Text-book +of Human Physiology</i>, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410 (1904); +V. Laporte, “Suspension of Vitality in Animals,” <i>Pop. Sci. Monthly</i>, +xxxvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, “Essai sur la +léthargie périodique,” <i>Annales du Muséum</i>, x. 453-456 (1807); +C. Hart Merriam, <i>North American Pocket Mice</i> (Washington, +1889); W. Miller, “Hibernation and Allied States in Animals,” +<i>Trans. Pan-Amer. Med. Congr.</i> (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285 +(Washington, 1895); M. S. Pembrey and A. G. Pitts, “The Relation +between the Internal Temperature and the Respiratory Movements +of Hibernating Animals,” <i>Journ. Physiol.</i> (London, 1899), pp. 305-316; +Prunelle, “Recherches sur les phénomènes et sur les causes du +sommeil hivernal,” <i>Annales du Muséum</i>, xviii.; J. A. Saissy, +<i>Recherches sur les animaux hivernans</i> (1808); L. Spallanzani, +<i>Mémoires sur la respiration</i> (1803); J. Emerson Tennent, <i>Sketches +of the Natural History of Ceylon</i>, pp. 351-358 (1861); Volkov, “Le +Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes,” <i>Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol.</i> +(Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> (1900), i. +1554.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. I. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIBERNIA,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> in ancient geography, one of the names by which +Ireland was known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names +were Ierne, Iuverna, Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem +from which also Erin is descended. The island was well known +to the Romans through the reports of traders, so far at least as +its coasts. But it never became part of the Roman empire. +Agricola (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 80) planned its conquest, which he judged +an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise. +During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to +have been an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may +have settled occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration +is that of the Scots into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman +days that Roman civilization, brought perhaps by Christian +missionaries like Patrick, entered the island.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKERINGILL<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Hickhorngill</span>), <b>EDMUND</b> (1631-1708), +English divine, lived an eventful life in the days of the Commonwealth +and the Restoration. After graduating at Caius College, +Cambridge, where he was junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined +Lilburne’s regiment as chaplain, and afterwards served in the +ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish service, ultimately becoming +a captain in Fleetwood’s regiment. He then lived for a time in +Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661. In the same +year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln, +having already passed through such shades of belief as are +connoted by the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662 +until his death in 1708 he was vicar of All Saints’, Colchester. +He was a vigorous pamphleteer, and came into collision with +Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he had to pay heavy +damages for slander in 1682. He made a public recantation in +1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and ended his +career by being convicted for forgery in 1707.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKES, GEORGE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1642-1715), English divine and scholar, +was born at Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 20th of +June 1642. In 1659 he entered St John’s College, Oxford, +whence after the Restoration he removed to Magdalen College +and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was elected +fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded +M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was +appointed rector of St Ebbe’s, Oxford. In 1676, as private +chaplain, he accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal +commissioner, to Scotland, and shortly afterwards received the +degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In 1680 he became vicar of +All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having been made +chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the +deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II.’s declaration +of indulgence and Monmouth’s rising, and he tried in vain to save +from death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685), +one of the Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the +revolution of 1688, having declined to take the oath of allegiance, +Hickes was first suspended and afterwards deprived of his +deanery. When he heard of the appointment of a successor +he affixed to the cathedral doors a “protestation and claim of +right.” After remaining some time in concealment in London, +he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors to James II. in +France on matters connected with the continuance of their +episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself +consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were +largely occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he +persuaded two Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald +Campbell, to assist him in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel +Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as bishops among the nonjurors. +He died on the 15th of December 1715.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief writings of Hickes are the <i>Institutiones Grammaticae +Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae</i> (1689), and <i>Linguarum veterum +Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus</i> +(1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry.</p> + +<p>Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious +author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested +by contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great +satisfaction—the execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having +attempted to murder Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and +John King, Presbyterian ministers, “for high treason and rebellion” +(<i>Ravillac Redivivus</i>, 1678; <i>The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the +Mouths of Phanatical Protestant</i>s, 1680). In his <i>Jovian</i> (an answer +to S. Johnson’s <i>Julian the Apostate</i>, 1683), he endeavoured to show +that the Roman empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians +under Julian had recognized the duty of passive obedience. His +two treatises, one <i>Of the Christian Priesthood</i> and the other <i>Of the +Dignity of the Episcopal Order</i>, originally published in 1707, have +been more than once reprinted, and form three volumes of the +<i>Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology</i> (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were +published <i>Collections of Controversial Letters</i>, in 1711 a collection of +<i>Sermons</i>, and in 1726 a volume of <i>Posthumous Discourses</i>. Other +treatises, such as the <i>Apologetical Vindication of the Church of +England</i>, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson’s <i>Preservative against +Popery</i>. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which +sketches his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant +in various collections. A posthumous publication of his <i>The Constitution +of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of +Schism</i> (1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.</p> + +<p>See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the <i>Dictionary of +National Biography</i>, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, <i>The +Nonjurors</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1798-1888), American philosopher +and divine, was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the +29th of December 1798. He took his degree at Union College in +1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in active pastoral work, and +was then appointed professor of theology at the Western Reserve +College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn (N.Y.) Theological +Seminary. From this post he was elected vice-president of +Union College and professor of mental and moral science. In +1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868 +retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to +writing and study. A collected edition of his principal works was +published at Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th +of May 1888. He wrote <i>Rational Psychology</i> (1848), <i>System of +Moral Science</i> (1853), <i>Empirical Psychology</i> (1854), <i>Rational +Cosmology</i> (1858), <i>Creator and Creation, or the Knowledge in the +Reason of God and His Work</i> (1872), <i>Humanity Immortal</i> (1872), +<i>Logic of Reason</i> (1874).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKORY,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a shortened form of the American Indian name +<i>pohickery</i>. Hickory trees are natives of North America, and +belong to the genus <i>Carya</i>. They are closely allied to the walnuts +(<i>Juglans</i>), the chief or at least one very obvious difference being +that, whilst in <i>Carya</i> the husk which covers the shell of the nut +separates into four valves, in <i>Juglans</i> it consists of but one piece, +which bursts irregularly. The timber is both strong and heavy, +and remarkable for its extreme elasticity, but it decays rapidly +when exposed to heat and moisture, and is peculiarly subject to +the attacks of worms. It is very extensively employed in +manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth, the +bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels, +chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes +requiring great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in +America is for hoop-making; and it is the only American wood +found perfectly fit for that purpose.</p> + +<p>The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of +the brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +gives out, the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived. +The species which furnish the best wood are <i>Carya alba</i> (shell-bark +hickory), <i>C. tomentosa</i> (mockernut), <i>C. olivaeformis</i> (pecan +or pacane nut), and <i>C. porcina</i> (pig-nut), that of the last named, +on account of its extreme tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees +and axle-handles. The wood of <i>C. alba</i> splits very easily and is +very elastic, so that it is much used for making whip-handles and +baskets. The wood of this species is also used in the neighbourhood +of New York and Philadelphia for making the back bows +of Windsor chairs. The timber of <i>C. amara</i> and <i>C. aquatica</i> is +considered of inferior quality.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:393px" src="images/img448a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Shell-bark Hickory (<i>Carya alba</i>) in flower.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to +90 ft. in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced +ample heads, and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When +confined in the forest they shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches, +but when standing alone they expand into a fine head, and +produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of foliage. They have all +the qualities necessary to constitute fine graceful park trees. +The most ornamental of the species are <i>C. olivaeformis</i>, <i>C. alba</i> +and <i>C. porcina</i>, the last two also producing delicious nuts, and +being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:325px" src="images/img448b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—1, Fruit of <i>Carya alba</i>; 2, Hickory Nut; 3, Cross Section +of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into +four equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the +upper part, while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface, +but has four or more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The +hickory nuts of the American markets are the produce of <i>C. alba</i>, +called the shell-bark hickory because of the roughness of its bark, +which becomes loosened from the trunk in long scales bending +outwards at the extremities and adhering only by the middle. +The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of the States, and are +exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The pecan-nuts, +which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to 1½ in. long, +smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and thin-shelled, with +the kernels full, not like those of most of the hickories divided by +partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour. The thick-shelled +fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground for +swine, squirrels, &c., to devour. In <i>C. amara</i> the kernel is so +bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKS, ELIAS<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in +Hempstead township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748. +His parents were Friends, but he took little interest in religion +until he was about twenty; soon after that time he gave up +the carpenter’s trade, to which he had been apprenticed when +seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he had “openings +leading to the ministry” and was “deeply engaged for the +right administration of discipline and order in the church,” +and in 1779 he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours +between Vermont and Maryland. He attacked slavery, even +when preaching in Maryland; wrote <i>Observations on the Slavery +of the Africans and their Descendants</i> (1811); and was influential +in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the act declaring free after +1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed by the Act of +1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of February +1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he +was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition +at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed +which would make the Society in America approach the position +of the English Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His +<i>Doctrinal Epistle</i> (1824) stated his position, and a break ensued +in 1827-1828, Hicks’s followers, who call themselves the “Liberal +Branch,” being called “Hicksites” by the “Orthodox” party, +which they for a time outnumbered. The village of Hicksville, +in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the +centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named +in honour of Elias Hicks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks</i> +(Philadelphia, 1825); <i>The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias +Hicks</i> (Philadelphia, 1828), and his <i>Letters</i> (Philadelphia, 1834).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKS, HENRY<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1837-1899), British physician and geologist, +was born on the 26th of May 1837 at St David’s, in Pembrokeshire, +where his father, Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He +studied medicine at Guy’s Hospital, London, qualifying as +M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he commenced +a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to +Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases, +took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued +his medical work until the close of his life. In Wales he had +been attracted to geology by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist +to the Geological Survey), and his leisure time was given to the +study of the older rocks and fossils of South Wales. In conjunction +with Salter, he established in 1865 the Menevian group +(Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite <i>Paradoxides</i>. +Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important papers +on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and +described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the +Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David’s, describing the Dimetian +(granitoid rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his +views, though contested, have been generally accepted. At +Hendon Dr Hicks gave much attention to the local geology +and also to the Pleistocene deposits of the Denbighshire caves. +For a few years before his death he had laboured at the +Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected +organic remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as +unfossiliferous, and these he regarded as including representatives +of Lower Devonian and Silurian. His papers were mostly +published in the <i>Geol. Mag.</i> and <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> He +was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president of the Geological +Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the 18th +of November 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HICKS, WILLIAM<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the +Bombay army in 1849, and served through the Indian mutiny, +being mentioned in despatches for good conduct at the action +of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In 1861 he became captain, and in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was a brigade major, being +again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet majority. +He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After +the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive’s +service and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum +as chief of the staff of the army there, then commanded +by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was formed at Omdurman +and a new force of some 8000 fighting men collected—mostly +recruited from the fellahin of Arabi’s disbanded troops, sent +in chains from Egypt. After a month’s vigorous drilling Hicks +led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar, +whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns +of Sennar and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an +immediate attack by the mahdists the Egyptian officials at +Khartum intrigued against Hicks, who in July tendered his +resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of Suliman Niazi +and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an +expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi, +who in January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that +province. Hicks, aware of the worthlessness of his force for the +purpose contemplated, stated his opinion that it would be best +to “wait for Kordofan to settle itself” (telegram of the 5th of +August). The Egyptian ministry, however, did not then +believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition started +from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of +7000 infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and +included thirteen Europeans. On the 20th the force left the +Nile at Duem and struck inland across the almost waterless +wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of November the +army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was +ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid. +With the exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed. +According to the story of Hicks’s cook, one of the survivors, +the general was the last officer to fall, pierced by the spear of +the khalifa Mahommed Sherif. After emptying his revolver, +the pasha kept his assailants at bay for some time with his sword, +a body of Baggara who fled before him being known afterwards +as “Baggar Hicks” (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on the +words <i>baggara</i> and <i>baggar</i>, the former being the herdsmen and +the latter the cows. Hicks’s head was cut off and taken to +the mahdi.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan</i>, book iv., by Sir +F. R. Wingate (London, 1891), and <i>With Hicks Pasha in the +Soudan</i>, by J. Colborne (London, 1884), Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Military +Operations</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIDALGO,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San +Luis Potosi and Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala +and Mexico (state), and W. by Querétaro. Pop. (1895) +551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area, 8917 sq. m. The northern +and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous, culminating +in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of +this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren, +being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where +the <i>maguey</i> (American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The +southern and western parts of the state consist of rolling plains, +in the midst of which is the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo +produces cereals in the more elevated districts, sugar, maguey, +coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco. Maguey is cultivated for +the production of <i>pulque</i>, the national drink. The chief industry, +however, is mining, the mineral districts of Pachuca, El Chico, +Real del Monte, San José del Oro, and Zimapán being among +the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver, +gold, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese +and plumbago. Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway +facilities are afforded by a branch of the Vera Cruz and +Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco to Pachuca, the capital +of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among the principal +towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24 m. +E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpán (about 9000) with silver mines +80 m. N. by W. of the Federal Capital, and Actópan (2666), +the chief town of the district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited +principally by Indians of the Othomies nation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIDALGO<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (a Spanish word, contracted from <i>hijo d’algo</i> +or <i>hijo de algo</i>, son of something, or somewhat), originally +a Spanish title of the lower nobility; the hidalgo being the +lowest grade of nobility which was entitled to use the prefix +“don.” The term is now used generally to denote one of +gentle birth. The Portuguese <i>fidalgo</i> has a similar history and +meaning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1753-1811), Mexican +patriot, was born on the 8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos, +near Guanajuato. His mother’s maiden name was Gallaga, +but contrary to the usual custom of the Spaniards he used only +the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y Costilla. He +was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained priest +in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life +who exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry, +including the cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at +Dolores. But Napoleon’s invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a +widespread commotion. The colonists were indisposed to +accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in proclaiming +Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for +their professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however, +by the Spanish authorities with suspicion as being designed +to prepare the independence of Mexico. Hidalgo and several +of his friends, among whom was Miguel Dominguez, mayor of +Querétaro, engaged in consultation and preparations which the +authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested, +but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred +of his parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized +the prison at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a +revolt against the Spanish and Creole elements of the population. +With what is known as the “<i>grito</i>” or cry of Dolores as their +rallying shout, a multitude gathered round Hidalgo, who took for +his banner a wonder-working picture of the Virgin belonging to a +popular shrine. At first he met with some success. A regiment +of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some small posts were +stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of +Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated. +Hidalgo lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted, +and on the march to Querétaro he was attacked at Aculco +by General Felix Calleja on the 7th of November 1810, and routed. +He endeavoured to continue the struggle, and did succeed in +collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about Guadalajara. +With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a +position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On +the 17th of January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja +and a small force of soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other +leaders, and soon afterwards all of them were betrayed to the +Spaniards. They were tried at Chihuahua, and condemned. +Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood and then +shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August +1811.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. H. Bancroft, <i>The Pacific States</i>, vol. vii., which contains a +copious bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIDDENITE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a green transparent variety of spodumene, (<i>q.v.</i>) +used as a gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b. +1853) about 1879 at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina, +and was at first taken for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence +Smith proved it to be spodumene, and named it. Hiddenite +occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of prismatic habit, +often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic cleavage +renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes +from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly +distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a +marked degree, and shows much “fire” when properly cut. +The composition of the mineral is represented by the formula +LiAl(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, the green colour being probably due to the presence +of a small proportion of chromium. The presence of lithia +in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate name of +lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite +was originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards +worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association +with beryl, quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIDE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Lat. <i>hida</i>, A.-S. <i>higíd</i>, <i>híd</i> or <i>hiwisc</i>, members of a +household), a measure of land. The word was in general use +in England in Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although +its meaning seems to have varied somewhat from time to time. +Among its Latin equivalents are <i>terra unius familiae</i>, <i>terra +unius cassati</i> and <i>mansio</i>; the first of these forms is used by +Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no definite area. +In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of the typical +family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded +as containing 120 “acres” (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each, +but 120 times the amount of land which a ploughteam of +eight oxen could plough in a single day). This definition appears +to have been very general in England before the Norman +Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and 80 acres are +repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some historians, +however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres +or thereabouts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The question about the hide,” says Professor Maitland in <i>Domesday +Book and Beyond</i>, “is ‘pre-judicial’ to all the great questions of +early English history.” The main argument employed by J. M. +Kemble (<i>The Saxons in England</i>) in favour of the “small” hide is +that the number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts +of England gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these +parts, making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an +allowance necessary because the hide was only that part of the land +which came under the plough, and each hide must have carried +with it a certain amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support +of Kemble’s theory must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight +contained 1200 hides. Now 1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a +total acreage of 144,000 acres, while the total acreage of the island +to-day is only 93,000 acres. Again a document called <i>The Tribal +Hidage</i> puts the number of hides in the whole of England at nearly +a quarter of a million. This gives in acres a figure about equal to +the total acreage of England at the present time, but it leaves no +room for pasture and for the great proportion of land which was +still woodland. On these grounds Kemble regarded the hide as +containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40 acres, and thought +that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., <i>i.e.</i> that it was roughly +equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought forward is that +30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the average family, +in other words that it was the <i>terra unius familiae</i> of Bede. Another +Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at 48 acres.</p> + +<p>But formidable arguments have been advanced against the +“small” hide. There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday +the hide was equated with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking +the word <i>familia</i> in its proper sense, a household with many dependent +members, and making an allowance for primitive methods +of agriculture, it is questionable whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient +for its support; and again if the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected +there is no serious evidence in favour of any other. A possible +explanation is that, although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide +consisted of 30 acres or thereabouts, it had come before the time +of Domesday to contain 120 acres. But no trace of such change +can be found; there is no break in the continuity of the land-charters +which refer to hides and manses. Reviewing the whole +question Professor Maitland accepts the view that the hide contained +120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they are not insuperable. +Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for the most part of +lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a vague and +general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean 120 times +4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of Domesday +the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for purposes +of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick +(<i>Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions</i>) says there is no evidence that +the hide contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests +that possibly the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at +40 acres, while in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres. +Dr Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i> i.) suggests that the confusion may +have arisen because the word was used “to express the whole share +of one man in all the fields of the village.” Thus it might refer to +30 acres, his share in one field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four +fields. He adds, however, that this explanation is not adequate for +all cases. But these differences about the size of the hide are not +peculiar to modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, <i>Hida Anglice +vocatur terra unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum</i>, while the +<i>Dialogus de scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be +the long hundred, or</i> 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when +he says, “hides were of an incertain quantity.” Certainly he gives +a very good description of the early hide when he says (<i>Titles of +Honour</i>): “Now a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as +much land as might be well manured with one plough, together +with pasture, meadow and wood competent for the maintenance of +that plough, and the servants of the family.” The view that the +size of the hide varied from district to district is borne out by +Professor Vinogradoff’s more recent researches. In his <i>English +Society in the Eleventh Century</i> he mentions that there was a hide +of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40 acres in Dorset. In addition +some authorities distinguish between English hides and Welsh +hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained 8 virgates. Sometimes +again in the 11th century hides were not merely fiscal units; +they were shares in the land itself.</p> +</div> + +<p>The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been +established by Mr J. H. Round in his <i>Feudal England</i>, and is +regarded as throwing a most valuable light upon the many +problems which present themselves to the student of Domesday. +The process which converted the hide from a unit of measurement +to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as follows. +Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such +pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide +was a useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates +doubtless from the time of the Danegeld. For some time the +two meanings were used side by side, but before the Norman +Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation, had quite supplanted +the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state of affairs +when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made. +The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county, +but a single illustration may be given. <i>Huntedun Burg defendebat +se ad geldum regis pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred +pro L. hidis</i>. This does not mean that the town of Huntingdon +contained a certain fixed number of square yards multiplied +by 50, but that for purposes of taxation Huntingdon was +regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton +in <i>A Key to Domesday</i> and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof +rests primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By +collating various documents which formed part of the Domesday +inquest Mr Round has brought together for certain parts of England, +especially for Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the +various lords in the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total +of 5 hides or 10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A +similar result is shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are +almost universal, and the total hidage for the county of Worcester +is very near the round figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously +artificial; it must have been imposed upon the counties or the +hundreds by the central authority and then divided among the +vills. Another proof is found in what is called “beneficial hidation.” +It is shown that in certain cases the number of hides in a hundred +has been reduced since the time of Edward the Confessor, and that +this reduction had been transferred <i>pro rata</i> to the vills in the +hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that the hide was fixed +“independently of area or value.” Some slight criticism has been +directed against the idea of “artificial hidation,” but the most that +can be said against it is that its proof rests upon isolated cases, a +reproach which further research will doubtless remove. However, +Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a fiscal unit +“which corresponds only in a very rough way to the agrarian +reality,” and Maitland says the fiscal hide is “at its best a lame +compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value.”</p> +</div> + +<p>What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures +have been hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than +the Danegeld. Rejecting the idea that it is of Roman or of +British origin, and pointing to the serious difference in the rates +at which the various counties were assessed, Mr Round thinks +that it dates from the time when the various Anglo-Saxon +kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of assessment +for military service, possibly it was the recognized endowment +of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man’s standing +in society was dependent to a great extent upon the number +of hides which he possessed; this statement is fully proved +from the laws. Moreover, in the laws of the Wessex king, Ine, +the value of a man’s oath is expressed in hides, the oath for a +king’s thegn being probably worth 60 hides and that of a ceorl +5 hides.</p> + +<p>The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate +being, after the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +villein with two oxen. Mr Round holds that in Domesday +at all events the hide always consisted of four virgates; Mr F. +Seebohm in <i>The English Village Community</i>, although thinking +that the normal hide “consisted as a rule of four virgates of +30 acres each,” says that the Hundred Rolls for Huntingdonshire +show that “the hide did not always contain the same +number of virgates.” The virgate, it may be noted, consisted +of a strip of land in <i>each</i> acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly +a strong case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates.</p> + +<p>Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions +are rooted in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between +the methods of taxation of land in Rome and in England; he +sees some connexion between the Roman <i>centuria</i> and the +hide, and between the Roman system of taxation called <i>jugatio</i> +and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff (<i>Villainage in +England</i>) summarizes the views of those who hold a contrary +opinion thus: “The curious fact that the normal holding, +the hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by +its origin; it came full-formed from Germany and remained +unchanged in spite of all diversities of geographical and +economical conditions.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the +“Five Boroughs,” the carucate takes the place of the hide as the +unit of value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of +assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide +is quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According +to Mr Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates; +Mr W. H. Stevenson (<i>English Historical Review</i>, vol. v.) argues that +it contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. +Mr Seebohm thinks there was a <i>solanda</i> or double hide of 240 acres +in Essex and other southern counties, but Mr Round does not +think that this word refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all. +For Kent, however, the word <i>sullung</i> or solin, is used in <i>Domesday +Book</i> and in the charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere, +and Vinogradoff thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.</p> +</div> + +<p>Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two +or more shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized +method of raising money, royal and some other estates, however, +as is seen from Domesday, not being hidated and not paying +the tax. This geld, or tax, received several names, one of the +most general being <i>hidage</i> (Lat. <i>hidagium</i>). “Hidage,” says +Vinogradoff, “is historically connected with the old English +Danegeld system,” and as Danegeld and then hidage it was +levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was +during the 11th century “the most sweeping and the heaviest +of all the taxes.” Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was +2s. on each hide of land, and this was evidently the rate at the +time of the famous dispute between Henry II. and Becket at +Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always kept at this figure, +as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on each hide, an +unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the hide. +Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide +for the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor +Henry V., and in 1194, when money was collected for the ransom +of Richard I., some of the taxation for this purpose seems to +have been assessed according to the hidage given in Domesday +Book.</p> + +<p>By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax +was disappearing, its place being taken by the word <i>carucage</i>. +The carucate (Lat. <i>caruca</i>, a plough) was a measure of land +which prevailed in the north of England, the district inhabited +by people of Danish descent. Some authorities regard it as +equivalent to the hide, others deny this identity. In 1198, +however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each <i>carucata +terrae sive hyda</i>, the two words were obviously interchangeable, +and about the same time the size of the carucate was fixed at +100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time +longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes +on land.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain +unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and +a hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres +to make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage, +a simple process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound, +makes calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from +the German <i>hufe</i> or <i>huba</i>?</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The homonym “hide,” meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng. +<i>hýdan</i>; the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages. +The root is probably seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="keuthein">κεύθειν</span> to hide, or may be the +same as in “hide,” skin, O. Eng. <i>hýd</i>, which is also seen in +Ger. <i>Haut</i>, Dutch <i>huid</i>; the root appears in Lat. <i>cutis</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kytos">κύτος</span>. +The Indo-European root <i>ku</i>-, weakened form of <i>sku</i>-, seen in “sky,” +and meaning “to cover,” may be the ultimate source of both +words. The slang use of “to hide,” to flog or whip, means “to +take the skin off, to flay.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIEL, EMMANUEL<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and +prose writer, was born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May +1834. He acted in various functions, from teacher and government +official to journalist and bookseller, busily writing all +the time both for the theatre and the magazines of North and +South Netherlands. His last posts were those of librarian at +the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the +Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic +works may be cited <i>Looverkens</i> (“Leaflets,” 1857); <i>Nieuwe +Liedekens</i> (“New Poesies,” 1861); <i>Gedichten</i> (“Poems,” 1863); +<i>Psalmen, Zangen, en Oratorios</i> (“Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios,” +1869); <i>De Wind</i> (1869), an inspiriting cantata, which had a large +measure of success and was crowned; <i>De Liefde in ’t Leven</i> +(“Love in Life,” 1870); <i>Elle</i> and <i>Isa</i> (two musical dramas, +1874); <i>Liederen voor Groote en Kleine Kinderen</i> (“Songs for +Big and Small Folk,” 1879); <i>Jakoba van Beieren</i> (“<span class="correction" title="amended from Jacquelein">Jacqueline</span> +of Bavaria,” a poetic drama, 1880); <i>Mathilda van Denemarken</i> +(a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were published +in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an +active and prominent part in the so-called “Flemish movement” +in Belgium, and his name is constantly associated with those +of Jan van Beers, the Willems and Peter Benoit. The last +wrote some of his compositions to Hiel’s verses, notably to his +oratorios <i>Lucifer</i> (performed in London at the Royal Albert +Hall and elsewhere) and <i>De Schelde</i> (“The Scheldt”); whilst +the Dutch composer, Richard Hol (of Utrecht), composed the +music to Hiel’s “Ode to Liberty,” and van Gheluwe to the +poet’s “Songs for Big and Small Folk” (second edition, much +enlarged, 1879), which has greatly contributed to their popularity +in schools and among Belgian choral societies. Hiel also translated +several foreign lyrics. His rendering of Tennyson’s +<i>Dora</i> appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the national festival +of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary +of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas, <i>Belgenland</i> +(“The Land of the Belgians”) and <i>Eer Belgenland</i> (“Honour +to Belgium”), which, set to music, were much appreciated. +He died at Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August +1899. Hiel’s efforts to counteract Walloon influences and bring +about a <i>rapprochement</i> between the Netherlanders in the north +and the Teutonic racial sympathizers across the Rhine made +him very popular with both, and a volume of his best poems +was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors published +at Leipzig.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIEMPSAL,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> the name of the two kings of Numidia. For +Hiempsal I. see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jugurtha</a></span>. Hiempsal II. was the son of +Gauda, the half-brother of Jugurtha. In 88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after the +triumph of Sulla, when the younger Marius fled from Rome to +Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent friendliness, his +real intention being to detain him as a prisoner. Marius discovered +this intention in time and made good his escape with +the assistance of the king’s daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was +driven from his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by +Hiarbas, ruler of part of the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius +Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa. Soon +afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by Sulla to reinstate +Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased by the +addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty +concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius +Rullus introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had +been originally assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Africanus, +were expressly exempted from sale, which roused the indignation +of Cicero (<i>De lege agraria</i>, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (<i>Caesar</i>, +71) it is evident that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to +Sallust (<i>Jugurtha</i>, 17), he was the author of an historical work in +the Punic language.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Plutarch, <i>Marius</i>, 40, <i>Pompey</i>, 12; Appian, <i>Bell. civ.</i>, i. 62. 80; +Dio Cassius xli. 41.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERAPOLIS.<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> 1. (Arabic <i>Manbij</i> or <i>Mumbij</i>) an ancient +Syrian town occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria, +in a fertile district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the +Sajur and Euphrates. There is abundant water supply from +large springs. In 1879, after the Russo-Turkish war, a colony of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span> +Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was planted in the ruins, and the +result has been the constant discovery of antiquities, which find +their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab. The place first +appears in Greek as <i>Bambyce</i>, but Pliny (v. 23) tells us its Syrian +name was <i>Mabog</i>. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian +sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who +made it the chief station on their main road between Antioch and +Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian +Nature Goddess, Atargatis (<i>q.v.</i>), it became known to the Greeks as +the city of the sanctuary <span class="grk" title="Hieropolis">Ἱερόπολις</span>, and finally as the Holy City +<span class="grk" title="Hierapolis">Ἱεράπολις</span>. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous +writer) has immortalized this worship in the tract <i>De Dea Syria</i>, +wherein are described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the +tank of sacred fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. According +to the <i>De Dea Syria</i>, the worship was of a phallic character, +votaries offering little male figures of wood and bronze. There +were also huge <i>phalli</i> set up like obelisks before the temple, +which were climbed once a year with certain ceremonies, and +decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic character with +golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration. Inside +was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter. +Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first +seems to have been the more richly decorated with gems and +other ornaments. Between them stood a gilt <i>xoanon</i>, which +seems to have been carried outside in sacred processions. Other +rich furniture is described, and a mode of divination by movements +of a <i>xoanon</i> of Apollo. A great bronze altar stood in front, +set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived numerous +sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice. Some +three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous +minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities +and it was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an +altar standing in the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and +other orgies went on in the temple precinct, and there was an +elaborate ritual on entering the city and first visiting the shrine +under the conduct of local guides, which reminds one of the +Meccan Pilgrimage.</p> + +<p>The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the +Parthians (53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but in the 3rd century of the empire the +city was the capital of the Euphratensian province and one of +the great cities of Syria. Procopius called it the greatest in that +part of the world. It was, however, ruinous when Julian collected +his troops there ere marching to his defeat and death in Mesopotamia, +and Chosroes I. held it to ransom after Justinian had +failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun restored it at the end +of the 8th century and it became a bone of contention between +Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured it from +the Seljuks in the 12th century, but Saladin retook it (1175), +and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols, +who completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost +wholly of late date, as is to be expected in the case of a city +which survived into Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no +ruins of the great temple survive. The most noteworthy relic of +antiquity is the sacred lake, on two sides of which can still be +seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The first modern account +of the site is in a short narrative appended by H. Maundrell to his +<i>Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem</i>. He was at Mumbij in 1699.</p> + +<p>The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with an +Aramaic series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural +crown or as riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief +type even during imperial times, being generally shown seated +with the <i>tympanum</i> in her hand. Other coins substitute the +legend <span class="grk" title="Theas Surias Hieropolitôn">Θεᾶς Συρίας Ἱεροπολιτῶν</span>, within a wreath. It is interesting +to note that from <i>Bambyce</i> (near which much silk was produced) +were derived the <i>bombycina vestis</i> of the Romans and, through the +crusaders, the bombazine of modern commerce.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. R. Chesney, <i>Euphrates Expedition</i> (1850); W. F. Ainsworth, +<i>Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition</i> (1888); E. Sachau, +<i>Reise in Syrien</i>, &c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in <i>Journal of Hellenic +Studies</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the +Churuk Su (Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the +Menderes (Maeander), situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above +the valley and 6 m. N. of Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous +springs, that have deposited vast incrustations of snowy whiteness. +To these springs, which are warm and slightly sulphureous, +and to the “Plutonium”—a hole reaching deep into the earth, +from which issued a mephitic vapour—the place owed its celebrity +and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious establishment +(<i>hieron</i>) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian Kydrara, a +settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew +round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native +life but of non-political importance. The chief religious festival +was the Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of +the Mother Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic +rites in which elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate +and Nature-cult survived: there was also a worship of Apollo +Lairbenos. Hierapolis was the seat of an early church (Col. iv. +13), with which tradition closely connects the apostle Philip. +Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a disciple of St John and +author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus, were born there. +Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a station on the +Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks has +gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is +apparently <i>Pambuk Kale</i> (though doubt has been thrown on the +statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-like +appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted, +however, that this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by +the Syrians to the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), <i>Bambyce</i>, +the origin of which it has been suggested was a native name of the +goddess Pambē or Mambē (whence Mabog). Considering that +cotton is a comparatively modern phenomenon in Anatolia, it is +worth suggesting that <i>Pambuk</i> in this case may be a survival of a +primitive name, derived from the same goddess, Pambē. The +goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case closely akin. +If an old native name has reappeared here after the decline of +Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish, +it affords another instance of a very common feature of west +Asian nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the +ruins of Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily +accessible spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the +long avenue of tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by +which the city is approached from the W., and for a very perfect +theatre partly excavated in the hill at the N. side of the site. +Stage buildings as well as auditorium are well preserved. On the +S., just above the white terraces and largely blocked with petrified +deposit, stand large baths, into which the natural warm spring +was once conducted. Behind these is a fine triumphal arch, +whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches survive, and +also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which may +represent the “Plutonium,” but it has no such deadly power as +was ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the “Plutonium” +was obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over +300 inscriptions have been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence +Ramsay has deduced interesting facts about the very early +Christian community which existed here. The site has been often +visited and described, and was systematically examined in 1887 +by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann respectively.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Humann, <i>Altertümer v. Hierapolis</i> (1888); Sir W. M. +Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>, vol. i. (1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERARCHY<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hieros">ἱερός</span>, holy, and <span class="grk" title="archein">ἄρχειν</span>, to rule), the office +of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a “ruler of priests” +or “priestly ruler” (see Boeckh, <i>Corp. inscr. Gr.</i> No. 1570), +a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote +the aggregate of those persons who exercise authority within +the Christian Church, the patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-fold +order of the clergy. The word <span class="grk" title="hierarchia">ἱεραρχία</span>, which does not +occur in any classical Greek writer, owes its present extensive +currency to the celebrated writings of Dionysius Areopagiticus. +Of these the most important are the two which treat of the +celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy respectively. Defining +hierarchy as the “function which comprises all sacred +things,” or, more fully, as “a sacred order and science and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and +elevated to the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine +illuminations conceded to it,” the author proceeds to enumerate +the nine orders of the heavenly host, which are subdivided +again into hierarchies or triads, in descending order, thus: +Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; +Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for the +common object of raising men through ascending stages of +purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical +or earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the +first or highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and +chrism. The second triad consists of the three orders of the +ministry, bishop or hierarch, priest and minister or deacon +(<span class="grk" title="hierarchês, hiereus, leitourgos">ἱεράρχης, ἱερεύς, λειτουργός</span>); this is the earliest known instance +in which the title hierarch is applied to a bishop. The +third or lowest triad is made up of monks, “initiated” and +catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through Thomas +Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period, +the definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic +writers—“coëtus seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum +ad regendam ecclesiam gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem +divinitus institutus”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>—although it immediately rests upon +the authority of the sixth canon of the twenty-third session +of the council of Trent, in which anathema is pronounced upon +all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of a +hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of +bishops, priests and ministers.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holy</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Perrone, <i>De locis theologicis</i>, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina +ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et +ministris: anathema sit.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERATIC,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> priestly or sacred (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hieratikos, hieros">ἱερατικὀς, ἱερὀς</span>, sacred), +a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing, +which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name +was first given by Champollion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>, § <i>Language</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERAX,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hieracas</span>, a learned ascetic who flourished +about the end of the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt, +where he lived to the age of ninety, supporting himself by +calligraphy and devoting his leisure to scientific and literary +pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible. He was the author +of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and is +said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of +the so-called sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from +which married persons were excluded, and of which one of +the leading tenets was that only the celibate could enter the +kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the suppression of the sexual +impulse was emphatically the new revelation brought by the +Logos, and appealed to 1 Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and Matt. +xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link +between Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning +and prodigious memory, he seems to have developed Origen’s +Christology in the direction of Athanasius. He held that +the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of the Father, that +Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the ideas +of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the +ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized +infants, “for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict +no reward.” In his insistence on virginity as the specifically +Christian virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the +4th and 5th centuries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERO<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (strictly <span class="sc">Hieron</span>), the name of two rulers of +Syracuse.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Hiero I.</span> was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse +from 478 to 467/6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> During his reign he greatly increased the +power of Syracuse. He removed the inhabitants of Naxos +and Catana to Leontini, peopled Catana (which he renamed +Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with Acragas +(Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against +Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achievement +was the defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which +he saved the Greeks of Campania. A bronze helmet (now in +the British Museum), with an inscription commemorating +the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though despotic in +his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died at +Catana in 467.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, <i>Hiero</i>, 6. 2; E. Lübbert, +<i>Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron</i> (1875); for his coins see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span> (section <i>Sicily</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERO II.<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was the +illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed +descent from Gelo. On the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275) +the Syracusan army and citizens appointed him commander +of the troops. He materially strengthened his position by +marrying the daughter of Leptines, the leading citizen. In the +meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian mercenaries +who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the stronghold +of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They +were finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero, +who was only prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian +interference. His grateful countrymen then chose him king +(270). In 264 he again returned to the attack, and the Mamertines +called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at once joined the +Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily; but +being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew +to Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was +compelled to conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was +to rule over the south-east of Sicily and the eastern coast as +far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16; Zonaras viii. 9). From +this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal to the Romans, +and frequently assisted them with men and provisions during +the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept +up a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his +famous kinsman Archimedes in the construction of those engines +that, at a later date, played so important a part during the +siege of Syracuse by the Romans.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in +the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic. +xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIEROCLES,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> proconsul of Bithynia and Alexandria, lived +during the reign of Diocletian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 284-305). He is said to +have been the instigator of the fierce persecution of the Christians +under Galerius in 303. He was the author of a work (not +extant) entitled <span class="grk" title="logoi philalêtheis pros tous Christianous">λόγοι φιλαλήθεις πρὸς τοὺς Χριστιανούς</span> in two +books, in which he endeavoured to persuade the Christians +that their sacred books were full of contradictions, and that +in moral influence and miraculous power Christ was inferior to +Apollonius of Tyana. Our knowledge of this treatise is derived +from Lactantius (<i>Instit. div.</i> v. 2) and Eusebius, who wrote a +refutation entitled <span class="grk" title="Antirrhêtikos pros ta Hierokleous">Ἀντιῤῥητικὸς πρὸς τὰ Ἱεροκλέους</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> Neoplatonist writer, +flourished <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 430. He studied under the celebrated Neoplatonist +Plutarch at Athens, and taught for some years in his +native city. He seems to have been banished from Alexandria +and to have taken up his abode in Constantinople, where he +gave such offence by his religious opinions that he was thrown +into prison and cruelly flogged. The only complete work of his +which has been preserved is the commentary on the <i>Carmina +Aurea</i> of Pythagoras. It enjoyed a great reputation in middle +age and Renaissance times, and there are numerous translations +in various European languages. Several other writings, especially +one on providence and fate, a consolatory treatise dedicated +to his patron Olympiodorus of Thebes, author of <span class="grk" title="historikoi +logoi">ἱστορικοὶ λόγοι</span>, are quoted or referred to by Photius and Stobaeus. +The collection of some 260 witticisms (<span class="grk" title="asteia">ἀστεῖα</span>) called <span class="grk" title="Philogelôs">Φιλόγελως</span> +(ed. A. Eberhard, Berlin, 1869), attributed to Hierocles and +Philagrius, has no connexion with Hierocles of Alexandria, but +is probably a compilation of later date, founded on two older +collections. It is now agreed that the fragments of the <i>Elements +of Ethics</i> (<span class="grk" title="Êthikê stoicheiôsis">Ἠθικὴ στοιχείωσις</span>) preserved in Stobaeus are from +a work by a Stoic named Hierocles, contemporary of Epictetus, +who has been identified with the “Hierocles Stoicus vir sanctus +et gravis” in Aulus Gellius (ix. 5. 8). This theory is confirmed +by the discovery of a papyrus (ed. H. von Arnim in <i>Berliner +Klassikertexte</i>, iv. 1906; see also C. Prächter, <i>Hierokles der +Stoiker</i>, 1901).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is an edition of the commentary by F. W. Mullach in +<i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i> (1860), i. 408, including full +information concerning Hierocles, the poem and the commentary; +see also E. Zeller, <i>Philosophie der Griechen</i> (2nd ed.), iii. 2, pp. +681-687; W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur</i> (1898), +pp. 834, 849.</p> + +<p>Another Hierocles, who flourished during the reign of Justinian, +was the author of a list of provinces and towns in the Eastern +Empire, called <span class="grk" title="Synekdêmos">Συνέκδημος</span> (“fellow-traveller”; ed. A. Burckhardt, +1893); it was one of the chief authorities used by Constantine +Porphyrogenitus in his work on the “themes” of the Roman +Empire (see C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur</i>, +1897, p. 417). In Fabricius’s <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. Harles), i. +791, sixteen persons named Hierocles, chiefly literary, are mentioned.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIEROGLYPHICS<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hieros">ἱερός</span>, sacred, and <span class="grk" title="glyphê">γλυφή</span>, carving), the +term used by Greek and Latin writers to describe the sacred +characters of the ancient Egyptian language in its classical +phase. It is now also used for various systems of writing in +which figures of objects take the place of conventional signs. +Such characters which symbolize the idea of a thing without +expressing the name of it are generally styled “ideographs” +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="idea">ἰδέα</span>, idea, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to write), <i>e.g.</i> the Chinese characters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>, <i>Language</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cuneiform</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERONYMITES,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a common name for three or four congregations +of hermits living according to the rule of St Augustine +with supplementary regulations taken from St Jerome’s writings. +Their habit was white, with a black cloak. (1) The Spanish +Hieronymites, established near Toledo in 1374. The order +soon became popular in Spain and Portugal, and in 1415 it +numbered 25 houses. It possessed some of the most famous +monasteries in the Peninsula, including the royal monastery +of Belem near Lisbon, and the magnificent monastery built +by Philip II. at the Escurial. Though the manner of life was +very austere the Hieronymites devoted themselves to studies +and to the active work of the ministry, and they possessed +great influence both at the Spanish and the Portuguese courts. +They went to Spanish and Portuguese America and played a +considerable part in Christianizing and civilizing the Indians. +There were Hieronymite nuns founded in 1375, who became +very numerous. The order decayed during the 18th century +and was completely suppressed in 1835. (2) Hieronymites +of the Observance, or of Lombardy: a reform of (1) effected +by the third general in 1424; it embraced seven houses in +Spain and seventeen in Italy, mostly in Lombardy. It is now +extinct. (3) Poor Hermits of St Jerome, established near Pisa +in 1377: it came to embrace nearly fifty houses whereof only +one in Rome and one in Viterbo survive. (4) Hermits of St +Jerome of the congregation of Fiesole, established in 1406: +they had forty houses but in 1668 they were united to (3).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Helyot, <i>Histoire des ordres religieux</i> (1714), iii. cc. 57-60, +iv. cc. 1-3; Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. +§ 70; and art. “Hieronymiten” in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(ed. 3), and in Welte and Wetzer, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (ed. 2).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> Greek general and historian, +contemporary of Alexander the Great. After the death of the +king he followed the fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman +Eumenes. He was wounded and taken prisoner by Antigonus, +who pardoned him and appointed him superintendent of the +asphalt beds in the Dead Sea. He was treated with equal +friendliness by Antigonus’s son Demetrius, who made him polemarch +of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court +he died at the age of 104. He wrote a history of the Diadochi +and their descendants, embracing the period from the death of +Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus (323-272 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which is one +of the chief authorities used by Diodorus Siculus (xviii.-xx.) +and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus. He made use of +official papers and was careful in his investigation of facts. +The simplicity of his style rendered his work unpopular, but it +is probable that it was on a high level as compared with that +of his contemporaries. In the last part of his work he made a +praiseworthy attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character +and early history of the Romans. He is reproached by Pausanias +(i. 9. 8) with unfairness towards all rulers with the exception +of Antigonus Gonatas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lucian, <i>Macrobii</i>, 22; Plutarch, <i>Demetrius</i>, 39; Diod. Sic. +xviii. 42. 44. 50, xix. 100; Dion. Halic. <i>Antiq. Rom.</i> i. 6; F. +Brückner, “De vita et scriptis Hieronymi Cardii” in <i>Zeitschrift für +die Alterthumswissenschaft</i> (1842); F. Reuss, <i>Hieronymus von Kardia</i> +(Berlin, 1876); C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten +Geschichte</i> (1895); fragments in C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. hist. Graec.</i> +ii. 450-461.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIERRO,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ferro</span>, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming +part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (<i>q.v.</i>). +Pop. (1900) 6508; area 107 sq. m. Hierro, the most westerly +and the smallest island of the group, is somewhat crescent-shaped. +Its length is about 18 m., its greatest breadth about +15 m., and its circumference 50 m. It lies 92 m. W.S.W. of +Teneriffe. Its coast is bound by high, steep rocks, which only +admit of one harbour, but the interior is tolerably level. Its +hill-tops in winter are sometimes wrapped in snow. Better +and more abundant grass grows here than on any of the other +islands. Hierro is exposed to westerly gales which frequently +inflict great damage. Fresh water is scarce, but there is a +sulphurous spring, with a temperature of 102° Fahr. The once +celebrated and almost sacred Til tree, which was reputed to be +always distilling water in great abundance from its leaves, no +longer exists. Only a small part of the cultivable land is under +tillage, the inhabitants being principally employed in pasturage. +Valverde (pop. about 3000) is the principal town. Geographers +were formerly in the habit of measuring all longitudes from +Ferro, the most westerly land known to them. The longitude +assigned at first has, however, turned out to be erroneous; +and the so-called “Longitude of Ferro” does not coincide +with the actual longitude of the island.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGDON<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Higden</span>), <b>RANULF</b> (<i>c.</i> 1299-<i>c.</i> 1363), English +chronicler, was a Benedictine monk of the monastery of St +Werburg in Chester, in which he lived, it is said, for sixty-four +years, and died “in a good old age,” probably in 1363. Higdon +was the author of a long chronicle, one of several such works +based on a plan taken from Scripture, and written for the +amusement and instruction of his society. It closes the long +series of general chronicles, which were soon superseded by the +invention of printing. It is commonly styled the <i>Polychronicon</i>, +from the longer title <i>Ranulphi Castrensis, cognomine Higdon, +Polychronicon</i> (<i>sive Historia Polycratica</i>) <i>ab initio mundi usque +ad mortem regis Edwardi III. in septem libros dispositum</i>. The +work is divided into seven books, in humble imitation of the +seven days of Genesis, and, with exception of the last book, is +a summary of general history, a compilation made with considerable +style and taste. It seems to have enjoyed no little +popularity in the 15th century. It was the standard work on +general history, and more than a hundred MSS. of it are known +to exist. The Christ Church MS. says that Higdon wrote it +down to the year 1342; the fine MS. at Christ’s College, Cambridge, +states that he wrote to the year 1344, after which date, +with the omission of two years, John of Malvern, a monk of +Worcester, carried the history on to 1357, at which date it +ends. According, however, to its latest editor, Higdon’s part +of the work goes no further than 1326 or 1327 at latest, after +which time it was carried on by two continuators to the end. +Thomas Gale, in his <i>Hist. Brit. &c., scriptores</i>, xv. (Oxon., 1691), +published that portion of it, in the original Latin, which comes +down to 1066. Three early translations of the <i>Polychronicon</i> +exist. The first was made by John of Trevisa, chaplain to Lord +Berkeley, in 1387, and was printed by Caxton in 1482; the second +by an anonymous writer, was written between 1432 and 1450; +the third, based on Trevisa’s version, with the addition of an +eighth book, was prepared by Caxton. These versions are +specially valuable as illustrating the change of the English +language during the period they cover.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Polychronicon</i>, with the continuations and the English +versions, was edited for the Rolls Series (No. 41) by Churchill +Babington (vols. i. and ii.) and Joseph Rawson Lumby (1865-1886). +This edition was adversely criticized by Mandell Creighton in the +<i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> for October 1888.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1810-1868), British writer +over the nom-de-plume “Jacob Omnium,” which was the title +of his first magazine article, was born in County Meath, Ireland, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +on the 4th of December 1810. His letters in <i>The Times</i> were +instrumental in exposing many abuses. He was a frequent contributor +to the <i>Cornhill</i>, and was a friend of Thackeray, who +dedicated to him <i>The Adventures of Philip</i>, and one of his ballads, +“Jacob Omnium’s Hoss,” deals with an incident in Higgins’s +career. He died on the 14th of August 1868. Some of his +articles were published in 1875 as <i>Essays on Social Subjects</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1823-1911), American +author and soldier, was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on +the 22nd of December 1823. He was a descendant of Francis +Higginson (1588-1630), who emigrated from Leicestershire to +the colony of Massachusetts Bay and was a minister of the church +of Salem, Mass., in 1629-1630; and a grandson of Stephen +Higginson (1743-1828), a Boston merchant, who was a member +of the Continental Congress in 1783, took an active part in suppressing +Shay’s Rebellion, was the author of the “Laco” letters +(1789), and rendered valuable services to the United States +government as navy agent from the 11th of May to the 22nd of +June 1798. Graduating from Harvard in 1841, he was a schoolmaster +for two years, studied theology at the Harvard Divinity +School, and was pastor in 1847-1850 of the First Religious Society +(Unitarian) of Newburyport, Massachusetts, and of the Free +Church at Worcester in 1852-1858. He was a Free Soil candidate +for Congress (1850), but was defeated; was indicted with +Wendell Phillips and Theodore Parker for participation in the +attempt to release the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston +(1853); was engaged in the effort to make Kansas a free state +after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854; and during +the Civil War was captain in the 51st Massachusetts Volunteers, +and from November 1862 to October 1864, when he was retired +because of a wound received in the preceding August, was +colonel of the First South Carolina Volunteers, the first regiment +recruited from former slaves for the Federal service. He described +his experiences in <i>Army Life in a Black Regiment</i> (1870). +In politics Higginson was successively a Republican, an Independent +and a Democrat. His writings show a deep love of +nature, art and humanity, and are marked by vigour of thought, +sincerity of feeling, and grace and finish of style. In his <i>Common +Sense About Women</i> (1881) and his <i>Women and Men</i> (1888) he +advocated equality of opportunity and equality of rights for the +two sexes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his numerous books are <i>Outdoor Papers</i> (1863); <i>Malbone: +an Oldport Romance</i> (1869); Life of <i>Margaret Fuller Ossoli</i> (in +“American Men of Letters” series, 1884); <i>A Larger History of the +United States of America to the Close of President Jackson’s Administration</i> +(1885); <i>The Monarch of Dreams</i> (1886); <i>Travellers and +Outlaws</i> (1889); <i>The Afternoon Landscape</i> (1889), poems and +translations; <i>Life of Francis Higginson</i> (in “Makers of America,” +1891); <i>Concerning All of Us</i> (1892); <i>The Procession of the Flowers +and Kindred Papers</i> (1897); <i>Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</i> (in +“American Men of Letters” series, 1902); <i>John Greenleaf Whittier</i> +(in “English Men of Letters” series, 1902); <i>A Reader’s History of +American Literature</i> (1903), the Lowell Institute lectures for 1903, +edited by Henry W. Boynton; and <i>Life and Times of Stephen +Higginson</i> (1907). His volumes of reminiscence, <i>Cheerful Yesterdays</i> +(1898), <i>Old Cambridge</i> (1899), <i>Contemporaries</i> (1899), and <i>Part of a +Man’s Life</i> (1905), are characteristic and charming works. His +collected works were published in seven vols. (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGHAM FERRERS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough +in the Eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, +England, 63 m. N.N.W. from London, on branches of the London +& North-Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 2540. It is +pleasantly situated on high ground above the south bank of the +river Nene. The church of St Mary is among the most beautiful +of the many fine churches in Northamptonshire. To the Early +English chancel a very wide north aisle, resembling a second +nave, was added in the Decorated period, and the general appearance +of the chancel, with its north aisle and Lady-chapel, is +Decorated. The tower with its fine spire and west front was +partially but carefully rebuilt in the 17th century. Close to the +church, but detached from it, stands a beautiful Perpendicular +building, the school-house, founded by Archbishop Chichele in +1422. The Bede House, a somewhat similar structure by the +same founder, completes a striking group of buildings. In the +town are remains of Chichele’s college. Higham Ferrers shares +in the widespread local industry of shoemaking. The town is +governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, +1945 acres.</p> + +<p>Higham (Hecham, Heccam, Hegham Ferers) was evidently a +large village before the Domesday Survey. It was then held by +William Peverel of the king, but on the forfeiture of the lordship +by his son it was granted in 1199 to William Ferrers, earl of +Derby. On the outlawry of Robert his grandson it passed to +Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and, reverting to the crown in 1322, +was granted to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, but escheated +to the crown in 1327, and was granted to Henry, earl of Lancaster. +The castle, which may have been built before Henry III. visited +Higham in 1229, is mentioned in 1322, but had been destroyed by +1540. It appears by the confirmation of Henry III. in 1251 that +the borough originated in the previous year when William de +Ferrers, earl of Derby, manumitted by charter ninety-two +persons, granting they should have a free borough. A mayor was +elected from the beginning of the reign of Richard II., while a +town hall is mentioned in 1395. The revenues of Chichele’s +college were given to the corporation by the charter of 1566, +whereby the borough returned one representative to parliament, +a privilege enjoyed until 1832. James I. in 1604 gave the mayor +the commission of the peace with other privileges which were +confirmed by Charles II. in 1664. The old charters were surrendered +in 1684 and a new grant obtained; a further charter +was granted in 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGHGATE,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a northern district of London, England, partly +in the metropolitan borough of St Pancras, but extending +into Middlesex. It is a high-lying district, the greatest +elevation being 426 ft. The Great North Road passes through +Highgate, which is supposed to have received its name from the +toll-gate erected by the bishop of London when the road was +formed through his demesne in the 14th century. It is possible, +however, that “gate” is used here in its old signification, and +that the name means simply high road. The road rose so steeply +here that in 1812 an effort was made to lessen the slope for +coaches by means of an archway, and a new way was completed +in 1900. In the time of stage-coaches a custom was introduced of +making ignorant persons believe that they required to be sworn +and admitted to the freedom of the Highgate before being +allowed to pass the gate, the fine of admission being a bottle of +wine. Not a few famous names occur among the former residents +of Highgate. Bacon died here in 1626; Coleridge and Andrew +Marvell, the poets, were residents. Cromwell House, now a +convalescent home, was presented by Oliver Cromwell to his +eldest daughter Bridget on her marriage with Henry Ireton +(January 15, 1646/7). Lauderdale House, now attached to +the public grounds of Waterlow Park, belonged to the Duke of +Lauderdale, one of the “Cabal” of Charles II. Among various +institutions may be mentioned Whittington’s almshouses, near +Whittington Stone, at the foot of Highgate Hill, on which the +future mayor of London is reputed to have been resting when he +heard the peal of Bow bells and “turned again.” Highgate +grammar school was founded (1562-1565) by Sir Roger Cholmley, +chief-justice. St Joseph’s Retreat is the mother-house of the +Passionist Fathers in England. There is an extensive and +beautiful cemetery on the slope below the church of St Michael.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGHLANDS, THE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> that part of Scotland north-west of a line +drawn from Dumbarton to Stonehaven, including the Inner and +Outer Hebrides and the county of Bute, but excluding the +Orkneys and Shetlands, Caithness, the flat coastal land of the +shires of Nairn, Elgin and Banff, and all East Aberdeenshire (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>). This area is to be distinguished from the Lowlands +by language and race, the preservation of the Gaelic speech being +characteristic. Even in a historical sense the Highlanders were +a separate people from the Lowlanders, with whom, during +many centuries, they shared nothing in common. The town of +Inverness is usually regarded as the capital of the Highlands. +The Highlands consist of an old dissected plateau, or block, +of ancient crystalline rocks with incised valleys and lochs +carved by the action of mountain streams and by ice, the +resulting topography being a wide area of irregularly distributed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +mountains whose summits have nearly the same height above +sea-level, but whose bases depend upon the amount of denudation +to which the plateau has been subjected in various places. +The term “highland” is used in physical geography for any +elevated mountainous plateau.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGHNESS,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> literally the quality of being lofty or high, a +term used, as are so many abstractions, as a title of dignity and +honour, to signify exalted rank or station. These abstractions +arose in great profusion in the Roman empire, both of the +East and West, and “highness” is to be directly traced to the +<i>altitudo</i> and <i>celsitudo</i> of the Latin and the <span class="grk" title="hypsêlotês">ὑψηλότης</span> of the +Greek emperors. Like other “exorbitant and swelling attributes” +of the time, they were conferred on ruling princes +generally. In the early middle ages such titles, couched in +the second or third person, were “uncertain and much more +arbitrary (according to the fancies of secretaries) than in the +later times” (Selden, <i>Titles of Honour</i>, pt. i. ch. vii. 100). In +English usage, “Highness” alternates with “Grace” and +“Majesty,” as the honorific title of the king and queen until +the time of James I. Thus in documents relating to the reign +of Henry VIII. all three titles are used indiscriminately; an +example is the king’s judgment against Dr Edward Crome +(d. 1562), quoted, from the lord chamberlain’s books, ser. 1, +p. 791, in <i>Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc.</i> N.S. xix. 299, where article +15 begins with “Also the Kinges Highness” hath ordered, +16 with “Kinges Majestie,” and 17 with “Kinges Grace.” In +the Dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible of 1611 +James I. is still styled “Majesty” and “Highness”; thus, +in the first paragraph, “the appearance of Your Majesty, as +of the Sun in his strength, instantly dispelled those supposed +and surmised mists ... especially when we beheld the government +established in Your Highness and Your hopeful Seed, +by an undoubted title.” It was, however, in James I.’s +reign that “Majesty” became the official title. It may +be noted that Cromwell, as lord protector, and his wife +were styled “Highness.” In present usage the following +members of the British Royal Family are addressed as “Royal +Highness” (H.R.H.): all sons and daughters, brothers and +sisters, uncles and aunts of the reigning sovereign, grandsons +and granddaughters if children of sons, and also great grandchildren +(decree of 31st of May 1898) if children of an eldest +son of any prince of Wales. Nephews, nieces and cousins and +grandchildren, offspring of daughters, are styled “Highness” +only. A change of sovereign does not entail the forfeiture +of the title “Royal Highness,” once acquired, though the +father of the bearer has become a nephew and not a grandson +of the sovereign. The principal feudatory princes of the Indian +empire are also styled “Highness.”</p> + +<p>As a general rule the members of the blood royal of an Imperial +or Royal house are addressed as “Imperial” or “Royal Highness” +(<i>Altesse Impériale</i>, <i>Royale</i>, <i>Kaiserliche</i>, <i>Königliche Hoheit</i>) +respectively. In Germany the reigning heads of the Grand +Duchies bear the title of Royal or Grand Ducal Highness +(<i>Königliche</i> or <i>Gross-Herzogliche Hoheit</i>), while the members +of the family are addressed as <i>Hoheit</i>, Highness, simply. <i>Hoheit</i> +is borne by the reigning dukes and the princes and princesses +of their families. The title “Serene Highness” has also an +antiquity equal to that of “highness,” for <span class="grk" title="galênotês">γαληνότης</span> and +<span class="grk" title="hêmerotês">ἡμερότης</span> were titles borne by the Byzantine rulers, and serenitas +and <i>serenissimus</i> by the emperors Honorius and Arcadius. +The doge of Venice was also styled <i>Serenissimus</i>. Selden +(<i>op. cit.</i> pt. ii. ch. x. 739) calls this title “one of the greatest +that can be given to any Prince that hath not the superior +title of King.” In modern times “Serene Highness” (<i>Altesse +Sérénissime</i>) is used as the equivalent of the German <i>Durchlaucht</i>, +a stronger form of <i>Erlaucht</i>, illustrious, represented in the +Latin honorific <i>superillustris</i>. Thackeray’s burlesque title +“Transparency” in the court at Pumpernickel very accurately +gives the meaning. The title of <i>Durchlaucht</i> was granted in +1375 by the emperor Charles IV. to the electoral princes (<i>Kurfürsten</i>). +In the 17th century it became the general title borne +by the heads of the reigning princely states of the empire +(<i>reichsländische Fürsten</i>), as <i>Erlaucht</i> by those of the countly +houses (<i>reichständische Grafen</i>). In 1825 the German Diet +agreed to grant the title <i>Durchlaucht</i> to the heads of the mediatized +princely houses whether domiciled in Germany or Austria, +and it is now customary to use it of the members of those +houses. Further, all those who are elevated to the rank of +prince (<i>Fürst</i>) in the secondary meaning of that title (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prince</a></span>) +are also styled <i>Durchlaucht</i>. In 1829 the title of <i>Erlaucht</i>, +which had formerly been borne by the reigning counts of the +empire, was similarly granted to the mediatized countly families +(see <i>Almanack de Gotha</i>, 1909, 107).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGH PLACE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> in the English version of the Old Testament, +the literal translation of the Heb. <i>bāmāh</i>. This rendering is +etymologically correct, as appears from the poetical use of +the plural in such expressions as to ride, or stalk, or stand on +the high places of the earth, the sea, the clouds, and from the +corresponding usage in Assyrian; but in prose <i>bāmāh</i> is always +a place of worship. It has been surmised that it was so called +because the places of worship were originally upon hill-tops, +or that the <i>bāmāh</i> was an artificial platform or mound, perhaps +imitating the natural eminence which was the oldest holy +place, but neither view is historically demonstrable. The +development of the religious significance of the word took +place probably not in Israel but among the Canaanites, from +whom the Israelites, in taking possession of the holy places +of the land, adopted the name also.</p> + +<p>In old Israel every town and village had its own place of +sacrifice, and the common name for these places was <i>bāmāh</i>, +which is synonymous with <i>miḳdāsh</i>, holy place (Amos vii. +9; Isa. xvi. 12, &c.). From the Old Testament and from +existing remains a good idea may be formed of the appearance +of such a place of worship. It was often on the hill above the +town, as at Ramah (I Sam. ix. 12-14); there was a stelè +(<i>maṣṣēbāh</i>), the seat of the deity, and a wooden post or pole +(<i>ashērāh</i>), which marked the place as sacred and was itself +an object of worship; there was a stone altar, often of considerable +size and hewn out of the solid rock<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or built of unhewn +stones (Ex. xx. 25; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Altar</a></span>), on which offerings were burnt +(<i>mizbēḥ</i>, lit. “slaughter place”); a cistern for water, and +perhaps low stone tables for dressing the victims; sometimes +also a hall (<i>lishkāh</i>) for the sacrificial feasts.</p> + +<p>Around these places the religion of the ancient Israelite +centred; at festival seasons, or to make or fulfil a vow, he +might journey to more famous sanctuaries at a distance from +his home, but ordinarily the offerings which linked every side +of his life to religion were paid at the <i>bāmāh</i> of his own town. +The building of royal temples in Jerusalem or in Samaria made +no change in this respect; they simply took their place beside +the older sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Dan, Gilgal, Beersheba, +to which they were, indeed, inferior in repute.</p> + +<p>The religious reformers of the 8th century assail the popular +religion as corrupt and licentious, and as fostering the monstrous +delusion that immoral men can buy the favour of God by +worship; but they make no difference in this respect between +the high places of Israel and the temple in Jerusalem (cf. Amos +v. 21 sqq.; Hos. iv.; Isa. i. 10 sqq.); Hosea stigmatizes the whole +cultus as pure heathenism—Canaanite baal-worship adopted by +apostate Israel. The fundamental law in Deut. xii. prohibits +sacrifice at every place except the temple in Jerusalem; in accordance +with this law Josiah, in 621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, destroyed and desecrated +the altars (<i>bāmōth</i>) throughout his kingdom, where Yahweh had +been worshipped from time immemorial, and forcibly removed +their priests to Jerusalem, where they occupied an inferior rank +in the temple ministry. In the prophets of the 7th and 6th +centuries the word <i>bāmōth</i> connotes “seat of heathenish or +idolatrous worship”; and the historians of the period apply the +term in this opprobrious sense not only to places sacred to other +gods but to the old holy places of Yahweh in the cities and +villages of Judah, which, in their view, had been illegitimate +from the building of Solomon’s temple, and therefore not really +seats of the worship of Yahweh; even the most pious kings of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +Judah are censured for tolerating their existence. The reaction +which followed the death of Josiah (608 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) restored the old +altars of Yahweh; they survived the destruction of the temple +in 586, and it is probable that after its restoration (520-516 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +they only slowly disappeared, in consequence partly of the natural +predominance of Jerusalem in the little territory of Judaea, +partly of the gradual establishment of the supremacy of the +written law over custom and tradition in the Persian period.</p> + +<p>It may not be superfluous to note that the deuteronomic dogma +that sacrifice can be offered to Yahweh only at the temple in +Jerusalem was never fully established either in fact or in legal +theory. The Jewish military colonists in Elephantine in the +5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> had their altar of Yahweh beside the high way; +the Jews in Egypt in the Ptolemaic period had, besides many +local sanctuaries, one greater temple at Leontopolis, with a +priesthood whose claim to “valid orders” was much better +than that of the High Priests in Jerusalem, and the legitimacy +of whose worship is admitted even by the Palestinian rabbis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Baudissin, “Höhendienst,” <i>Protestantische Realencyklopädie</i>³ +(viii. 177-195); Hoonacker, <i>Le Lieu du culte dans la législation +rituelle des Hébreux</i> (1894); v. Gall, <i>Altisraelitische Kultstädte</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Several altars of this type have been preserved.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGH SEAS,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> an expression in international law meaning all +those parts of the sea not under the sovereignty of adjacent +states. Claims have at times been made to exclusive dominion +over large areas of the sea as well as over wide margins, such as a +100 m., 60 m., range of vision, &c., from land. The action and +reaction of the interests of navigation, however, have brought +states to adopt a limitation first enunciated by Bynkershoek +in the formula “terrae dominium finitur ubi finitur armorum +vis.” Thenceforward cannon-shot range became the determining +factor in the fixation of the margin of sea afterwards known as +“territorial waters” (<i>q.v.</i>). With the exception of these territorial +waters, bays of certain dimensions and inland waters +surrounded by territory of the same state, and serving only as +a means of access to ports of the state by whose territory they +are surrounded, and some waters allowed by immemorial usage +to rank as territorial, all seas and oceans form part of the high +sea. The usage of the high sea is free to all the nations of the +world, subject only to such restrictions as result from respect +for the equal rights of others, and to those which nations may +contract with each other to observe. An interesting case +affecting land-locked seas was that of the <i>Emperor of Japan</i> +v. <i>The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company</i>, in +which a collision had taken place in the inland sea of Japan. +The British Supreme Court at Shanghai declared this sea to +form part of the high sea. On appeal to the privy council, the +appellants were successful. Though the decision of the Shanghai +court on the point in question was not dealt with by the privy +council, Japan continues to treat her inland sea as under her +exclusive jurisdiction.</p> +<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGHWAY,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a public road over which all persons have full +right of way—walking, riding or driving. Such roads in England +for the most part either are of immemorial antiquity or have been +created under the authority of an act of parliament. But a +private owner may create a highway at common law by dedicating +the soil to the use of the public for that purpose; and the +using of a road for a number of years, without interruption, will +support the presumption that the soil has been so dedicated. +At common law the parish is required to maintain all highways +within its bounds; but by special custom the obligation may +attach to a particular township or district, and in certain cases +the owner of land is bound by the conditions of his holding to +keep a highway in repair. Breach of the obligation is treated +as a criminal offence, and is prosecuted by indictment. Bridges, +on the other hand, and so much of the highway as is immediately +connected with them, are as a general rule a charge on the +county; and by 22 Henry VIII. c. 5 the obligation of the county is +extended to 300 yds. of the highway on either side of the bridge. +A bridge, like a highway, may be a burden on neighbouring land +<i>ratione tenurae</i>. Private owners so burdened may sometimes +claim a special toll from passengers, called a “toll traverse.”</p> + +<p>Extensive changes in the English law of highways have been +made by various highway acts, viz. the Highway Act 1835, and +amending acts of 1862, 1864, 1878 and 1891. The leading +principle of the Highway Act 1835 is to place the highways +under the direction of parish surveyors, and to provide for +the necessary expenses by a rate levied on the occupiers of land. +It is the duty of the surveyor to keep the highways in repair; and +if a highway is out of repair, the surveyor may be summoned +before justices and convicted in a penalty not exceeding £5, +and ordered to complete the repairs within a limited time. +The surveyor is likewise specially charged with the removal +of nuisances on the highway. A highway nuisance may be abated +by any person, and may be made the subject of indictment at +common law. The amending acts, while not interfering with +the operation of the principal act, authorize the creation of +highway districts on a larger scale. The justices of a county +may convert it or any portion of it into a highway district to +be governed by a highway board, the powers and responsibilities +of which will be the same as those of the parish surveyor under +the former act. The board consists of representatives of the +various parishes, called “way wardens” together with the +justices for the county residing within the district. Salaries +and similar expenses incurred by the board are charged on a +district fund to which the several parishes contribute; but each +parish remains separately responsible for the expenses of maintaining +its own highways. By the Local Government Act 1888 +the entire maintenance of main roads was thrown upon county +councils. The Public Health Act 1875 vested the powers and +duties of surveyors of highways and vestries in urban authorities, +while the Local Government Act 1894 transferred to the +district councils of every rural district all the powers of rural +sanitary authorities and highway authorities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England</a></span>: +<i>Local Government</i>).</p> + +<p>The Highway Act of 1835 specified as offences for which the +driver of a carriage on the public highway might be punished by a +fine, in addition to any civil action that might be brought against +him—riding upon the cart, or upon any horse drawing it, and not +having some other person to guide it, unless there be some person +driving it; negligence causing damage to person or goods being +conveyed on the highway; quitting his cart, or leaving control +of the horses, or leaving the cart so as to be an obstruction on the +highway; not having the owner’s name painted up; refusing to +give the same; and not keeping on the left or near side of the +road, when meeting any other carriage or horse. This rule does +not apply in the case of a carriage meeting a foot-passenger, but +a driver is bound to use due care to avoid driving against any +person crossing the highway on foot. At the same time a +passenger crossing the highway is also bound to use due care in +avoiding vehicles, and the mere fact of a driver being on the +wrong side of the road would not be evidence of negligence in +such a case.</p> + +<p>The “rule of the road” given above is peculiar to the United +Kingdom. Cooley’s treatise on the <i>American Law of Torts</i> +states that “the custom of the country, in some states enacted +into statute law, requires that when teams approach and are +about to pass on the highway, each shall keep to the right of the +centre of the travelled portion of the road.” This also appears +to be the general rule on the continent of Europe.</p> + +<p>By the Lights on Vehicles Act 1907, all vehicles on highways +in England and Wales must display to the front a white light +during the period between one hour after sunset and one hour +before sunrise. Locomotives and motor cars, being dealt with by +special acts, are excluded from the operation of the act, as are +bicycles and tricycles (dealt with by the Local Government Act +1888), and vehicles drawn or propelled by hand, but every +machine or implement drawn by animals comes within the act. +There are two exceptions: (1) vehicles carrying inflammable +goods in the neighbourhood of places where inflammable goods are +stored, and (2) vehicles engaged in harvesting. The public have +a right to pass along a highway freely, safely and conveniently, +and any wrongful act or omission which prevents them doing so +is a nuisance, for the prevention and abatement of which the +highways and other acts contain provisions. Generally, nuisance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +to highway may be caused by encroachment, by interfering with +the soil of the highway, by attracting crowds, by creating +danger or inconvenience on or near the highway, by placing +obstacles on the highway, by unreasonable user, by offences +against decency and good order, &c.</p> + +<p>The use of locomotives, motor cars and other vehicles on highways +is regulated by acts of 1861-1903.</p> + +<p>Formerly under the Turnpike Acts many of the more important +highways were placed under the management of boards of +commissioners or trustees. The trustees were required and +empowered to maintain, repair and improve the roads committed +to their charge, and the expenses of the trust were met by tolls +levied on persons using the road. The various grounds of exemption +from toll on turnpike roads were all of a public character, +<i>e.g.</i> horses and carriages attending the sovereign or royal family, +or used by soldiers or volunteers in uniform, were free from toll. +In general horses and carriages used in agricultural work were +free from toll. By the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878 +disturnpiked roads became “main roads.” Ordinary highways +might be declared to be “main roads,” and “main roads” be +reduced to the status of ordinary highways.</p> + +<p>In Scotland the highway system is regulated by the Roads and +Bridges Act 1878 and amending acts. The management and +maintenance of the highways and bridges is vested in county +road trustees, viz. the commissioners of supply, certain elected +trustees representing ratepayers in parishes and others. One of +the consequences of the act was the abolition of tolls, statute-labour, +causeway mail and other exactions for the maintenance +of bridges and highways, and all turnpike roads became highways, +and all highways became open to the public free of tolls +and other exactions. The county is divided into districts under +district committees, and county and district officers are appointed. +The expenses of highway management in each district (or parish), +together with a proportion of the general expenses of the act, are +levied by the trustees by an assessment on the lands and heritages +within the district (or parish).</p> + +<p>Highway, in the law of the states of the American Union, +generally means a lawful public road, over which all citizens are +allowed to pass and repass on foot, on horseback, in carriages and +waggons. Sometimes it is held to be restricted to county roads +as opposed to town-ways. In statutes dealing with offences connected +with the highway, such as gaming, negligence of carriers, +&c., “highway” includes navigable rivers. But in a statute +punishing with death robbery on the highway, railways were held +not to be included in the term. In one case it has been held +that any way is a highway which has been used as such for +fifty years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Glen, <i>Law Relating to Highways</i>; Pratt, <i>Law of Highways, +Main Roads and Bridges</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1827-1893), chief-justice of +Victoria, Australia, sixth son of T. Higinbotham of Dublin, was +born on the 19th of April 1827, and educated at the Royal School, +Dungannon, and at Trinity College, Dublin. After entering as a +law student at Lincoln’s Inn, and being engaged as reporter on +the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> in 1849, he emigrated to Victoria, where +he contributed to the <i>Melbourne Herald</i> and practised at the bar +(having been “called” in 1853) with much success. In 1850 he +became editor of the <i>Melbourne Argus</i>, but resigned in 1859 and +returned to the bar. He was elected to the legislative assembly +in 1861 for Brighton as an independent Liberal, was rejected at +the general election of the same year, but was returned nine +months later. In 1863 he became attorney-general. Under his +influence measures were passed through the legislative assembly +of a somewhat extreme character, completely ignoring the +rights of the legislative council, and the government was +carried on without any Appropriation Act for more than a year. +Mr Higinbotham, by his eloquence and earnestness, obtained +great influence amongst the members of the legislative assembly, +but his colleagues were not prepared to follow him as far as he +desired to go. He contended that in a constitutional colony like +Victoria the secretary of state for the colonies had no right to +fetter the discretion of the queen’s representative. Mr Higinbotham +did not return to power with his chief, Sir James +M’Culloch, after the defeat of the short-lived Sladen administration; +and being defeated for Brighton at the next general election +by a comparatively unknown man, he devoted himself to his +practice at the bar. Amongst his other labours as attorney-general +he had codified all the statutes which were in force +throughout the colony. In 1874 he was returned to the legislative +assembly for Brunswick, but after a few months he +resigned his seat. In 1880 he was appointed a puisne judge of the +supreme court, and in 1886, on the retirement of Sir William +Stawell, he was promoted to the office of chief justice. Mr +Higinbotham was appointed president of the International +Exhibition held at Melbourne in 1888-1889, but did not take any +active part in its management. One of his latest public acts was +to subscribe a sum of £10, 10s. a week towards the funds of the +strikers in the great Australian labour dispute of 1890, an act +which did not meet with general approval. He died in 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILARION, ST<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 290-371), abbot, the first to introduce the +monastic system into Palestine. The chief source of information +is a life written by St Jerome; it was based upon a letter, no +longer extant, written by St Epiphanius, who had known +Hilarion. The accounts in Sozomen are mainly based on +Jerome’s <i>Vita</i>; but Otto Zöcker has shown that Sozomen also +had at his disposal authentic local traditions (see “Hilarion von +Gaza” in the <i>Neue Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie</i>, 1894), the +most important study on Hilarion, which is written against the +hypercritical school of Weingarten and shows that Hilarion must +be accepted as an historical personage and the <i>Vita</i> as a substantially +correct account of his career. He was born of heathen +parents at Tabatha near Gaza about 290; he was sent to +Alexandria for his education and there became a convert to +Christianity; about 306 he visited St Anthony and became his +disciple, embracing the eremitical life. He returned to his +native place and for many years lived as a hermit in the desert by +the marshes on the Egyptian border. Many disciples put themselves +under his guidance; but his influence must have been +limited to south Palestine, for there is no mention of him in +Palladius or Cassian. In 356 he left Palestine and went again to +Egypt; but the accounts given in the <i>Vita</i> of his travels during +the last fifteen years of his life must be taken with extreme +caution. It is there said that he went from Egypt to Sicily, +and thence to Epidaurus, and finally to Cyprus where he met +Epiphanius and died in 371.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An abridged story of his life will be found in Alban Butler’s <i>Lives +of the Saints</i>, on the 21st of October, and a critical sketch with full +references in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hilary</span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), <b>ST</b> (<i>c.</i> 300-367), bishop of Pictavium +(Poitiers), an eminent “doctor” of the Western Church, sometimes +referred to as the “malleus Arianorum” and the “Athanasius +of the West,” was born at Poitiers about the end of the +3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> His parents were pagans of distinction. He +received a good education, including what had even then become +somewhat rare in the West, some knowledge of Greek. He +studied, later on, the Old and New Testament writings, with +the result that he abandoned his neo-platonism for Christianity, +and with his wife and his daughter received the sacrament of +baptism. So great was the respect in which he was held by the +citizens of Poitiers that about 353, although still a married man, +he was unanimously elected bishop. At that time Arianism +was threatening to overrun the Western Church; to repel the +irruption was the great task which Hilary undertook. One +of his first steps was to secure the excommunication, by those +of the Gallican hierarchy who still remained orthodox, of Saturninus, +the Arian bishop of Arles and of Ursacius and Valens, two +of his prominent supporters. About the same time he wrote to +the emperor Constantius a remonstrance against the persecutions +by which the Arians had sought to crush their opponents +(<i>Ad Constantium Augustum liber primus</i>, of which the most +probable date is 355). His efforts were not at first successful, +for at the synod of Biterrae (Beziers), summoned in 356 by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +Constantius with the professed purpose of settling the longstanding +disputes, Hilary was by an imperial rescript banished +with Rhodanus of Toulouse to Phrygia, in which exile he spent +nearly four years. Thence, however, he continued to govern +his diocese; while he found leisure for the preparation of two +of the most important of his contributions to dogmatic and +polemical theology, the <i>De synodis</i> or <i>De fide Orientalium</i>, +an epistle addressed in 358 to the Semi-Arian bishops in Gaul, +Germany and Britain, expounding the true views (sometimes +veiled in ambiguous words) of the Oriental bishops on the +Nicene controversy, and the <i>De trinitate libri xii.</i>,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> composed +in 359 and 360, in which, for the first time, a successful +attempt was made to express in Latin the theological subtleties +elaborated in the original Greek. The former of these works +was not entirely approved by some members of his own party, +who thought he had shown too great forbearance towards the +Arians; to their criticisms he replied in the <i>Apologetica ad +reprehensores libri de synodis responsa</i>. In 359 Hilary attended +the convocation of bishops at Seleucia In Isauria, where, with +the Egyptian Athanasians, he joined the Homoiousian majority +against the Arianizing party headed by Acacius of Caesarea; +thence he went to Constantinople, and, in a petition (<i>Ad Constantium +Augustum liber secundus</i>) personally presented to the +emperor in 360, repudiated the calumnies of his enemies and sought +to vindicate his trinitarian principles. His urgent and repeated +request for a public discussion with his opponents, especially +with Ursacius and Valens, proved at last so inconvenient that +he was sent back to his diocese, which he appears to have reached +about 361, within a very short time of the accession of Julian. +He was occupied for two or three years in combating Arianism +within his diocese; but in 364, extending his efforts once more +beyond Gaul, he impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, and a +man high in the imperial favour, as heterodox. Summoned to +appear before the emperor (Valentinian) at Milan and there +maintain his charges, Hilary had the mortification of hearing +the supposed heretic give satisfactory answers to all the questions +proposed; nor did his (doubtless sincere) denunciation of the +metropolitan as a hypocrite save himself from an ignominious +expulsion from Milan. In 365 he published the <i>Contra Arianos +vel Auxentium Mediolanensem liber</i>, in connexion with the +controversy; and also (but perhaps at a somewhat earlier date) +the <i>Contra Constantium Augustum liber</i>, in which he pronounced +that lately deceased emperor to have been Antichrist, a rebel +against God, “a tyrant whose sole object had been to make +a gift to the devil of that world for which Christ had suffered.” +Hilary is sometimes regarded as the first Latin Christian hymn-writer, +but none of the compositions assigned to him is indisputable. +The later years of his life were spent in comparative +quiet, devoted in part to the preparation of his expositions of +the Psalms (<i>Tractatus super Psalmos</i>), for which he was largely +indebted to Origen; of his <i>Commentarius in Evangelium Matthaei</i>, +a work on allegorical lines of no exegetical value; and of +his no longer extant translation of Origen’s commentary on Job. +While he thus closely followed the two great Alexandrians, +Origen and Athanasius, in exegesis and Christology respectively, +his work shows many traces of vigorous independent thought. +He died in 367; no more exact date is trustworthy. He holds +the highest rank among the Latin writers of his century. Designated +already by Augustine as “the illustrious doctor of the +churches,” he by his works exerted an increasing influence in +later centuries; and by Pius IX. he was formally recognized +as “universae ecclesiae doctor” at the synod of Bordeaux +in 1851. Hilary’s day in the Roman calendar is the 13th of +January.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Editions.</span>—Erasmus (Basel, 1523, 1526, 1528); P. Coustant +(Benedictine, Paris, 1693); Migne (<i>Patrol. Lat.</i> ix., x.). The <i>Tractatus +de mysteriis</i>, ed. J. F. Gamurrini (Rome, 1887), and the <i>Tractatus +super Psalmos</i>, ed. A. Zingerle in the Vienna <i>Corpus scrip. eccl. Lat.</i> +xxii. Translation by E. W. Watson in <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene +Fathers</i>, ix.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The life by (Venantius) Fortunatus <i>c.</i> 550 is almost +worthless. More trustworthy are the notices in Jerome (<i>De vir. +illus.</i> 100), Sulpicius Severus (<i>Chron.</i> ii. 39-45) and in Hilary’s own +writings. H. Reinkens, <i>Hilarius von Poictiers</i> (1864); O. Bardenhewer, +<i>Patrologie</i>; A. Harnack, <i>Hist. of Dogma</i>, esp. vol. iv.; F. +Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyk.</i> viii.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name is derived from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hilaros">ἱλαρός</span>, gay, cheerful, whence +hilarious, hilarity.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hilary’s own title was <i>De fide contra Arianos</i>. It really deals +less with the doctrine of the Trinity than with that of the Incarnation. +That it is not an easy work to read is due partly to the nature of +the subject, partly to the fact that it was issued in detached portions.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> “Hilary” was the name of one of the four terms of the English +legal year. These terms were abolished by the Judicature Act, +1873, s. 26, and “sittings” substituted. It is now the name of the +sitting of the Supreme Court of Judicature which commences on +the 11th of January and terminates on the Wednesday before +Easter. In the Inns of Court, Hilary is one of the four dining +terms; it begins on the 11th of January and ends on the 1st of +February. It is also the name of one of the terms at the universities +of Oxford (more usually “Lent term”) and Dublin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hilarus</span> (<span class="sc">Hilary</span>), bishop of Rome from +461 to 468, is known to have been a deacon and to have acted +as legate of Leo the Great at the “robber” synod of Ephesus +in 449. There he so vigorously defended the conduct of Flavian +in deposing Eutyches that he was thrown into prison, whence +he had great difficulty in making his escape to Rome. He was +chosen to succeed Leo on the 19th of November 461. In 465 +he held at Rome a council which put a stop to some abuses, +particularly to that of bishops appointing their own successors. +His pontificate was also marked by a successful encroachment +of the papal authority on the metropolitan rights of the French +and Spanish hierarchy, and by a resistance to the toleration +edict of Anthemius, which ultimately caused it to be recalled. +Hilarius died on the 17th of November 467, and was succeeded +by Simplicius.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (fl. 1125), a Latin poet who is supposed to have +been an Englishman. He was one of the pupils of Abelard at his +oratory of Paraclete, and addressed to him a copy of verses +with its refrain in the vulgar tongue, “<i>Tort avers vos li mestre</i>,” +Abelard having threatened to discontinue his teaching because +of certain reports made by his servant about the conduct of the +scholars. Later Hilarius made his way to Angers. His poems +are contained in MS. supp. lat. 1008 of the Bibliothèque Nationale, +Paris, purchased in 1837 at the sale of M. de Rosny. Quotations +from this MS. had appeared before, but in 1838 it was edited by +Champollion Figeac as <i>Hilarii versus et ludi</i>. His works consist +chiefly of light verses of the goliardic type. There are verses +addressed to an English nun named Eva, lines to Rosa, “<i>Ave +splendor puellarum, generosa domina</i>,” and another poem +describes the beauties of the priory of Chaloutre la Petite, in the +diocese of Sens, of which the writer was then an inmate. One +copy of satirical verses seems to aim at the pope himself. He +also wrote three miracle plays in rhymed Latin with an admixture +of French. Two of them, <i>Suscitatio Lazari</i> and <i>Historia +de Daniel repraesentanda</i>, are of purely liturgical type. At the +end of <i>Lazarus</i> is a stage direction to the effect that if the performance +has been given at matins, Lazarus should proceed with +the <i>Te Deum</i>, if at vespers, with the <i>Magnificat</i>. The third, +<i>Ludus super iconia Sancti Nicholai</i>, is founded on a sufficiently +foolish legend. Petit de Julleville sees in the play a satiric +intention and a veiled incredulity that put the piece outside +the category of liturgical drama.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A rhymed Latin account of a dispute in which the nuns of Ronceray +at Angers were concerned, contained in a cartulary of Ronceray, +is also ascribed to the poet, who there calls himself Hilarius +Canonicus. The poem is printed in the <i>Bibliothèque de l’École des +Chartes</i> (vol. xxxvii. 1876), and is dated by P. Marchegay from 1121. +See also a notice in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i> (xii. 251-254), supplemented +(in xx. 627-630), <i>s.v.</i> Jean Bodel, by Paulin Paris; +also Wright, <i>Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period</i> +(1846); and Petit de Julleville, <i>Les Mystères</i> (vol. i. 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILARIUS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hilary</span>), <b>ST</b> (<i>c.</i> 403-449), bishop of Arles, was +born about 403. In early youth he entered the abbey of Lérins, +then presided over by his kinsman Honoratus (St Honoré), and +succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric of Arles in 429. Following +the example of St Augustine, he is said to have organized his +cathedral clergy into a “congregation,” devoting a great part of +their time to social exercises of ascetic religion. He held the +rank of metropolitan of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted +to realize the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +which seemed implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor +Patroclus (417). Hilarius deposed the bishop of Besançon +(Chelidonus), for ignoring this primacy, and for claiming a +metropolitan dignity for Besançon. An appeal was made to +Rome, and Leo I. used it to extinguish the Gallican vicariate +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 444). Hilarius was deprived of his rights as metropolitan +to consecrate bishops, call synods, or exercise ecclesiastical oversight +in the province, and the pope secured the edict of Valentinian +III., so important in the history of the Gallican church, +“ut episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid +apostolicae sedis auctoritas sanxisset.” The papal claims were +made imperial law, and violation of them subject to legal +penalties (<i>Novellae Valent.</i> iii. tit. 16). Hilarius died in 449, and +his name was afterwards introduced into the Roman martyrology +for commemoration on the 5th of May. He enjoyed during +his lifetime a high reputation for learning and eloquence as well +as for piety; his extant works (<i>Vita S. Honorati Arelatensis +episcopi</i> and <i>Metrum in Genesin</i>) compare favourably with any +similar literary productions of that period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A poem, <i>De Providentia</i>, usually included among the writings of +Prosper, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Arles.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDA, ST,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> strictly Hild (614-680), was the daughter of +Hereric, a nephew of Edwin, king of Northumbria. She was +converted to Christianity before 633 by the preaching of Paulinus. +According to Bede she took the veil in 614, when Oswio was king +of Northumbria and Aidan bishop of Lindisfarne, and spent a +year in East Anglia, where her sister Hereswith had married +Æthelhere, who was to succeed his brother Anna, the reigning +king. In 648 or 649 Hilda was recalled to Northumbria by +Aidan, and lived for a year in a small monastic community north +of the Wear. She then succeeded Heiu, the foundress, as abbess +of Hartlepool, where she remained several years. From Hartlepool +Hilda moved to Whitby, where in 657 she founded the +famous double monastery which in the time of the first abbess +included among its members five future bishops, Bosa, Ætta, +Oftfor, John and Wilfrid II. as well as the poet Cædmon. Hilda +exercised great influence in Northumbria, and ecclesiastics from +all over Christian England and from Strathclyde and Dalriada +visited her monastery. In 655 after the battle of Winwæd +Oswio entrusted his daughter Ælfled to Hilda, with whom she +went to Whitby. At the synod of Whitby in 664 Hilda sided +with Colman and Cedd against Wilfrid. In spite of the defeat of +the Celtic party she remained hostile to Wilfrid until 679 at any +rate. Hilda died in 680 after a painful illness lasting for seven +years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. eccl.</i> (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1869), iii. 24, 25, +iv. 23; Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i> (Raine, <i>Historians of Church of York</i>, +Rolls Series, vol. i., 1879), c. liv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDBURGHAUSEN,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the duchy of +Saxe-Meiningen, situated in a wide and fruitful valley on the +river Werra, 19 m. S.E. of Meiningen, on the railway Eisenach-Lichtenfels. +Pop. (1905) 7456. The principal buildings are a +ducal palace, erected 1685-1695, now used as barracks, with a +park in which there is a monument to Queen Louisa of Prussia, +the old town hall, two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church +and a theatre. A technical college occupies the premises in +which Meyer’s Bibliographisches Institut carried on business +from 1828, when it removed hither from Gotha, until 1874, when +it was transferred to Leipzig. A monument has been erected to +those citizens who died in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. +The manufactures include linen fabrics, cloth, toys, buttons, +optical instruments, agricultural machines, knives, mineral +waters, condensed soups and condensed milk. Hildburghausen +(in records <i>Hilpershusia</i> and <i>Villa Hilperti</i>) belonged in the 13th +century to the counts of Henneberg, from whom it passed to the +landgraves of Thuringia and then to the dukes of Saxony. In +1683 it became the capital of a principality which in 1826 was +united to Saxe-Meiningen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. A. Human, <i>Chronik der Stadt Hildburghausen</i> (Hildburghausen, +1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDEBERT,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hydalbert</span>, <span class="sc">Gildebert</span> or <span class="sc">Aldebert</span> (<i>c.</i> +1055-1133), French writer and ecclesiastic, was born of poor +parents at Lavardin, near Vendôme, and was intended for the +church. He was probably a pupil of Berengarius of Tours, and +became master (<i>scholasticus</i>) of the school at Le Mans; in 1091 +he was made archdeacon and in 1096 bishop of Le Mans. He +had to face the hostility of a section of his clergy and also of the +English king, William II., who captured Le Mans and carried the +bishop with him to England for about a year. Hildebert then +travelled to Rome and sought permission to resign his bishopric, +which Pope Paschal II. refused. In 1116 his diocese was thrown +into great confusion owing to the preaching of Henry of +Lausanne, who was denouncing the higher clergy, especially the +bishop. Hildebert compelled him to leave the neighbourhood of +Le Mans, but the effects of his preaching remained. In 1125 +Hildebert was translated very unwillingly to the archbishopric of +Tours, and there he came into conflict with the French king +Louis VI. about the rights of ecclesiastical patronage and with +the bishop of Dol about the authority of his see in Brittany. He +presided over the synod of Nantes, and died at Tours probably on +the 18th of December 1133. Hildebert, who built part of the +cathedral at Le Mans, has received from some writers the title of +saint, but there appears to be no authority for this. He was not +a man of very strict life; his contemporaries, however, had a +very high opinion of him and he was called <i>egregius versificator</i>.</p> + +<p>The extant writings of Hildebert consist of letters, poems, +a few sermons, two lives and one or two treatises. An edition +of his works prepared by the Maurist, Antoine Beaugendre, +and entitled <i>Venerabilis Hildeberti, primo Cenomannensis +episcopi, deinde Turonensis archiepiscopi, opera tam edita quam +inedita</i>, was published in Paris in 1708 and was reprinted with +additions by J. J. Bourassé in 1854. These editions, however, +are very faulty. They credit Hildebert with numerous writings +which are the work of others, while some genuine writings are +omitted. The revelation of this fact has affected Hildebert’s +position in the history of medieval thought. His standing as +a philosopher rested upon his supposed authorship of the important +<i>Tractatus theologicus</i>; but this is now regarded as the +work of Hugh of St Victor, and consequently Hildebert can +hardly be counted among the philosophers. His genuine +writings include many letters. These <i>Epistolae</i> enjoyed great +popularity in the 12th and 13th centuries, and were frequently +used as classics in the schools of France and Italy. Those which +concern the struggle between the emperor Henry V. and Pope +Paschal II. have been edited by E. Sackur and printed in the +<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Libelli de lite ii.</i> (1893). His +poems, which deal with various subjects, are disfigured by many +defects of style and metre, but they too were very popular. +Hildebert attained celebrity also as a preacher both in French +and Latin, but only a few of his sermons are in existence, most +of the 144 attributed to him by his editors being the work of +Peter Lombard and others. The <i>Vitae</i> written by Hildebert +are the lives of Hugo, abbot of Cluny, and of St Radegunda. +Undoubtedly genuine is also his <i>Liber de querimonia et conflictu +carnis et spiritus seu animae</i>. Hildebert was an excellent Latin +scholar, being acquainted with Cicero, Ovid and other authors, +and his spirit is rather that of a pagan than of a Christian writer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. Hauréau, <i>Les Mélanges poétiques d’Hildebert de Lavardin</i> +(Paris, 1882), and <i>Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins de +la Bibliothèque nationale</i> (Paris, 1890-1893); Comte P. de Déservillers, +<i>Un Évêque au XII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, Hildebert et son temps</i> (Paris, 1876); +E. A. Freeman, <i>The Reign of Rufus</i>, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1882); tome xi. +of the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, and H. Böhmer in Band viii. +of Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1900). The most important +work, however, to be consulted is L. Dieudonné’s <i>Hildebert de +Lavardin, évêque du Mans, archévêque de Tours. Sa vie, ses lettres</i> +(Paris, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDEBRAND, LAY OF<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (<i>Das Hildebrandslied</i>), a unique +example of Old German alliterative poetry, written about the +year 800 on the first and last pages of a theological manuscript, +by two monks of the monastery of Fulda. The fragment, or +rather fragments, only extend to sixty-eight lines, and the +conclusion of the poem is wanting. The theory propounded by +Karl Lachmann, that the poem had been written in its present +form from memory, has been discredited by later philological +investigation; it is clearly a transcript of an older original, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +which the copyists—or more probably the writer to whom we +owe the older version—imperfectly understood. The language +of the poem shows a curious mixture of Low and High German +forms; as the High German elements point to the dialect of +Fulda, the inference is that the copyists were reproducing an +originally Low German lay in the form in which it was sung in +Franconia.</p> + +<p>The fragment is mainly taken up with a dialogue between +Hildebrand and his son Hadubrand. When Hildebrand followed +his master, Theodoric the Great, who was fleeing eastwards +before Odoacer, he left his young wife and an infant child behind +him. At his return to his old home, after thirty years’ absence +among the Huns, he is met by a young warrior and challenged +to single combat. Before the fight begins, Hildebrand asks +for the name of his opponent, and discovering his own son in him, +tries to avert the fight, but in vain; Hadubrand only regards +the old man’s words as the excuse of cowardice. “In sharp +showers the ashen spears fall on the shields, and then the warriors +seize their swords and hew vigorously at the white shields until +these are beaten to pieces....” With these words the fragment +breaks off abruptly, giving no clue as to the issue of the +combat. There is little doubt, however, that, as in the Old +Norse <i>Asmundar saga</i>, where the tale is alluded to, the fight +must have been fatal to Hadubrand. But in the later traditions, +both of the Old Norse <i>Thidreks saga</i> (13th century), and the +so-called <i>Jüngere Hildebrandslied</i>—a German popular lay, +preserved in several versions from the 15th to the 17th century—Hadubrand +is simply represented as defeated, and obliged to +recognize his father. The Old High German <i>Hildebrandslied</i> +is dramatically conceived, and written in a terse, vigorous +style; it is the only remnant that has come down from early +Germanic times of an undoubtedly extensive ballad literature, +dealing with the national sagas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The MS. of the <i>Hildebrandslied</i>, originally in Fulda, is now preserved +in the Landesbibliothek at Cassel. The literature on the +poem will be found most conveniently in K. Müllenhoff and W. +Scherer, <i>Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem VIII. bis +XI. Jahrh.</i>, 3rd ed. (1892), and in W. Braune, <i>Althochdeutsches +Lesebuch</i>, 5th ed. (1902), to which authorities the reader is referred +for a critical text. The poem was discovered and first printed (as +prose) by J. G. von Eckhart, <i>Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis</i> +(1729), i. 864 ff.; the first scholarly edition was that of the +brothers Grimm (1812). Facsimile reproductions of the MS. have +been published by W. Grimm (1830), E. Sievers (1872), G. Könnecke +in his <i>Bilderatlas</i> (1887; 2nd ed., 1895) and M. Enneccerus (1897). +See also K. Lachmann, <i>Über das Hildebrandslied</i> (1833) in <i>Kleine +Schriften</i>, i. 407 ff.; C. W. M. Grein, <i>Das Hildebrandslied</i> +(1858; 2nd ed., 1880); O. Schröder, <i>Bemerkungen zum Hildebrandslied</i> +(1880); H. Möller, <i>Zur althochdeutschen Alliterationspoesie</i> +(1888); R. Heinzel, <i>Über die ostgotische Heldensage</i> (1889); B. Busse, +“Sagengeschichtliches zum Hildebrandslied,” in Paul und Braune’s +<i>Beiträge</i>, xxvi. (1901), pp. 1 ff.; R. Koegel, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters</i>, i. (1894), pp. 210 ff.; +and R. Koegel and W. Brückner, in Paul’s <i>Grundriss der germanischen +Philologie</i>, 2nd ed., ii. (1901), pp. 71 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1818-1868), German painter, +was born in 1818, and served as apprentice to his father, a +house-painter at Danzig. He was not twenty when he came +to Berlin, where he was taken in hand by Wilhelm Krause, a +painter of sea pieces. Several early pieces exhibited after his +death—a breakwater, dated 1838, ships in a breeze off Swinemünde +(1840), and other canvases of this and the following +year—show Hildebrandt to have been a careful student of nature, +with inborn talents kept down by the conventionalisms of the +formal school to which Krause belonged. Accident made him +acquainted with masterpieces of French art displayed at the +Berlin Academy, and these awakened his curiosity and envy. +He went to Paris, where, about 1842, he entered the atelier of +Isabey and became the companion of Lepoittevin. In a short +time he sent home pictures which might have been taken for +copies from these artists. Gradually he mastered the mysteries +of touch and the secrets of effect in which the French at this +period excelled. He also acquired the necessary skill in painting +figures, and returned to Germany, skilled in the rendering of +many kinds of landscape forms. His pictures of French street +life, done about 1843, while impressed with the stamp of the +Paris school, reveal a spirit eager for novelty, quick at grasping, +equally quick at rendering, momentary changes of tone and +atmosphere. After 1843 Hildebrandt, under the influence of +Humboldt, extended his travels, and in 1864-1865 he went round +the world. Whilst his experience became enlarged his powers +of concentration broke down. He lost the taste for detail in +seeking for scenic breadth, and a fatal facility of hand diminished +the value of his works for all those who look for composition +and harmony of hue as necessary concomitants of tone and +touch. In oil he gradually produced less, in water colours +more, than at first, and his fame must rest on the sketches +which he made in the latter form, many of them represented by +chromo-lithography. Fantasies in red, yellow and opal, sunset, +sunrise and moonshine, distances of hundreds of miles like those +of the Andes and the Himalaya, narrow streets in the bazaars +of Cairo or Suez, panoramas as seen from mastheads, wide +cities like Bombay or Pekin, narrow strips of desert with measureless +expanses of sky—all alike display his quality of bravura. +Hildebrandt died at Berlin on the 25th of October 1868.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1804-1874), German painter, +was born at Stettin. He was a disciple of the painter Schadow, +and, on Schadow’s appointment to the presidency of a new +academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828, followed that master +to Düsseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting pictures illustrative +of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he followed +the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He +produced rapidly “Faust and Mephistopheles” (1824), “Faust +and Margaret” (1825), and “Lear and Cordelia” (1828). He +visited the Netherlands with Schadow in 1829, and wandered +alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not alter his style, though +it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism and realism. +At Düsseldorf, about 1830, he produced “Romeo and Juliet,” +“Tancred and Clorinda,” and other works which deserved +to be classed with earlier paintings; but during the same period +he exhibited (1829) the “Robber” and (1832) the “Captain +and his Infant Son,” examples of an affected but kindly realism +which captivated the public, and marked to a certain extent +an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made Hildebrandt’s +fame is the “Murder of the Children of King Edward” (1836), +of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still belongs +to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late +in life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in +pictures representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed +again into the romantic in “Othello and Desdemona.” After +1847 Hildebrandt gave himself up to portrait-painting, and in +that branch succeeded in obtaining a large practice. He died +at Düsseldorf in 1874.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDEGARD, ST<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1098-1179), German abbess and mystic, +was born of noble parents at Böckelheim, in the countship of +Sponheim, in 1098, and from her eighth year was educated at +the Benedictine cloister of Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of +the count of Sponheim, whom she succeeded as abbess in 1136. +From earliest childhood she was accustomed to see visions, +which increased in frequency and vividness as she approached +the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years +kept almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-third +year (1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them. +Committed to writing by her intimate friend the monk Godefridus, +they now form the first and most important of her printed +works, entitled <i>Scivias</i> (probably an abbreviation for “sciens +vias” or “nosce vias Domini”) <i>s. visionum et revelatianum +libri iii.</i>, and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of +Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard +of Hildegard’s revelations, and became so convinced of their +reality that he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknowledging +her as a prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated +her recognition as such by his friend and former pupil Pope +Eugenius III. in the synod of Trèves (1148). In the same +year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen of her nuns to +a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which +she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of +voluminous correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +in the course of which she was unwearied in the exercise of +her gift of prophecy, she wielded for many years an increasing +influence upon her contemporaries—an influence doubtless +due to the fact that she was imbued with the most widely +diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and hopes, of her time. +Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV. and +Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and +also the theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted +numerous questions in dogmatic theology for her determination. +She died in 1179, but has never been canonized; her name, +however, was received into the Roman martyrology in the +15th century, September 17th being the day fixed for her +commemoration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Godefridus +and Theodoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566. +Hildegard’s writings, besides the <i>Scivias</i> already mentioned and +first printed in Paris in 1513, include the <i>Liber divinorum operum</i>, +<i>Explanatio regulae S. Benedicti</i>, <i>Physica</i> and <i>the Letters</i>, &c., are +contained in Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i> t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra’s +<i>Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis +opera</i> (Paris, 1882).</p> + +<p>For a modern study of the saint’s writings, see <i>Sainte Hildegarde</i> +by Pal Franche, “<i>Les Saints</i>” series (Paris, 1903); and U. Chevalier, +<i>Répertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl.</i> 2153.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDEN,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town in the Prussian Rhine province on the +Itter, 9 m. S.E. of Düsseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,946. +It possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and a +monument to the emperor William I. Its manufactures include +silks, velvets, carpets, calico-printing, machinery and brick-making.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDESHEIM,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Germany, in +the Prussian province of Hanover, beautifully situated at +the north foot of the Harz Mountains, on the right bank of +the Innerste, 18 m. S.E. of Hanover by railway, and on the +main line from Berlin, via Magdeburg to Cologne. Pop. (1885) +20,386, (1905) 47,060. The town consists of an old and a new +part, and is surrounded by ramparts which have been converted +into promenades. Its streets are for the most part narrow +and irregular, and contain many old houses with overhanging +upper storeys and richly and curiously adorned wooden façades. +Its religious edifices are five Roman Catholic and four Evangelical +churches and a synagogue. The most interesting is the Roman +Catholic cathedral, which dates from the middle of the 11th +century and occupies the site of a building founded by the +emperor Louis the Pious early in the 9th century. It is famous +for its antiquities and works of art. These include the bronze +doors executed by Bishop Bernward, with reliefs from the +history of Adam and of Jesus Christ; a brazen font of the +13th century; two large candelabra of the 11th century; the +sarcophagus of St Godehard; and the tomb of St Epiphanius. +In the cathedral also there is a bronze column 15 ft. high, +adorned with reliefs from the life of Christ and dating from 1022, +and another column, at one time thought to be an Irminsäule +erected in honour of the Saxon idol Irmin, but now regarded +as belonging to a Roman aqueduct. On the wall of the Romanesque +crypt, which was restored in 1896, is a rose-bush, +alleged to be a thousand years old; this sends its branches to +a height of 24 ft. and a breadth of 30 ft., and they are trained +to interlace one of the windows. Before the cathedral is the +pretty cloister garth, with the chapel of St Anne, erected in +1321 and restored in 1888. The Romanesque church of St +Godehard was built in the 12th century and restored in the +19th. The church of St Michael, founded by Bishop Bernward +early in the 11th century and restored after injury by fire in +1186, contains a unique painted ceiling of the 12th century, +the sarcophagus and monument of Bishop Bernward, and a +bronze font; it is now a Protestant parish church, but the +crypt is used by the Roman Catholics. The church of the +Magdalene possesses two candelabra, a gold cross, and various +other works in metal by Bishop Bernward; and the Lutheran +church of St Andrew has a choir dating from 1389 and a tower +385 ft. high. In the suburb of Moritzberg there is an abbey +church founded in 1040, the only pure columnar basilica in +north Germany.</p> + +<p>The chief secular buildings are the town-hall (Rathaus), +which dates from the 15th century and was restored in 1883-1892, +adorned with frescoes illustrating the history of the city; +the Tempelherrenhaus, in Late Gothic erroneously said to have +been built by the Knights Templars; the Knochenhaueramthaus, +formerly the gild-house of the butchers, which was restored +after being damaged by fire in 1884, and is probably the finest +specimen of a wooden building in Germany; the Michaelis +monastery, used as a lunatic asylum; and the old Carthusian +monastery. The Römer museum of antiquities and natural +history is housed in the former church of St Martin; the buildings +of Trinity hospital, partly dating from the 14th century, are +now a factory; and the Wedekindhaus (1598) is now a savings-bank. +The educational establishments include a Roman +Catholic and a Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school +and college and two technical institutions, the Georgstift for +daughters of state servants and a conservatoire of music. Hildesheim +is the seat of considerable industry. Its chief productions +are sugar, tobacco and cigars, stoves, machines, vehicles, +agricultural implements and bricks. Other trades are brewing +and tanning. It is connected with Hanover by an electric tram +line, 19 m. in length.</p> + +<p>Hildesheim owes its rise and prosperity to the fact that in +822 it was made the seat of the bishopric which Charlemagne +had founded at Elze a few years before. Its importance was +greatly increased by St Bernward, who was bishop from 993 +to 1022 and walled the town. By his example and patronage +the art of working in metals was greatly stimulated. In the +13th century Hildesheim became a free city of the Empire; +in 1249 it received municipal rights and about the same time +it joined the Hanseatic league. Several of its bishops belonged +to one or other of the great families of Germany; and gradually +they became practically independent. The citizens were frequently +quarrelling with the bishops, who also carried on wars +with neighbouring princes, especially with the house of Brunswick-Lüneburg, +under whose protection Hildesheim placed +itself several times. The most celebrated of these struggles +is the one known as the <i>Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde</i>, which broke out +early in the 16th century when John, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, +was bishop. At first the bishop and his allies were successful, +but in 1521 the king of Denmark and the duke of Brunswick +overran his lands and in 1523 he made peace, surrendering +nearly all his possessions. Much, however, was restored when +Ferdinand, prince of Bavaria, was bishop (1612-1650), as this +warlike prelate took advantage of the disturbances caused by +the Thirty Years’ War to seize the lost lands, and at the beginning +of the 19th century the extent of the prince bishopric was +682 sq. m. In 1801 the bishopric was secularized and in 1803 +was granted to Prussia; in 1807 it was incorporated with the +kingdom of Westphalia and in 1813 was transferred to Hanover. +In 1866, along with Hanover, it was annexed by Prussia. In +1803 a new bishopric of Hildesheim, a spiritual organization only, +was established, and this has jurisdiction over all the Roman +Catholic churches in the centre of north Germany.</p> + +<p>In October 1868 a unique collection of ancient Augustan +silver plate was discovered on the Galgenberg near Hildesheim +by some soldiers who were throwing up earthworks. This +<i>Hildesheimer Silberfund</i> excited great interest among classical +archaeologists. Some authorities think that it is the actual +plate which belonged to Drusus himself. The most noteworthy +pieces are a crater richly ornamented with arabesques and +figures of children, a platter with a representation of Minerva, +another with one of the boy Hercules and another with one of +Cybele. The collection is in the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim</i>, edited by +R. Döbner (Hildesheim, 1881-1901); the <i>Urkundenbuch des +Hochstifts Hildesheim</i>, edited by K. Janicke and H. Hoogeweg +(Leipzig and Hanover, 1896-1903); C. Bauer, <i>Geschichte von +Hildesheim</i> (Hildesheim, 1892); A. Bertram, <i>Geschichte des Bistums +Hildesheim</i> (Hildesheim, 1899 fol.); C. Euling, <i>Hildesheimer Land +und Leute des 16ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Hildesheim, 1892); O. Fischer, <i>Die +Stadt Hildesheim während des dreissigjährigen Krieges</i> (Hildesheim, +1897); A. Grebe, <i>Auf Hildesheimschem Boden</i> (Hildesheim, 1884); +H. Cuno, <i>Hildesheims Künstler im Mittelalter</i> (Hildesheim, 1886); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +W. Wachsmuth, <i>Geschichte von Hochstift und Stadt Hildesheim</i> +(Hildesheim, 1863); R. Döbner, <i>Studien zur Hildesheimischen +Geschichte</i> (Hildesheim, 1901); Lachner, <i>Die Holzarchitektur Hildesheims</i> +(Hildesheim, 1882); Seifart, <i>Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und +Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheims</i> (Hildesheim, 1889). For +the <i>Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde</i>, see H. Delius, <i>Die Hildesheimische +Stiftsfehde</i> 1519 (Leipzig, 1803). For the <i>Hildesheimer Silberfund</i>, +see Wieseler, <i>Der Hildesheimer Silberfund</i> (Göttingen, 1869); Holzer, +Der Hildesheimer antike Silberfund (Hildesheim, 1871); and E. +Pernice and F. Winter, <i>Der Hildesheimer Silberfund der königlichen +Museen zu Berlin</i> (Berlin, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILDRETH, RICHARD<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1807-1865), American journalist +and author, was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th +of June 1807, the son of Hosea Hildreth (1782-1835), a teacher +of mathematics and later a Congregational minister. Richard +graduated at Harvard in 1826, and, after studying law at +Newburyport, was admitted to the bar at Boston in 1830. +He had already taken to journalism, and in 1832 he became +joint founder and editor of a daily newspaper, the Boston +Atlas. Having in 1834 gone to the South for the benefit of his +health, he was led by what he witnessed of the evils of slavery +(chiefly in Florida) to write the anti-slavery novel <i>The Slave: +or Memoir of Archy Moore</i> (1836; enlarged edition, 1852, <i>The +White Slave</i>). In 1837 he wrote for the <i>Atlas</i> a series of articles +vigorously opposing the annexation of Texas. In the same year +he published <i>Banks, Banking, and Paper Currencies</i>, a work which +helped to promote the growth of the free banking system in +America. In 1838 he resumed his editorial duties on the <i>Atlas</i>, +but in 1840 removed, on account of his health, to British Guiana, +where he lived for three years and was editor of two weekly newspapers +in succession at Georgetown. He published in this year +(1840) a volume in opposition to slavery, <i>Despotism in America</i> +(2nd ed., 1854). In 1849 he published the first three volumes of +his <i>History of the United States</i>, two more volumes of which were +published in 1851 and the sixth and last in 1852. The first +three volumes of this history, his most important work, deal +with the period 1492-1789, and the second three with the period +1789-1821. The history is notable for its painstaking accuracy +and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist +bias. Hildreth’s <i>Japan as It Was and Is</i> (1855) was at the time +a valuable digest of the information contained in other works +on that country (new ed., 1906). He also wrote a campaign +biography of William Henry Harrison (1839); <i>Theory of Morals</i> +(1844); and <i>Theory of Politics</i> (1853), as well as <i>Lives of Atrocious +Judges</i> (1856), compiled from Lord Campbell’s two works. In +1861 he was appointed United States consul at Trieste, but +ill-health compelled him to resign and remove to Florence, +where he died on the 11th of July 1865.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1823-1907), +German Protestant divine, was born at Stappenbeck +near Salzwedel in Prussian Saxony on the 2nd of June 1823. +He studied at Berlin and Halle, and in 1890 became professor +ordinarius of theology at Jena. He belonged to the Tübingen +school. “Fond of emphasizing his independence of Baur, he +still, in all important points, followed in the footsteps of his +master; his method, which he is wont to contrast as <i>Literarkritik</i> +with Baur’s <i>Tendenzkritik</i>, is nevertheless essentially the same +as Baur’s” (Otto Pfleiderer). On the whole, however, he +modified the positions of the founder of the Tübingen school, +going beyond him only in his investigations into the Fourth +Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the <i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche +Theologie</i>. He died on the 12th of January 1907.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works include: <i>Die elementarischen Recognitionen und +Homilien</i> (1848); <i>Die Evangelien und die Briefe des Johannes nach +ihrem Lehrbegriff</i> (1849); <i>Das Markusevangelium</i> (1850); <i>Die +Evangelien nach ihrer Entstehung und geschichtlichen Bedeutung</i> +(1854); <i>Das Unchristentum</i> (1855); <i>Jüd. Apokalyptik</i> (1857); +<i>Novum Testamentum extra canonem receptum</i> (4 parts, 1866; 2nd +ed., 1876-1884); <i>Histor.-kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i> +(1875); <i>Acta Apostolorum graece et latine secundum antiquissimos +testes</i> (1899); the first complete edition of the <i>Shepherd of Hermas</i> +(1887); <i>Ignatii et Polycarpi epistolae</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, AARON<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1685-1750), English author, was born in +London on the 10th of February 1685. He was the son of +George Hill of Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, who contrived +to sell an estate entailed on his son. In his fourteenth year he +left Westminster School to go to Constantinople, where William, +Lord Paget de Beaudesert (1637-1713), a relative of his mother, +was ambassador. Paget sent him, under care of a tutor, to travel +in Palestine and Egypt, and he returned to England in 1703. +He was estranged from his patron by the “envious fears and +malice of a certain female,” and again went abroad as companion +to Sir William Wentworth. On his return home in 1709 he published +<i>A Full and Just Account of the Present State of the Ottoman +Empire</i>, a production of which he was afterwards much ashamed, +and he addressed his poem of <i>Camillus</i> to Charles Mordaunt, +earl of Peterborough. In the same year he is said to have been +manager of Drury Lane theatre and in 1710 of the Haymarket. +His first play, <i>Elfrid: or The Fair Inconstant</i> (afterwards +revised as <i>Athelwold</i>), was produced at Drury Lane in 1709. +His connexion with the theatre was of short duration, and the +rest of his life was spent in ingenious commercial enterprises, +none of which were successful, and in literary pursuits. He +formed a company to extract oil from beechmast, another for +the colonization of the district to be known later as Georgia, +a third to supply wood for naval construction from Scotland, +and a fourth for the manufacture of potash. In 1730 he wrote +<i>The Progress of Wit, being a caveat for the use of an Eminent +Writer</i>. The “eminent writer” was Pope, who had introduced +him into <i>The Dunciad</i> as one of the competitors for the prize +offered by the goddess of Dullness, though the satire was qualified +by an oblique compliment. A note in the edition of 1729 on +the obnoxious passage, in which, however, the original initial +was replaced by asterisks, gave Hill great offence. He wrote +to Pope complaining of his treatment, and received a reply +in which Pope denied responsibility for the notes. Hill appears +to have been a persistent correspondent, and inflicted on Pope +a series of letters, which are printed in Elwin & Courthope’s +edition (x. 1-78). Hill died on the 8th of February 1750, +and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The best of his plays +were <i>Zara</i> (acted 1735) and <i>Merope</i> (1749), both adaptations +from Voltaire. He also published two series of periodical +essays, <i>The Prompter</i> (1735) and, with William Bond, <i>The +Plaindealer</i> (1724). He was generous to fellow-men of letters, +and his letters to Richard Savage, whom he helped considerably, +show his character in a very amiable light.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Works of the late Aaron Hill, consisting of letters ..., original +poems.... With an essay on the Art of Acting</i> appeared in 1753, +and his <i>Dramatic Works</i> in 1760. His <i>Poetical Works</i> are included +in Anderson’s and other editions of the British poets. A full account +of his life is provided by an anonymous writer in Theophilus Cibber’s +<i>Lives of the Poets</i>, vol. v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, AMBROSE POWELL<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1825-1865), American Confederate +soldier, was born in Culpeper county, Virginia, on the +9th of November 1825, and graduated from West Point in 1847, +being appointed to the 1st U.S. artillery. He served in the +Mexican and Seminole Wars, was promoted first lieutenant in +September 1851, and in 1855-1860 was employed on the United +States’ coast survey. In March 1861, just before the outbreak +of the Civil War, he resigned his commission, and when his state +seceded he was made colonel of a Virginian infantry regiment, +winning promotion to the rank of brigadier-general on the field +of Bull Run. In the Peninsular campaign of 1862 he gained +further promotion, and as a major-general Hill was one of the +most prominent and successful divisional commanders of Lee’s +army in the Seven Days’, Second Bull Run, Antietam and +Fredericksburg campaigns. His division formed part of “Stonewall” +Jackson’s corps, and he was severely wounded in the flank +attack of Chancellorsville in May 1863. After Jackson’s death +Hill was made a lieutenant-general and placed in command of the +3rd corps of Lee’s army, which he led in the Gettysburg campaign +of 1863, the autumn campaign of the same year, and the Wilderness +and Petersburg operations of 1864-65. He was killed in +front of the Petersburg lines on the 2nd of April 1865. His +reputation as a troop leader in battle was one of the highest +amongst the generals of both sides, and both Lee and Jackson, +when on their death-beds their thoughts wandered in delirium +to the battlefield, called for “A. P. Hill” to deliver the decisive +blow.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, DANIEL HARVEY<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1821-1889), American Confederate +soldier, was born in York district, South Carolina, on the 12th of +July 1821, and graduated at the United States Military Academy +in 1842, being appointed to the 1st United States artillery. He +distinguished himself in the Mexican War, being breveted +captain and major for bravery at Contreras and Churubusco and +at Chapultepec respectively. In February 1849 he resigned his +commission and became a professor of mathematics at Washington +College (now Washington and Lee University), Lexington, +Virginia. In 1854 he joined the faculty of Davidson College, +North Carolina, and was in 1859 made superintendent of the +North Carolina Military Institute of Charlotte. At the outbreak +of the Civil War, D. H. Hill was made colonel of a Confederate +infantry regiment, at the head of which he won the action of Big +Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, Va., on the 10th of June 1861. +Shortly after this he was made a brigadier-general. He took part +in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations in the spring of +1862, and as a major-general led a division with great distinction +in the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days. He took part in +the Second Bull Run campaign in August-September 1862, and in +the Antietam campaign the stubborn resistance of D. H. Hill’s +division in the passes of South Mountain enabled Lee to concentrate +for battle. The division bore a conspicuous part in +the battles of the Antietam and Fredericksburg. On the reorganization +of the army of Northern Virginia after Jackson’s death, +D. H. Hill was not appointed to a corps command, but somewhat +later in 1863 he was sent to the west as a lieutenant-general +and commanded one of Bragg’s corps in the brilliant victory of +Chickamauga. D. H. Hill surrendered with Gen. J. E. Johnston +on the 26th of April 1865. In 1866-1869 he edited a magazine, +The Land we Love, at Charlotte, N.C., which dealt with +social and historical subjects and had a great influence in the +South. In 1877 he became president of the university of +Arkansas, a post which he held until 1884, and in 1885 president +of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville, +Georgia. General Hill died at Charlotte, N.C., on the 24th of +September 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, DAVID BENNETT<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1843-1910), American politician, +was born at Havana, New York, on the 29th of August 1843. In +1862 he removed to Elmira, New York, where in 1864 he was +admitted to the bar. He at once became active in the affairs of +the Democratic party, attracting the attention of Samuel J. +Tilden, one of whose shrewdest and ablest lieutenants he became. +In 1871 and 1872 he was a member of the New York State +Assembly, and in 1877 and again in 1881, presided over the +Democratic State Convention. In 1882 he was elected mayor of +Elmira, and in the same year was chosen lieutenant-governor of +the state, having been defeated for nomination as governor by +Grover Cleveland. In January 1885, however, Cleveland having +resigned to become president, Hill became governor, and in +November was elected for a three-year term, and subsequently +re-elected. In 1891-1897 he was a member of the United States +Senate. During these years, and in 1892, when he tried to get the +presidential nomination, he was prominent in working against +Cleveland. In 1896 he opposed the free silver plank in the +platform adopted by the Democratic National Convention +which nominated W. J. Bryan; in the National Convention of +1900, however, the free-silver issue having been subordinated to +anti-imperialism, he seconded Bryan’s nomination. After 1897 +he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1905 retired from +politics. He died in Albany on the 30th of October 1910.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1835-1903), English +author, son of Arthur Hill, head master of Bruce Castle school, +was born at Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 7th of June 1835. +Arthur Hill, with his brothers Rowland Hill, the postal reformer, +and Matthew Davenport Hill, afterwards recorder of Birmingham, +had worked out a system of education which was to exclude compulsion +of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle, of which Arthur +Hill was head master, was founded to carry into execution their +theories, known as the Hazelwood system. George Birkbeck +Hill was educated in his father’s school and at Pembroke College, +Oxford. In 1858 he began to teach at Bruce Castle school, and +from 1868 to 1877 was head master. In 1869 he became a +regular contributor to the <i>Saturday Review</i>, with which he remained +in connexion until 1884. On his retirement from teaching +he devoted himself to the study of English 18th-century literature, +and established his reputation as the most learned commentator +on the works of Samuel Johnson. He settled at Oxford in 1887, +but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad. +He died at Hampstead, London, on the 27th of February 1903. +His works include: <i>Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics</i> +(1878); an edition of Boswell’s <i>Correspondence</i> (1879); a +laborious edition of <i>Boswell’s Life of Johnson, including Boswell’s +Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, and Johnson’s Diary of a +Journey into North Wales</i> (Clarendon Press, 6 vols., 1887); <i>Wit and +Wisdom of Samuel Johnson</i> (1888); <i>Select Essays of Dr Johnson</i> +(1889); <i>Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland</i> (1890); <i>Letters of +Johnson</i> (1892); <i>Johnsonian Miscellanies</i> (2 vols., 1897); an +edition (1900) of Edward Gibbon’s <i>Autobiography</i>; Johnson’s +<i>Lives of the Poets</i> (3 vols., 1905), and other works on the 18th-century +topics. Dr Birkbeck Hill’s elaborate edition of Boswell’s +<i>Life</i> is a monumental work, invaluable to the student.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition +of the <i>Lives of the English Poets</i> (1905), and the <i>Letters</i> edited by his +daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, JAMES J.<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1838-  ), American railway capitalist, +was born near Guelph, Ontario, Canada, on the 16th of September +1838, and was educated at Rockwood (Ont.) Academy, a Quaker +institution. In 1856 he settled in St Paul, Minnesota. Abandoning, +because of his father’s death, his plans to study medicine, +he became a clerk in the office of a firm of river steamboat +agents and shippers, and later the agent for a line of river +packets; he established about 1870 transportation lines on +the Mississippi and on the Red River (of the North). He effected +a traffic arrangement between the St Paul Pacific Railroad +and his steamboat lines; and when the railway failed in 1873 +for $27,000,000, Hill interested Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord +Strathcona), George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen), and +other Canadian capitalists, in the road and in the wheat country +of the Red River Valley; he got control of the bonds (1878), +foreclosed the mortgage, reorganized the road as the St Paul, +Minneapolis & Manitoba, and began to extend the line, +then only 380 m. long, toward the Pacific; and in 1883 he +became its president. He was president of the Great Northern +Railway (comprehending all his secondary lines) from 1893 +to April 1907, when he became chairman of its board of directors. +In the extension (1883-1893) of this railway westward to Puget +Sound (whence it has direct steamship connexions with China +and Japan), the line was built by the company itself, none of +the work being handled by contractors. Subsequently his +financial interests in American railways caused constant sensations +in the stock-markets. The Hill interests obtained control +not only of the Great-Northern system, but of the Northern +Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and proposed +the construction of another northern line to the Pacific coast. +Hill was the president of the Northern Securities Company, which +in 1904 was declared by the United States Supreme Court to be +in conflict with the Sherman Anti-Trust Law. (See Vol. 27, p. +733.) Among Hill’s gifts to public institutions was one of $500,000 +to the St. Paul Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, JOHN<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1716-1775), called from his Swedish honours, +“Sir” John Hill, English author, son of the Rev. Theophilus +Hill, is said to have been born in Peterborough in 1716. +He was apprenticed to an apothecary and on the completion +of his apprenticeship he set up in a small shop in St Martin’s +Lane, Westminster. He also travelled over the country in +search of rare herbs, with a view to publishing a <i>hortus siccus</i>, +but the plan failed. His first publication was a translation +of Theophrastus’s <i>History of Stones</i> (1746). From this time +forward he was an indefatigable writer. He edited the <i>British +Magazine</i> (1746-1750), and for two years (1751-1753) he wrote +a daily letter, “The Inspector,” for the <i>London Advertiser and +Literary Gazette</i>. He also produced novels, plays and scientific +works, and was a large contributor to the supplement of Ephraim +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +Chambers’s <i>Cyclopaedia</i>. His personal and scurrilous writings +involved him in many quarrels. Henry Fielding attacked +him in the <i>Covent Garden Journal</i>, Christopher Smart wrote +a mock-epic, <i>The Hilliad</i>, against him, and David Garrick replied +to his strictures against him by two epigrams, one of which +runs:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“For physics and farces, his equal there scarce is;</p> +<p class="i05">His farces are physic, his physic a farce is.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">He had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who +accused him of plagiarizing his <i>Orpheus</i>, also with Samuel +Foote and Henry Woodward. From 1759 to 1775 he was +engaged on a huge botanical work—<i>The Vegetable System</i> +(26 vols. fol.)—adorned by 1600 copperplate engravings. Hill’s +botanical labours were <span class="correction" title="amended from underaken">undertaken</span> at the request of his patron, +Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the order of Vasa from +the king of Sweden in 1774. He had a medical degree from +Edinburgh, and he now practised as a quack doctor, making +considerable sums by the preparation of vegetable medicines. He +died in London on the 21st of November 1775.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the +<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, the most valuable are those that +deal with botany. He is said to have been the author of the second +part of <i>The Oeconomy of Human Life</i> (1751), the first part of which is +by Lord Chesterfield, and Hannah Glasse’s famous manual of cookery +was generally ascribed to him (see Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 285). Dr +Johnson said of him that he was “an ingenious man, but had no +veracity.”</p> + +<p>See a <i>Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late +Sir John Hill</i> (1779), which is chiefly occupied with a descriptive +catalogue of his works; also <i>Temple Bar</i> (1872, xxxv. 261-266).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1792-1872), English lawyer +and penologist, was born on the 6th of August 1792, at Birmingham, +where his father, T. W. Hill, for long conducted a private +school. He was a brother of Sir Rowland Hill. He early acted +as assistant in his father’s school, but in 1819 was called to +the bar at Lincoln’s Inn. He went the midland circuit. In +1832 he was elected one of the Liberal members for Kingston-upon-Hull, +but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834. +On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was chosen +recorder; and in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in +bankruptcy for the Bristol district. Having had his interest +excited in questions relating to the treatment of criminal offenders, +he ventilated in his charges to the grand juries, as well as in +special pamphlets, opinions which were the means of introducing +many important reforms in the methods of dealing with crime. +One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his brother +Frederick Hill (1803-1896), whose <i>Amount, Causes and Remedies +of Crime</i>, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons +for Scotland, marked an era in the methods of prison discipline. +Hill was one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion +of Useful Knowledge, and the originator of the <i>Penny Magazine</i>. +He died at Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 7th of June 1872.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are <i>Practical Suggestions to the Founders of +Reformatory Schools</i> (1855); <i>Suggestions for the Repression of Crime</i> +(1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of +Birmingham; <i>Mettray</i> (1855); <i>Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts</i> +(1864); <i>Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and +Reformatories of Dublin</i> (1865); <i>Addresses delivered at the Birmingham +and Midland Institute</i> (1867). See <i>Memoir of Matthew Davenport +Hill</i>, by his daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport Hill (1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, OCTAVIA<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1838-  ) and <b>MIRANDA</b> (1836-1910), +English philanthropic workers, were born in London, being +daughters of Mr James Hill and granddaughters of Dr Southwood +Smith, the pioneer of sanitary reform. Miss Octavia Hill’s +attention was early drawn to the evils of London housing, +and the habits of indolence and lethargy induced in many +of the lower classes by their degrading surroundings. She +conceived the idea of trying to free a few poor people from +such influences, and Mr Ruskin, who sympathized with her +plans, supplied the money for starting the work. For £750 +Miss Hill purchased the 56 years’ lease of three houses in one +of the poorest courts of Marylebone. Another £78 was spent in +building a large room at the back of her own house where she +could meet the tenants. The houses were put in repair, and +let out in sets of two rooms. At the end of eighteen months +it was possible to pay 5% interest, to repay £48 of the +capital, as well as meet all expenses for taxes, ground rent +and insurance. What specially distinguished this scheme was +that Miss Hill herself collected the rents, thus coming into +contact with the tenants and helping to enforce regular and +self-respecting habits. The success of her first attempt encouraged +her to continue. Six more houses were bought and treated +in a similar manner. A yearly sum was set aside for the repairs +of each house, and whatever remained over was spent on such +additional appliances as the tenants themselves desired. This +encouraged them to keep their tenements in good repair. By +the help of friends Miss Hill was now enabled to enlarge the +scope of her work. In 1869 eleven more houses were bought. +The plan was to set a visitor over a small court or block of +buildings to do whatever work in the way of rent-collecting, +visiting for the School Board, &c., was required. As years +went on Miss Octavia Hill’s work was largely increased. Numbers +of her friends bought and placed under her care small groups +of houses, over which she fulfilled the duties of a conscientious +landlord. Several large owners of tenement houses, notably +the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, entrusted to her the management +of such property, and consulted her about plans of rebuilding; +and a number of fellow-workers were trained by +her in the management of houses for the poor. The results +in Southwark (where Red Cross Hall was established) and +elsewhere were very beneficial. Both Miss Miranda and Miss +Octavia Hill took an interest in the movement for bringing +beauty into the homes of the poor, and the former was practically +the founder of the Kyrle Society, the first suggestion of which +was contained in a paper read to a small circle of friends. Both +sisters worked for the preservation of open spaces, and helped +to promote the work of the Charity Organization Society, and +for several years Miss Miranda Hill (who died on the 31st of May +1910) did admirable work in Marylebone as a member of the +Board of Guardians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, ROWLAND<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1744-1833), English preacher, sixth son +of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart. (d. 1783), was born at Hawkstone, +Shropshire, on the 23rd of August 1744. He was educated at +Shrewsbury, Eton and St John’s College, Cambridge. Stimulated +by George Whitefield’s example, he scandalized the university +authorities and his own friends by preaching and visiting +the sick before he had taken orders. In 1773 he was appointed +to the parish of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he soon attracted +great crowds to his open-air services. Having inherited considerable +property, he built for his own use Surrey Chapel, in the +Blackfriars Road, London (1783). Hill conducted his services +in accordance with the forms of the Church of England, in +whose communion he always remained. Both at Surrey Chapel +and in his provincial “gospel tours” he had great success. +His oratory was specially adapted for rude and uncultivated +audiences. He possessed a voice of great power, and according +to Southey “his manner” was “that of a performer as great +in his own line as Kean or Kemble.” His earnest and pure +purposes more than made up for his occasional lapses from good +taste and the eccentricity of his wit. He helped to found the +Religious Tract Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, +and the London Missionary Society, and was a stout advocate +of vaccination. His best-known work is the <i>Village Dialogues</i>, +which first appeared in 1810, and reached a 34th edition in +1839. He died on the 11th of April 1833.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by E. Sidney (1833); <i>Memoirs</i>, by William Jones (1834); +and <i>Memorials</i>, by Jas. Sherman (1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, SIR ROWLAND<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1795-1879), English administrator, +author of the penny postal system, a younger brother of Matthew +Davenport Hill, and third son of T. W. Hill, who named him after +Rowland Hill the preacher, was born on the 3rd of December +1795 at Kidderminster. As a young child he had, on account +of an affection of the spine, to maintain a recumbent position, +and his principal method of relieving the irksomeness of his +situation was to repeat figures aloud consecutively until he had +reached very high totals. A similar bent of mind was manifested +when he entered school in 1802, his aptitude for mathematics +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span> +being quite exceptional. But he was indebted for the direction of +his abilities in no small degree to the guidance of his father, +a man of advanced political and social views, which were qualified +and balanced by the strong practical tendency of his mind. At +the age of twelve Rowland began to assist in teaching mathematics +in his father’s school at Hilltop, Birmingham, and latterly +he had the chief management of the school. On his suggestion +the establishment was removed in 1819 to Hazelwood, a more +commodious building in the Hagley Road, in order to have the +advantages of a large body of boys, for the purpose of properly +carrying out an improved system of education. That system, +which was devised principally by Rowland, was expounded in +a pamphlet entitled <i>Plans for the Government and Education +of Boys in Large Numbers</i>, the first edition of which appeared +in 1822, and a second with additions in 1827. The principal +feature of the system was “to leave as much as possible all +power in the hands of the boys themselves”; and it was so +successful that, in a circular issued six years after the experiment +had been in operation, it was announced that “the head master +had never once exercised his right of veto on their proceedings.” +It may be said that Rowland Hill, as an educationist, is entitled +to a place side by side with Arnold of Rugby, and was equally +successful with him in making moral influence of the highest +kind the predominant power in school discipline. After his +marriage in 1827 Hill removed to a new school at Bruce Castle, +Tottenham, which he conducted until failing health compelled +him to retire in 1833. About this time he became secretary +of Gibbon Wakefield’s scheme for colonizing South Australia, +the objects of which he explained in 1832 in a pamphlet on +<i>Home Colonies</i>, afterwards partly reprinted during the Irish +famine under the title <i>Home Colonies for Ireland</i>. It was in 1835 +that his zeal as an administrative reformer was first directed +to the postal system. The discovery which resulted from these +investigations is when stated so easy of comprehension that +there is great danger of losing sight of its originality and thoroughness. +A fact which enhances its merit was that he was not a +post-office official, and possessed no practical experience of the +details of the old system. After a laborious collection of statistics +he succeeded in demonstrating that the principal expense of +letter carriage was in receiving and distributing, and that the +cost of conveyance differed so little with the distance that a +uniform rate of postage was in reality the fairest to all parties +that could be adopted. Trusting also that the deficiency in +the postal rate would be made up by the immense increase of +correspondence, and by the saving which would be obtained +from prepayment, from improved methods of keeping accounts, +and from lessening the expense of distribution, he in his famous +pamphlet published in 1837 recommended that within the +United Kingdom the rate for letters not exceeding half an ounce +in weight should be only one penny. The employment of postage +stamps is mentioned only as a suggestion, and in the following +words: “Perhaps the difficulties might be obviated by using a +bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp, and covered +at the back with a glutinous wash which by applying a little +moisture might be attached to the back of the letter.” Proposals +so striking and novel in regard to a subject in which every one +had a personal interest commanded immediate and general +attention. So great became the pressure of public opinion +against the opposition offered to the measure by official prepossessions +and prejudices that in 1838 the House of Commons +appointed a committee to examine the subject. The committee +having reported favourably, a bill to carry out Hill’s recommendations +was brought in by the government. The act received +the royal assent in 1839, and after an intermediate rate of four-pence +had been in operation from the 5th of December of that +year, the penny rate commenced on the 10th of January 1840. +Hill received an appointment in the Treasury in order to superintend +the introduction of his reforms, but he was compelled +to retire when the Liberal government resigned office in 1841. +In consideration of the loss he thus sustained, and to mark the +public appreciation of his services, he was in 1846 presented +with the sum of £13,360. On the Liberals returning to office +in the same year he was appointed secretary to the postmaster-general +and in 1854 he was made chief secretary. His ability +as a practical administrator enabled him to supplement his +original discovery by measures realizing its benefits in a degree +commensurate with continually improving facilities of communication, +and in a manner best combining cheapness with +efficiency. In 1860 his services were rewarded with the honour +of knighthood; and when failing health compelled him to resign +his office in 1864, he received from parliament a grant of £20,000 +and was also allowed to retain his full salary of £2000 a year +as retiring pension. In 1864 the university of Oxford conferred +on him the degree of D.C.L., and on the 6th of June 1879 he was +presented with the freedom of the city of London. The presentation, +on account of his infirm health, took place at his +residence at Hampstead, and he died on the 27th of August +following. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He wrote, in conjunction with his brother, Arthur Hill, a <i>History +of Penny Postage</i>, published in 1880, with an introductory memoir by +his nephew, G. Birkbeck Hill. See also <i>Sir Rowland Hill, the Story +of a Great Reform</i>, told by his daughter (1907). To commemorate +his memory the Rowland Hill Memorial and Benevolent Fund was +founded shortly after his death for the purpose of relieving distressed +persons connected with the post office who were outside the scope +of the Superannuation Act. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Post and Postal Service</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL, ROWLAND HILL,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (1772-1842), British +general, was the second son of (Sir) John Hill, of Hawkstone, +Shropshire, and nephew of the Rev. Rowland Hill (1744-1833), +was born at Prees Hall near Hawkstone on the 11th of August +1772. He was gazetted to the 38th regiment in 1790, obtaining +permission at the same time to study in a military academy at +Strassburg, where he continued after removing into the 53rd +regiment with the rank of lieutenant in 1791. In the beginning +of 1793 he raised a company, and was promoted to the rank of +captain. The same year he acted as assistant secretary to the +British minister at Genoa, and served with distinction as a staff +officer in the siege of Toulon. Hill took part in many minor +expeditions in the following years. In 1800, when only twenty-eight, +he was made a brevet colonel, and in 1801 he served with +distinction in Sir Ralph Abercromby’s expedition to Egypt, and +was wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He continued to +command his regiment, the 90th, until 1803, when he became a +brigadier-general. During his regimental command he introduced +a regimental school and a sergeants’ mess. He held various +commands as brigadier, and after 1805 as major-general, in +Ireland. In 1805 he commanded a brigade in the abortive +Hanover expedition. In 1808 he was appointed to a brigade in +the force sent to Portugal, and from Vimeira to Vittoria, in +advance or retreat, he proved himself Wellington’s ablest and +most indefatigable coadjutor. He led a brigade at Vimeira, +at Corunna and at Oporto, and a division at Talavera (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>). His capacity for independent command +was fully demonstrated in the campaigns of 1810, 1811 and +1812. In 1811 he annihilated a French detachment under +Girard at Arroyo-dos-Molinos, and early in 1812, having now +attained a rank of lieutenant-general (January 1812) and become +a K.B. (March), he carried by assault the important works of +Almaraz on the Tagus. Hill led the right wing of Wellington’s +army in the Salamanca campaign in 1812 and at the battle of +Vittoria in 1813. Later in this year he conducted the investment +of Pampeluna and fought with the greatest distinction at the +Nivelle and the Nive. In the invasion of France in 1814 his corps +was victoriously engaged both at Orthez and at Toulouse. Hill +was one of the general officers rewarded for their services by +peerages, his title being at first Baron Hill of Almaraz and +Hawkstone, and he received a pension, the thanks of parliament +and the freedom of the city of London. For about two years +previous to his elevation to the peerage, he had been M.P. for +Shrewsbury. In 1815 the news of Napoleon’s return from Elba +was followed by the assembly of an Anglo-Allied army (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>) in the Netherlands, and Hill was appointed +to one of the two corps commands in this army. At Waterloo he +led the famous charge of Sir Frederick Adams’s brigade against +the Imperial Guard, and for some time it was thought that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +had fallen in the mêlée. He escaped, however, without a wound, +and continued with the army in France until its withdrawal in +1818. Hill lived in retirement for some years at his estate of +Hardwicke Grange. He carried the royal standard at the coronation +of George IV. and became general in 1825. When Wellington +became premier in 1828, he received the appointment of general +commanding-in-chief, and on resigning this office in 1842 he was +created a viscount. He died on the 10th of December of the +same year. Lord Hill was, next to Wellington, the most popular +and able soldier of his time in the British service, and was so +much beloved by the troops, especially those under his immediate +command, that he gained from them the title of “the soldier’s +friend.” He was a G.C.B, and G.C.H., and held the grand +crosses of various foreign orders, amongst them the Russian St +George and the Austrian Maria Theresa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Life of Lord Hill, G.C.B.</i>, by Rev. Edwin Sidney, appeared in +1845.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hyll</i>; cf. Low Ger. <i>hull</i>, Mid. Dutch <i>hul</i>, allied +to Lat. <i>celsus</i>, high, <i>collis</i>, hill, &c.), a natural elevation of the +earth’s surface. The term is now usually confined to elevations +lower than a mountain, but formerly was used for all such +elevations, high or low.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLAH,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalik of Bagdad, +60 m. S. of the city of Bagdad, in 32° 2′ 35″ N., 44° 48′ 40½″ E., +formerly the capital of a sanjak and the residence of a mutasserif, +who in 1893 was transferred to Diwanieh. It is situated on both +banks of the Euphrates, the two parts of the town being connected +by a floating bridge, 450 ft. in length, in the midst of a +very fertile district. The estimated population, which includes a +large number of Jews, varies from 6000 to 12,000. The town has +suffered much from the periodical breaking of the Hindieh dam +and the consequent deflection of the waters of the Euphrates to +the westward, as a result of which at times the Euphrates at this +point has been entirely dry. This deflection of water has also +seriously interfered with the palm groves, the cultivation of +which constitutes a large part of the industry of the surrounding +country along the river. The bazaars of Hillah are relatively +large and well supplied. Many of the houses in the town are +built of brick, not a few bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, +obtained from the ruins of Babylon, which lie less than an hour +away to the north.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bibliography.—C. J. Rich, <i>Babylon and Persepolis</i> (1839); J. R. +Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (1857); H. Rassam, <i>Asshur and the Land of Nimrod</i> +(1897); H. V. Geere, <i>By Nile and Euphrates</i> (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1808-1879), American +lawyer and author, was born at Machias, Maine, on the 22nd of +September 1808. After graduating at Harvard College in 1828, +he taught in the Round Hill School at Northampton, Massachusetts. +He graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1832, and +in 1833 he was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he entered +into partnership with Charles Sumner. He was a member of the +state House of Representatives in 1836, of the state Senate in +1850, and of the state constitutional convention of 1853, and +in 1866-70 was United States district attorney for Massachusetts. +He devoted a large portion of his time to literature. +He became a member of the editorial staff of the <i>Christian +Register</i>, a Unitarian weekly, in 1833; in 1834 he became editor +of The <i>American Jurist</i> (1829-1843), a legal journal to which +Sumner, Simon Greenleaf and Theron Metcalf contributed; and +from 1856 to 1861 he was an associate editor of the Boston +<i>Courier</i>. His publications include an edition of Edmund +Spenser’s works (in 5 vols., 1839); <i>Selections from the Writings of +Walter Savage Landor</i> (1856); <i>Six Months in Italy</i> (2 vols., 1853); +<i>Life and Campaigns of George B. McClellan</i> (1864); a part of the +<i>Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor</i> (1876); besides a +series of school readers and many articles in periodicals and +encyclopaedias. He died in Boston on the 21st of January +1879.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLEBRAND, KARL<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1829-1884), German author, was +born at Giessen on the 17th of September 1829, his father +Joseph Hillebrand (1788-1871) being a literary historian and +writer on philosophic subjects. Karl Hillebrand became involved, +as a student in Heidelberg, in the Baden revolutionary movement, +and was imprisoned in Rastatt. He succeeded in escaping +and lived for a time in Strassburg, Paris—where for several +months he was Heine’s secretary—and Bordeaux. He continued +his studies, and after obtaining the doctor’s degree at the +Sorbonne, he was appointed teacher of German in the <i>École +militaire</i> at St Cyr, and shortly afterwards, professor of foreign +literatures at Douai. On the outbreak of the Franco-German +War he resigned his professorship and acted for a time as +correspondent to <i>The Times</i> in Italy. He then settled in +Florence, where he died on the 19th of October 1884. Hillebrand +wrote with facility and elegance in French, English and +Italian, besides his own language. His essays, collected under +the title <i>Zeiten, Völker und Menschen</i> (Berlin, 1874-1885), show +clear discernment, a finely balanced cosmopolitan judgment +and grace of style. He undertook to write the <i>Geschichte Frankreichs +von der Thronbesteigung Ludwig Philipps bis zum Fall +Napoleons III.</i>, but only two volumes were completed (to 1848) +(2nd ed., 1881-1882). In French he published <i>Des conditions +de la bonne comédie</i> (1863), <i>La Prusse contemporaine</i> (1867), +<i>Études italiennes</i> (1868), and a translation of O. Müller’s <i>Griechische +Literaturgeschichte</i> (3rd ed., 1883). In English he published +his Royal Institution Lectures on <i>German Thought during the +Last Two Hundred Years</i> (1880). He also edited a collection +of essays dealing with Italy, under the title <i>Italia</i> (4 vols., +Leipzig, 1824-1877).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Homberger, <i>Karl Hillebrand</i> (Berlin, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLEL,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> Jewish rabbi, of Babylonian origin, lived at Jerusalem +in the time of King Herod. Though hard pressed by +poverty, he applied himself to study in the schools of Shemaiah +and Abtalion (Sameas and Pollion in Josephus). On account +of his comprehensive learning and his rare qualities he was +numbered among the recognized leaders of the Pharisaic scribes. +Tradition assigns him the highest dignity of the Sanhedrin, +under the title of nasi (“prince”), about a hundred years before +the destruction of Jerusalem, <i>i.e.</i> about 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The date at +least can be recognized as historic; the fact that Hillel took +a leading position in the council can also be established. The +epithet <i>ha-zaḳen</i> (“the elder”), which usually accompanies +his name, proves him to have been a member of the Sanhedrin, +and according to a trustworthy authority Hillel filled his leading +position for forty years, dying, therefore, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10. His +descendants remained, with few exceptions, at the head of +Judaism in Palestine until the beginning of the 5th century, +two of them, his grandson Gamaliel I. and the latter’s son +Simon, during the time when the Temple was still standing. +The fact that Josephus (<i>Vita</i> 38) ascribes to Simon descent from +a very distinguished stock (<span class="grk" title="genous sphodra lamprou">γένους σφόδρα λαμπροῦ</span>), shows in +what degree of estimation Hillel’s descendants stood. When +the dignity of <i>nasi</i> became afterwards hereditary among them, +Hillel’s ancestry, perhaps on the ground of old family traditions, +was traced back to David. Hillel is especially noted for the +fact that he gave a definite form to the Jewish traditional +learning, as it had been developed and made into the ruling and +conserving factor of Judaism in the latter days of the second +Temple, and particularly in the centuries following the destruction +of the Temple. He laid down seven rules for the interpretation +of the Scriptures, and these became the foundation of rabbinical +hermeneutics; and the ordering of the traditional doctrines +into a whole, effected in the Mishna by his successor Judah I., +two hundred years after Hillel’s death, was probably likewise +due to his instigation. The tendency of his theory and practice +in matters pertaining to the Law is evidenced by the fact that +in general he advanced milder and more lenient views in opposition +to his colleague Shammai, a contrast which after the +death of the two masters, but not until after the destruction of +the Temple, was maintained in the strife kept up between the +two schools named the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai. +The well-known institution of the Prosbol (<span class="grk" title="prosbolê">προσβολή</span>), introduced +by Hillel, was intended to avert the evil consequences of the +scriptural law of release in the seventh year (Deut. xv. 1). He +was led to this, as is expressly set forth (<i>M. Giṭṭin</i>, iv. 3), by a +regard for the welfare of the community. Hillel lived in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +memory of posterity chiefly as the great teacher who enjoined +and practised the virtues of charity, humility and true piety. +His proverbial sayings, in particular, a great number of which +were written down partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew, strongly +affected the spirit both of his contemporaries and of the succeeding +generations. In his Maxims (<i>Aboth,</i> i. 12) he recommends +the love of peace and the love of mankind beyond all else, and +his own love of peace sprang from the tenderness and deep +humility which were essential features in his character, as has +been illustrated by many anecdotes. Hillel’s patience has +become proverbial. One of his sayings commends humility +in the following paradox: “My abasement is my exaltation.” +His charity towards men is given its finest expression in the +answer which he made to a proselyte who asked to be taught +the commandments of the Torah in the shortest possible form: +“What is unpleasant to thyself that do not to thy neighbour; +this is the whole Law, all else is but its exposition.” This allusion +to the scriptural injunction to love one’s neighbour (Lev. xix. +18) as the fundamental law of religious morals, became in a +certain sense a commonplace of Pharisaic scholasticism. For the +Pharisee who accepts the answer of Jesus regarding that fundamental +doctrine which ranks the love of one’s neighbour as +the highest duty after the love of God (Mark xii. 33), does so +because as a disciple of Hillel the idea is familiar to him. St +Paul also (Gal. v. 14) doubtless learned this in the school of +Gamaliel. Hillel emphasized the connexion between duty +towards one’s neighbour and duty towards oneself in the epigrammatic +saying: “If I am not for myself, who is for me? +And if I am for myself alone, what then am I? And if not now, +then when?” (<i>Aboth</i>, i. 14). The duty of working both with +and for men he teaches in the sentence: “Separate not thyself +from the congregation” (<i>ib.</i> ii. 4). The duty of considering +oneself part of <span class="correction" title="amended from comman">common</span> humanity, of not differing from others +by any peculiarity of behaviour, he sums up in the words: +“Appear neither naked nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing, +neither laughing nor weeping” (<i>Tosef. Ber.</i> c. ii.). The command +to love one’s neighbour inspired also Hillel’s injunction (<i>Aboth</i>, +ii. 4): “Judge not thy neighbour until thou art in his place” +(cf. Matt. vii. 1). The disinterested pursuit of learning, study +for study’s sake, is commended in many of Hillel’s sayings +as being what is best in life: “He who wishes to make a name +for himself loses his name; he who does not increase [his knowledge] +decreases it; he who does not learn is worthy of death; +he who works for the sake of a crown is lost” (<i>Aboth</i>, i. 13). +“He who occupies himself much with learning makes his life” +(<i>ib.</i> ii. 7). “He who has acquired the words of doctrine has +acquired the life of the world to come” (<i>ib.</i>). “Say not: When +I am free from other occupations I shall study; for may be thou +shalt never at all be free” (<i>ib.</i> 4). One of his strings of proverbs +runs as follows: “The uncultivated man is not innocent; the +ignorant man is not devout; the bashful man learns not; the +wrathful man teaches not; he who is much absorbed in trade +cannot become wise; where no men are, there strive thyself +to be a man” (<i>ib.</i> 5). The almost mystical profundity of Hillel’s +<span class="correction" title="amended from conciousness">consciousness</span> of God is shown in the words spoken by him on +the occasion of a feast in the Temple—words alluding to the +throng of people gathered there which he puts into the mouth +of God Himself: “If I am here every one is here; if I +am not here no one is here” (<i>Sukkah</i> 53<i>a</i>). In like manner +Hillel makes God say to Israel, referring to Exodus xx. 24: +“Whither I please, thither will I go; if thou come into my +house I come into thy house; if thou come not into my house, I +come not into thine” (<i>ib.</i>).</p> + +<p>It is noteworthy that no miraculous legends are connected +with Hillel’s life. A scholastic tradition, however, tells of +a voice from heaven which made itself heard when the wise men +had assembled in Jericho, saying: “Among those here present +is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon +him, if his time had been worthy of it.” And all eyes turned +towards Hillel (<i>Tos. Soṭah</i>, xiii. 3). When he died lamentation +was made for him as follows: “Woe for the humble, woe for +the pious, woe for the disciple of Ezra!” (<i>ib.</i>)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Hillel II.</span>, one of the patriarchs belonging to the family of Hillel I., +lived in Tiberias about the middle of the 4th century, and introduced +the arrangement of the calendar through which the Jews of the +Diaspora became independent of Palestine in the uniform fixation +of the new moons and feasts.</p> + +<p>The Rabbi <span class="sc">Hillel</span>, who in the 4th century made the remarkable +declaration that Israel need not expect a Messiah, because the promise +of a Messiah had already been fulfilled in the days of King Hezekiah +(Babli, <i>Sanhedrin</i>, 99a), is probably Hillel, the son of Samuel ben +Naḥman, a well-known expounder of the scriptures.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLER, FERDINAND<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1811-1885), German composer, was +born at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 24th of October 1811. His +first master was Aloys Schmitt, and when he was ten years of +age his compositions and talent led his father, a well-to-do man, +to send him to Hummel in Weimar. There he devoted himself +to composition, among his work being the entr’actes to <i>Maria +Stuart</i>, through which he made Goethe’s acquaintance. Under +Hummel, Hiller made great strides as a pianist, so much so that +early in 1827 he went on a tour to Vienna, where he met Beethoven +and produced his first quartet. After a brief visit home Hiller +went to Paris in 1829, where he lived till 1836. His father’s +death necessitated his return to Frankfort for a time, but on the +8th of January 1839 he produced at Milan his opera <i>La Romilda</i>, +and began to write his oratorio <i>Die Zerstörung Jerusalems</i>, one of +his best works. Then he went to Leipzig, to his friend Mendelssohn, +where in 1843-1844 he conducted a number of the Gewandhaus +concerts and produced his oratorio. After a further visit +to Italy to study sacred music, Hiller produced two operas, <i>Ein +Traum</i> and <i>Conradin</i>, at Dresden in 1845 and 1847 respectively; +he went as conductor to Düsseldorf in 1847 and Cologne in 1850, +and conducted at the Opéra Italien in Paris in 1851 and 1852. +At Cologne he became a power as conductor of the Gürzenich +concerts and head of the Conservatorium. In 1884 he retired, +and died on the 12th of May in the following year. Hiller +frequently visited England. He composed a work for the +opening of the Royal Albert Hall, his <i>Nala and Damayanti</i> was +performed at Birmingham, and he gave a series of pianoforte +recitals of his own compositions at the Hanover Square Rooms +in 1871. He had a perfect mastery over technique and form in +musical composition, but his works are generally dry. He was a +sound pianist and teacher, and occasionally a brilliant writer on +musical matters. His compositions, numbering about two +hundred, include six operas, two oratorios, six or seven cantatas, +much chamber music and a once-popular pianoforte concerto.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLER, JOHANN ADAM<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1728-1804), German musical +composer, was born at Wendisch-Ossig near Görlitz in Silesia on +the 25th of December 1728. By the death of his father in 1734 +he was left dependent to a large extent on the charity of friends. +Entering in 1747 the Kreuzschule in Dresden, the school attended +many years afterwards by Richard Wagner, he subsequently +went to the university of Leipzig, where he studied jurisprudence, +supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by performing +at concerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Gradually +he adopted music as his sole profession, and devoted himself more +especially to the permanent establishment of a concert institute +at Leipzig. It was he who in 1781 originated the celebrated +Gewandhaus concerts which still flourish at Leipzig. In 1789 +he became “cantor” of the Thomas school there, a position +previously held by John Sebastian Bach. He died in Leipzig on +the 16th of June 1804. Two of his pupils placed a monument to +his memory in front of the Thomas school. Hiller’s compositions +comprise almost every kind of church music, from the cantata to +the simple chorale. But much more important are his operettas, +14 in number, which for a long time retained their place on the +boards, and had considerable influence on the development of +light dramatic music in Germany. The <i>Jolly Cobbler</i>, <i>Love in the +Country</i> and the <i>Village Barber</i> were amongst the most popular +of his works. Hiller also excelled in sentimental songs and ballads. +With great simplicity of structure his music combines a considerable +amount of genuine melodic invention. Although an admirer +and imitator of the Italian school, Hiller fully appreciated the +greatness of Handel, and did much for the appreciation of his +music in Germany. It was under his direction that the <i>Messiah</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +was for the first time given at Berlin, more than forty years after +the composition of that great work. Hiller was also a writer on +music, and for some years (1766-1770) edited a musical weekly +periodical named <i>Wöchentliche Nachrichten und Anmerkungen die +Musik betreffend</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLIARD, LAWRENCE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (d. 1640), English miniature painter. +The date of his birth is not known, but he died in 1640. He was +the son of Nicholas Hilliard, and evidently derived his Christian +name from that of his grandmother. He adopted his father’s +profession and worked out the unexpired time of his licence after +Nicholas Hilliard died. It was from Lawrence Hilliard that +Charles I. received the portrait of Queen Elizabeth now at +Montagu House, since van der Dort’s catalogue describes it as +“done by old Hilliard, and bought by the king of young Hilliard.” +In 1624 he was paid £42 from the treasury for five pictures, but +the warrant does not specify whom they represented. His +portraits are of great rarity, two of the most beautiful being those +in the collections of Earl Beauchamp and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. +They are as a rule signed L.H., but are also to be distinguished by +the beauty of the calligraphy in which the inscriptions round the +portraits are written. The writing is as a rule very florid, full of +exquisite curves and flourishes, and more elaborate than the more +formal handwriting of Nicholas Hilliard. The colour scheme +adopted by the son is richer and more varied than that used by +the father, and Lawrence Hilliard’s miniatures are not so hard as +are those of Nicholas, and are marked by more shade and a +greater effect of atmosphere.</p> +<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLIARD, NICHOLAS<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1537-1619), the first true English +miniature painter, is said to have been the son of Richard Hilliard +of Exeter, high sheriff of the city and county in 1560, by Lawrence, +daughter of John Wall, goldsmith, of London, and was born +probably about 1537. He was appointed goldsmith, carver and +portrait painter to Queen Elizabeth, and engraved the Great Seal +of England in 1586. He was in high favour with James I. as well +as with Elizabeth, and from the king received a special patent of +appointment, dated the 5th of May 1617, and granting him a sole +licence for the royal work for twelve years. He is believed to +have been the author of an important treatise on miniature +painting, now preserved in the Bodleian Library, but it seems +more probable that the author of that treatise was John de +Critz, Serjeant Painter to James I. It is probable, however, +that the treatise was taken down from the instructions of Hilliard, +for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps Isaac Oliver.</p> + +<p>The esteem of his countrymen for Hilliard is testified to by +Dr Donne, who in a poem called “The Storm” (1597) praises the +work of this artist. He painted a portrait of himself at the age of +thirteen, and is said to have executed one of Mary queen of +Scots when he was eighteen years old. He died on the 7th of +January 1619, and was buried in St Martin’s-in-the-Fields, +Westminster, leaving by his will twenty shillings to the poor of +the parish, £30 between his two sisters, some goods to his maidservant, +and all the rest of his effects to his son, Lawrence +Hilliard, his sole executor.</p> + +<p>It seems to be pretty certain that he visited France, and that he +is the artist alluded to in the papers of the duc d’Alençon under +the name of “Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois” who was +painter to this prince in 1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres. +The miniature of Mademoiselle de Sourdis, in the collection of +Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, is certainly the work of Hilliard, and is +dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of honour at the +French Court; and other portraits which are his work are +believed to represent Gabrielle d’Estrées, niece of Madame de +Sourdis, la Princesse de Condé and Madame de Montgomery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information respecting Hilliard’s sojourn in France, +see the privately printed catalogue of the collection of miniatures +belonging to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, compiled by Dr G. C. +Williamson.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILLSDALE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hillsdale county, +Michigan, U.S.A., about 87 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop. +(1900) 4151, of whom 300 were foreign-born; (1904) 4809; +(1910) 5001. Hillsdale is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan +Southern railway. It has a public library, and is the seat of +Hillsdale College (co-educational, Free Baptist), which was +opened as Michigan Central College, at Spring Arbor, Michigan, +in 1844, was removed to Hillsdale and received its present +name in 1853 and was re-opened here in 1855. The college +in 1907-1908 had 22 instructors and 345 students. The city +is a centre for a rich farming region; among its manufactures +are gasoline and gas engines, screen doors, wagons, barrels, +shoes, fur-coats and flour. Hillsdale was first settled in 1837, +was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was chartered as +a city in 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILL TIPPERA,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Tripura</span>, a native state of India, adjoining +the British district of Tippera, in Eastern Bengal and Assam. +Area, 4086 sq. m.; pop, (1901) 173,325; estimated revenue, +£55,000. Six parallel ranges of hill cross it from north to south, +at an average distance of 12 m. apart. The hills are covered +for the most part with bamboo jungle, while the low ground +abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and swamps. +The principal crop and food staple is rice. The other articles +of produce are cotton, chillies and vegetables. The chief exports +are cotton, timber, oilseeds, bamboo canes, thatching-grass +and firewood, on all of which tolls are levied. The chief rivers +are the Gumti, Haora, Khoyai, Dulai, Manu and Fenny (Pheni). +During the heavy rains the people in the plains use boats as +almost the sole means of conveyance.</p> + +<p>The history of the state includes two distinct periods—the +traditional period described in the <i>Rajmala</i>, or “Chronicles +of the Kings of Tippera,” and the period since <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1407. +The <i>Rajmala</i> is a history in Bengali verse, compiled by the +Brahmans of the court of Tripura. In the early history of the +state, the rajas were in a state of chronic feud with all the +neighbouring countries. The worship of Siva was here, as +elsewhere in India, associated with the practice of human +sacrifice, and in no part of India were more victims offered. +It was not until the beginning of the 17th century that the +Moguls obtained any footing in this country. When the East +India Company obtained the <i>diwani</i> or financial administration +of Bengal in 1765, so much of Tippera as had been placed on +the Mahommedan rent-roll came under British rule. Since +1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the +British government. In October 1905 the state was attached +to the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It has a +chronological era of its own, adopted by Raja Birraj, from +whom the present raja is 93rd in descent. The year 1875 +corresponded with 1285 of the Tippera era.</p> + +<p>Besides being the ruler of Hill Tippera, the raja holds an +estate in the British district of Tippera, called <i>chakla</i> Roshnabad, +which is far the most valuable of his possessions. The capital +is Agartala (pop. 9513), where there is an Arts College. The +raja’s palace and other public buildings were seriously damaged +by the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. The late raja, +who died from the result of a motor-car accident in 1909, +succeeded his father in 1896, but he had taken a large share +in the administration of the state for some years previously. +The principle of succession, which had often caused serious +disputes, was defined in 1904, to the effect that the chief may +nominate any male descendant through males from himself +or from any male ancestor, but failing such nomination, then +the rule of primogeniture applies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILTON, JOHN<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1804-1878), British surgeon, was born at +Castle Hedingham, in Essex, in 1804. He entered Guy’s Hospital +in 1824. He was appointed demonstrator of anatomy +in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845, surgeon 1849. In 1867 +he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which +he became member in 1827 and fellow in 1843, and he +also delivered the Hunterian oration in 1867. As Arris and +Gale professor (1859-1862) he delivered a course of lectures +on “Rest and Pain,” which have become classics. He was +also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. Hilton was +the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nick named “Anatomical +John.” It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist, +enriched Guy’s Hospital with its unique collection of models. +In his grasp of the structure and functions of the brain and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +spinal cord he was far in advance of his contemporaries. As +an operator he was more cautious than brilliant. This was +doubtless due partly to his living in the pre-anaesthetics period, +and partly to his own consummate anatomical knowledge, +as is indicated by the method for opening deep abscesses which +is known by his name. But he could be bold when necessary; +he was the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal +section, and one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He +died at Clapham on the 14th of September 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILTON, WILLIAM<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1786-1839), English painter, was born +in Lincoln on the 3rd of June 1786, son of a portrait-painter. +In 1800 he was placed with the engraver J. R. Smith, and +about the same time began studying in the Royal Academy +school. He first exhibited in this institution in 1803, sending +a “Group of Banditti”; and he soon established a reputation +for choice of subject, and qualities of design and colour superior +to the great mass of his contemporaries. He made a tour in +Italy with Thomas Phillips, the portrait-painter. In 1813, +having exhibited “Miranda and Ferdinand with the Logs of +Wood,” he was elected an associate of the Academy, and in +1820 a full academician, his diploma-picture representing +“Ganymede.” In 1823 he produced “Christ crowned with +Thorns,” a large and important work, subsequently bought +out of the Chantrey Fund; this may be regarded as his masterpiece. +In 1827 he succeeded Henry Thomson as keeper of the +Academy. He died in London on the 30th of December 1839, +Some of his best pictures remained on his hands at his decease—such +as the “Angel releasing Peter from Prison” (life-size), +painted in 1831, “Una with the Lion entering Corceca’s Cave” +(1832), the “Murder of the Innocents,” his last exhibited +work (1838), “Comus,” and “Amphitrite.” The National +Gallery now owns “Edith finding the Body of Harold” (1834), +“Cupid Disarmed,” “Rebecca and Abraham’s Servant” +(1829), “Nature blowing Bubbles for her Children” (1821), +and “Sir Calepine rescuing Serena” (from the <i>Faerie Queen</i>) +(1831). In the National Portrait Gallery is his likeness of John +Keats, with whom he was acquainted. In a great school or +period Hilton could not count as more than a respectable +subordinate; but in the British school of the earlier part of +the 19th century he had sufficient elevation of aim and width +of attainment to stand conspicuous.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HILVERSUM,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a town in the province of North Holland, +18 m. by rail S.E. of Amsterdam. It is connected with Amsterdam +by a steam tramway, passing by way of the small fortified +towns of Naarden and Muiden on the Zuider Zee. Pop. (1900) +20,238. It is situated in the middle of the Gooi, a stretch of +hilly country extending from the Zuider Zee to about 5 m. +south of Hilversum, and composed of pine woods and sandy +heaths. A convalescent home, the Trompenberg, was established +here in 1874, and there are a town hall, middle-class and technical +schools, and various places of worship, including a synagogue. +Hilversum manufactures large quantities of floor-cloths and +horse-blankets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIMALAYA,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the name given to the mountains which form +the northern boundary of India. The word is Sanskrit and +literally signifies “snow-abode,” from <i>him</i>, snow, and <i>álaya</i>, +abode, and might be translated “snowy-range,” although that +expression is perhaps more nearly the equivalent of <i>Himachal</i>, +another Sanskrit word derived from <i>him</i>, snow, and <i>áchal</i>, +mountain, which is practically synonymous with Himalaya +and is often used by natives of northern India. The name +was converted by the Greeks into <i>Emodos</i> and <i>Imaos</i>.</p> + +<p>Modern geographers restrict the term Himalaya to that portion +of the mountain region between India and Tibet enclosed within +the arms of the Indus and the Brahmaputra. From the bend +of the Indus southwards towards the plains of the Punjab +to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards towards the plains +of Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or Himalaya. +Beyond the Indus, to the north-west, the region of mountain +ranges which stretches to a junction with the Hindu Kush south +of the Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya. Thus the +Himalaya represents the southern face of the great central +upheaval—the plateau of Tibet—the northern face of which is +buttressed by the Kuen Lun.</p> + +<p>Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain +face geologists now trace a system of main chains, +or axes, extending from the Hindu Kush to Assam, +<span class="sidenote">Structure of the Himalaya.</span> +arranged in approximately parallel lines, and +traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage +obliquely. Godwin-Austen indicates six of these geological axes +as follows:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The main Central Asian axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern +edge or ridge of the Tibetan plateau.</p> + +<p>2. The Trans-Himalayan chain of Muztagh (or Karakoram), +which is lost in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the +sources of the Indus.</p> + +<p>3. The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus—for +that river breaks across it about 100 m. above Leh. This chain +continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes +part of the Himalayan system.</p> + +<p>4. The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, <i>i.e.</i> the “snowy +range” <i>par excellence</i> which is indicated by Nanga Parbat (overlooking +the Indus), and passes in a south-east direction to the +southern side of the Deosai plains. Thence, bending slightly south, +it extends in the line of snowy peaks which are seen from Simla to the +famous peaks of Gangotri and Nanda Devi. This is the best known +range of the Himalaya.</p> + +<p>5. The outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge.</p> + +<p>6. The Sub-Himalaya, which is “easily defined by the fringing +line of hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked +off from the main chain by open valleys (dhúns) or narrow valleys, +parallel to the main axis of the chain.” These include the Siwaliks.</p> +</div> + +<p>Interspersed between these main geological axes are many +other minor ridges, on some of which are peaks of great elevation. +In fact, the geological axis seldom coincides with the line of +highest elevation, nor must it be confused with the main lines +of water-divide of the Himalaya.</p> + +<p>On the north and north-west of Kashmir the great water-divide +which separates the Indus drainage area from that of +the Yarkand and other rivers of Chinese Turkestan +has been explored by Sir F. Younghusband, and subsequently +<span class="sidenote">The great northern watershed of India.</span> +by H. H. P. Deasy. The general result +of their investigations has been to prove that the +Muztagh range, as it trends south-eastwards and finally forms a +continuous mountain barrier together with the Karakoram, +is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan plateau. Shutting +off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of the Central +Asian system of hydrography, this great water-parting is distinguished +by a group of peaks of which the altitude is hardly +less than that of the Eastern Himalaya. Mount Godwin-Austen +(28,250 ft. high), only 750 ft. lower than Everest, affords an +excellent example in Asiatic geography of a dominating, peak-crowned +water-parting or divide. From Kailas on the far west +to the extreme north-eastern sources of the Brahmaputra, the +great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan highlands has +only been occasionally touched. Littledale, du Rhins and +Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards +Lhasa, but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be +lost in the mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan +plateau. Nor can it be said to be as yet well defined to the east +of Lhasa.</p> + +<p>The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the meridian +of 92° E., and to the east of this meridian the affluents of the +Tsanpo (the same river as the Dihong and subsequently +as the Brahmaputra) drain no longer from the elevated +<span class="sidenote">Eastern Tibet.</span> +plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a wild region +of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where +its successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves around +the great bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the +sources of all the great rivers of Burma and China. Neither +immediately beyond this great bend, nor within it in the Himalayan +regions lying north of Assam and east of Bhutan, have +scientific investigations yet been systematically carried out; +but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of +the Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the +Tibetan plateau, and break down through the containing bands +of hills, carrying deposits of gold from their sources to the plains, +as do all the rivers of Tibet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span></p> + +<p>Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not +sufficiently well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed +even approximately, there exists some scattered +evidence of the nature of that strip of Northern Himalaya +<span class="sidenote">Himalaya north of the central chain of snowy peaks.</span> +on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between +the line of greatest elevation and the trough of the +Tsanpo. Recent investigations show that all the +chief rivers of Nepal flowing southwards to the Tarai +take their rise north of the line of highest crests, the “main +range” of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain long +lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose +strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally, +almost at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels +breaking down to the plains. This formation brings the +southern edge of the Tsanpo basin to the immediate neighbourhood +of the banks of that river, which runs at its foot like a +drain flanking a wall. It also affords material evidence of that +wrinkling or folding action which accompanied the process of +upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised, which +is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west +Indian borderland. North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan +crest and Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained; +farther east, although the same natural forces first resulted in +the same effect of successive folds of the earth’s crust, forming +extensive curves of ridge and furrow, the abundant rainfall +and the totally distinct climatic conditions which govern the +processes of denudation subsequently led to the erosion of +deeper valleys enclosed between forest-covered ranges which +rise steeply from the river banks.</p> + +<p>Although suggestions have been made of the existence of +higher peaks north of the Himalaya than that which dominates +the Everest group, no evidence has been adduced to +support such a contention. On the other hand the +<span class="sidenote">Height of Himalayan peaks.</span> +observations of Major Ryder and other surveyors who +explored from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra +and Indus, at the conclusion of the Tibetan mission in 1904, +conclusively prove that Mount Everest, which appears from the +Tibetan plateau as a single dominating peak, has no rival amongst +Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very remarkable investigations +made by permission of the Nepal durbar from peaks near Kathmandu +in 1903, by Captain Wood, R.E., not only place the +Everest group apart from other peaks with which they have been +confused by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system +of Nepal, but clearly show that there is no one dominating and +continuous range indicating a main Himalayan chain which +includes both Everest and Kinchinjunga. The main features of +Nepalese topography are now fairly well defined. So much +controversy has been aroused on the subject of Himalayan +altitudes that the present position of scientific analysis in relation +to them may be shortly stated. The heights of peaks determined +by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are bound to +be more or less in error for three reasons: (1) the extraordinary +geoidal deformation of the level surface at the observing stations +in submontane regions; (2) ignorance of the laws of refraction +when rays traverse rarefied air in snow-covered regions; (3) +ignorance of the variations in the actual height of peaks due to +the increase, or decrease, of snow. The value of the heights +attached to the three highest mountains in the world are, for +these reasons, adjudged by Colonel S. G. Burrard, the Supt. +Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the +following extent:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Present Survey<br />Value of Height</td> <td class="tccm allb">Most probable<br />Value.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mount Everest</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,002</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,141</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">K<span class="su">2</span> (Godwin Austen)</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,191</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Kinchinjunga</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,146</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,225</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga +second and K<span class="su">2</span> third on the list.</p> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumpling +of the earth’s crust along the southern margin of the great tableland +of Central Asia. Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign of +this crumpling is to be detected except in the Salt Range, and the +Peninsula of India has been entirely free from folding of any importance +since early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean +period itself. But the contrast between the Himalaya and the +Peninsula is not confined to their structure: the difference in the +rocks themselves is equally striking. In the Himalaya the geological +sequence, from the Ordovician to the Eocene, is almost entirely +marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the series, but during +nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at +least its northern part, must have been beneath the sea—the Central +Mediterranean Sea of Neumayr or Tethys of Suess. In the peninsula, +however, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than +Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood +of the coasts; the principal fossiliferous deposits are the plant-bearing +beds of the Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt that, +at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the +Peninsula has been land. Between the folded marine beds of the +Himalaya and the nearly horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the +Indo-Gangetic plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial +and wind-blown deposits of recent date. The deep boring at Lucknow +passed through 1336 ft. of sands—reaching nearly to 1000 ft. +below sea-level—without any sign of approaching the base of the +alluvial series. It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there +is a great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this +depression was ever beneath the sea.</p> + +<p>In the light thrown by recent researches on the structure and +origin of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer +difficult. From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has +been dry land, a part, indeed, of a great continent which in Mesozoic +times extended across the Indian Ocean towards South Africa. Its +northern shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in +Jurassic and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from +west to east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of +the Himalaya. The tangential pressures which are known to be set +up in the earth’s crust—either by the contraction of the interior or +in some other way—caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up +against the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and +finally led to the whole mass being pushed forward over the edge of +the part which did not crumple. The Indo-Gangetic depression was +formed by the weight of the over-riding mass bending down the edge +over which it rode, or else it is the lower limb of the <b>S</b>-shaped fold +which would necessarily result if there were no fracture—the +Himalaya representing the upper limb of the <b>S</b>.</p> + +<p>Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which +correspond more or less with orographical divisions. The northern +zone is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and +Mesozoic age are largely developed—excepting in the north-west no +such rocks are known on the southern flanks. The second is the zone +of the snowy peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed +chiefly of crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with unfossiliferous +sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age. +The southern zone comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely +of Tertiary beds, and especially of the upper Tertiaries. The oldest +beds which have hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician +system, but it is highly probable that the underlying “Haimantas” +of the central Himalaya are of Cambrian age. From these beds up +to the top of the Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but +the Carboniferous beds were in some places eroded before the deposition +of the <i>Productus</i> shales, which belong to the Permian period. +It is, however, possible that this erosion was merely local, for in +other places there seems to be a complete passage from the Carboniferous +to the Permian. From the Permian to the Lias the sequence +in the central Himalaya shows no sign of a break, nor has any unconformity +been proved between the Liassic beds and the overlying +Spiti shales, which contain fossils of Middle and Upper Jurassic age. +The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by Cretaceous beds +(Gieumal sandstone below and Chikkim limestone above), and these +are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene age, +much disturbed and altered by intrusions of gabbro and syenite. +Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been continuous +deposition of marine beds from the Permian <i>Productus</i> shales to the +Eocene Nummulitic formation. The next succeeding deposit is a +sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon the +Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the Sub-Himalaya +(Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any +kind. The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Tertiaries +of Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite +unaffected by any of the folds.</p> + +<p>From the absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident +that in the northern part of the Himalayan belt, at least in the Spiti +area, there can have been no post-Archaean folding of any magnitude +until after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the +folding was completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes were +laid down. It was, therefore, during the Miocene period that the +elevation of this part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the +Siwalik-like sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the +Pliocene period. Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the +history of the chain is still more clearly shown. The sub-Himalaya +are formed of Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while +the lower Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +without fossils. Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever +the junction of the Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen, +it is a great reversed fault. West of the Blas river a similar reversed +fault forms the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the +pre-Tertiary rocks of the Himalaya, while between the Sutlej and +the Jumna rivers, where the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower +Himalaya, the fault lies between them and the Siwaliks. The hade +of the fault is constantly inwards, towards the centre of the chain, +and the older rocks which form the Himalaya proper, have been +pushed forward over the later beds of the sub-Himalaya. But the +fault is more than an ordinary reversed fault: it was, nearly everywhere, +the northern boundary of deposition of the Siwalik beds, and +only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik deposits extend even to +a short distance beyond it. The fault in fact was being formed +during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the beds were laid +down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the Siwaliks +themselves being folded and upturned during the process. Accordingly, +in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and conformable +series from base to summit, in other places the middle beds +are absent and the upper beds of the series rest upon the upturned and +denuded edges of the lower beds. The Siwaliks are fluviatile and +torrential deposits similar to those which are now being formed +at the foot of the mountains, in the Indo-Gangetic plain; and +their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were +very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of +the plain and the Siwaliks themselves. But the great fault just +described is not the only one of this character. There is a series of +such faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although +they have not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever +they occur they seem to have formed the northern boundary of +deposition of the deposits immediately to the south of them. It +appears, therefore, that the Himalaya grew southwards in a series +of stages. A reversed fault was formed at the foot of the chain, and +upon this fault the mountains were pushed forward over the beds +deposited at their base, crumpling and folding them in the process, +and forming a sub-Himalayan ridge in front of the main chain. +After a time a new fault originated at the foot of the sub-Himalayan +zone thus raised, which now became part of the Himalaya themselves, +and a new sub-Himalayan chain was formed in front of the previous +one. The earthquakes of the present day show that the process is +still in operation, and in time the deposits of the present Indo-Gangetic +plain will be involved in the folds.</p> + +<p>The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true +circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed +forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the +dip of the plane must be low, for a line drawn along the southern +foot of the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane +inclined to the surface at an angle of about 14°. The thrust-plane, +then, does not coincide with any of the boundary faults already +mentioned, which are usually inclined at angles of 50° or 60°. The +latter are due to the fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass +above the thrust-plane may move, yet the pressure which pushes it +forwards necessarily proceeds from behind. The back, accordingly, +moves faster than the front, and the whole is packed together; as +when an ice-floe drives against the shore, the ice breaks and the +outer fragments ride over those within. The great thrust-plane +which is thus imagined to exist at the base of the Himalaya, corresponds +with the “major thrusts” of the N.W. Highlands of Scotland, +and the reversed faults which appear at the surface with the “minor +thrusts.”</p> +<div class="author">(P. La.)</div> + +<p>Such is the general outline of Himalayan evolution as now understood, +and the process of it has led to certain marked features of +scenery and topography. Within the area of the trans-Indus +mountains we have beds of hard limestone or sandstone +<span class="sidenote">Topographical results of evolution.</span> +alternating with soft shales, which leads to the +scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys where the +shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep +rifts or gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which +stand in irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys +between. The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure, +due to the same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much +larger scale; but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the +mountains by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially +by the greater rainfall. Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys, +here are found fertile alluvial plains—such as Manipur—but for the +most part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep pace +with the rise of the river bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys +arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the +western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers +cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that originally +held. An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly +breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west +Himalaya to resume its north-westerly course after passing from the +northern to the southern side of the range. The reason assigned for +these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the +general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent—<i>i.e.</i> that the lines +of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were raised; and +that the drainage has merely maintained the course originally held, +by the power of erosion during the gradual process of upheaval.</p> + +<p>In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep, +so steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still cutting +down the river beds and have not yet reached the stage of equilibrium. +Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial detritus owing +to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this occurs there +is usually to be found a fertile and productive field for agriculture. +The straits of the Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably account for +the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in principles of +construction) a repetition on grand scale of the Maidan of the Afridi +Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great amphitheatre of +hills is collected and then arrested by the gorge which marks the +outlet to the Bara.</p> + +<p>Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by +draining a considerable area north of the snowy range—the Sutlej, +the Kosi, the Gandak and the Subansiri, for example. +All these rivers break through the main snowy range ere +<span class="sidenote">General Himalayan formation is typical.</span> +they twist their way through the southern hills to the +plains of India. Here the “antecedent” theory will not +suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of +the snows to support it. Their formation is explained by a process +of “cutting back,” by which the heads of these streams are gradually +eating their way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the +southern than on the northern slopes. The result of this process is +well exhibited in the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and +Tibetan sides of the passes to the Indus plateau. On the southern or +Indian side the routes to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of +Himalayan valleys with no remarkably steep gradients till they near +the approach to the water-divide. The slope then steepens with the +ascending curve to the summit of the pass, from which point it falls +with a comparatively gentle gradient to the general level of the +plateau. The Zoji La, the Kashmir water-divide between the +Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent case in point, and all the passes +from the Kumaon and Garhwal hills into Tibet exhibit this formation +in a marked degree. Taking the average elevation of the central +axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000 ft., the average height of the +passes is not more than 10,000 owing to this process of cutting down +by erosion and gradual encroachment into the northern basin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:930px; height:148px" src="images/img472.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Section across the sub-Himalayan zone.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Meteorology.</i>—Independently of the enormous variety of topographical +conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast +altitude of the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of +climate in ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by +those observed in moving from the equator to the poles. One half of +the total mass of the atmosphere and three-fourths of the water +suspended in it in the form of vapour lie below the average altitude +of the Himalaya; and of the residue, one-half of the air and virtually +almost all the vapour come within the influence of the highest peaks. +The regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the barometer +and the annual and diurnal oscillations are as well marked in +the Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in suspension +diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than +one-sixth (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot of +the mountains is found at the greatest heights. This is dependent +on the temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude. +On the mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature, +an elevation of 1000 ft. producing a fall of 3½°, or about 1° to each +300 ft. The mean winter temperature at 7000 ft. (which is about the +average height of Himalayan “hill stations”) is 44° F. and the +summer mean about 65° F. At 9000 ft. the mean temperature of +the coldest month is 32° F. At 12,000 ft. the thermometer never falls +below freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of October, +and at 15,000 ft. it is seldom above that point even in the height of +summer. It should be noted that the thermometrical conditions of +Tibet vary considerably from those of the Himalaya. At 12,000 ft. +in Tibet the mean of the hottest month is about 60° F. and of the +coldest about 10° F. whilst, at 15,000 ft. the frost is only permanent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +from the end of October to the end of April. The distribution of +vegetation and topographical conformation largely influence the +question of local temperature. For instance it may be found that +the difference of temperature between forest-clad ranges and the +Indian plains is twice as much in April and May as in December or +January; and the difference between the temperature of a well-wooded +hill top and the open valley below may vary from 9° to 24° +within twenty-four hours. The general relations of temperature to +altitude as determined by Himalayan observations are as follows: +(1) The decrease of temperature with altitude is most rapid in +summer. (2) The annual range diminishes with the elevation. +(3) The diurnal range diminishes with the elevation. Comparisons +are, however, apt to become anomalous when applied to elevated +zones with a dense covering of forest and a great quantity of cloud +and open and uncloudy regions both above and below the forest-clad +tracts.</p> + +<p>The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and +October (<i>i.e.</i> the period of the monsoon rains of India), the remainder +of the year being comparatively dry. The fall of rain +over the great plain of northern India gradually diminishes +<span class="sidenote">Rainfall.</span> +in quantity, and begins later, as we pass from east to west. +At the same time the rain is heavier as we approach the +Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer ranges; +but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the +chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great +line of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to +be hardly susceptible of measurement. Diurnal currents of wind, +which are established from the plains to the mountains during +the day, and from the hills to the plains during the night, are important +agents in distributing the rainfall. The condensation of +vapour from the ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion +as they are precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in +the cloud effects produced during the monsoon, the southern or +windward face of each range being clothed day after day with a +white crest of cloud whilst the northern slopes are often left +entirely free. This shows how large a proportion of the vapour is +arrested and how it is that only by drifting through the deeper +gorges can any moisture find its way to the Tibetan table-land.</p> + +<p>The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 60 and 70 in. in +the delta of the Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river +issues from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouchment +of the Indus into the plains. At Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude) +on the outer ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about +120 in. At Naini Tal north of the United Provinces it is about 90 in.; +at Simla about 80 in., diminishing still further as one approaches the +north-western hills. All these stations are about the same altitude.</p> + +<p>In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is +6000 ft. and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft. In Kumaon, +on the west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level +and occasionally to 2500 ft. Snow has been known to +<span class="sidenote">Snowfall.</span> +fall at Peshawar. At Leh, in western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow +are usually registered and the fall on the passes between 17,000 and +19,000 ft. is not generally more than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan +passes farther east the falls are much heavier. Even in September +these passes may be quite blocked and they are not usually open till +the middle of June. The snow-line, or the level to which snow +recedes in the course of the year, ranges from 15,000 to 16,000 ft. on +the southern exposures of the Himalaya that carry perpetual snow, +along all that part of the system that lies between Sikkim and the +Indus. It is not till December that the snow begins to descend for +the winter, although after September light falls occur which cover +the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these soon disappear. +On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than 18,500 ft. and on +the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000 ft. On all the +passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500 ft., and in +August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400 ft. +without finding any snow upon them; and it is as impossible to find +snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the +plains of India.</p> + +<p><i>Glaciers.</i>—The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is +greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and +elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and +position of the mountain on which they are formed. Glaciers on the +outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly +the case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy +range. The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are +believed not to reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft. In +Kumaon many of them descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft. +In the higher valleys and Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary +level at which they end, but there are exceptions which descend far +lower. In Europe the glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft. +below the snow-line, and in the Himalaya and Tibet about the same +holds good. The summer temperatures of the points where the +glaciers end on the Himalaya also correspond fairly with those of the +corresponding positions in European glaciers, viz. for July a little +below 60° F., August 58° and September 55°.</p> + +<p>Measurements of the movement of Himalayan glaciers give results +according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in +the Alps, viz. rates from 9½ to 14¼ in. in twenty-four hours. The +motion of one glacier from the middle of May to the middle of October +averaged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours. The dimensions of the +glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the valleys +descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with those of +Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in length—8 +or 10 m. not being unusual. In the elevated valleys of northern +Tibet, where the destructive action of the summer heat is far less, +the development of the glaciers is enormous. At one locality in +north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice +extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the +extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends. Another single +glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long.</p> + +<p>The northern tributaries of the Gilgit river, which joins the Indus +near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from +a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its +extent and magnificent proportions. Chief amongst them are the +glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Muztagh +mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount +Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high). The Biafo glacier system, which +lies in a long narrow trough extending south-west from Nagar on the +Hunza to near the base of the Muztagh peaks, may be traced for +90 m. between mountain walls which tower to a height of from 20,000 +to 25,000 ft. above sea-level on either side.</p> + +<p>In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which +precise accounts are forthcoming are ancient moraines indicating +some previous condition in which their extent was much larger than +now. In the east these moraines are very remarkable, extending +8 or 10 m. In the west they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 m. reach. +They have been observed on the summit of the table-land as well as +on the Himalayan slope. The explanation suggested to account for +the former great extension of glaciers in Norway would seem applicable +here. Any modification of the coast-line which should submerge +the area now occupied by the North Indian plain, or any +considerable part of it, would be accompanied by a much wetter and +more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow would fall on +the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be brought to bear +on the destruction of the glaciers, which would receive larger supplies +and descend lower.</p> + +<p><i>Botany.</i>—Speaking broadly, the general type of the flora of the +lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain +at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger +rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from +that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and +insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to +west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and +higher latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter +cold increases. The vegetation of the western part of the plain and +of the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely +allied to, or almost identical with, that of the drier parts of the +Indian peninsula, more especially of its hilly portions; and, while +a general tropical character is preserved, forms are observed which +indicate the addition of an Afghan as well as of an African element, +of which last the gay lily <i>Gloriosa superba</i> is an example, pointing to +some previous connexion with Africa.</p> + +<p>The European flora, which is diffused from the Mediterranean along +the high lands of Asia, extends to the Himalaya; many European +species reach the central parts of the chain, though few reach its +eastern end, while genera common to Europe and the Himalaya are +abundant throughout and at all elevations. From the opposite +quarter an influx of Japanese and Chinese forms, such as the rhododendrons, +the tea plant, <i>Aucuba</i>, <i>Helwingia</i>, <i>Skimmia</i>, <i>Adamia</i>, +<i>Goughia</i> and others, has taken place, these being more numerous in +the east and gradually disappearing in the west. On the higher and +therefore cooler and less rainy ranges of the Himalaya the conditions +of temperature requisite for the preservation of the various species +are readily found by ascending or descending the mountain slopes, +and therefore a greater uniformity of character in the vegetation is +maintained along the whole chain. At the greater elevations the +species identical with those of Europe become more frequent, and +in the alpine regions many plants are found identical with species of +the Arctic zone. On the Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness, +a Siberian type is established, with many true Siberian species and +more genera; and some of the Siberian forms are further disseminated, +even to the plains of Upper India. The total absence of a few +of the more common forms of northern Europe and Asia should also +be noticed, among which may be named <i>Tilia</i>, <i>Fagus</i>, <i>Arbutus</i>, <i>Erica</i>, +<i>Azalea</i> and <i>Cistacae</i>.</p> + +<p>In the more humid regions of the east the mountains are almost +everywhere covered with a dense forest which reaches up to 12,000 +or 13,000 ft. Many tropical types here ascend to 7000 ft. or more. +To the west the upper limit of forest is somewhat lower, from 11,500 +to 12,000 ft. and the tropical forms usually cease at 5000 ft.</p> + +<p>In Sikkim the mountains are covered with dense forest of tall +umbrageous trees, commonly accompanied by a luxuriant growth +of under shrubs, and adorned with climbing and epiphytal plants in +wonderful profusion. In the tropical zone large figs abound, <i>Terminalia</i>, +<i>Shorea</i> (sál), laurels, many <i>Leguminosae</i>, <i>Bombax</i>, <i>Artocarpus</i>, +bamboos and several palms, among which species of Calamus are +remarkable, climbing over the largest trees; and this is the western +limit of <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Myristica</i> (nutmeg). Plantains ascend to 7000 ft. +<i>Pandanus</i> and tree-ferns abound. Other ferns, <i>Scitamineae</i>, orchids +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +and climbing <i>Aroideae</i> are very numerous, the last named profusely +adorning the forests with their splendid dark-green foliage. Various +oaks descend within a few hundred feet of the sea-level, increasing in +numbers at greater altitudes, and becoming very frequent at 4000 ft., +at which elevation also appear <i>Aucuba</i>, <i>Magnolia</i>, cherries, <i>Pyrus</i>, +maple, alder and birch, with many <i>Araliaceae</i>, <i>Hollböllea</i>, <i>Skimmia</i>, +<i>Daphne</i>, <i>Myrsine</i>, <i>Symplocos</i> and <i>Rubus</i>. Rhododendrons begin at +about 6000 ft. and become abundant at 8000 ft., from 10,000 to 14,000 +ft. forming in many places the mass of the shrubby vegetation which +extends some 2000 ft. above the forest. Epiphytal orchids are +extremely numerous between 6000 and 8000 ft. Of the Coniferae, +<i>Podocarpus</i> and <i>Pinus longifolia</i> alone descend to the tropical zone; +<i>Abies Brunoniana</i> and <i>Smithiana</i> and the larch (a genus not seen in +the western mountains) are found at 8000, and the yew and <i>Picea +Webbiana</i> at 10,000 ft. <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, which occurs in Bhutan, is +absent in the wetter climate of Sikkim.</p> + +<p>On the drier and higher mountains of the interior of the chain, the +forests become more open, and are spread less uniformly over the +hill-sides, a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation appears, and the number +of shrubby <i>Leguminosae</i>, such as <i>Desmodium</i> and <i>Indigofera</i>, increases, +as well as <i>Ranunculaceae</i>, <i>Rosaceae</i>, <i>Umbelliferae</i>, <i>Labiatae</i>, +<i>Gramineae</i>, <i>Cyperaceae</i> and other European genera.</p> + +<p>Passing to the westward, and viewing the flora of Kumaon, which +province holds a central position on the chain, on the 80th meridian, +we find that the gradual decrease of moisture and increase of high +summer heat are accompanied by a marked change of the vegetation. +The tropical forest is characterized by the trees of the hotter and +drier parts of southern India, combined with a few of European type. +Ferns are more rare, and the tree-ferns have disappeared. The +species of palm are also reduced to two or three, and bamboos, though +abundant, are confined to a few species.</p> + +<p>The outer ranges of mountains are mainly covered with forests of +<i>Pinus longifolia</i>, rhododendron, oak and <i>Pieris</i>. At Naini Tal cypress +is abundant. The shrubby vegetation comprises <i>Rosa</i>, <i>Rubus</i>, +<i>Indigofera</i>, <i>Desmodium</i>, <i>Berberis</i>, <i>Boehmeria</i>, <i>Viburnum</i>, <i>Clematis</i>, +with an <i>Arundinaria</i>. Of herbaceous plants species of <i>Ranunculus</i>, +<i>Potentilla</i>, <i>Geranium</i>, <i>Thalictrum</i>, <i>Primula</i>, <i>Gentiana</i> and many other +European forms are common. In the less exposed localities, on +northern slopes and sheltered valleys, the European forms become +more numerous, and we find species of alder, birch, ash, elm, maple, +holly, hornbeam, <i>Pyrus</i>, &c. At greater elevations in the interior, +besides the above are met <i>Corylus</i>, the common walnut, found wild +throughout the range, horse chestnut, yew, also <i>Picea Webbiana</i>, +<i>Pinus excelsa</i>, <i>Abies Smithiana</i>, <i>Cedrus Deodara</i> (which tree does not +grow spontaneously east of Kumaon), and several junipers. The +denser forests are commonly found on the northern faces of the higher +ranges, or in the deeper valleys, between 8000 and 10,500 ft. The +woods on the outer ranges from 3000 up to 7000 ft. are more open, +and consist mainly of evergreen trees.</p> + +<p>The herbaceous vegetation does not differ greatly, generically, +from that of the east, and many species of <i>Primulaceae</i>, <i>Ranunculaceae</i>, +<i>Cruciferae</i>, <i>Labiatae</i> and <i>Scrophulariaceae</i> occur; balsams +abound, also beautiful forms of <i>Campanulaceae</i>, <i>Gentiana</i>, <i>Meconopsis</i>, +<i>Saxifraga</i> and many others.</p> + +<p>Cultivation hardly extends above 7000 ft., except in the valleys +behind the great snowy peaks, where a few fields of buckwheat and +Tibetan barley are sown up to 11,000 or 12,000 ft. At the lower +elevations rice, maize and millets are common, wheat and barley at a +somewhat higher level, and buckwheat and amaranth usually on the +poorer lands, or those recently reclaimed from forest. Besides these, +most of the ordinary vegetables of the plains are reared, and potatoes +have been introduced in the neighbourhood of all the British stations.</p> + +<p>As we pass to the west the species of rhododendron, oak and +<i>Magnolia</i> are much reduced in number as compared to the eastern +region, and both the Malayan and Japanese forms are much less +common. The herbaceous tropical and semi-tropical vegetation +likewise by degrees disappears, the <i>Scitamineae</i>, epiphytal and +terrestrial <i>Orchideae</i>, <i>Araceae</i>, <i>Cyrtandraceae</i> and <i>Begoniae</i> only occur +in small numbers in Kumaon, and scarcely extend west of the Sutlej. +In like manner several of the western forms suited to drier climates +find their eastern limit in Kumaon. In Kashmir the plane and +Lombardy poplar flourish, though hardly seen farther east, the cherry +is cultivated in orchards, and the vegetation presents an eminently +European cast. The alpine flora is slower in changing its character +as we pass from east to west, but in Kashmir the vegetation of the +higher mountains hardly differs from that of the mountains of +Afghanistan, Persia and Siberia, even in species.</p> + +<p>The total number of flowering plants inhabiting the range amounts +probably to 5000 or 6000 species, among which may be reckoned +several hundred common English plants chiefly from the temperate +and alpine regions; and the characteristic of the flora as a whole is +that it contains a general and tolerably complete illustration of +almost all the chief natural families of all parts of the world, and +has comparatively few distinctive features of its own.</p> + +<p>The timber trees of the Himalaya are very numerous, but few of +them are known to be of much value. The “Sál” is one of the most +valuable of the trees; with the “Toon” and “Sissoo,” it grows in +the outer ranges most accessible from the plains. The “Deodar” +is also much used, but the other pines produce timber that is not +durable. Bamboos grow everywhere along the outer ranges, and +rattans to the eastward, and are largely exported for use in the plains +of India.</p> + +<p>Though one species of coffee is indigenous in the hotter Himalayan +forests, the climate does not appear suitable for the growth of the +plant which supplies the coffee of commerce. The cultivation of tea, +however, is carried on successfully on a large scale, both in the east +and west of the mountains. In the western Himalaya the cultivated +variety of the tea plant of China succeeds well; on the east the +indigenous tea of Assam, which is not specifically different, and is +perhaps the original parent of the Chinese variety, is now almost +everywhere preferred. The produce of the Chinese variety in the hot +and wet climate of the eastern Himalaya, Assam and eastern Bengal +is neither so abundant nor so highly flavoured as that of the indigenous +plant.</p> + +<p>The cultivation of the cinchona, several species of which have been +introduced from South America and naturalized in the Sikkim +Himalaya, promises to yield at a comparatively small cost an ample +supply of the febrifuge extracted from its bark. At present the +manufacture is almost wholly in the hands of the Government, and +the drug prepared is all disposed of in India.</p> + +<p><i>Zoology.</i>—The general distribution of animal life is determined by +much the same conditions that have controlled the vegetation. +The connexion with Europe on the north-west, with China on the +north-east, with Africa on the south-west, and with the Malayan +region on the south-east is manifest; and the greater or less prevalence +of the European and Eastern forms varies according to more +western or eastern position on the chain. So far as is known these +remarks will apply to the extinct as well as to the existing fauna. +The Palaeozoic forms found in the Himalaya are very close to those +of Europe, and in some cases identical. The Triassic fossils are still +more closely allied, more than a third of the species being identical. +Among the Jurassic Mollusca, also, are many species that are common +in Europe. The Siwalik fossils contain 84 species of mammals of +45 genera, the whole bearing a marked resemblance to the Miocene +fauna of Europe, but containing a larger number of genera still +existing, especially of ruminants, and now held to be of Pliocene age.</p> + +<p>The fauna of the Tibetan Himalaya is essentially European or +rather that of the northern half of the old continent, which region has +by zoologists been termed Palaearctic. Among the characteristic +animals may be named the yak, from which is reared a cross breed +with the ordinary horned cattle of India, many wild sheep, and two +antelopes, as well as the musk-deer; several hares and some burrowing +animals, including pikas (<i>Lagomys</i>) and two or three species of +marmot; certain arctic forms of carnivora—fox, wolf, lynx, ounce, +marten and ermine; also wild asses. Among birds are found +bustard and species of sand-grouse and partridge; water-fowl in +great variety, which breed on the lakes in summer and migrate to +the plains of India in winter; the raven, hawks, eagles and owls, +a magpie, and two kinds of chough; and many smaller birds of the +passerine order, amongst which are several finches. Reptiles, as +might be anticipated, are far from numerous, but a few lizards are +found, belonging for the most part to types, such as <i>Phrynocephalus</i>, +characteristic of the Central-Asiatic area. The fishes from the headwaters +of the Indus also belong, for the most part, to Central-Asiatic +types, with a small admixture of purely Himalayan forms. Amongst +the former are several peculiar small-scaled carps, belonging to the +genus <i>Schizothorax</i> and its allies.</p> + +<p>The ranges of the Himalaya, from the border of Tibet to the +plains, form a zoological region which is one of the richest of the +world, particularly in respect to birds, to which the forest-clad +mountains offer almost every range of temperature.</p> + +<p>Only two or three forms of monkey enter the mountains, the +langur, a species of <i>Semnopithecus</i>, ranging up to 12,000 ft. No +lemurs occur, although a species is found in Assam, and another in +southern India. Bats are numerous, but the species are for the most +part not peculiar to the area; several European forms are found +at the higher elevations. Moles, which are unknown in the Indian +peninsula, abound in the forest regions of the eastern Himalayas at +a moderate altitude, and shrews of several species are found almost +everywhere; amongst them are two very remarkable forms of water-shrew, +one of which, however, <i>Nectogale</i>, is probably Tibetan rather +than Himalayan. Bears are common, and so are a marten, several +weasels and otters, and cats of various kinds and sizes, from the little +spotted <i>Felis bengalensis</i>, smaller than a domestic cat, to animals like +the clouded leopard rivalling a leopard in size. Leopards are common, +and the tiger wanders to a considerable elevation, but can hardly be +considered a permanent inhabitant, except in the lower valleys. +Civets, the mungoose (<i>Herpestes</i>), and toddy cats (<i>Paradoxurus</i>) are +only found at the lower elevations. Wild dogs (<i>Cyon</i>) are common, +but neither foxes nor wolves occur in the forest area. Besides these +carnivora some very peculiar forms are found, the most remarkable +of which is Aelurus, sometimes called the cat-bear, a type akin to the +American racoon. Two other genera, <i>Helictis</i>, an aberrant badger, +and linsang, an aberrant civet, are representatives of Malayan types. +Amongst the rodents squirrels abound, and the so-called flying +squirrels are represented by several species. Rats and mice swarm, +both kinds and individuals being numerous, but few present much +peculiarity, a bamboo rat (<i>Rhizomys</i>) from the base of the eastern +Himalaya being perhaps most worthy of notice. Two or three +species of vole (<i>Arvicola</i>) have been detected, and porcupines are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +common. The elephant is found in the outer forests as far as the +Jumna, and the rhinoceros as far as the Sarda; the spread of both +of these animals as far as the Indus and into the plains of India, far +beyond their present limits, is authenticated by historical records; +they have probably retreated before the advance of cultivation and +fire-arms. Wild pigs are common in the lower ranges, and one +peculiar species of pigmy-hog (<i>Sus salvanius</i>) of very small size +inhabits the forests at the base of the mountains in Nepál and +Sikim. Deer of several kinds are met with, but do not ascend very +high on the hillsides, and belong exclusively to Indian forms. The +musk deer keeps to the greater elevations. The chevrotains of India +and the Malay countries are unrepresented. The gaur or wild ox is +found at the base of the hills. Three very characteristic ruminants, +having some affinities with goats, inhabit the Himalaya; these are +the “serow” (<i>Nemorhaedus</i>), “goral” (<i>Cemas</i>) and “tahr” (<i>Hemitragus</i>), +the last-named ranging to rather high elevations. Lastly, +the pangolin (<i>Manis</i>) is represented by two species in the eastern +Himalaya. A dolphin (<i>Platanista</i>) living in the Ganges ascends that +river and its affluents to their issue from the mountains.</p> + +<p>Almost all the orders of birds are well represented, and the +marvellous variety of forms found in the eastern Himalaya is only +rivalled in Central and South America. Eagles, vultures and other +birds of prey are seen soaring high over the highest of the forest-clad +ranges. Owls are numerous, and a small species, <i>Glaucidium</i>, is +conspicuous, breaking the stillness of the night by its monotonous +though musical cry of two notes. Several kinds of swifts and nightjars +are found, and gorgeously-coloured trogons, bee-eaters, rollers, +and beautiful kingfishers and barbets are common. Several large +hornbills inhabit the highest trees in the forest. The parrots are +restricted to parrakeets, of which there are several species, and +a single small lory. The number of woodpeckers is very great +and the variety of plumage remarkable, and the voice of the +cuckoo, of which there are numerous species, resounds in the +spring as in Europe. The number of passerine birds is immense. +Amongst them the sun-birds resemble in appearance and +almost rival in beauty the humming-birds of the New Continent. +Creepers, nuthatches, shrikes, and their allied forms, flycatchers and +swallows, thrushes, dippers and babblers (about fifty species), bulbuls +and orioles, peculiar types of redstart, various sylviads, wrens, +tits, crows, jays and magpies, weaver-birds, avadavats, sparrows, +crossbills and many finches, including the exquisitely coloured rose-finches, +may also be mentioned. The pigeons are represented by +several wood-pigeons, doves and green pigeons. The gallinaceous +birds include the peacock, which everywhere adorns the forest bordering +on the plains, jungle fowl and several pheasants; partridges, of +which the chikor may be named as most abundant, and snow-pheasants +and partridges, found only at the greatest elevations. +Waders and waterfowl are far less abundant, and those occurring are +nearly all migratory forms which visit the peninsula of India—the +only important exception being two kinds of solitary snipe and the +red-billed curlew.</p> + +<p>Of the reptiles found in these mountains many are peculiar. Some +of the snakes of India are to be seen in the hotter regions, including +the python and some of the venomous species, the cobra being found +as high up as 8000 or 9000 ft., though not common. Lizards are +numerous, and as well as frogs are found at all elevations from the +plains to the upper Himalayan valleys, and even extend to Tibet.</p> + +<p>The fishes found in the rivers of the Himalaya show the same +general connexion with the three neighbouring regions, the Palaearctic, +the African and the Malayan. Of the principal families, the +<i>Acanthopterygii</i>, which are abundant in the hotter parts of India, +hardly enter the mountains, two genera only being found, of which +one is the peculiar amphibious genus <i>Ophiocephalus</i>. None of these +fishes are found in Tibet. The <i>Siluridae</i>, or scaleless fishes, and the +<i>Cyprinidae</i>, or carp and loach, form the bulk of the mountain fish, +and the genera and species appear to be organized for a mountain-torrent +life, being almost all furnished with suckers to enable them +to maintain their positions in the rapid streams which they inhabit. +A few <i>Siluridae</i> have been found in Tibet, but the carps constitute +the larger part of the species. Many of the Himalayan forms are +Indian fish which appear to go up to the higher streams to deposit +their ova, and the Tibetan species as a rule are confined to the rivers +on the table-land or to the streams at the greatest elevations, the +characteristics of which are Tibetan rather than Himalayan. The +<i>Salmonidae</i> are entirely absent from the waters of the Himalaya +proper, of Tibet and of Turkestan east of the Terektag.</p> + +<p>The Himalayan butterflies are very numerous and brilliant, for the +most part belonging to groups that extend both into the Malayan +and European regions, while African forms also appear. There are +large and gorgeous species of <i>Papilio</i>, <i>Nymphalidae</i>, <i>Morphidae</i> and +<i>Danaidae</i>, and the more favoured localities are described as being only +second to South America in the display of this form of beauty and +variety in insect life. Moths, also, of strange forms and of great size +are common. The cicada’s song resounds among the woods in the +autumn; flights of locusts frequently appear after the summer, and +they are carried by the prevailing winds even among the glaciers and +eternal snows. Ants, bees and wasps of many species, and flies and +gnats abound, particularly during the summer rainy season, and at +all elevations.</p> + +<p><i>Mountain Scenery.</i>—Much has been written about the impressiveness +of Himalayan scenery. It is but lately, however, that any +adequate conception of the magnitude and majesty of the most +stupendous of the mountain groups which mass themselves about +the upper tributaries and reaches of the Indus has been presented to +us in the works of Sir F. Younghusband, Sir W. M. Conway, H. C. B. +Tanner and D. Freshfield. It is not in comparison with the picturesque +beauty of European Alpine scenery that the Himalaya appeals +to the imagination, for amongst the hills of the outer Himalaya—the +hills which are known to the majority of European residents and +visitors—there is often a striking absence of those varied incidents +and sharp contrasts which are essential to picturesqueness in +mountain landscape. Too often the brown, barren, sun-scorched +ridges are obscured in the yellow dust haze which drifts upwards +from the plains; too often the whole perspective of hill and vale is +blotted out in the grey mists that sweep in soft, resistless columns +against these southern slopes, to be condensed and precipitated in +ceaseless, monotonous rainfall. Few Europeans really see the +Himalaya; fewer still are capable of translating their impressions +into language which is neither exaggerated nor inadequate.</p> + +<p>Some idea of the magnitude of Himalayan mountain construction—a +magnitude which the eye totally fails to appreciate—may, +however, be gathered from the following table of comparison of the +absolute height of some peaks above sea-level with the actual amount +of their slopes exposed to view:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Relative Extent of Snow Slopes Visible.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Name of Mountain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Place of Observation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Height<br />above<br />sea.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount<br />of Slope<br />exposed.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Everest</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dewanganj</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Everest</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sandakphu</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">K<span class="su">2</span> or Godwin-Austen</td> <td class="tcl rb">Between Gilgit and Gor, 16,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,250</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pk. XIII. or Makalu</td> <td class="tcl rb">Purnea, 200 ft</td> <td class="tcc rb">27,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pk. XIII. or Makalu</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sandakphu, 12,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nanga Parbat</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gor, 16,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">26,656</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tirach Mir</td> <td class="tcl rb">Between Gilgit and Chitral, 8000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">17-18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rakapushi</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chaprot (Gilgit), 13,000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,560</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kinchinjunga</td> <td class="tcl rb">Darjeeling, 7000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,146</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mont Blanc</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Above Chamonix, 7000 ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15,781</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It will be observed from this table that it is not often that a greater +slope of snow-covered mountain side is observable in the Himalaya +than that which is afforded by the familiar view of Mont Blanc from +Chamonix.</p> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Drew, <i>Jammu and Kashmir</i> (London, 1875); +G. W. Leitner, <i>Dardistan</i> (1887); J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes of the Hindu +Kush</i> (Calcutta, 1880); H. H. Godwin-Austen, “Mountain Systems +of the Himalaya,” vols. v. and vi. <i>Proc. R. G. S.</i> (1883-1884); +C. Ujfalvy, <i>Aus dem westlichen Himalaya</i> (Leipzig, 1884); H. C. B. +Tanner, “Our Present Knowledge of the Himalaya,” vol. xiii. <i>Proc. +R. G. S.</i> (1891); R. D. Oldham, “The Evolution of Indian Geography,” +vol. iii. <i>Jour. R. G. S.</i>; W. Lawrence, <i>Kashmir</i> (Oxford, +1895); Sir W. M. Conway, <i>Climbing and Exploring in the Karakoram</i> +(London, 1898); F. Bullock Workman, <i>In the Ice World of Himalaya</i> +(1900); F. B. and W. H. Workman, <i>Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh</i> +(1908); D. W. Freshfield, <i>Round Kangchenjunga</i> (1903).</p> + +<p>For geology see R. Lydekker, “The Geology of Káshmir,” &c., +<i>Mem. Geol. Surv. India</i>, vol. xxii. (1883); C. S. Middlemiss, +“Physical Geology of the Sub-Himálaya of Gahrwal and Kumaon,” +<i>ibid.</i>, vol. xxiv. pt. 2 (1890); C. L. Griesbach, <i>Geology of the Central +Himálayas</i>, vol. xxiii. (1891); R. D. Oldham, <i>Manual of the Geology +of India</i>, chap. xviii. (2nd ed., 1893). Descriptions of the fossils, +with some notes on stratigraphical questions, will be found in +several of the volumes of the <i>Palaeontologia Indica</i>, published by the +Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIMERA,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> a city on the north coast of Sicily, on a hill above the +east bank of the Himeras Septentrionalis. It was founded in +648 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Chalcidian inhabitants of Zancle, in company +with many Syracusan exiles. Early in the 5th century the +tyrant Terillas, son-in-law of Anaxilas of Rhegium and Zancle, +appealed to the Carthaginians, who came to his assistance, but +were utterly defeated by Gelon of Syracuse in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—on the +same day, it is said, as the battle of Salamis. Thrasydaeus, son +of Theron of Agrigentum, seems to have ruled the city oppressively, +but an appeal made to Hiero of Syracuse, Gelon’s brother, +was betrayed by him to Theron; the latter massacred all his +enemies and in the following year resettled the town. In 415 it +refused to admit the Athenian fleet and remained an ally of +Syracuse. In 408 the Carthaginian invading army under +Hannibal, after capturing Selinus, invested and took Himera +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +and razed the city to the ground, founding a new town close to the +hot springs (Thermae Himeraeae), 8 m. to the west. The only +relic of the ancient town now visible above ground is a small +portion (four columns, lower diameter 7 ft.) of a Doric temple, the +date of which (whether before or after 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is uncertain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIMERIUS<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 315-386), Greek sophist and rhetorician, +was born at Prusa in Bithynia. He completed his education at +Athens, whence he was summoned to Antioch in 362 by the +emperor Julian to act as his private secretary. After the death +of Julian in the following year Himerius returned to Athens, +where he established a school of rhetoric, which he compared +with that of Isocrates and the Delphic oracle, owing to the +number of those who flocked from all parts of the world to hear +him. Amongst his pupils were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil +the Great, bishop of Caesarea. In recognition of his merits, +civic rights and the membership of the Areopagus were conferred +upon him. The death of his son Rufinus (his lament for whom, +called <span class="grk" title="monôdia">μονῳδία</span>, is extant) and that of a favourite daughter +greatly affected his health; in his later years he became blind +and he died of epilepsy. Although a heathen, who had been +initiated into the mysteries of Mithra by Julian, he shows no +prejudice against the Christians. Himerius is a typical representative +of the later rhetorical schools. Photius (cod. 165, 243 +Bekker) had read 71 speeches by him, of 36 of which he has given +an epitome; 24 have come down to us complete and fragments +of 10 or 12 others. They consist of epideictic or “display” +speeches after the style of Aristides, the majority of them +having been delivered on special occasions, such as the arrival of +a new governor, visits to different cities (Thessalonica, Constantinople), +or the death of friends or well-known personages. The +<i>Polemarchicus</i>, like the <i>Menexenus</i> of Plato and the <i>Epitaphios</i> +<i>Logos</i> of Hypereides, is a panegyric of those who had given their +lives for their country; it is so called because it was originally +the duty of the polemarch to arrange the funeral games in +honour of those who had fallen in battle. Other declamations, +only known from the excerpts in Photius, were imaginary orations +put into the mouth of famous persons—Demosthenes advocating +the recall of Aeschines from banishment, Hypereides supporting +the policy of Demosthenes, Themistocles inveighing against the +king of Persia, an orator unnamed attacking Epicurus for +atheism before Julian at Constantinople. Himerius is more of a +poet than a rhetorician, and his declamations are valuable as +giving prose versions or even the actual words of lost poems by +Greek lyric writers. The prose poem on the marriage of Severus +and his greeting to Basil at the beginning of spring are quite in the +spirit of the old lyric. Himerius possesses vigour of language and +descriptive powers, though his productions are spoilt by too +frequent use of imagery, allegorical and metaphorical obscurities, +mannerism and ostentatious learning. But they are valuable +for the history and social conditions of the time, although +lacking the sincerity characteristic of Libanius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Eunapius, <i>Vitae sophistarum</i>; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i>; editions by G. +Wernsdorf (1790), with valuable introduction and commentaries, +and by F. Dübner (1849) in the Didot series; C. Teuber, <i>Quaestiones +Himerianae</i> (Breslau, 1882); on the style, E. Norden, <i>Die antike +Kunstprosa</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTE<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1823-1906), French historian +and geographer, was born at Strassburg on the 28th of March +1823. After studying in his native town and taking the university +course in Berlin (1842-1843) he went to Paris, and passed first +in the examination for fellowship (<i>agrégation</i>) of the <i>lycées</i> +(1845), first in the examinations on leaving the École des Chartes, +and first in the examination for fellowship of the faculties (1849). +In 1849 he took the degree of doctor of letters with two theses, +one of which, <i>Wala et Louis le Débonnaire</i> (published in Paris +in 1849), placed him in the front rank of French scholars in the +province of Carolingian history. Soon, however, he turned +his attention to the study of geography. In 1858 he obtained +an appointment as teacher of geography at the Sorbonne, and +henceforth devoted himself to that subject. It was not till +1876 that he published, in two volumes, his remarkable <i>Histoire +de la formation territoriale des états de l’Europe centrale</i>, in which +he showed with a firm, but sometimes slightly heavy touch, +the reciprocal influence exerted by geography and history. +While the work gives evidence throughout of wide and well-directed +research, he preferred to write it in the form of a +student’s manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained +him admission to the Institute in 1881. In that year he was +appointed dean of the faculty of letters, and for ten years he +directed the intellectual life of that great educational centre +during its development into a great scientific body. He died +at Sèvres on the 6th of October 1906.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1765-1814), German composer, +was born on the 20th of November 1765 at Treuenbrietzen +in Brandenburg, Prussia, and originally studied theology +at Halle. During a temporary stay at Potsdam he had an +opportunity of showing his self-acquired skill as a pianist before +King Frederick William II., who thereupon made him a yearly +allowance to enable him to complete his musical studies. This +he did under Naumann, a German composer of the Italian school, +and the style of that school Himmel himself adopted in his serious +operas. The first of these, a pastoral opera, <i>Il Primo Navigatore</i>, +was produced at Venice in 1794 with great success. In 1792 +he went to Berlin, where his oratorio <i>Isaaco</i> was produced, in +consequence of which he was made court Kapellmeister to the +king of Prussia, and in that capacity wrote a great deal of official +music, including cantatas, and a coronation Te Deum. His +Italian operas, successively composed for Stockholm, St Petersburg +and Berlin, were all received with great favour in their +day. Of much greater importance than these is an operetta +to German words by Kotzebue, called <i>Fanchon</i>, an admirable +specimen of the primitive form of the musical drama known +in Germany as the <i>Singspiel</i>. Himmel’s gift of writing genuine +simple melody is also observable in his songs, amongst which +one called “To Alexis” is the best. He died in Berlin on the +8th of June 1814.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINCKLEY,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a market town in the Bosworth parliamentary +division of Leicestershire, England, 14½ m. S.W. from Leicester +on the Nuneaton-Leicester branch of the London & North-Western +railway, and near the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal. Pop. +of urban district (1901), 11,304. The town is well situated on +a considerable eminence. Among the principal buildings are +the church of St Mary, a Decorated and Perpendicular structure, +with lofty tower and spire; the Roman Catholic academy +named St Peter’s Priory, and a grammar school. The ditch +of a castle erected by Hugh de Grentismenil in the time of William +Rufus is still to be traced. Hinckley is the centre of a stocking-weaving +district, and its speciality is circular hose. It also +possesses a boot-making industry, brick and tile works, and +lime works. There are mineral springs in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINCKS, EDWARD<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1792-1866), British assyriologist, was +born at Cork, Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. +He took orders in the Protestant Church of Ireland, and was +rector of Killyleagh, Down, from 1825 till his death on the 3rd +of December 1866. Hincks devoted his spare time to the study +of hieroglyphics, and to the deciphering of the cuneiform script +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cuneiform</a></span>), in which he was a pioneer, working out contemporaneously +with Sir H. Rawlinson, and independently +of him, the ancient Persian vowel system. He published a +number of original and scholarly papers on assyriological +questions of the highest value, chiefly in the <i>Transactions</i> of +the Royal Irish Academy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1807-1885), Canadian statesman, +was born at Cork, Ireland, the son of an Irish Presbyterian +minister. In 1832 he engaged in business in Toronto, became +a friend of Robert Baldwin, and in 1835 was chosen to examine +the accounts of the Welland Canal, the management of which +was being attacked by W. L. Mackenzie. This turned his attention +to political life and in 1838 he founded the <i>Examiner</i>, a +weekly paper in the Liberal interest. In 1841 he was elected +M.P. for the county of Oxford, and in the following year was +appointed inspector-general, the title then borne by the finance +minister, but in 1843 resigned with Baldwin and the other +ministers on the question of responsible government. In 1848 +he again became inspector-general in the Baldwin-Lafontaine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +ministry, and on their retirement in 1851 became premier of +Canada, his chief colleague being A. N. Morin (1803-1865). +While premier he was prominent in the negotiations which led +to the construction of the Grand Trunk railway, and in co-operation +with Lord Elgin negotiated with the United States +the reciprocity treaty of 1854. In the same year the bitter +hostility of the “Clear Grits” under George Brown compelled +his resignation, and he was prominent in the formation of the +Liberal-Conservative Party. In 1855 he was chosen governor +of Barbados and the Windward Islands, and subsequently +governor of British Guiana. In 1869 he was created K.C.M.G. +and returned to Canada, becoming till 1873 finance minister +in the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. In February of that +year he resigned, but continued to take an active part in public +life. In 1879 the failure of the Consolidated Bank of Canada, +of which he was president, led to his being tried for issuing false +statements. Though found guilty on a technicality (see <i>Journal</i> +of the Canadian Bankers’ Association, April 1906) judgment +was suspended, his personal credit remained unimpaired, and +he continued to take part in the discussion of public questions +till his death on the 18th of August 1885.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings include: <i>The Political History of Canada between 1840 +and 1855</i> (1877); <i>The Political Destiny of Canada</i> (1878), and his +<i>Reminiscences</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINCMAR<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 805-882), archbishop of Reims, one of the +most remarkable figures in the ecclesiastical history of France, +belonged to a noble family of the north or north-east of Gaul. +Destined, doubtless, to the monastic life, he was brought up at +St Denis under the direction of the abbot Hilduin (d. 844), who +brought him in 822 to the court of the emperor Louis the Pious. +When Hilduin was disgraced in 830 for having joined the party of +Lothair, Hincmar accompanied him into exile at Corvey in +Saxony, but returned with him to St Denis when the abbot was +reconciled with the emperor, and remained faithful to the emperor +during his struggle with his sons. After the death of Louis the +Pious (840) Hincmar supported Charles the Bald, and received +from him the abbacies of Notre-Dame at Compiègne and St +Germer de Fly. In 845 he obtained through the king’s support +the archbishopric of Reims, and this choice was confirmed at +the synod of Beauvais (April 845). Archbishop Ebbo, whom he +replaced, had been deposed in 835 at the synod of Thionville +(Diedenhofen) for having broken his oath of fidelity to the emperor +Louis, whom he had deserted to join the party of Lothair. After +the death of Louis, Ebbo succeeded in regaining possession of his +see for some years (840-844), but in 844 Pope Sergius II. confirmed +his deposition. It was in these circumstances that +Hincmar succeeded, and in 847 Pope Leo IV. sent him the +pallium.</p> + +<p>One of the first cares of the new prelate was the restitution to +his metropolitan see of the domains that had been alienated under +Ebbo and given as benefices to laymen. From the beginning of +his episcopate Hincmar was in constant conflict with the clerks +who had been ordained by Ebbo during his reappearance. These +clerks, whose ordination was regarded as invalid by Hincmar and +his adherents, were condemned in 853 at the council of Soissons, +and the decisions of that council were confirmed in 855 by Pope +Benedict III. This conflict, however, bred an antagonism of +which Hincmar was later to feel the effects. During the next +thirty years the archbishop of Reims played a very prominent +part in church and state. His authoritative and energetic will +inspired, and in great measure directed, the policy of the west +Frankish kingdom until his death. He took an active part in +all the great political and religious affairs of his time, and was +especially energetic in defending and extending the rights of the +church and of the metropolitans in general, and of the metropolitan +of the church of Reims in particular. In the resulting +conflicts, in which his personal interest was in question, he +displayed great activity and a wide knowledge of canon law, but +did not scruple to resort to disingenuous interpretation of texts. +His first encounter was with the heresiarch Gottschalk, whose +predestinarian doctrines claimed to be modelled on those of St +Augustine. Hincmar placed himself at the head of the party +that regarded Gottschalk’s doctrines as heretical, and succeeded +in procuring the arrest and imprisonment of his adversary (849). +For a part at least of his doctrines Gottschalk found ardent +defenders, such as Lupus of Ferrières, the deacon Florus and +Amolo of Lyons. Through the energy and activity of Hincmar +the theories of Gottschalk were condemned at Quierzy (853) and +Valence (855), and the decisions of these two synods were confirmed +at the synods of Langres and Savonnières, near Toul +(859). To refute the predestinarian heresy Hincmar composed +his <i>De praedestinatione Dei et libero arbitrio</i>, and against +certain propositions advanced by Gottschalk on the Trinity he +wrote a treatise called <i>De una et non trina deitate</i>. Gottschalk +died in prison in 868. The question of the divorce of Lothair II., +king of Lorraine, who had repudiated his wife Theutberga to +marry his concubine Waldrada, engaged Hincmar’s literary +activities in another direction. At the request of a number of +great personages in Lorraine he composed in 860 his <i>De divortio +Lotharii et Teutbergae</i>, in which he vigorously attacked, both +from the moral and the legal standpoints, the condemnation +pronounced against the queen by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle +(February 860). Hincmar energetically supported the policy of +Charles the Bald in Lorraine, less perhaps from devotion to the +king’s interests than from a desire to see the whole of the ecclesiastical +province of Reims united under the authority of a single +sovereign, and in 869 it was he who consecrated Charles at Metz +as king of Lorraine.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the 9th century there appeared in Gaul the +collection of false decretals commonly known as the Pseudo-Isidorian +Decretals. The exact date and the circumstances of the +composition of the collection are still an open question, but it is +certain that Hincmar was one of the first to know of their existence, +and apparently he was not aware that the documents were forged. +The importance assigned by these decretals to the bishops and the +provincial councils, as well as to the direct intervention of the +Holy See, tended to curtail the rights of the metropolitans, of +which Hincmar was so jealous. Rothad, bishop of Soissons, one of +the most active members of the party in favour of the pseudo-Isidorian +theories, immediately came into collision with his +archbishop. Deposed in 863 at the council of Soissons, presided +over by Hincmar, Rothad appealed to Rome. Pope Nicholas I. +supported him zealously, and in 865, in spite of the protests of the +archbishop of Reims, Arsenius, bishop of Orta and legate of the +Holy See, was instructed to restore Rothad to his episcopal see. +Hincmar experienced another check when he endeavoured to +prevent Wulfad, one of the clerks deposed by Ebbo, from obtaining +the archbishopric of Bourges with the support of Charles the +Bald. After a synod held at Soissons, Nicholas I. pronounced +himself in favour of the deposed clerks, and Hincmar was constrained +to make submission (866). He was more successful in +his contest with his nephew Hincmar, bishop of Laon, who was +at first supported both by the king and by his uncle, the archbishop +of Reims, but soon quarrelled with both. Hincmar of +Laon refused to recognize the authority of his metropolitan, and +entered into an open struggle with his uncle, who exposed his +errors in a treatise called <i>Opusculum LV. capitulorum</i>, and procured +his condemnation and deposition at the synod of Douzy +(871). The bishop of Laon was sent into exile, probably to +Aquitaine, where his eyes were put out by order of Count Boso. +Pope Adrian protested against his deposition, but it was confirmed +in 876 by Pope John VIII., and it was not until 878, at the +council of Troyes, that the unfortunate prelate was reconciled +with the Church. A serious conflict arose between Hincmar on +the one side and Charles and the pope on the other in 876, when +Pope John VIII., at the king’s request, entrusted Ansegisus, +archbishop of Sens, with the primacy of the Gauls and of +Germany, and created him vicar apostolic. In Hincmar’s eyes +this was an encroachment on the jurisdiction of the archbishops, +and it was against this primacy that he directed his treatise +<i>De jure metropolitanorum</i>. At the same time he wrote a life of St +Remigius, in which he endeavoured by audacious falsifications to +prove the supremacy of the church of Reims over the other +churches. Charles the Bald, however, upheld the rights of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +Ansegisus at the synod of Ponthion. Although Hincmar had +been very hostile to Charles’s expedition into Italy, he figured +among his testamentary executors and helped to secure the submission +of the nobles to Louis the Stammerer, whom he crowned +at Compiègne (8th of December 877).</p> + +<p>During the reign of Louis, Hincmar played an obscure part. +He supported the accession of Louis III. and Carloman, but had +a dispute with Louis, who wished to instal a candidate in the +episcopal see of Beauvais without the archbishop’s assent. To +Carloman, on his accession in 882, Hincmar addressed his <i>De +ordine palatii</i>, partly based on a treatise (now lost) by Adalard, +abbot of Corbie (<i>c.</i> 814), in which he set forth his system of government +and his opinion of the duties of a sovereign, a subject he +had already touched in his <i>De regis persona et regio ministerio</i>, +dedicated to Charles the Bald at an unknown date, and in his +<i>Instructio ad Ludovicum regem</i>, addressed to Louis the Stammerer +on his accession in 877. In the autumn of 832 an irruption of +the Normans forced the old archbishop to take refuge at Epernay, +where he died on the 21st of December 882. Hincmar was a +prolific writer. Besides the works already mentioned, he was the +author of several theological tracts; of the <i>De villa Noviliaco</i>, +concerning the claiming of a domain of his church; and he continued +from 861 the <i>Annales Bertiniani</i>, of which the first part +was written by Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, the best source for +the history of Charles the Bald. He also wrote a great number +of letters, some of which are extant, and others embodied in the +chronicles of Flodoard.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hincmar’s works, which are the principal source for the history +of his life, were collected by Jacques Sirmond (Paris, 1645), and +reprinted by Migne, <i>Patrol. Latina</i>, vol. cxxv. and cxxvi. See also +C. von Noorden, <i>Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims</i> (Bonn, 1863), and, +especially, H. Schrörs, <i>Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims</i> (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, +1884). For Hincmar’s political and ecclesiastical +theories see preface to Maurice Prou’s edition of the <i>De ordine palatii</i> +(Paris, 1885), and the abbé Lesné, <i>La Hiérarchie épiscopale en Gaule +et en Germanie</i> (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Po.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIND,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> the female of the red-deer, usually taken as being +three years old and over, the male being known as a “hart.” +It is sometimes also applied to the female of other species of +deer. The word appears in several Teutonic languages, cf. +Dutch and Ger. <i>Hinde</i>, and has been connected with the Goth. +<i>hinÞan</i> (<i>hinthan</i>), to seize, which may be connected ultimately +with “hand” and “hunt.” “Hart,” from the O.E. <i>heort</i>, may +be in origin connected with the root of Gr. <span class="grk" title="keras">κέρας</span>, horn. +“Hind” (O.E. <i>hine</i>, probably from the O.E. <i>hinan</i>, members +of a family or household), meaning a servant, especially a +labourer on a farm, is another word. In Scotland the “hind” +is a farm servant, with a cottage on the farm, and duties and +responsibilities that make him superior to the rest of the +labourers. Similarly “hind” is used in certain parts of +northern England as equivalent to “bailiff.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1804-1872), Prussian +general, was born at Wernigerode near Halberstadt on the +18th of July 1804. He was the son of a priest and received a +good education. His earlier life was spent in great poverty, +and the struggle for existence developed in him an iron strength +of character. Entering the Prussian artillery in 1820 he became +an officer in 1825. From 1830 to 1837 he attended the Allgemeine +Kriegsakademie at Berlin, and in 1841, while still a subaltern, +he was posted to the great General Staff, in which he afterwards +directed the topographical section. In 1849 he served with the +rank of major on the staff of General Peucker, who commanded +a federal corps in the suppression of the Baden insurrection. He +fell into the hands of the insurgents at the action of Ladenburg, +but was released just before the fall of Rastadt. In the Danish +war of 1864 Hindersin, now lieutenant-general, directed the +artillery operations against the lines of Düppel, and for his +services was ennobled by the king of Prussia. Soon afterwards +he became inspector-general of artillery. His experience at +Düppel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore +gun were past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting +zeal to the rearmament and reorganization of the Prussian +artillery. The available funds were small, and grudgingly +voted by the parliament. There was a strong feeling moreover +that the smooth-bore was still tactically superior to its rival +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, § 19). There was no practical training for +war in either the field or the fortress artillery units. The latter +had made scarcely any progress since the days of Frederick +the Great, and before von Hindersin’s appointment had practised +with the same guns in the same bastion year after year. All +this was altered, the whole “foot-artillery” was reorganized, +manoeuvres were instituted, and the smooth-bores were, except +for ditch defence, eliminated from the armament of the Prussian +fortresses. But far more important was his work in connexion +with the field and horse batteries. In 1864 only one battery +in four had rifled guns, but by the unrelenting energy of von +Hindersin the outbreak of war with Austria one and a half +years later found the Prussians with ten in every sixteen batteries +armed with the new weapon. But the battles of 1866 showed, +besides the superiority of the rifled gun, a very marked absence +of tactical efficiency in the Prussian artillery, which was almost +always outmatched by that of the enemy. Von Hindersin +had pleaded, in season and out of season, for the establishment +of a school of gunnery; and in spite of want of funds, such +a school had already been established. After 1866, however, +more support was obtained, and the improvement in the Prussian +field artillery between 1866 and 1870 was extraordinary, even +though there had not been time for the work of the school to +leaven the whole arm. Indeed, the German artillery played +by far the most important part in the victories of the Franco-German +war. Von Hindersin accompanied the king’s headquarters +as chief of artillery, as he had done in 1866, and was present +at Gravelotte, Sedan and the siege of Paris. But his work, +which was now accomplished, had worn out his physical powers, +and he died on the 23rd of January 1872 at Berlin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bartholomäus, <i>Der General der Infanterie von Hindersin</i> +(Berlin, 1895), and Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, <i>Letters +on Artillery</i> (translated by Major Walford, R.A.), No. xi.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDĪ, EASTERN,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> one of the “intermediate” Indo-Aryan +languages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). It is spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand +and Chhattisgarh by over 22,000,000 people. It is derived +from the Apabhraṁśa form of Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), and possesses a large and important literature. Its +most famous writer was Tulsī Dās, the poet and reformer, +who died early in the 17th century, and since his time it has +been the North-Indian language employed for epic poetry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDĪ, WESTERN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the Indo-Aryan language of the middle +and upper Gangetic Doab, and of the country to the north +and south. It is the vernacular of over 40,000,000 people. Its +standard dialect is Braj Bhāshā, spoken near Muttra, which +has a considerable literature mainly devoted to the religion +founded on devotion to Krishna. Another dialect spoken +near Delhi and in the upper Gangetic Doab is the original from +which Hindostani, the great <i>lingua franca</i> of India, has developed +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). Western Hindī, like Punjabi, its neighbour +to the west, is descended from the Apabhraṁśa form of Śaurasēnī +Prakrit (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), and represents the language of the +Madhyadēśa or Midland, as distinct from the intermediate +and outer Indo-Aryan languages.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDKI,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> the name given to the Hindus who inhabit Afghanistan. +They are of the Khatri class, and are found all over +the country even amongst the wildest tribes. Bellew in his +<i>Races of Afghanistan</i> estimates their number at about 300,000. +The name Hindki is also loosely used on the upper Indus, +in Dir, Bajour, &c., to denote the speakers of Punjabi or any +of its dialects. It is sometimes applied in a historical sense +to the Buddhist inhabitants of the Peshawar Valley north of +the Kabul river, who were driven thence about the 5th or +6th century and settled in the neighbourhood of Kandahar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDLEY,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> an urban district in the Ince parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 2 m. E.S.E. of Wigan, on the +Lancashire & Yorkshire and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901) +23,504. Cotton spinning and the manufacture of cotton goods +are the principal industries, and there are extensive coal-mines +in the neighbourhood. It is recorded that in the time of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +Puritan revolution Hindley church was entered by the Cavaliers, +who played at cards in the pews, pulled down the pulpit and +tore the Bible in pieces.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDOSTANI<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (properly <i>Hindōstāni</i>, of or belonging to +Hindostan<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the name given by Europeans to an Indo-Aryan +dialect (whose home is in the upper Gangetic Doab and near +the city of Delhi), which, owing to political causes, has become +the great <i>lingua franca</i> of modern India. The name is not +employed by natives of India, except as an imitation of the +English nomenclature. Hindostani is by origin a dialect of +Western Hindi, and it is first of all necessary to explain what +we mean by the term “Hindi” as applied to language. Modern +Indo-Aryan languages fall into three groups,—an outer band, +the language of the Midland and an intermediate band. The +Midland consists of the Gangetic Doab and of the country to +its immediate north and south, extending, roughly speaking, +from the Eastern Punjab on the west, to Cawnpore on its east. +The language of this tract is called “Western Hindi”; to its +west we have Panjabi (of the Central Punjab), and to the east, +reaching as far as Benares, Eastern Hindi, both Intermediate +languages. These three will all be dealt with in the present +article. Panjabi and Western Hindi are derived from Śaurasēnī, +and Eastern Hindi from Ardham gadhā Prakrit, through the +corresponding Apabhraṁśas (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>). Eastern Hindi +differs in many respects from the two others, but it is customary +to consider it together with the language of the Midland, and +this will be followed on the present occasion. In 1901 the speakers +of these three languages numbered: Panjabi, 17,070,961; Western +Hindi, 40,714,925; Eastern Hindi, 22,136,358.</p> + +<p><i>Linguistic Boundaries.</i>—Taking the tract covered by these +three forms of speech, it has to its west, in the western Punjab, +Lanndā (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sindhi</a></span>), a language of the Outer band. The +parent of Lahndā once no doubt covered the whole of the +Punjab, but, in the process of expansion of the tribes of the +Midland described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>, +it was gradually driven back, leaving traces of its former existence +which grow stronger as we proceed westwards, until at +about the 74th degree of east longitude there is a mixed, transition +dialect. To the west of that degree Lahndā may be said +to be established, the deserts of the west-central Punjab forming +a barrier and protecting it, just as, farther south, a continuation +of the same desert has protected Sindhi from Rajasthani. It +is the old traces of Lahndā which mainly differentiate Panjabi +from Hindostani. To the south of Panjabi and Western Hindi +lies Rajasthani. This language arose in much the same way +as Panjabi. The expanding Midland language was stopped by +the desert from reaching Sindhi, but to the south-west it found an +unobstructed way into Gujarat, where, under the form of Gujarati, +it broke the continuity of the Outer band. Eastern Hindi, +as an Intermediate form of speech, is of much older lineage. +It has been an Intermediate language since, at least, the institution +of Jainism (say, 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and is much less subject to the +influence of the Midland than is Panjabi. To its east it has +Bihari, and, stretching far to the south, it has Marathi as its +neighbour in that direction, both of these being Outer languages.</p> + +<p><i>Dialects.</i>—The only important dialect of Eastern Hindi +is Awadhī, spoken in Oudh, and possessing a large literature of +great excellence. Chhattīsgaṛhī and Baghēlī, the other dialects, +have scanty literatures of small value. Western Hindi has four +main dialects, Bundēlī of Bundelkhand, Braj Bhasha (properly +“Braj Bhāṣā”) of the country round Mathura (Muttra), Kanaujī +of the central Doab and the country to its north, and vernacular +Hindostani of Delhi and the Upper Doab. West of the Upper +Doab, across the Jumna, another dialect, Bāngarū, is also found. +It possesses no literature. Kanauji is very closely allied to +Braj Bhasha, and these two share with Awadhi the honour +of being the great literary speeches of northern India. Nearly +all the classical literature of India is religious in character, +and we may say that, as a broad rule, Awadhi literature is devoted +to the Ramaite religion and the epic poetry connected with it, +while that of Braj Bhasha is concerned with the religion of +Krishna. Vernacular Hindostani has no literature of its own, +but as the <i>lingua franca</i> now to be described it has a large +one. Panjabi has one dialect, Dōgrī, spoken in the Himalayas.</p> + +<p><i>Hindostani as a Lingua Franca.</i>—It has often been said that +Hindostani is a mongrel “pigeon” form of speech made up +of contributions from the various languages which met in Delhi +bazaar, but this theory has now been proved to be unfounded, +owing to the discovery of the fact that it is an actual living +dialect of Western Hindi, existing for centuries in its present +habitat, and the direct descendant of Śaurasēnī Prakrit. It +is not a typical dialect of that language, for, situated where it +is, it represents Western Hindi merging into Panjabi (Braj +Bhasha being admittedly the standard of the language), but to +say that it is a mongrel tongue thrown together in the market +is to reverse the order of events. It was the natural language +of the people in the neighbourhood of Delhi, who formed the +bulk of those who resorted to the bazaar, and hence it became +the bazaar language. From here it became the <i>lingua franca</i> +of the Mogul camp and was carried everywhere in India by the +lieutenants of the empire. It has several recognized varieties, +amongst which we may mention Dakhinī, Urdū, Rē<span class="un">kh</span>ta and +Hindī. Dakhini or “southern,” is the form current in the south +of India, and was the first to be employed for literature. It +contains many archaic expressions now extinct in the standard +dialect. Urdu, or <i>Urdū zabān</i>, “the language of the camp,” +is the name usually employed for Hindostani by natives, and +is now the standard form of speech used by Mussulmans. All +the early Hindostani literature was in poetry, and this literary +form of speech was named “Rē<span class="un">kh</span>ta,” or “scattered,” from the +way in which words borrowed from Persian were “scattered” +through it. The name is now reserved for the dialect used in +poetry, Urdu being the dialect of prose and of conversation. +The introduction of these borrowed words, which has been +carried to even a greater extent in Urdu, was facilitated by the +facts that the latter was by origin a “camp” language, and that +Persian was the official language of the Mogul court. In this +way Persian (and, with Persian, Arabic) words came into current +use, and, though the language remained Indo-Aryan in its +grammar and essential characteristics, it soon became unintelligible +to any one who had not at least a moderate acquaintance +with the vocabulary of Iran. This extreme Persianization +of Urdu was due rather to Hindu than to Persian influence. +Although Urdu literature was Mussulman in its origin, the +Persian element was first introduced in excess by the pliant +Hindu officials employed in the Mogul administration, and +acquainted with Persian, rather than by Persians and Persianized +Moguls, who for many centuries used only their own +languages for literary purposes.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Prose Urdu literature took its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +origin in the English occupation of India and the need for text-books +for the college of Fort William. It has had a prosperous +career since the commencement of the 19th century, but some +writers, especially those of Lucknow, have so overloaded it with +Persian and Arabic that little of the original Indo-Aryan character +remains, except, perhaps, an occasional pronoun or auxiliary +verb. The Hindi form of Hindostani was invented simultaneously +with Urdu prose by the teachers at Fort William. It +was intended to be a Hindostani for the use of Hindus, and was +derived from Urdu by ejecting all words of Persian or Arabic +birth, and substituting for them words either borrowed from +Sanskrit (<i>tatsamas</i>) or derived from the old primary Prakrit +(<i>tadbhavas</i>) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>). Owing to the popularity +of the first book written in it, and to its supplying the +need for a <i>lingua franca</i> which could be used by the most patriotic +Hindus without offending their religious prejudices, it became +widely adopted, and is now the recognized vehicle for writing +prose by those inhabitants of northern India who do not employ +Urdu. This Hindi, which is an altogether artificial product of the +English, is hardly ever used for poetry. For this the indigenous +dialects (usually Awadhi or Braj Bhasha) are nearly always +employed by Hindus. Urdu, on the other hand, having had a +natural growth, has a vigorous poetical literature. Modern +Hindi prose is often disfigured by that too free borrowing of +Sanskrit words instead of using home-born <i>tadbhavas</i>, which +has been the ruin of Bengali, and it is rapidly becoming a Hindu +counterpart of the Persianized Urdu, neither of which is intelligible +except to persons of high education.</p> + +<p>Not only has Urdu adopted a Persian vocabulary, but even +a few peculiarities of Persian construction, such as reversing +the positions of the governing and the governed word (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>báp mērā</i> for <i>mērā bāp</i>), or of the adjective and the substantive +it qualifies, or such as the use of Persian phrases with the preposition +<i>ba</i> instead of the native postposition of the ablative +case (<i>e.g.</i> <i>ba-<span class="un">kh</span>ushí</i> for <i><span class="un">kh</span>ushī-sē</i>, or <i>ba-ḥukm sarkār-kē</i> instead +of <i>sarkār-kē ḥukm-sē</i>) are to be met with in many writings; +and these, perhaps, combined with the too free indulgence on +the part of some authors in the use of high-flown and pedantic +Persian and Arabic words in place of common and yet chaste +Indian words, and the general use of the Persian instead of the +Nāgarī character, have induced some to regard Hindostani or +Urdu as a language distinct from Hindi. But such a view +betrays a radical misunderstanding of the whole question. We +must define Urdu as the Persianized Hindostani of educated +Mussulmans, while Hindi is the Sanskritized Hindostani of +educated Hindus. As for the written character, Urdu, from +the number of Persian words which it contains, can only be +written conveniently in the Persian character, while Hindi, +for a parallel reason, can only be written in the Nagari or one +of its related alphabets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>). On the other hand, +“Hindostani” implies the great <i>lingua franca</i> of India, capable +of being written in either character, and, without purism, +avoiding the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words +when employed for literature. It is easy to write this Hindostani, +for it has an opulent vocabulary of <i>tadbhava</i> words understood +everywhere by both Mussulmans and Hindus. While “Hindostani,” +“Urdu” and “Hindi” are thus names of dialects, it +should be remembered that the terms “Western Hindi” and +“Eastern Hindi” connote, not dialects, but languages.</p> + +<p>The epoch of Akbar, which first saw a regular revenue system +established, with toleration and the free use of their religion to +the Hindus, was, there can be little doubt, the period of the +formation of the language. But its final consolidation did not +take place till the reign of Shah Jahān. After the date of this +monarch the changes are comparatively immaterial until we +come to the time when European sources began to mingle +with those of the East. Of the contributions from these sources +there is little to say. Like the greater part of those from Arabic +and Persian, they are chiefly nouns, and may be regarded rather +as excrescences which have sprung up casually and have attached +themselves to the original trunk than as ingredients duly incorporated +in the body. In the case of the Persian and Arabic +element, indeed, we do find not a few instances in which nouns +have been furnished with a Hindi termination, <i>e.g.</i> <i><span class="un">kh</span>arīdnā</i>, +<i>badalnā</i>, <i>guzarnā</i>, <i>dā<span class="un">gh</span>nā</i>, <i>ba<span class="un">kh</span>shnaā</i>, <i>kamīnapan</i>, &c.; but the +European element cannot be said to have at all woven itself +into the grammar of the language. It consists, as has been +observed, solely of nouns, principally substantive nouns, which +on their admission into the language are spelt phonetically, +or according to the corrupt pronunciation they receive in the +mouths of the natives, and are declined like the indigenous +nouns by means of the usual postpositions or case-affixes. A +few examples will suffice. The Portuguese, the first in order of +seniority, contributes a few words, as <i>kamarā</i> or <i>kamrā</i> (<i>camera</i>), +a room; <i>mārtōl</i> (<i>martello</i>), a hammer; <i>nīlām</i> (<i>leilão</i>), an auction, +&c. &c. Of French and Dutch influence scarcely a trace exists. +English has contributed a number of words, some of which have +even found a place in the literature of the language; <i>e.g.</i> +<i>kamishanar</i> (commissioner); <i>jaj</i> (judge); <i>ḍākṭar</i> (doctor); +<i>ḍākṭarī</i>, “the science of medicine” or “the profession of +physicians”; <i>inspēkṭar</i> (inspector); <i>isṭanṭ</i> (assistant); <i>sōsayaṭí</i> +(society); <i>apīl</i> (appeal); <i>apīl karnā</i>, “to appeal”; <i>ḍikrī</i> or +<i>ḍigrī</i> (decree); <i>ḍigrī</i> (degree); <i>inc</i> (inch); <i>fut</i> (foot); and +many more, are now words commonly used. Some borrowed +words are distorted into the shape of genuine Hindostani words +familiar to the speakers; <i>e.g.</i> the English railway term “signal” +has become <i>sikandar</i>, the native name for Alexander the Great, +and “signal-man” is <i>sikandar-mān</i>, or “the pride of Alexander.” +How far the free use of Anglicisms will be adopted as the language +progresses is a question upon which it would be hazardous to +pronounce an opinion, but of late years it has greatly increased +in the language of the educated, especially in the case of technical +terms. A native veterinary surgeon once said to the present +writer, “<i>kuttē-kā saliva bahut antiseptic hai</i>” for “a dog’s +saliva is very antiseptic,” and this is not an extravagant +example.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The vocabulary of Panjabi and Eastern Hindi is very similar +to that of Western Hindi. Panjabi has no literature to speak +of and is free from the burden of words borrowed from Persian +or Sanskrit, only the commonest and simplest of such being found +in it. Its vocabulary is thus almost entirely <i>tadbhava</i>, and, +while capable of expressing all ideas, it has a charming rustic +flavour, like the Lowland Scotch of Burns, indicative of the +national character of the sturdy peasantry that employs it. +Eastern Hindi is very like Panjabi in this respect, but for a +different reason. In it were written the works of Tulsī Dās, +one of the greatest writers that India has produced, and his +influence on the language has been as great as that of Shakespeare +on English. The peasantry are continually quoting +him without knowing it, and his style, simple and yet vigorous, +thoroughly Indian and yet free from purism, has set a model +which is everywhere followed except in the large towns where +Urdu or Sanskritized Hindi prevails. Eastern Hindi is written +in the Nāgarī alphabet, or in the current character related to +it called “Kaithi” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>). The indigenous alphabet of +the Punjab is called <i>Laṇḍā</i> or “clipped.” It is related to Nāgarī, +but is hardly legible to any one except the original writer, and +sometimes not even to him. To remedy this defect an improved +form of the alphabet was devised in the 16th century by Angad, +the fifth Sikh Guru, for the purpose of recording the Sikh scriptures. +It was named <i>Gurmukhī</i>, “proceeding from the mouth of +the Guru,” and is now generally used for writing the language.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Grammar.</i>—In the following account we use these contractions: +Skr. = Sanskrit;   Pr. = Prakrit;   Ap. = Apabhraṁśa;   W.H. = +Western Hindi;   E.H. = Eastern Hindi;   H. = Hindostani;   Br. = +Braj Bhasha;   P. = Panjabi.</p> + +<p>(A) <i>Phonetics.</i>—The phonetic system of all three languages is +nearly the same as that of the Apabhraṁśas from which they are +derived. With a few exceptions, to be noted below, the letters of the +alphabets of the three languages are the same as in Sanskrit. +Panjabi, and the western dialects of Western Hindi, have preserved +the old Vedic cerebral l. There is a tendency for concurrent vowels +to run into each other, and for the semi-vowels y and v to become +vowels. Thus, Skr. <i>carmakāras</i>, Ap. <i>cammaāru</i>, a leather-worker, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +becomes H. <i>camār</i>; Skr. <i>rajani</i>, Ap. <i>ra(y)aṇi</i>, H. <i>rain</i>, night; Skr. +<i>dhavalakas</i>, Ap. <i>dhavalau</i>, H. <i>dhaulā</i>, white. Sometimes the semi-vowel +is retained, as in Skr. <i>kātaras</i>, Ap. <i>kā(y)aru</i>, H. <i>kāyar</i>, a +coward. Almost the only compound consonants which survived +in the Pr. stage were double letters, and in W.H. and E.H. these +are usually simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened and +sometimes nasalized, in compensation. P., on the other hand, prefers +to retain the double consonant. Thus, Skr. <i>karma</i>, Ap. <i>kammu</i>, +W.H. and E.H. <i>kām</i>, but P. <i>kamm</i>, a work; Skr. <i>satyas</i>, Ap. <i>saccu</i>, +W.H. and E.H. <i>sāc</i>, but P. <i>sacc</i>, true (H., being the W.H. dialect +which lies nearest to P., often follows that language, and in this +instance has <i>sacc</i>, usually written <i>sac</i>); Skr. <i>hastas</i>, Ap. <i>hatthu</i>, +W.H. and E.H. <i>hāth</i>, but P. <i>hatth</i>, a hand. The nasalization of vowels +is very frequent in all three languages, and is here represented by the +sign ~ over the vowel. Sometimes it is compensatory, as in <i>s<span class="ov">ã</span>c</i>, +but it often represents an original <i>m</i>, as in <i>kawãl</i> from Skr. <i>kamalas</i>, +a lotus. Final short vowels quiesce in prose pronunciation, and are +usually not written in transliteration; thus the final <i>a</i>, <i>i</i> or <i>u</i> has +been lost in all the examples given above, and other <i>tatsama</i> examples +are Skr. <i>mati</i>-which becomes <i>mat</i>, mind, and Skr. <i>vastu</i>-, which becomes +<i>bast</i>, a thing. In all poetry, however (except in the Urdū +poetry formed on Persian models, and under the rules of Persian +prosody), they reappear and are necessary for the scansion.</p> + +<p>In <i>tadbhava</i> words an original long vowel in any syllable earlier +than the penultimate is shortened. In P. and H. when the long vowel +is <i>ē</i> or <i>ō</i> it is shortened to <i>i</i> or <i>u</i> respectively, but in other W.H. +dialects and in E.H. it is shortened to <i>e</i> or <i>o</i>; thus, <i>bēṭī</i>, daughter, +long form H. <i>biṭiyā</i>, E.H. <i>beṭiyā</i>; <i>ghōṛī</i>, mare, long form H. <i>ghuṛiyā</i>, +E.H. <i>ghoṛiyā</i>. The short vowels <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> are very rare in P. and H., +but are not uncommon (though ignored by most grammars) in E.H. +and the other W.H. dialects. A medial <i>ḍ</i> is pronounced as a strongly +burred cerebral <i>ṛ</i>, and is then written as shown, with a supposited +dot. All these changes and various contractions of Prakrit syllables +have caused considerable variations in the forms of words, but +generally not so as to obscure the origin.</p> + +<p>(B) <i>Declension.</i>—The nominative form of a <i>tadbhava</i> word is derived +from the nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but <i>tatsama</i> +words are usually borrowed in the form of the Skr. crude base; thus, +Skr. <i>hastin</i>-, nom. <i>hastī</i>, Ap. nom. <i>hatthī</i>, H. <i>hāthī</i>, an elephant; +Skr. base <i>mati</i>-, nom. <i>matis</i>, H. (<i>tatsama</i>) <i>mati</i>, or, with elision of the +final short vowel, <i>mat</i>. Some <i>tatsamas</i> are, however, borrowed in the +nominative form, as in Skr. <i>dhanin</i>-, nom. <i>dhanī</i>, H. <i>dhanī</i>, a rich +man. As another example of a <i>tadbhava</i> word, we may take the +Skr. nom. <i>ghōṭas</i>, Ap. <i>ghōḍu</i>, H. <i>ghōṛ</i>, a horse. Here again the final +short vowel has been elided, but in old poetry we should find <i>ghōṛu</i>, +and corresponding forms in <i>u</i> are occasionally met with at the +present day.</p> + +<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> attention is drawn to the frequent use of +pleonastic suffixes, especially -<i>ka</i>- (fem.-<i>(i)kā</i>). +With such a suffix we have the Skr. <i>ghōṭa-kas</i>, +Ap. <i>ghōḍa-u</i>, Western Hindi <i>ghoṛau</i>, or in P. +and H. (which is the W.H. dialect nearest in +locality to P.) <i>ghōṛā</i>, a horse; Skr. <i>ghōṭi-kā</i>, +Ap. <i>ghōḍi-ā</i>, W.H. and P. <i>ghōḍī</i>, a mare. +Such modern forms made with one pleonastic +suffix are called “strong forms,” while +those made without it are called “weak +forms.” All strong forms end in <i>au</i> (or <i>ā</i>) +in the masculine, and in <i>ī</i> in the feminine, +whereas, in Skr., and hence in <i>tatsamas</i>, both <i>ā</i> +and <i>ī</i> are generally typical of feminine words, +though sometimes employed for the masculine. +It is shown in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> that +these pleonastic suffixes can be doubled, or +even trebled, and in this way we have a new +series of <i>tadbhava</i> forms. Let us take the +imaginary Skr. *<i>ghōṭa-ka-kas</i> with a double +suffix. From this we have the Ap. <i>ghōḍa-a-u</i>, +and modern <i>ghoṛawā</i> (with euphonic <i>w</i> inserted), +a horse. Similarly for the feminine +we have Skr. *<i>ghōṭi-ka-kā</i>, Ap. <i>ghōḍi-a-ā</i>, +modern <i>ghoṛiyā</i> (with euphonic <i>y</i> inserted), a +mare. Such forms, made with two suffixes, +are called “long forms,” and are heard in +familiar conversation, the feminine also serving as diminutives. +There is a further stage, built upon three suffixes, and called the +“redundant form,” which is mainly used by the vulgar. As a rule +masculine long forms end in -<i>awā</i>, -<i>iyā</i> or -<i>uā</i>, and feminines in -<i>iyā</i>, +although the matter is complicated by the occasional use of pleonastic +suffixes other than the -<i>ka</i>- which we have taken for our example, +and is the most common. Strong forms are rarely met with in E.H., +but on the other hand long forms are more common in that language.</p> + +<p>There are a few feminine terminations of weak nouns which may +be noted. These are -<i>inī</i>, -<i>in</i>, -<i>an</i>, -<i>nī</i> (Skr. -<i>inī</i>, Pr. <i>-iṇī</i>); and +-<i>ānī</i>, -<i>āni</i>, -<i>āin</i> (Skr. -<i>ānī</i>, Pr. -<i>āṇī</i>). These are found not only in +words derived from Prakrit, but are added to Persian and even +Arabic words; thus, <i>hathinī</i>, <i>hathnī</i>, <i>hāthin</i> (Skr. <i>hastinī</i>, Pr. <i>hatthiṇī</i>), +a she-elephant; <i>sunārin</i>, <i>sunāran</i>, a female goldsmith (<i>sōnār</i>); +<i>shērnī</i>, a tigress (Persian <i>shēr</i>, a tiger); <i>Naṣīban</i>, a proper name +(Arabic <i>naṣīb</i>); <i>paṇḍitānī</i>, the wife of a <i>paṇḍit</i>; <i>caudhrāin</i>, the +wife of a <i>caudhrī</i> or head man; <i>mehtrānī</i>, the wife of a sweeper +(Pres. <i>mehtar</i>, a sweeper). With these exceptions weak forms rarely +have any terminations distinctive of gender.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has disappeared. +We see it in the actual stage of disappearance in Apabhraṁśa (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), in which the case terminations had become worn down +to -<i>hu</i>, -<i>ho</i>, -<i>hi</i>, -<i>hī</i> and -<i>hã</i>, of which -<i>hi</i> and -<i>h<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i> were employed for +several cases, both singular and plural. There was also a marked +tendency for these terminations to be confused, and in the earliest +stages of the modern vernaculars we find -<i>hi</i> freely employed for +any oblique case of the singular, and -<i>h<span class="ov">ī</span></i> for any oblique case of the +plural, but more especially for the genitive and the locative. In the +case of modern weak nouns these terminations have disappeared +altogether in W.H. and P. except in sporadic forms of the locative +such as <i>g<span class="ov">ã</span>wē</i> (for <i>g<span class="ov">ã</span>wahi</i>), in the village. In E.H. they are still +heard as the termination of a form which can stand for any oblique +case, and is called the “oblique form” or the “oblique case.” +Thus, from <i>ghar</i>, a house (a weak noun), we have W.H. and P. +oblique form <i>ghar</i>, E.H. <i>gharahi</i>, <i>gharē</i> or <i>ghar</i>. In the plural, the +oblique form is sometimes founded on the Ap. terminations -<i>hã</i> and -<i>hu</i>, +and sometimes on the Skr. termination of the genitive plural -<i>ānām</i> +(Pr. -<i>āṇa</i>, -<i>aṇhaṃ</i>), as in P. <i>ghar<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, W.H. <i>ghara<span class="ov">ū</span></i>, <i>ghar<span class="ov">õ</span></i>, +<i>gharani</i>, E.H. <i>gharan</i>. In the case of masculine weak forms, the +plural nominative has dropped the old termination, except in +E.H., where it has adopted the oblique plural form for this case +also, thus <i>gharan</i>. The nominative plural of feminine weak forms +follows the example of the masculine in E.H. In P. it also takes +the oblique plural form, while in W.H. it takes the old singular +oblique form in -<i>a<span class="ov">h</span>ĩ</i>, which it weakens to <i>aĩ</i> or (H.) <i><span class="ov">ẽ</span></i>; thus <i>bāt</i> +(fem.), a word, nom. plur. E.H. <i>bāt-an</i>, P. <i>bāt-<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, W.H. <i>bātaĩ</i> or (H.) +<i>bāte</i>.</p> + +<p>Strong masculine bases in Ap. ended in -<i>a-a</i> (nom. -<i>a-u</i>); thus +<i>ghōḍa-a</i>- (nom. <i>ghōḍa-u</i>), and adding -<i>hi</i> we get <i>ghōḍa-a-hi</i>, which +becomes contracted <i>ghōḍāhi</i> and finally to <i>ghōṛē</i>. The nominative +plural is the same as the oblique singular, except in E.H. where it +follows the oblique plural. The oblique plural of all closely follows +in principle the weak forms. Feminine strong forms in Ap. ended +in -<i>i-ā</i>, contracted to <i>ī</i> in the modern languages. Except in E.H. +the -<i>hi</i> of the original oblique form singular disappears, so that we +have E.H. <i>ghōṛihi</i> or <i>ghōṛī</i>, others only <i>ghōṛī</i>. The nominative +plural of feminine strong forms exhibits some irregularities. In +E.H., as usual, it follows the plural oblique forms. In W.H. (except +Hindostani) it simply nasalizes the oblique form singular (<i>i.e.</i> adds -<i>h<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i> +instead of -<i>hi</i>), as in <i>ghōr<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i>, but first on line looks like -h<span class="ov">ĩ</span>]. P. and H. adopt the oblique long +form for the plural and nasalize it, thus, P. <i>ghōṛī<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, H. <i>ghōṛiy<span class="ov">ã</span></i>. +The oblique plurals call for no further remarks. We thus get the +following summary, illustrating the way in which these nominative +and oblique forms are made.</p> +</div> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Braj Bhasha.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Eastern Hindi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Masc.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar, gharahi</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharan</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb">ghar<span class="ov">ã</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharaũ, gharani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharan</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Masc.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛē, ghōṛai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛā, ghōṛē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛan</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛi<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛ<span class="ov">ō</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛaũ, ghōṛani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛan</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Fem.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bātaī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bātan</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bātaū, bātani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bātan</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Fem.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Obl. Sing.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī, ghōṛihi</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Nom. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛī<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛiy<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛ<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōṛin</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">   Obl. Plur.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōṛī<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōṛiy<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōṛiyaũ, ghōṛiyani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōṛin</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>We have seen that the oblique form is the resultant of a general +melting down of all the oblique cases of Sanskrit and Prakrit, and +that in consequence it can be used for any oblique case. It is +obvious that if it were so employed it would often give rise to great +confusion. Hence, when it is necessary to show clearly what +particular case is intended, it is usual to add defining particles +corresponding to the English prepositions “of,” “to,” “from,” +“by,” &c., which, as in all Indo-Aryan languages they follow the +main word, are here called “postpositions.” The following are +the postpositions commonly employed to form cases in our three +languages:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Agent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Genitive.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ablative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Locative.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Panjabi</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>nai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>dā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>n<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vicc</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hindostani</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>nē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>m<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Braj Bhasha</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>n<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i>, <i>saũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>maĩ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Eastern Hindi</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>kēr</i>, <i>k</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>k<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>sē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>m<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i>, <i>bikhē</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The agent case is the case which a noun takes when it is the subject +of a transitive verb in a tense formed from the past participle. +This participle is passive in origin, and must be construed passively. +In the Prakrit stage the subject was in such cases put into the +instrumental case (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), as in the phrase <i>ahaṁ tēṇa māriō</i>, +I by-him (was) struck, <i>i.e.</i> he struck me. In Eastern Hindi this is +still the case, the old instrumental being represented by the oblique +form without any suffix. The other two languages define the fact +that the subject is in the instrumental (or agent) case by the addition +of the postposition <i>nē</i>, &c., an old form +employed elsewhere to define the dative. It +is really the oblique form (by origin a locative) +of <i>nā</i> or <i>nō</i>, which is employed in +Gujarati (<i>q.v.</i>) for the genitive. As this suffix +is never employed to indicate a material +instrument but here only to indicate the +agent or subject of a verb, it is called the +postposition of the “agent” case.</p> + +<p>The genitive postpositions have an interesting +origin. In Buddhist Sanskrit the words +<i>kŗtas</i>, done, and <i>kŗtyas</i>, to be done, were +added to a noun to form a kind of genitive. +A synonym of <i>kŗtyas</i> was <i>kāryas</i>. These +three words were all adjectives, and agreed +with the thing possessed in gender, number, +and case; thus, <i>māla-kŗtē</i> <i>karaṇḍē</i>, in the +basket of the garland, literally, in the garland-made +basket. In the various dialects of +Apabhraṁśa Prakrit <i>kŗtas</i> became (strong +form) <i>kida-u</i> or <i>kia-u</i>, <i>kŗtyas</i> became <i>kicca-u</i>, +and <i>kāryas</i> became <i>kēra-u</i> or <i>kajja-u</i>, the +initial <i>k</i> of which is liable to elision after a +vowel. With the exception of Gujarati (and +perhaps Marathi, <i>q.v.</i>) every Indo-Aryan language +has genitive postpositions derived from +one or other of these forms. Thus from <i>(ki)da-u</i> +we have Panjabi <i>dā</i>; from <i>kia-u</i> we have H. <i>kā</i>, Br. <i>kau</i>, E.H. and +Bihari <i>k</i> and Naipali <i>kō</i>; from <i>(ki)cca-u</i> we have perhaps Marathi +<i>cā</i>; from <i>kēra-u</i>, E.H. and Bihari <i>kēr</i>, <i>kar</i>, Bengali Oriya and +Assamese -<i>r</i>, and Rajasthani -<i>rō</i>; while from <i>(ka)jja-u</i> we have the +Sindhi <i>jō</i>. It will be observed that while <i>k</i>, <i>kēr</i>, <i>kar</i>, and <i>r</i> are weak +forms, the rest are strong. As already stated, the genitive is an +adjective. <i>Bāp</i> means “father,” and <i>bāp-kā</i> <i>ghōrā</i> is literally +“the paternal horse.” Hence (while the weak forms as usual do +not change) these genitives agree with the thing possessed in gender, +number, and case. Thus, <i>bāp-kā ghōṛā</i>, the horse of the father, +but <i>bāp-kī ghōṛī</i>, the mare of the father, and <i>bāp-kē ghōṛē-kō</i>, to the +horse of the father, the <i>kā</i> being put into the oblique case masculine +<i>kē</i>, to agree with <i>ghōṛē</i>, which is itself in an oblique case. The details +of the agreement vary slightly in P. and W.H., and must be learnt +from the grammars. The E.H. weak forms do not change in the +modern language. Finally, in Prakrit it was customary to add +these postpositions (<i>kēra-u</i>, &c.) to the genitive, as in <i>mama</i> or +<i>mama kēra-u</i>, of me. Similarly these postpositions are, in the +modern languages, added to the oblique form.</p> + +<p>The locative of the Sanskrit <i>kŗtas</i>, <i>kŗtē</i>, was used in that language +as a dative postposition, and it can be shown that all the dative +postpositions given above are by origin old oblique forms of some +genitive postposition. Thus H. <i>kō</i>, Br. <i>kaũ</i>, is a contraction of +<i>kahũ</i>, an old oblique form of <i>kia-u</i>. Similarly for the others. The +origin of the ablative postpositions is obscure. To the present +writer they all seem (like the Bengal <i>haïtē</i>) to be connected with the +verb substantive, but their derivation has not been definitely fixed. +The locative postpositions <i>m<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i> and <i>maī</i> are derived from the Skr. +<i>madhyē</i>, in, through <i>majjhi</i>, <i>māhī</i>, and so on. The derivation of +<i>vicc</i> and <i>bikhē</i> is obscure.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Apabhraṁśa.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Braj<br />Bhasha.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern<br />Hindi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">i</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>haū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>maī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>maĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>haũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>maī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>maī</i>, <i>mahu</i>, <i>majjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mujh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mohi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">we</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amhē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>as<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>asā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>hamaū</i>, <i>hamani</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ham</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">thou</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tuhũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>taĩ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>taĩ</i>, <i>tuha</i>, <i>tujjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tujh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tohi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">you</span>,</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumhē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tus<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tum</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tum</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tum</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tumhahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tusā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tumh<span class="ov">õ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tumhaū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>tum</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. This will be +evident from the preceding table of the first two personal pronouns +compared with Apabhraṁśa.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that in most of the nominatives of the first +person, and in the E.H. nominative of the second person, the old +nominative has disappeared, and its place has been supplied by an +oblique form, exactly as we have observed in the nominative plural +of nouns substantive. The P. <i>as<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i>, <i>tus<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i>, &c., are survivals from the +old Lahndā (see <i>Linguistic Boundaries</i>, above). The genitives of +these two pronouns are rarely used, possessive pronouns (in H. <i>mērā</i>, +my; <i>hamārā</i>, our; <i>tērā</i>, thy; <i>tumhārā</i>, your) being employed +instead. They can all (except P. <i>asāḍā</i>, our; <i>tusāḍā</i>, your, which +are Lahndā) be referred to corresponding Ap. forms.</p> + +<p>There is no pronoun of the third person, the demonstrative +pronouns being used instead. The following table shows the +principal remaining pronominal forms, with their derivation from +Ap.:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Apabhraṁśa.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Braj<br />Bhasha.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern<br />Hindi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">that, he,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>uh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>woh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>wō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ū</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> uh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> us</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> wā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">those, they,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ōi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ōh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> wē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> wai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> unh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> unh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> unh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> uni</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> unh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">this, he,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ēhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>yeh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>yah</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ēhasu, ēhaho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> is</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> yā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">these, they,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ēi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ēh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> yē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> yai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> inh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ēhāṇa</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> inh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> inh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> ini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> inh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">that,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tasu, taho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tis</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">those,</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> sē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> sō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> sē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tāṇa</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tinh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tinh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> tenh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who, </span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>jē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jasu, jaho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jis</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who</span> (pl.),</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jāṇa</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jinh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jinh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> jenh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who?</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kō, kawaṇu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kauṇ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kaun</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kasu, kaho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kih</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kis</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">who?</span> (pl.),</td> <td class="tcr rb"> Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kauṇ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kaun</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kāṇa</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kinh<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kinh</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kini</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i> kenh</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">what?</span>(Neut.),</td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kiṁ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kiā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kyā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kahā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i> kāha, kāsu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i> kāh, kās</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i> kāhē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i> kāhē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i> kāhē</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The origin of the first pronoun given above (that, he; those, +they) cannot be referred to Sanskrit. It is derived from an Indo-Aryan +base which was not admitted to the classical literary language, +but of which we find sporadic traces in Apabhraṁśa. The existence +of this base is further vouched for by its occurrence in the Iranian +language of the Avesta under the form <i>ava-</i>. The base of the +second pronoun is the same as the base of the first syllable in the +Skr. <i>ē-ṣas</i>, this, and other connected pronouns, and also occurs in +the Avesta. Ap. <i>ēhu</i> is directly derived from <i>ē-sas</i>.</p> + +<p>There are other pronominal forms upon which, except perhaps +<i>kōī</i> (Pr. <i>kō-vi</i>, Skr. <i>kō-’pi</i>), any one, it is unnecessary to dwell. +The phrase <i>kōī hai</i>? “Is any one (there)?” is the usual formula +for calling a servant in upper India, and is the origin of the Anglo-Indian +word “Qui-hi.” The reflexive pronoun is <i>āp</i> (Ap. <i>appu</i>, +Skr. <i>ātmā</i>), self, which, something like the Latin <i>suus</i> (Skr. <i>svas</i>), +always refers to the subject of the sentence, but to all persons, not +only to the third. Thus <i>maĩ apnē</i> (not <i>mērē</i>) <i>bāp-kō dēkhtā-h<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>, +“I see my father.”</p> + +<p>C. <i>Conjugation</i>.—The synthetic conjugation was already commencing +to disappear in Prakrit, and in the modern languages the +only original tenses which remain are the present, the imperative, +and here and there the future. The first is now generally employed +as a present subjunctive. In the accompanying table we have the conjugation +of this tense, and also the three participles, present active, +and past and future passive, compared with Apabhraṁśa, the verb +selected being the intransitive root <i>call</i> or <i>cal</i>, go. In Ap. the word +may be spelt with one or with two <i>ls</i>, which accounts for the variations +of spelling in the modern languages.</p> + +<p>The imperative closely resembles the old present, except that it +drops all terminations in the 2nd person singular; thus, <i>cal</i>, go thou.</p> + +<p>In P. and H. a future is formed by adding the +syllable <i>gā</i> (fem. <i>gī</i>) to the simple present. Thus, H. +<i>cal<span class="ov">ũ</span>-gā</i>, I shall go. The <i>gā</i> is commonly said to +be derived from the Skr. <i>gatas</i> (Pr. <i>gaō</i>), gone, but +this suggestion is not altogether acceptable to the +present writer, although he is not now able to propose +a better. Under the form of <i>-gau</i> the same +termination is used in Br., but in that dialect the old +future has also survived, as in <i>calihaũ</i> (Ap. <i>calihaũ</i>, +Skr. <i>caliṣyāmi</i>), I shall go, which is conjugated like +the simple present. The E.H. formation of the +future is closely analogous to what we find in +Bihari (<i>q.v.</i>). The third person is formed as in Braj +Bhasha, but the first and second persons are formed +by adding pronominal suffixes, meaning “by me,” +“by thee,” &c., to the future passive participle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Apabhramśa.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Panjabi.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hindostani.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Braj<br />Bjasja.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern<br />Hindi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Old Present—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Singular 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call<span class="ov">ã</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calaū</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Singular 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callasi</i>, <i>callahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>call<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calas</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Singular 3.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calai</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Plural   1.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliyē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calaī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calaī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Plural   2.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calau</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Plural   3.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callanti</i>, <i>callahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callaṇ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cal<span class="ov">ẽ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calaī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calaī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Present Participle</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callanta-u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calldā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caltā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calatu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calat</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Past Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callia-u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calyau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Future Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callaṇia-u</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callṇā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calnā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calnaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>calliavva-u</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>caliwaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>calab</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Thus, <i>calab-<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>, it-is-to-be-gone by-me, I shall go. We thus get the +following forms. It will be observed that, as in many other Indo-Aryan +languages, the first person plural has no suffix:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">  Sing.</td> <td class="tcl">  Plur.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1. <i>calabũ</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>calab</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2. <i>calabē</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>calabō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">3. <i>calihai</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>calihaī</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In old E.H. the future participle passive, <i>calab</i>, takes no suffix for +any person, and is used for all persons.</p> + +<p>The last remark leads us to a class of tenses in P. and W.H., in +which a participle, by itself, can be employed for any person of a +finite tense. A few examples of the use of the present and past +participles will show the construction. They are all taken from +Hindostani. <i>Woh caltā</i>, he goes; <i>woh caltī</i>, she goes; <i>maī calā</i>, +I went; <i>woh calī</i>, she went; <i>wē calē</i>, they went. The present +participle in this construction, though it may be used to signify +the present, is more commonly employed to signify a past conditional +“(if) he had gone.” It will have been observed that in the +above examples, in all of which the verb is intransitive, the past +as well as the present participle agrees with the subject in gender +and number; but, if the verb be transitive, the passive meaning +of the past participle comes into force. The subject must be put +into the case of the agent, and the participle inflects to agree with +the object. If the object be not expressed, or, as sometimes happens, +be expressed in the dative case, the participle is construed impersonally, +and takes the masculine (for want of a neuter) form. +Thus, <i>maī-nē kahā</i>, by-me it-was-said, <i>i.e.</i> I said; <i>us-nē ciṭṭhī likhī</i>, +by-him a-letter (fem.) was-written, he wrote a letter; <i>rājā-nē +shērnī-kō mārā</i>, the king killed the tigress, lit., +by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, +it (impersonal) -was-killed. In the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> it is shown that the same construction <span class="correction" title="added is">is</span> obtained in that +language.</p> + +<p>In E.H. the construction is the same, but is obscured by the +fact that (as in the future) pronominal suffixes are added to the +participle to indicate the person of the subject or of the agent, as +in <i>calat-eũ</i>, (if) I had gone; <i>cal-eũ</i>, I went; <i>mār-eũ</i> (transitive), I +struck, lit., struck-by-me; <i>mār-es</i>, struck-by-him, he struck. If +the participle has to be feminine, it (although a weak form) takes +the feminine termination <i>i</i>, as in <i>māri-ũ</i>, I struck her; <i>calati-ũ</i>, +(if) I (fem.) had gone; <i>cali-ũ</i>, I (fem.) went.</p> + +<p>Further tenses are formed by adding the verb substantive to +these participles, as in H. <i>maĩ caltā-hū</i>, I am going; <i>maĩ caltā-thā</i>, +I was going; <i>maĩ calā-hū</i>, I have gone; <i>maĩ calā-thā</i>, I had gone. +These and other auxiliary verbs need not detain us long. They +differ in the various languages. For “I am” we have P. <i>h<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, H. +<i>hū</i>, Br. <i>haũ</i>, E.H. <i>bāṭyeũ</i> or <i>aheũ</i>. For “I was” we have P. <i>sī</i> or <i>sā</i>, +H. <i>thā</i>, Br. <i>hau</i> or <i>hutau</i>, E.H. <i>raheũ</i>. The H. <i>hũ</i> is thus conjugated:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">  Sing.</td> <td class="tcl">  Plur.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1. <i>h<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>haĩ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2. <i>hai</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>hō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">3. <i>hai</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>haī</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The derivation of <i>h<span class="ov">ã</span></i>, <i>h<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>, <i>haũ</i>, and <i>aheũ</i> is uncertain. They are +usually derived from the Skr. <i>asmi</i>, I am; but this presents many +difficulties. An old form of the third person singular is <i>hwai</i>, and +this points to the Pr. <i>havaï</i>, he is, equivalent to the Skr. <i>bhavati</i>, +he becomes. On the other hand this does not account for the +initial <i>a</i> of <i>aheũ</i>. This last word is in the <i>form</i> of a past tense, +and it may be a secondary formation from <i>asmi</i>. The P. <i>sī</i> is not +a feminine of <i>sā</i>, as usually stated, but is a survival of the Skr. +<i>āsīt</i>, Pr. <i>āsī</i>, was. As in the Prakrit form, <i>sī</i> is employed for both +genders, both numbers and all persons. <i>Sā</i> is a secondary formation +from this, on the analogy of the H. <i>thā</i>, which is from the Skr. +<i>sthitas</i>, Pr. <i>thiō</i>, stood, and is a participial form like <i>cal</i>ā; thus, +<i>woh thā</i>, he was; <i>woh thī</i>, she was. The Br. <i>hau</i> is a modern past +of <i>haū</i>, while <i>hutau</i> is probably by origin a present participle of the +Skr. <i>bhũ</i>, become, Pr. <i>huntaō</i>. The E.H. <i>bāṭeũ</i>, is the Skr. <i>vartē</i>, +Ap. <i>vaṭṭaũ</i>. <i>Raheũ</i> is the past tense of the root <i>rah</i>, remain.</p> + +<p>The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an +infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. <i>calnā</i>, E.H. <i>calab</i>, the act of +going, to go. There is a whole series of derivative verbal forms, +making potential passives and transitives +from intransitives, and causals (and even +double causals) from transitives. Thus +<i>dīkhnā</i>, to be seen; potential passive, +<i>dikhānā</i>, to be visible; transitive, <i>dēkhnā</i>, +to see; causal, <i>dikhlānā</i>, to show.</p> + +<p>D. <i>Literature.</i>—The literatures of Western +and Eastern Hindi form the subject of a +separate article (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani Literature</a></span>). +Panjabi has no formal literature. +Even the <i>Granth</i>, the sacred book of the +Sikhs, is mainly in archaic Western Hindi, +only a small portion being in Panjabi. +On the other hand, the language is +peculiarly rich in folksongs and ballads, +some of considerable length and great +poetic beauty. The most famous is the +ballad of <i>Hīr</i> and <i>Rānjhā</i> by Wāris Shāh, +which is considered to be a model of pure Panjabi. Colonel Sir +Richard Temple has published an important collection of these +songs under the title of <i>The Legends of the Punjab</i> (3 vols., Bombay +and London, 1884-1900), in which both texts and translations of +nearly all the favourite ones are to be found.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—(<i>a</i>) General: The two standard authorities are +the comparative grammars of J. Beames (1872-1879) and A. F. R. +Hoernle (1880), mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>. +To these may be added G. A. Grierson, “On the Radical and +Participial Tenses of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages” in the +<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, vol. lxiv. (1895), part i. +pp. 352 et seq.; and “On Certain Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan +Vernaculars” in the <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung +auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen</i> for 1903, +pp. 473 et seq.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) For the separate languages, see C. J. Lyall, <i>A Sketch of the +Hindustani Language</i> (Edinburgh, 1880); S. H. Kellogg, <i>A Grammar +of the Hindi Language</i> (for both Western and Eastern Hindi), (2nd ed., +London, 1893); J. T. Platts, <i>A Grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū +Language</i> (London, 1874); and <i>A Dictionary of Urdū, Classical +Hindi and English</i> (London, 1884); E. P. Newton, <i>Panjābī Grammar: +with Exercises and Vocabulary</i> (Ludhiana, 1898); and Bhai Maya +Singh, <i>The Panjabi Dictionary</i> (Lahore, 1895). <i>The Linguistic +Survey of India</i>, vol. vi., describes Eastern Hindi, and vol. ix., +Hindostani and Panjabi, in each instance in great detail.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. A. Gr.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Hindōstān” is a Persian word, and in modern Persian is +pronounced “Hindūstān.” It means the country of the Hindūs. In +medieval Persian the word was “Hindōstān,” with an <i>ō</i>, but in the +modern language the distinctions between <i>ē</i> and <i>ī</i> and between <i>ō</i> +and <i>ū</i> have been lost. Indian languages have borrowed Persian +words in their medieval form. Thus in India we have <i>shēr</i>, a tiger, +as compared with modern Persian <i>shīr</i>; <i>gō</i>, but modern Pers. <i>gū</i>; +<i>bōstān</i>, but modern Pers. <i>būstān</i>. The word “Hindu” is in medieval +Persian “Hindō” representing the ancient Avesta <i>hendava</i> (Sanskrit, +<i>saindhava</i>), a dweller on the <i>Sindhu</i> or Indus. Owing to the influence +of scholars in modern Persian the word “Hindū” is now established +in English and, through English, in the Indian literary languages; +but “Hindō” is also often heard in India. “Hindostan” with <i>o</i> +is much more common both in English and in Indian languages, +although “Hindustan” is also employed. Up to the days of Persian +supremacy inaugurated in Calcutta by Gilchrist and his friends, every +traveller in India spoke of “Indostan” or some such word, thus +bearing testimony to the current pronunciation. Gilchrist introduced +“Hindoostan,” which became “Hindustan” in modern +spelling. The word is not an Indian one, and both pronunciations, +with <i>ō</i> and with <i>ū</i>, are current in India at the present day, but that +with <i>ō</i> is unquestionably the one demanded by the history of the +word and of the form which other Persian words take on Indian +soil. On the other hand “Hindu” is too firmly established in English +for us to suggest the spelling “Hindo.”. The word “Hindī” +has another derivation, being formed from the Persian <i>Hind</i>, India +(Avesta <i>hindu</i>, Sanskrit <i>sindhu</i>, the Indus). “Hindi” means “of +or belonging to India,” while “Hindu” now means “a person of the +Hindu religion.” (Cf. Sir C. J. Lyall, <i>A Sketch of the Hindustani +Language</i>, p. 1).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sir C. J. Lyall, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Mr +Platts’s article in vol. xi. of the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In some dialects of W.H. weak forms have masculines ending +in u and corresponding feminines in <i>i</i>, but these are nowadays rarely +met in the literary forms of speech. In old poetry they are common. +In Braj Bhasha they have survived in the present participle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDŌSTĀNĪ LITERATURE.<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> The writings dealt with in +this article are those composed in the vernacular of that part of +India which is properly called Hindōstān,—that is, the valleys of +the Jumna and Ganges rivers as far east as the river Kōs, and +the tract to the south including Rajpūtānā, Central India +(Bundēlkhaṇḍ and Baghēlkhaṇḍ), the Narmadā (Nerbudda) +valley as far west as Khandwā, and the northern half of the +Central Provinces. It does not include the Punjab proper +(though the town population there speak Hindōstānī), nor does +it extend to Lower Bengal.</p> + +<p>In this region several different dialects prevail. The people of +the towns everywhere use chiefly the form of the language called +<i>Urdū</i> or <i>Rēkhta</i>,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> stocked with Persian words and phrases, and +ordinarily written in a modification of the Persian character. +The country folk (who form the immense majority) speak +different varieties of <i>Hindī</i>, of which the word-stock derives +from the Prākrits and literary Sanskrit, and which are written +in the Dēvanāgari or Kaithī character. Of these the most important +from a literary point of view, proceeding from west to +east, are <i>Mārwāṛī</i> and <i>Jaipurī</i> (the languages of Rajpūtānā), +<i>Brajbhāshā</i> (the language of the country about Mathurā and +Agra), <i>Kanaujī</i> (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna Doāb +and western Rohilkhaṇḍ), <i>Eastern Hindī</i>, also called <i>Awadhī</i> and +<i>Baiswārī</i> (the language of Eastern Rohilkhaṇḍ, Oudh and the +Benares division of the United Provinces) and <i>Bihārī</i> (the +language of Bihār or Mithilā, comprising several distinct dialects). +What is called <i>High Hindī</i> is a modern development, for literary +purposes, of the dialect of Western Hindi spoken in the neighbourhood +of Delhi and thence northwards to the Himālaya, which has +formed the vernacular basis of Urdū; the Persian words in the +latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of Sanskritic +origin, and the order of words in the sentence which is proper to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span> +the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in Urdū, +which under the influence of Persian constructions has admitted +many inversions.</p> + +<p>As in many other countries, nearly all the early vernacular +literature of Hindōstān is in verse, and works in prose are a +modern growth.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Both Hindī and Urdū are, in their application +to literary purposes, at first intruders upon the ground already +occupied by the learned languages Sanskrit and Persian, the +former representing Hindū and the latter Musalmān culture. +But there is this difference between them, that, whereas Hindī +has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech chiefly by +impulses of revolt against the monopoly of the Brahmans, +Urdū has been cultivated with goodwill by authors who have +themselves highly valued and dexterously used the polished +Persian. Both Sanskrit and Persian continue to be employed +occasionally for composition by Indian writers, though much +fallen from their former estate; but for popular purposes it +may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in sole +possession of the field.</p> + +<p>The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Early Hindī, of the period during which the language was being +fashioned as a literary medium out of the ancient Prākrits, represented +by the old heroic poems of Rajpūtānā and the literature of the early +<i>Bhagats</i> or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1100 +to 1550;</p> + +<p>2. Middle Hindī, representing the best age of Hindī poetry, and +reaching from about 1550 to the end of the 18th century;</p> + +<p>3. The rise and development of literary Urdū, beginning about the +end of the 16th century, and reaching its height during the 18th;</p> + +<p>4. The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature +in both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the 19th century.</p> +</div> + +<p>1. <i>Early Hindī.</i>—Our knowledge of the ancient metrical +chronicles of Rajpūtānā is still very imperfect, and is chiefly +derived from the monumental work of Colonel James Tod, called +<i>The Annals and Antiquities of Rājāsthān</i> (published in 1829-1832), +which is founded on them. It is in the nature of compositions +of this character to be subjected to perpetual revision +and recasting; they are the production of the family bards of the +dynasties whose fortunes they record, and from generation to +generation they are added to, and their language constantly +modified to make it intelligible to the people of the time. Round +an original nucleus of historical fact a rich growth of legend +accumulates; later redactors endeavour to systematize and to +assign dates, but the result is not often such as to inspire confidence; +and the mass has more the character of ballad literature +than of serious history. The materials used by Tod are nearly +all still unprinted; his manuscripts are now deposited in the +library of the Royal Asiatic Society in London; and one of the +tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first be +undertaken by the investigator of early Hindī literature is the +examination and sifting, and the publication in their original +form, of these important texts.</p> + +<p>Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by +compilers of accounts of Hindī literature, the earliest author of +whom any portion has as yet been published in the original text +is Chand Bardāī, the court bard of Prithwī-Rāj, the last Hindū +sovereign of Delhi. His poem, entitled <i>Prithī-Rāj Rāsau</i> (or +<i>Rāysā</i>), is a vast chronicle in 69 books or cantos, comprising a +general history of the period when he wrote. Of this a small +portion has been printed, partly under the editorship of the late +Mr John Beames and partly under that of Dr Rudolf Hoernle, by +the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult +nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much +progress.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native +of Lahore, which had for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under +Muslim rule when he flourished, and the language of the poem +exhibits a considerable leaven of Persian words. In its present +form the work is a redaction made by Amar Singh of Mēwār, +about the beginning of the 17th century, and therefore more +than 400 years after Chand’s death, with his patron Prithwī-Rāj, +in 1193. There is, therefore, considerable reason to doubt +whether we have in it much of Chand’s composition in its original +shape; and the nature of the incidents described enhances this +doubt. The detailed dates contained in the Chronicle have been +shown by Kabirāj Syāmal Dās<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> to be in every case about +ninety years astray. It tells of repeated conflicts between the +hero Prithwī-Rāj and Sultān Shihābuddin, of Ghōr (Muhammad +Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last great battle, +comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on payment +of a ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our +contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter +(that of Tiraurī (Tirawari) near Thēnēsar, fought in 1191) in +which the Sultān was defeated, and even then he escaped uncaptured +to Lahore. The Mongols (Book XV.) are brought on +the stage more than thirty years before they actually set foot in +India, and are related to have been vanquished by the redoubtable +Prithwī-Rāj. It is evident that such a record cannot +possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but +nevertheless it appears to contain a considerable element which, +from its language, may belong to Chand’s own age, and represents +the earliest surviving document in Hindī. “Though we may not +possess the actual text of Chand, we have certainly in his writings +some of the oldest known specimens of Gaudian literature, +abounding in pure Apabhramśa Śaurasēnī Prākrit forms” +(Grierson).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as +literature. The language, essentially transitional in character, consists +largely of words which have long since died out of the vernacular +speech. Even the most learned Hindus of the present day are +unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses +must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit +and Prākrit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hindī. +Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of +ballad chroniclers in general. There is much that is lively and +spirited in his descriptions of fight or council; and the characters of +the Rājpūt warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in their +utterances with skill and animation. The sound, however, frequently +predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on with the +wearisome iteration and tedious unfolding of familiar themes and +images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value, +for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary.</p> +</div> + +<p>Chand may be taken as the representative of a long line of +successors, continued even to the present day in the Rājpūt +states. Many of their compositions are still widely popular +as ballad literature, but are known only in oral versions sung +in Hindōstān by professional singers. One of the most famous +of these is the <i>Alhā-khaṇḍ</i>, reputed to be the work of a contemporary +of Chand called Jagnik or Jagnāyak, of Mahōbā +in Bundēlkhaṇḍ, who sang the praises of Rājā-Parmāl, a ruler +whose wars with Prithwī-Rāj are recorded in the Mahōbā-Khaṇḍ +of Chand’s work. Ālhā and Ūdal, the heroes of the poem, are +famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories connected +with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bihār, as +well as in the Bundēlkhaṇḍī or western form which is best +known. Two versions of the latter have been printed, having +been taken down as recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists. +Another celebrated bard was Sārangdhar of Rantambhōr, who +flourished in 1363, and sang the praises of Hammīr Dēo (Hamir +Deo), the Chauhān chief of Rantambhōr who fell in a heroic +struggle against Sultān ‘Alā‘uddīn Khiljī in 1300. He wrote +the <i>Hammīr Kāvya</i> and <i>Hammīr Rāsau</i>, of which an account +is given by Tod;<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which +language he compiled, in 1363, the anthology called <i>Sārngadhara-Paddhati</i>. +Another work which may be mentioned (though +much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled <i>Chhattra-Prakās</i>, +or the history of Rājā Chhatarsāl, the Bundēlā rājā of +Pannā, who was killed, fighting on behalf of Prince Dārā-Shukōh, +in the battle of Dhōlpur won by Aurangzēb in 1658. The +author, Lāl Kabi, has given in this work a history of the valiant +Bundēlā nation which was rendered into English by Captain +W. R. Pogson in 1828, and printed at Calcutta.</p> + +<p>Before passing on to the more important branch of early +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span> +Hindī literature, the works of the <i>Bhagats</i>, mention may be made +here of a remarkable composition, a poem entitled the <i>Padmāwat</i>, +the materials of which are derived from the heroic legends +of Rajpūtānā, but which is not the work of a bard nor even of +a Hindu. The author, Malik Muḥammad of Jā‘is, in Oudh, +was a venerated Muslim devotee, to whom the Hindu rājā of +Amēṭhī was greatly attached. Malik Muḥammad wrote the +Padmāwat in 1540, the year in which Shēr Shāh Sūr ousted +Humāyān from the throne of Delhi. The poem is composed +in the purest vernacular Awadhī, with no admixture of traditional +Hindu learning, and is generally to be found written in the +Persian character, though the metres and language are thoroughly +Indian. It professes to tell the tale of Padmāwatī or Padminī, +a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the +Chauhān rājā of Chītōr in Mēwār. The historical Padminī’s +husband was named Bhīm Singh, but Malik Muḥammad calls +him Ratan Sēn; and the story turns upon the attempts of +‘Alā‘uddīn Khiljī, the sovereign of Delhi, to gain possession +of her person. The tale of the siege of Chītōr in 1303 by ‘Alā‘uddīn, +the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished +to the last man in fight with the Sultan’s army, and the self-immolation +of Padminī and the other women, the wives and +daughters of the warriors, by the fiery death called <i>jōhar</i>, will be +found related in Tod’s <i>Rājāsthān</i>, i. 262 sqq. Malik Muḥammad +takes great liberties with the history, and explains at the end +of the poem that all is an allegory, and that the personages +represent the human soul, Divine wisdom, Satan, delusion +and other mystical characters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Both on account of its interest as a true vernacular work, and as +the composition of a Musalmān who has taken the incidents of his +morality from the legends of his country and not from an exotic +source, the poem is memorable. It has often been lithographed, and +is very popular; a translation has even been made into Sanskrit. +A critical edition has been prepared by Dr G. A. Grierson and Paṇḍit +Sudhākar Dwivēdi.</p> +</div> + +<p>The other class of composition which is characteristic of the +period of early Hindī, the literature of the <i>Bhagats</i>, or Vaishnava +saints, who propagated the doctrine of <i>bhakti</i>, or faith in Vishnu, +as the popular religion of Hindōstān, has exercised a much +more powerful influence both upon the national speech and +upon the themes chosen for poetic treatment. It is also, as a +body of literature, of high intrinsic interest for its form and +content. Nearly the whole of subsequent poetical composition +in Hindī is impressed with one or other type of Vaishnava +doctrine, which, like Buddhism many centuries before, was +essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the +chains of caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in face of +the monopoly which the “twice-born” asserted of learning, +of worship, of righteousness. A large proportion of the writers +were non-Brahmans, and many of them of the lowest castes. +As Śiva was the popular deity of the Brahmans, so was Vishnu +of the people; and while the literature of the Śaivas and Śāktas<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +is almost entirely in Sanskrit, and exercised little or no influence +on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas +is largely in Hindī, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of +what has been written in that language.</p> + +<p>The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to Rāmānuja, +a Brahman who was born about the end of the 11th century, +at Perambur in the neighbourhood of the modern Madras, +and spent his life in southern India. His works, which are in +Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on the Vēdānta Sūtras, +are devoted to establishing “the personal existence of a Supreme +Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love and pity +for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released +soul a home of eternal bliss near him—a home where each +soul never loses its identity, and whose state is one of perfect +peace.”<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In the Deity’s infinite love and pity he has on several +occasions become incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and +of these incarnations two, Rāmachandra, the prince of Ayōdhyā, +and Kṛishṇa, the chief of the Yādava clan and son of Vasudēva, +are pre-eminently those in which it is most fitting that he +should be worshipped. Both of these incarnations had for +many centuries<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> attracted popular veneration, and their +histories had been celebrated by poets in epics and by weavers +of religious myths in <i>Purānas</i> or “old stories”; but it was +apparently Rāmānuja’s teaching which secured for them, and +especially for Rāmachandra, their exclusive place as the objects +of <i>bhakti</i>—ardent faith and personal devotion addressed to the +Supreme. The adherents of Rāmānuja were, however, all +Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of food, +bathing and dress; the new doctrine had not yet penetrated +to the people.</p> + +<p>Whether Rāmānuja himself gave the preference to Rāma +against Krishna as the form of Vishnu most worthy of worship +is uncertain. He dealt mainly with philosophic conceptions +of the Divine Nature, and probably busied himself little with +mythological legend. His <i>mantra</i>, or formula of initiation, +if Wilson<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> was correctly informed, implies devotion to Rāma; +but Vāsudēva (Krishna) is also mentioned as a principal object +of adoration, and Rāmānuja himself dwelt for several years +in Mysore, at a temple erected by the rājā, at Yādavagiri in +honour of Krishna in his form Raṇchhōṛ.<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> It is stated that +in his worship of Krishna he joined with that god as his <i>Śaktī</i>, +or Energy, his wife Rukminī; while the later varieties of +Krishna-worship prefer to honour his mistress Rādhā. The +great difference, in temper and influence upon life, between +these two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development +subsequent to Rāmānuja; but by the time of Jaidēo (about +1250) it is clear that the theme of Krishna and Rādhā, and the +use of passionate language drawn from the relations of the sexes +to express the longings of the soul for God, had become fully +established; and from that time onwards the two types of +Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from +one another.</p> + +<p>The cult of Rāma is founded on family life, and the relation +of the worshipper to the Deity is that of a child to a father. +The morality it inculcates springs from the sacred sources of +human piety which in all religions have wrought most in favour +of pureness of life, of fraternal helpfulness and of humble +devotion to a loving and tender Parent, who desires the good +of mankind, His children, and hates violence and wrong. That +of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary +career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked +by a kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and +more spent its energy in developing that side of devotion which +is perilously near to sensual thought, and has allowed the +imagination and ingenuity of poets to dwell on things unmeet +for verse or even for speech. It is claimed for those who first +opened this way to faith that their hearts were pure and their +thoughts innocent, and that the language of erotic passion +which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely +mystical and allegorical. This is probable; but that these +beginnings were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that +the fervent impulses of adoration made way in later times for +those of lust and lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute.</p> + +<p>The worship of Krishna, especially in his infant and youthful +form (which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the +neighbourhood of Mathurā, the capital of that land of Braj +where as a boy he lived. Its literature is mainly composed +in the dialect of this region, called Brajbhāshā. That of Rāma, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +though general throughout Hindōstān, has since the time of +Tulsī Dās adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh, called +Awadhī or Baiswārī, a form of Eastern Hindī easily understood +throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley. Thus these two +dialects came to be, what they are to this day, the standard +vehicles of poetic expression.</p> + +<p>Subsequently to Rāmānuja his doctrine appears to have +been set forth, about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by +Jaidēo, a Brahman born at Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli, +in the Bīrbhūm district of Bengal, author of the Sanskrit <i>Gītā +Gōvinda</i>, and by Nāmdēo or Nāmā, a tailor<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> of Mahārāshtra, +of both of whom verses in the popular speech are preserved in +the <i>Ādi Granth</i> of the Sikhs. But it was not until the beginning +of the 15th century that the Brahman Rāmānand, a prominent +<i>Gōsāīṅ</i> of the sect of Rāmānuja, having had a dispute with the +members of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed +by them, left the community, migrated to northern India +(where he is said to have made his headquarters Galtā in Rajpūtānā), +and addressed himself to those outside the Brahman +caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the popular +faith of Hindōstān. Among his twelve disciples or apostles +were a Rājpūt, a Jāt, a leather-worker, a barber and a Musalmān +weaver; the last-mentioned was the celebrated <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kabīr</a></span> +(see separate article). One short Hindī poem by Rāmānand +is contained in the <i>Ādi Granth</i>, and Dr Grierson has collected +hymns (<i>bhajans</i>) attributed to him and still current in Mithilā +or Tirhūt. Both Rāmānand and Kabīr were adherents of +the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to +Rāama, who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself +identical with the Deity. A contemporary of Rāmānand, +Bidyāpati Ṭhākur, is celebrated as the author of numerous +lyrics in the Maithilī dialect of Bihār, expressive of the other +side of Vaishnavism, the passionate adoration of the Deity +in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the worshipper +being mystically conveyed in the character of Rādhā, the +cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasudēva. +These stanzas of Bidyāpati (who was a Brahman and author +of several works in Sanskrit) afterwards inspired the Vaishnava +literature of Bengal, whose most celebrated exponent was Chaitanya +(b. 1484). Another famous adherent of the same cult was +Mīrā Bāī, “the one great poetess of northern India” (Grierson). +This lady, daughter of Rājā Ratiyā Rānā, Rāṭhōr, of Mērtā +in Rajpūtānā, must have been born about the beginning of the +15th century; she was married in 1413 to Rājā Kumbhkaran +of Mēwār, who was killed by his son Uday Rānā in 1469. She +was devoted to Krishna in the form of Raṇchhōṛ, and her songs +have a wide currency in northern India.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava +saints or <i>Bhagats</i> is contained in the sacred book, or <i>Ādi Granth</i>, of +the Sikh <i>Gurus</i>. Nānak, the founder of this sect (1469-1538), though +a native of the Punjab (born at Talvandī on the Rāvī near Lahore), +took his doctrine from the <i>Bhagats</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kabīr</a></span>); and each of the +thirty-one <i>rāgs</i>, forming the body of the <i>Granth</i>, is followed by a +compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints, chiefly +of Kabīr, in confirmation of the teaching of the <i>Gurus</i>, while the whole +book is closed by a <i>bhōg</i> or conclusion, containing more verses by the +same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian Sūfī, Shēkh Farīd of +Pākpaṭṭan. The body of the <i>Granth</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), being in old Panjābī, falls +outside the scope of this article; but the extracts included in it from +the early writers of old Hindī are a precious store of specimens of +authors some of whom have left no other record in the surviving +literature. The <i>Ādi Granth</i>, which was put together about 1600 by +Arjun, the fifth <i>Guru</i> of the Sikhs, sets forth the creed of the sect in +its original pietistic form, before it assumed the militant character +which afterwards distinguished it under the five <i>Gurus</i> who succeeded +him.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Middle Hindī.</i>—The second period, that of middle Hindī, +begins with the reign of the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605); and +it is not improbable that the broad and liberal views of this +great monarch, his active sympathy with his Hindū subjects, +the interest which he took in their religion and literature, and +the peace which his organization of the empire secured for Hindostan, +had an important effect on the great development of Hindī +poetry which now set in.<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Akbar’s court was itself a centre of +poetical composition. The court musician Tān Sēn (who was +also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by +him in the Emperor’s name live to this day in the memory of +the people. Akbar’s favourite minister and companion, Rājā +Bīrbal (who fell in battle on the north-western frontier in 1583), +was a musician and a poet as well as a politician, and held the +title, conferred by the Emperor, of <i>Kabi-Rāy</i>, or poet laureate; +his verses and witty sayings are still extremely popular in +northern India, though no complete work by him is known +to exist. Other nobles of the court were also poets, among +them the <i>Khān-khānān</i> ‘Abdur-Raḥīm, son of Bairam Khān, +whose Hindī <i>dōhās</i> and <i>kabittas</i> are still held in high estimation, +and Faiẓī, brother of the celebrated Abul-Faẓl, the Emperor’s +annalist.</p> + +<p>By this time the worship of Krishna as the lover of Rādhā +(<i>Rādhā-ballabh</i>) had been systematized, and a local habitation +found for it at Gokul, opposite Mathurā on the Jumna, some +30 m. upstream from Agra, Akbar’s capital, by Vallabhāchārya, +a Tailinga Brāhman from Madras. Born in 1478, in 1497 he +chose the land of Braj as his headquarters, thence making +missionary tours throughout India. He wrote chiefly, if not +entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate followers, and +those of his son Biṭṭhalnāth (who succeeded his father on the +latter’s death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets +in Hindī. Four disciples of Vallabhāchārya and four of Biṭṭhalnāth, +who flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the +<i>Ashṭ Chhāp</i>, or “Eight Seals,” and are the acknowledged masters +of the literature of Braj-bhāshā, in which dialect they all wrote. +Their names are Krishna-Dās Pay-ahārī, Sūr Dās (the Bhāṭ), +Parmānand Dās, Kumbhan Dās, Chaturbhuj Dās, Chhīt Swāmī, +Nand Dās and Gōbind Dās. Of these much the most celebrated, +and the only one whose verses are still popular, is Sūr Dās. The +son of Bābā Rām Dās, who was a singer at Akbar’s court, Sūr +Dās was descended, according to his own statement, from the +bard of Prithwī-Rāj, Chand Bardāī. A tradition gives the date +of his birth as 1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both +seem to be placed too early, and in Abul-Faẓl’s <i>Aīn-i Akbarī</i> +he is mentioned as living when that work was completed (1596/7). +He was blind, and entirely devoted to the worship of Krishna, +to whose address he composed a great number of hymns (<i>bhajans</i>), +which have been collected in a compilation entitled the <i>Sūr +Sāgar</i>, said to contain 60,000 verses; this work is very highly +esteemed as the high-water mark of Braj devotional poetry, +and has been repeatedly printed in India. Other compositions +by him were a translation in verse of the <i>Bhāgavata Purāna</i>, +and a poem dealing with the famous story of Nala and Damayanti; +of the latter no copies are now known to exist.</p> + +<p>The great glory of this age is Tulsī Dās (<i>q.v.</i>). He and Sūr +Dās between them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of +the poetic art. It is somewhat remarkable that the time of their +appearance coincided with the Elizabethan age of English +literature.</p> + +<p>To these great masters succeeded a period of artifice and +reflection, when many works were composed dealing with the +rules of poetry and the analysis and the appropriate language of +sentiment. Of their writers the most famous is Kēsab Dās, a +Brahman of Bundēlkhaṇḍ, who flourished during the latter part of +Akbar’s reign and the beginning of that of Jahāngīr. His works +are the <i>Rasik-priyā</i>, on composition (1591), the <i>Kavi-priyā</i>, on +the laws of poetry (1601), a highly esteemed poem dedicated to +Parbīn Rāi Pāturī, a celebrated courtesan of Orchha in Bundēlkhaṇḍ, +the <i>Rāmachandrikā</i>, dealing with the history of Rāma, +(1610), and the <i>Vigyān-gītā</i> (1610). The fruit of this elaboration +of the poetic art reached its highest perfection in <span class="sc">Bihārī Lāl</span>, +whose <i>Sat-saī</i>, or “seven centuries” (1662), is the most remarkable +example in Hindī of the rhetorical style in poetry (see +separate article).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span></p> + +<p>Side by side with this cultivation of the literary use of the +themes of Rāma and Krishna, there grew up a class of compositions +dealing, in a devotional spirit, with the lives and doings of +the holy men from whose utterances and example the development +of the popular religion proceeded. The most famous of +these is the <i>Bhakta-mālā</i>, or “Roll of the <i>Bhagats</i>,” by Nārāyan +Dās, otherwise called Nābhā Dās, or Nābhājī. This author, who +belonged to the despised caste of Dōms and was a native of the +Deccan, had in his youth seen Tulsī Dās at Mathurā, and himself +flourished in the first half of the 17th century. His work consists +of 108 stanzas in <i>chhappāī</i> metre, each setting forth the +characteristics of some holy personage, and expressed in a style +which is extremely brief and obscure. Its exact date is unknown, +but it falls between 1585 and 1623. The book was furnished +with a <i>īkā</i> (supplement or gloss) in the <i>kabitta</i> metre, by Priyā +Dās in 1713, gathering up, in an allusive and disjointed fashion, +all the legendary stories related of each saint. This again was +expanded about a century later by a modern author named +Lachhman into a detailed work of biography, called the <i>Bhakta-sindhu</i>. +From these nearly all our knowledge (such as it is) of +the lives of the Vaishnava authors, both of the Rāma and the +Krishna cults, is derived, and much of it is of a very legendary +and untrustworthy character. Another work, somewhat earlier +in date than the <i>Bhakta-mālā</i>, named the <i>Chaurāsī Vārta</i>, is +devoted exclusively to stories of the followers of Vallabhāchārya. +It is reputed to have been written by Gōkulnāth, son of Biṭṭhalnāth, +son of Vallabhāchārya, and is dated in 1551.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The matter of these tales is justly characterized by Professor Wilson<a name="fa13i" id="fa13i" href="#ft13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +(who gives some translated specimens) as “marvellous and insipid +anecdotes”; but the book is remarkable for being in very artless +prose, and, though written more than 300 years ago, shows that the +current language of Braj was then almost precisely identical with +that now spoken in that region. A specimen of the text will be found +at p. 296 of Mr F. S. Growse’s <i>Mathura, a District Memoir</i> (3rd ed., +1883).</p> +</div> + +<p>It would be tedious to enumerate the many authors who +succeeded the great period of Hind poetical composition which +extended through the reigns of Akbar, Jahāngīr and Shāhjahān. +None of them attained to the fame of Sūr Dās, Tuls Dās or +Bihārī Lāl. Their themes exhibit no novelty, and they repeat +with a wearisome monotony the sentiments of their predecessors. +The list of Hindī authors drawn up by Dr G. A. Grierson, and +printed in the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i> in 1889, +may be consulted for the names and works of these <i>epigoni</i>. The +courts of Chhatarsāl, rājā of Pannā in Bundēlkhaṇḍ, who was +killed in battle with Aurangzēb in 1658, and of several rājās of +Bāndhō (now called Rīwān or Rewah) in Baghēlkhaṇḍ, were +famous for their patronage of poets; and the Mogul court itself +kept up the office of <i>Kabi-Rāy</i> or poet laureate even during the +fanatical reign of Aurangzēb.</p> + +<p>Such, in the briefest outline, is the character of Hind literature +during the period when it grew and flourished through its own +original forces. Founded by a popular and religious impulse in +many respects comparable to that which, nearly 1600 years +before, had produced the doctrine and literature, in the vernacular +tongue, of Jainism and Buddhism, and cultivated largely (though +by no means exclusively) by authors not belonging to the Brahmanical +order, it was the legitimate descendant in spirit, as +Hindī is the legitimate descendant in speech, of the Prākrit literature +which preceded it. Entirely in verse, it adopted and elaborated +the Prākrit metrical forms, and carried them to a pitch of +perfection too often overlooked by those who concern themselves +rather with the substance than the form of the works they read. +It covers a wide range of style, and expresses, in the works of its +greatest masters, a rich variety of human feeling. Little studied +by Europeans in the past, it deserves much more attention than +it has received. The few who have explored it speak of it as an +“enchanted garden” (Grierson), abounding in beauties of thought +and phrase. Above all it is to be remembered that it is genuinely +popular, and has reached strata of society scarcely touched by +literature in Europe. The ballads of Rajput prowess, the +aphorisms of Kabīr, Tulsī Dās’s <i>Rāmāyan</i>, and the <i>bhajans</i> of +Sūr Dās are to this day carried about everywhere by wandering +minstrels, and have found their way, throughout the great plains +of northern India and the uplands of the Vindhyā plateau, to the +hearts of the people. There is no surer key to unlock the confidence +of the villager than an apt quotation from one of these +inspired singers.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Literary Urdū.</i>—The <i>origines</i> of Urdū as a literary language +are somewhat obscure. The popular account refers its rise to +the time of Tīmūr’s invasion (1398). Some authors even claim +for it a higher antiquity, asserting that a <i>dīwān</i>, or collection of +poems, was composed in <i>Rēkhta</i> by Mas‘ūd, son of Sa’d, in the +last half of the 11th or beginning of the 12th century, and that +Sa’di of Shīrāz and his friend Amīr Khusrau<a name="fa14i" id="fa14i" href="#ft14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> of Delhi likewise +made verses in that dialect before the end of the 13th century. +This, however, is very improbable. It has already been seen that +during the early centuries of Muslim rule in India adherents of +that faith used the language and metrical forms of the country +for their compositions. Persian words early made their way into +the popular speech; they are common in Chand, and in Kabīr’s +verses (which are nevertheless unquestionable Hindī) they are in +many places used as freely as in the modern dialect. Much of the +confusion which besets the subject is due to the want of a clear +understanding of what Urdū, as opposed to Hindī, really is.</p> + +<p>Urdū, as a literary language, differs from Hindī rather in its +form than in its substance. The grammar, and to a large extent +the vocabulary, of both are the same. The really vital point of +difference, that in which Hindī and Urdū are incommensurable, +is the <i>prosody</i>. Hardly one of the metres taken over by Urdū +poets from Persian agrees with those used in Hindī. In the latter +language it is the rule to give the short <i>a</i> inherent in every consonant +or <i>nexus</i> of consonants its full value in scansion (though +in prose it is no longer heard), except occasionally at the metrical +pause; in Urdū this is never done, the words being scanned +generally as pronounced in prose, with a few exceptions which +need not be mentioned here. The great majority of Hindī +metres are scanned by the number of <i>mātrās</i> or syllabic instants—the +value in time of a short syllable—of which the lines consist; +in Urdū, as in Persian, the metre follows a special order of long +and short syllables.</p> + +<p>The question, then, is not When did Persian first become +intermixed with Hindī in the literary speech?—for this process +began with the first entry of Muslim conquerors into India, +and continued for centuries before a line of Urdū verse was +composed; nor When was the Persian character first employed +to write Hindī?—for the written form is but a subordinate +matter; as already mentioned, the MSS. of Malik Muḥammad’s +purely Hindī poem, the <i>Padmāwat</i>, are ordinarily found to be +written in the Persian character; and copies lithographed in +Dēvanāgarī of the popular compositions of the Urdū poet +Naẕīr are commonly procurable in the bāzārs. We must ask +When was the first verse composed in Hindī, whether with +or without foreign admixture, according to the forms of Persian +prosody, and not in those of the indigenous metrical system? +Then, and not till then, did Urdū poetry come into being. This +appears to have happened, as already mentioned, about the end +of the 16th century. Meantime the vernacular speech had been +gradually permeated with Persian words and phrases. The +impulse which Akbar’s interest in his Hindū subjects had given +to the translation of Sanskrit works into Persian had brought +the indigenous and the foreign literatures into contact. The +current language of the neighbourhood of the capital, the +Hindī spoken about Delhi and thence northwards to the Himālaya, +was naturally the form of the vernacular which was most +subject to foreign influences; and with the extension of Mogul +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span> +territory by the conquests in the south of Akbar and his successors, +this idiom was carried abroad by their armies, and was +adopted by the Musalmān kingdoms of the Deccan as their +court language some time before their overthrow by the campaigns +of Aurangzēb.</p> + +<p>It is not a little remarkable that, as happened with the Vaishnava +reformation initiated by Rāmānuja and Rāmānand, and +with the Vallabhāchārya cult of Krishna established at Mathurā, +the first impulse to literary composition in Urdū should have +been given, not at the headquarters of the empire in the north, +but at the Muhammadan courts of Gōlkondā and Bījāpur in +the south, the former situated amid an indigenous population +speaking Telugu, and the latter among one whose speech was +Kanarese, both Dravidian languages having nothing in common +with the Aryan tongues of the north. This fact of itself defines +the nature of the literature thus inaugurated. It had nothing +to do with the idiom or ideas of the people among whom it was +born, but was from the beginning an imitation of Persian models. +It adopted the standards of form and content current among +the poets of Ērān. The <i>qaṣīda</i> or laudatory ode, the <i>ghazal</i> +or love-sonnet, usually of mystical import, the <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iya</i> or dirge, +the <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i> or narrative poem with coupled rhymes, the <i>hijā</i> +or satire, the <i>rubā‘ī</i> or epigram—these were the types which +Urdū took over ready-made. And with the forms were appropriated +also all the conventions of poetic diction. The +Persians, having for centuries treated the same themes with +a fecundity which most Europeans find extremely wearisome, +had elaborated a system of rhetoric and a stock of poetic images +which, in the exhaustion of original matter, made the success +of the poet depend chiefly upon dexterity of artifice and cleverness +of conceit. Pleasing hyperbole, ingenious comparison, +antithesis, alliteration, carefully arranged gradation of noun +and epithet, are the means employed to obtain variety; and +few of the most eloquent passages of later Persian verse admit +of translation into any other language without losing that which +in the original makes their whole charm. What is true of Persian +is likewise true of Urdū poetry. Until quite modern times, +there is scarcely anything in it which can be called original.<a name="fa15i" id="fa15i" href="#ft15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a> +Differences of school, which are made much of by native critics, +are to us hardly perceptible; they consist in the use of one +or other range of metaphor or comparison, classed, according +as they repeat the well-worn poetical stock-in-trade of the +Persians, or seek a slightly fresher and more Indian field of +sentiment, as the old or the new style of composition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Shujā‘uddīn Nūrī, a native of Gujarāt, a friend of Faiẓī and contemporary +of Akbar, is mentioned by the native biographers as the +most ancient Urdū poet after Amīr Khusrau. He was tutor of the +son of the <i>wazīr</i> of Sultān Abu-l-Ḥasan Kuṭb Shāh of Golkonda, and +several <i>ghazals</i> by him are said to survive. Kulī Kuṭb Shāh of +Golkonda, who reigned from 1581, and his successor ‘Abdullāh Kuṭb +Shāh, who came to the throne in 1611, have both left collections of +verse, including <i>ghazals</i>, <i>rubā‘īs</i>, <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navīs</i> and <i>qaṣīdas</i>. And during +the reign of the latter Ibn Nishāṭī wrote two works which are still +famous as models of composition in Dakhni; they are <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navīs</i> +entitled the <i>Tūṭī-nāma</i>, or “Tales of a Parrot,” and the <i>Phūl-ban</i>. +The first, written in 1639, is an adaptation of a Persian work by +Nakhshabī, but derives ultimately from a Sanskrit original entitled +the <i>Śuka-saptati</i>; this collection has been frequently rehandled in +Urdū, both in verse and prose, and is the original of the <i>Ṭōṭā-Kahāni</i>, +one of the first works in Urdū prose, composed in 1801 by +Muḥammad Ḥaidar-bakhsh Ḥaidarī of the Fort William College. +The <i>Phūl-ban</i> is a love tale named from its heroine, said to be translated +from a Persian work entitled the <i>Basātīn</i>. Another famous +work which probably belongs to the same place and time is the <i>Story +of Kāmrūp and Kalā</i> by Taḥsīnuddīn, a <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i> which has been +published (1836) by M. Garcin de Tassy; what makes this poem +remarkable is that, though the work of a Musalmān, its personages +are Hindu. Kāmrũp, the hero, is son of the king of Oudh, and the +heroine, Kalā, daughter of the king of Ceylon; the incidents somewhat +resemble those of the tale of as-Sindibād in the <i>Thousand and +One Nights</i>; the hero and heroine dream one of the other, and the +former sets forth to find his beloved; his wanderings take him to +many strange countries and through many wonderful adventures, +ending in a happy marriage.</p> + +<p>The court of Bījāpur was no less distinguished in literature. +Ibrāhīm ‘Ādil Shāh (1579-1626) was the author of a work in verse +on music entitled the <i>Nau-ras</i> or “Nine Savours,” which, however, +appears to have been in Hindī rather than Urdū; the three prefaces +(<i>dībājas</i>) to this poem were rendered into Persian prose by Maulā +ẕuhūrī, and, under the name of the <i>Sih na<span class="un">s</span>r-i ẕuhūrī</i>, are well-known +models of style. A successor of this prince, ‘Alī ‘Ādil Shāh, had as +his court poet a Brahman known poetically as Nuṣratī, who in 1657 +composed a <i>maṣnavī</i> of some repute entitled the <i>Gulshan-i ‘Ishq</i>, or +“Rose-garden of Love,” a romance relating the history of Prince +Manōhar and Madmālatī,—like the <i>Kāmrūp</i>, an Indian theme. +The same poet is author of an extremely long <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i> entitled the +<i>‘Alī-nāma</i>, celebrating the monarch under whom he lived.</p> + +<p>These early authors, however, were but pioneers; the first +generally accepted standard of form, a standard which suffered little +change in two centuries, was established by Walī of Aurangābād +(about 1680-1720) and his contemporary and fellow-townsman +Sirāj. The former of these is commonly called “the Father of +Rēkhtah”—<i>Bābā-e Rēkhta</i>; and all accounts agree that the immense +development attained by Urdū poetry in northern India during the +18th century was due to his example and initiative. Very little is +known of Walī’s life; he is believed to have visited Delhi towards the +end of the reign of Aurangzēb, and is said to have there received +instruction from Shāh Gulshan in the art of clothing in a vernacular +dress the ideas of the Persian poets. His <i>Kullīyāt</i> or complete works +have been published by M. Garcin de Tassy, with notes and a translation +of selected passages (Paris, 1834-1836), and may be commended +to readers desirous of consulting in the original a favourable +specimen of Urdū poetical composition.</p> + +<p>The first of the Delhi school of poets was Zuhūruddīn Hātim, who +was born in 1699 and died in 1792. In the second year of Muhammad +Shāh (1719), the <i>dīwān</i> of Walī reached Delhi, and excited the emulation +of scholars there. Hātim was the first to imitate it in the Urdū +of the north, and was followed by his friends Nājī, Mazmūn and Ābrū. +Two <i>dīwāns</i> by him survive. He became the founder of a school, and +one of his pupils was Rafī us-Saudā, the most distinguished poet of +northern India. Khān Ārzū (1689-1756) was another of the fathers +of Urdū poetry in the north. This author is chiefly renowned as a +Persian scholar, in which language he not only composed much +poetry, but one of the best of Persian lexicons, the <i>Sirāju-l-lughāt</i>; +but his compositions in Urdū are also highly esteemed. He was the +master of Mīr Taqī, who ranks next to Saudā as the most eminent +Urdū poet. Ārzū died at Lucknow, whither he betook himself after +the devastation of Delhi by Nādir Shāh (1739). Another of the early +Delhi poets who is considered to have surpassed his fellows was +In‘āmullāh Khān Yaqīn, who died during the reign of Ahmad Shāh +(1748-1754), aged only twenty-five. Another was Mīr Dard, pupil +of the same Shāh Gulshan who is said to have instructed Walī; his +<i>dīwān</i> is not long, but extremely popular, and especially esteemed for +the skill with which it develops the themes of spiritualism. In his +old age he became a <i>darwēsh</i> of the <i>Naqshbandī</i> following, and died +in 1793.</p> + +<p>Saudā and Mīr Taqī are beyond question the most distinguished +Urdū poets. The former was born at Delhi about the beginning of +the 18th century, and studied under Hātim. He left Delhi after its +devastation, and settled at Lucknow, where the Nawāb Āṣafuddaulah +gave him a <i>jāgīr</i> of Rs. 6000 a year, and where he died in +1780. His poems are very numerous, and cover all the styles of +Urdū poetry; but it is to his satires that his fame is chiefly due, +and in these he is considered to have surpassed all other Indian +poets. Mīr Taqī was born at Agra, but early removed to Delhi, +where he studied under Ārzū; he was still living there at the time +of Saudā’s death, but in 1782 repaired to Lucknow, where he likewise +received a pension; he died at a very advanced age in 1810. His +works are very voluminous, including no less than six <i>dīwāns</i>. +Mīr is counted the superior of Saudā in the <i>ghazal</i> and <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i>, +while the latter excelled him in the satire and <i>qaṣīda</i>. Sayyid +Aḥmad, an excellent authority, and himself one of the best of modern +authors in Urdū, says of him in his <i>Ā<span class="un">s</span>āru-ṣ-Ṣanādīd</i>: “Mīr’s +language is so pure, and the expressions which he employs so suitable +and natural, that to this day all are unanimous in his praise. +Although the language of Saudā is also excellent, and he is superior +to Mīr in the point of his allusions, he is nevertheless inferior to him +in style.”</p> + +<p>The tremendous misfortunes which befell Delhi at the hands of +Nādir Shāh (1739), Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (1756), and the Marāṭhās +(1759), and the rapid decay of the Mogul empire under these repeated +shocks, transferred the centre of the cultivation of literature from +that city to Lucknow, the capital of the newly founded and flourishing +state of Oudh. It has been mentioned how Ārzū, Saudā and Mīr +betook themselves to this refuge and ended their days there; they +were followed in their new residence by a school of poets hardly +inferior to those who had made Delhi illustrious in the first half +of the century. Here they were joined by Mīr Hasan (d. 1786), Mīr +Sōz (d. 1800) and Qalandar-bakhsh Jur’at (d. 1810), also like themselves +refugees from Delhi, and illustrious poets. Mīr Hasan was a +friend and collaborator of Mīr Dard, and first established himself at +Faizābād and subsequently at Lucknow; he excelled in the <i>ghazal</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span> +<i>rubā‘ī</i>, <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i> and <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iya</i>, and is counted the third, with Saudā +and Mīr Taqī, among the most eminent of Urdū poets. His fame +chiefly rests upon a much admired <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i> entitled the <i>Siḥru-l-bayān</i>, +or “Magic of Eloquence,” a romance relating the loves of +Prince Bë-naẕīr and the Princess Badr-i Munīr; his <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i> called +the <i>Gulzār-i Iram</i> (“Rose-garden of Iram,” the legendary ‘Ādite +paradise in southern Arabia), in praise of Faizābād, is likewise +highly esteemed. Mīr Muḥammadī Sōz was an elegant poet, remarkable +for the success with which he composed in the dialect +of the harem called <i>Rekhtī</i>, but somewhat licentious in his verse; he +became a <i>darwēsh</i> and renounced the world in his later years. Jur’at +was also a prolific poet, but, like Sōz, his <i>ghazals</i> and <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navīs</i> are +licentious and full of double meanings. He imitated Saudā in satire +with much success; he also cultivated Hindī poetry, and composed +<i>dohās</i> and <i>kabittas</i>. Miskīn was another Lucknow poet of the same +period, whose <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iyas</i> are especially admired; one of them, that +on the death of Muslim and his two sons, is considered a masterpiece +of this style of composition. The school of Lucknow, so founded and +maintained during the early years of the century, continued to +flourish till the dethronement of the last king, Wājid ‘Alī, in 1856. +Ātash and Nāsikh (who died respectively in 1847 and 1841) are the +best among the modern poets of the school in the <i>ghazal</i>; Mīr Anīs, a +grandson of Mīr Hasan, and his contemporary Dabīr, the former of +whom died in December 1875 and the latter a few months later, +excelled in the <i>mar<span class="un">s</span>iyah</i>. Rajab Alī Beg Surūr, who died in 1869, +was the author of a much-admired romance in rhyming prose entitled +the <i>Fisānah-e ‘Ajāib</i> or “Tale of Marvels,” besides a <i>dīwān</i>. The +dethroned prince Wājid ‘Alī himself, poetically styled Akhtar, was +also a poet; he published three dīwāns, among them a quantity of +poetry in the rustic dialect of Oudh which is philologically of much +interest.</p> + +<p>Though Delhi was thus deserted by its brightest lights of literature, +it did not altogether cease to cultivate the poetic art. Among the +last Moguls several princes were themselves creditable poets. Shāh +Ālam II. (1761-1806) wrote under the name of Āftāb, and was the +author of a romance entitled <b><i>Manẕūm-i Aqdas</i></b>, besides a <i>dīwān</i>. +His son Sulaimān-shukoh, brother of Akbar Shāh II., who had at +first, like his brother authors, repaired to Lucknow, returned to +Delhi in 1815, and died in 1838; he also has left a <i>dīwān</i>. Lastly, his +nephew Bahādur Shāh II., the last titular emperor of Delhi (d. 1862), +wrote under the name of ẕafar, and was a pupil in poetry of Shaikh +Ibrāhīm ẕauq, a distinguished writer; he has left a voluminous +<i>dīwān</i>, which has been printed at Delhi. Maṣḥafī (Ghulām-i Hamdānī), +who died about 1814, was one of the most distinguished of the +revived poetic school of Delhi, and was himself one of its founders. +Originally of Lucknow, he left that city for Delhi in 1777, and held +conferences of poets, at which several authors who afterwards acquired +repute formed their style; he has left five <i>dīwāns</i>, a <i>Taẕkira</i> +or biography of Urdū poets, and a <i>Shāh-nāma</i> or account of the +kings of Delhi down to Shāh ‘Ālam. Qāim (Qiyāmuddīn ‘Alī) was one +of his society, and died in 1792; he has left several works of merit. +Ghālib, otherwise Mirzā Asadullāh Khān Naushāh, laureate of the +last Mogul, who died in 1869, was undoubtedly the most eminent of +the modern Delhi poets. He wrote chiefly in Persian, of which +language, especially in the form cultivated by Firdausī, free from +intermixture of Arabic words, he was a master; but his Urdū +<i>dīwān</i>, though short, is excellent in its way, and his reputation +spread far and wide. To this school, though he lived and died at +Agra, may be attached Mīr Walī Muḥammad Naẕīr (who died in the +year 1832); his <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navīs</i> entitled <i>Jogī-nāma</i>, <i>Kauṛī-nāma</i>, <i>Banjāre-nāma</i>, +and <i>Buṛhāpe-nāma</i>, as well as his <i>dīwān</i>, have been frequently +reprinted, and are extremely popular. His language is less artificial +than that of the generality of Urdū poets, and some of his poems +have been printed in Nāgarī, and are as well known and as much +esteemed by Hindus as by Mahommedans. His verse is defaced by +much obscenity.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. <i>Modern Period.</i>—While such, in outline, is the history +of the literary schools of the Deccan, Delhi and Lucknow, a +fourth, that of the Fort William College at Calcutta, was being +formed, and was destined to give no less an impulse to the +cultivation of Urdū prose than had a hundred years before +been given to that of poetry by Walī. At the commencement +of the 19th century Dr John Gilchrist was the head of this +institution, and his efforts were directed towards getting together +a body of literature suitable as text-books for the study of the +Urdū language by the European officers of the administration. +To his exertions we owe the elaboration of the vernacular as +an official speech, and the possibility of substituting it for the +previously current Persian as the language of the courts and +the government. He gathered together at Calcutta the most +eminent vernacular scholars of the time, and their works, due +to his initiative, are still notable as specimens of elegant and +serviceable prose composition, not only in Urdū, but also in +Hindī. The chief authors of this school are Ḥaidarī (Sayyid +Muḥammad Ḥaidar-bakhsh), Ḥusainī (Mīr Bahādur ‘Alī), Mīr +Amman Luṭf, Ḥafīẕuddīn Aḥmad, Shēr ‘Alī Afsōs, Nihāl Chand +of Lahore, Kāẕim ‘Alī Jawān, Lallū Lāl Kavi, Maẕhar ‘Alī Wilā +and Ikrām ‘Alī.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ḥaidarī died in 1828. He composed the <i>Ṭoṭā-Kahānī</i> (1801), a +prose redaction of the <i>Ṭūṭī-nāmah</i> which has been already mentioned; +a romance named <i>Ārāish-i Maḥfil</i> (“Ornament of the Assembly”), +detailing the adventures of the famous Arab chief Ḥātim-i Ṭai; the +<i>Gul-i Maghfirat</i> or <i>Dah Majlis</i>, an account of the holy persons of +the Muhammadan faith; the <i>Gulzār-i Dānish</i>, a translation of the +<i>Bahār-i Dānish</i>, a Persian work containing stories descriptive of the +craft and faithlessness of women; and the <i>Tārīkh-i Nādirī</i>, a translation +of a Persian history of Nādir Shāh. Ḥusainī is the author of +an imitation in prose of Mīr Ḥasan’s <i>Siḥru-l-bayān</i>, under the name +of <i>Naṣr-i Bēnaẕīr</i> (“the Incomparable Prose,” or “the Prose of +Bēnaẓīr,” the latter being the name of the hero), and of a work +named <i>Akhlāq-i Hindī</i>, or “Indian Morals,” both composed in 1802. +The <i>Akhlāq-i Hindī</i> is an adaptation of a Persian work called the +<i>Mufarriḥu-l-qulūb</i> (“the Delighter of Hearts”), itself a version of the +<i>Hitōpadēša</i>. Mīr Amman was a native of Delhi, which he left in the +time of Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī for Patna, and in 1801 repaired to +Calcutta. To him we owe the <i>Bāgh o Bahār</i> (1801-1802), an adaptation +of Amīr Khusrau’s famous Persian romance entitled the <i>Chahār +Darwēsh</i>, or “Story of the Four Dervishes.” Amman’s work is not +itself directly modelled on the Persian, but is a rehandling of an +almost contemporary rendering by Tahsīn of Etāwā, called the +<i>Nau-ṭarz-i Muraṣṣa‘</i>. The style of this composition is much admired +by natives of India, and editions of it are very numerous. Amman +also composed an imitation of Husain Wā‘iz Kāshifī’s <i>Akhlāq-i +Muḥsinī</i> under the name of the <i>Ganj-i Khūbī</i> (“Treasure of Virtue”), +produced in 1802. Ḥafīẕuddīn Ahmad was a professor at the Fort +William College; in 1803 he completed a translation of Abu-l-Faẓl’s +<i>’Iyār-i Dānish</i>, under the name of the <i>Khirad-afrōz</i> (“Enlightener +of the Understanding”). The <i>’Iyār-i Dānish</i> (“Touchstone of +Wisdom”) is one of the numerous imitations of the originally +Sanskrit collection of apologues known in Persian as the <i>Fables of +Bīdpāī</i>, or <i>Kalīlah and Dimna</i>. Afsōs was one of the most illustrious +of the Fort William school; originally of Delhi, he left that city at +the age of eleven, and entered the service of Qāsim ‘Alī Khān, +Nawāb of Bengal; he afterwards repaired to Hyderābād in the +Deccan, and thence to Lucknow, where he was the pupil of Mīr +Ḥasan, Mīr Sōz and Mīr Ḥaidar ‘Alī Ḥairān. He joined the Fort +William College in 1800, and died in 1809. He is the author of a +much esteemed dīwān; but his chief reputation is founded on two +prose works of great excellence, the <i>Ārāish-i Mahfil</i> (1805), an account +of India adapted from the introduction of the Persian <i>Khulāṣatu-t-tawārikh</i> +of Sujān Rāe, and the <i>Bāgh-i Urdū</i> (1808), a translation of +Sa’dī’s <i>Gulistān</i>. Nihāl Chand translated into Urdū a <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navī</i>, +entitled the <i>Gul-i Bakāwalī</i>, under the name of <i>Maẕhab-i ‘Ishq</i> +(“Religion of Love”); this work is in prose intermingled with +verse, was composed in 1804, and has been frequently reproduced. +Jawān, like most of his collaborators, was originally of Delhi and +afterwards of Lucknow; he joined the College in 1800. He is the +author of a version in Urdū of the well-known story of Sakuntalā, +under the name of <i>Sakuntalā Nāṭak</i>; the Urdū was rendered from +a previous Braj-bhāshā version by Nawāz Kabīshwar made in 1716, +and was printed in 1802. He also composed a <i>Bārah-māsā</i>, or poetical +description of the twelve months (a very popular and often-handled +form of composition), with accounts of the various Hindu and +Muhammadan festivals, entitled the <i>Dastūr-i Hind</i> (“Usages of +India”), printed in 1812. Ikrām ‘Ali translated, under the name +of the <i>Ikhwānu-ṣ-ṣafā</i>, or “Brothers of Purity” (1810), a chapter +of a famous Arabian collection of treatises on science and philosophy +entitled <i>Rasāilu Ikhwāni-ṣ-ṣafā</i>, and composed in the 10th century. +The complete collection, due to different writers who dwelt at +Baṣra, has recently been made known to European readers by the +translation of Dr F. Dieterici (1858-1879); the chapter selected by +Ikrām ‘Alī is the third, which records an allegorical strife for the +mastery between men and animals before the king of the <i>Jinn</i>. +The translation is written in excellent Urdū, and is one of the best +of the Fort William productions.</p> + +<p>Srī Lallū Lāl was a Brahman, whose family, originally of Gujarāt, +had long been settled in northern India. What was done by the +other Fort William authors for Urdū prose was done by Lallū Lāl +almost alone for Hindī. He may indeed without exaggeration be +said to have created “High Hindī” as a literary language. His +<i>Prem Sāgar</i> and <i>Rājnīti</i>, the former a version in pure Hindī of the +10th chapter of the <i>Bhāgavata Purāna</i>, detailing the history of +Kṛishṇa, and founded on a previous Braj-bhāshā version by Chaturbhuj +Misr, and the latter an adaptation in Braj-bhāshā prose of the +<i>Hitōpadēša</i> and part of the <i>Pancha-tantra</i>, are unquestionably the +most important works in Hindī prose. The <i>Prem Sāgar</i> was begun +in 1804 and ended in 1810; it enjoys immense popularity in northern +India, has been frequently reproduced in a lithographed form, +and has several times been printed. The <i>Rājnīti</i> was composed in +1809; it is much admired for its sententious brevity and the purity +of its language. Besides these two works, Lallū Lāl was the author +of a collection of a hundred anecdotes in Hindī and Urdū entitled +<i>Latāif-i Hindī</i>, an anthology of Hindī verse called the <i>Sabhā-bilās</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span> +a <i>Sat-saī</i> in the style of Bihāri-Lāl called <i>Sapta-satika</i> and several +other works. He and Jawān worked together at the <i>Singhāsan +Battīsī</i> (1801), a redaction in mixed Urdū and Hindī (Dēvanāgarī +character) of a famous collection of legends relating the prowess of +King Vikramāditya; and he also aided the latter author in the +production of the <i>Sakuntalā Nāṭak</i>. Maẕhar ‘Ali Wilā was his collaborator +in the <i>Baitāl Pachīsī</i>, a collection of stories similar in many +respects to the <i>Singhāsan Battīsī</i>, and also in mixed Urdū-Hindī; +and he aided Wilā in the preparation in Urdū of the <i>Story of Mādhōnal</i>, +a romance originally composed in Braj-bhāshā by Mōtī Rām.</p> + +<p>The works of these authors, though compiled and published under +the superintendence of Dr Gilchrist, Captain Abraham Lockett, +Professor J. W. Taylor, Dr W. Hunter and other European officers of +the college of Fort William, and originally intended for the instruction +of the Company’s officers in the vernacular, are essentially +Indian in taste and style, and, until superseded by the more recent +developments of literature noticed below, enjoyed a very wide +reputation and popularity. They may, indeed, be said to have set +the standard of prose composition in Urdū and Hindī, and for the +first half of the 19th century their influence in this respect continued +almost unchallenged. Side by side with them, among the Musalmān +population of northern India, another almost contemporaneous +impulse did much for the expansion of the Urdū language, and, +like the work of the Vaishnava reformers in moulding literary Hindī, +gave an impetus to composition which might otherwise have been +lacking. This was the reform in Islam led by Sayyid Ahmad<a name="fa16i" id="fa16i" href="#ft16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a> and +his followers. In all Eastern countries religion is the first and chief +subject of literary production; and the controversies which the +new preaching aroused in India at once afforded abundant material +for authorship in Urdū, and interested deeply the people to whom +the works were addressed.</p> + +<p>Sayyid Aḥmad was born in 1782, and received his early education +at Delhi; his instructors were two learned Muslims, Shāh ‘Abdul-‘Azīz, +author of a celebrated commentary on the Qur‘ān (the <i>Tafsīr-i +‘Azīziyyah</i>), and his brother ‘Abdu-l-Qādir, the writer of the first +translation of the holy volume into Urdū. Under their guidance +Sayyid Aḥmad embraced the doctrines of the Wahhābīs, a sect +whose preaching appears at this time to have first reached India. +He gathered round him a large number of fervent disciples, among +others Ismā‘īl Ḥājī, nephew of ‘Abdu-l‘Azīz and ‘Abdu-l-Qādir, the +chief author of the sect. After a course of preaching and apostleship +at Delhi, Sayyid Aḥmad set out in 1820 for Calcutta, attended by +numerous adherents. Thence in 1822 he started on a pilgrimage +to Mecca, whence he went to Constantinople, and was there received +with distinction and gained many disciples. He travelled for nearly +six years in Turkey and Arabia, and then returned to Delhi. The +religious degradation and coldness which he found in his native +country strongly impressed him after his sojourn in lands where +the life of Islām is stronger, and he and his disciples established +a propaganda throughout northern India, reprobating the superstitions +which had crept into the faith from contact with Hindus, +and preaching a <i>jihād</i> or holy war against the Sikhs. In 1828 he +started for Peshāwar, attended by, it is said, upwards of 100,000 +Indians, and accompanied by his chief followers, Ḥājī Ismā‘īl and +‘Abdu-l-Ḥayy. He was furnished with means by a general subscription +in northern India, and by several Muhammadan princes +who had embraced his doctrines. At the beginning of 1829 he +declared war against the Sikhs, and in the course of time made +himself master of Peshāwar. The Afghāns, however, with whom +he had allied himself in the contest, were soon disgusted by the +rigour of his creed, and deserted him and his cause. He fled across +the Indus and took refuge in the mountains of Pakhlī and Dhamtōr, +where in 1831 he encountered a detachment of Sikhs under the +command of Shēr Singh, and in the combat he and Ḥājī Isma‘īl +were slain. His sect is, however, by no means extinct; the Wahhābī +doctrines have continued to gain ground in India, and to give rise +to much controversial writing, down to our own day.</p> + +<p>The translation of the Quran by ‘Abdu-l-Qādir was finished in +1803, and first published by Sayyid ‘Abdullāh, a fervent disciple of +Sayyid Aḥmad, at Hūghlī in 1829. The <i>Tambīhu-l-ghāfilīn</i>, or +“Awakener of the Heedless,” a work in Persian by Sayyid Aḥmad, +was rendered into Urdū by ‘Abdullāh, and published at the same +press in 1830. Hājī Ismā‘īl was the author of a treatise in Urdū +entitled <i>Taqwiyatu-l-Īmān</i> (“Confirmation of the Faith”), which +had great vogue among the following of the Sayyid. Other works +by the disciples of the <i>Tarīqah-e Muḥammadiyyah</i> (as the new +preaching was called) are the <i>Targhīb-i Jihād</i> (“Incitation to Holy +War”), <i>Hidāyatu-l-Mūminīn</i> (“Guide of the Believers”), <i>Mūẓiḥu-l-Kabāir</i> +wa-l-Bid’ah (“Exposition of Mortal Sins and Heresy”), +<i>Naṣlhatu-l-Muslimīn</i> (“Admonition to Muslims”), and the <i>Mi’at +Masāil</i>, or “Hundred Questions.”</p> + +<p>Printing was first used for vernacular works by the College Press +at Fort William, at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the +19th century, and all the compositions prepared for Dr Gilchrist +and his successors which have been mentioned were thus given to +the public. But the expense of this method of reproduction long +precluded its extensive use in India, and movable types, though +well suited for alphabets derived from the Sanskrit, were not equally +applicable to the flowing and graceful characters of Persian. +Lithography was introduced about 1837, when the first press was +set up at Delhi, and immediately gave a powerful stimulus to the +multiplication of literature, both original and editions of older +works. In 1832 the vernaculars were substituted for Persian as +the official language of the courts and the acts of the legislature, +and this at once led to the transfer to the former of a mass of technical +and forensic terms which had previously been only to a limited +extent in popular use. Thirdly, the spread of education in subjects +of Western learning, for which text-books (many of them translations +from English) were required, not only greatly enlarged the +vocabulary of the common speech, but led by degrees to the use +of a simpler and more direct style, and the abandonment wholesale +of the florid and artificial ornament which was the legacy of the +Persian literature upon which Urdū prose had at first modelled +itself. Lastly, the establishment of a vernacular newspaper press, +which lithography had rendered possible, placed within the reach +of a continually widening public the means of becoming acquainted +with new ideas in every department of culture, and practised the +writers who contributed to it in the art of wielding their mother-tongue +with effect in its application to European themes.</p> + +<p>All these revolutionary agencies were at work, though in a tentative +and limited fashion, when the great change, following on the +Mutiny of 1857, of the transfer of the government of India from +the Company to the Crown inaugurated a new era. Since 1860 their +operation has become extremely rapid and far-reaching. The use +of lithography both for Urdū and Hindī annually gives birth to +hundreds of works. The extension of education through both +public and private agency has created an immense mass of school-books, +and the spread of instruction in English and the activity of +translators have filled the vernaculars with a multitude of new +words drawn from that language. The newspaper press, in Urdū +and Hindī, now counts over two hundred journals, the majority +issued in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and in the Punjab, +but a few at Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bombay and Calcutta. +Of this great body of literary production it is possible to speak only +in general terms. Style and vocabulary are still in a somewhat +fluid and unsettled condition, and the subjects treated are almost +as various as they are in European literatures. Much, indeed, of +the work produced has scarcely any claim to literary excellence, +and in the crowd of writers we may content ourselves with mentioning +only a few whose influence and authority make it probable +that they will hereafter be known as leaders in the new culture.</p> + +<p>One of the first effects of the new literary inspiration seemed to +be the extinction of poetical composition as previously practised. +With the deaths of Ẕauq (1854) and Ghālib (1869) of the Delhi +school, and those of Anīs (1875) and Dabīr (1876) of Lucknow, +the end of Urdū poetry appeared to have come. The new age was +intensely practical and eager to engage in the race for material and +political advancement, and had no time for sentiment, or taste for +mystical conceits. Moreover, poetical composition in India, as in +other Eastern countries, has always owed much to the patronage of +courts and princes. The thrones of Delhi and Lucknow had passed +away, and the new rulers showed little interest in this form of +achievement. Only at Hyderabad in the Deccan, under the patronage +of the Nizam, were laureates still honoured; the last of these, +Mirzā Khān Dāgh (1831-1905), enjoyed a wide reputation as a +graceful and eloquent master of the poetic art.</p> + +<p>But prose and material prosperity did not succeed in monopolizing +the genius of the people. The great movement of reform and +liberalism in Islām led by Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān (1817-1898) +found its bard in Sayyid Alṭāf Ḥusain of Pānipāṭ, poetically styled +Ḥālī—an ambiguous <i>nom-de-plume</i> now generally taken in the +sense of “modern,” or “up-to-date.” Ḥālī in his youth was a +pupil of the famous Ghālib, whose life he has written and of whose +writings he has published an able criticism. At the age of forty +he came under the influence of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān, and from +that time devoted his great poetic gifts to the service of his co-religionists. +He has published much verse, of which an interesting +specimen will be found in the edition of his <i>Rubā‘īs</i> or quatrains +(101 in number), with an English translation, by Mr G. E. Ward +(Oxford, 1904); in this is included a famous poem addressed to +his muse, setting forth his ideals in poetry—simplicity, avoidance +of exaggeration and unreality, direct and emotional appeal to the +heart, and above all sincerity. There can be no doubt that he has +succeeded in becoming the leader of a new poetic school, which +shows much vigour and promise.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most memorable of all Ḥālī’s compositions is his long +poem in six-line stanzas (called <i>musaddas</i>) on “the flow and ebb of +Islam” (1879), which has had an extraordinary influence in stimulating +enthusiasm in the cause of progress among the Musalmāns +of the north of India. In it he draws, in simple and direct but +searching and eloquent language, a rapid sketch of the glories of +Islam in the past, its principles and precepts, and the sources of +its strength; and then turns to contrast with this picture the +degradation and decay into which it had, when he wrote, fallen in +Hindōstān. Never have the vices and shortcomings of a people +been lashed by one of themselves with more vigorous denunciation, +or with more earnestness of moral purpose. In his preface he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span> +explains how the poem came to be written—after a youth spent in +heedlessness and unsettlement, at the instigation of Sir Sayyid +Aḥmad Khān, and in the cause of that great reformer. The poem +is still recited and imitated by Muslims in the Punjab and United +Provinces, though the picture which it presents of Indian Musalmāns +is no longer wholly applicable to the community. Ḥālī +has recently completed a life of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān in two +volumes, entitled <i>Ḥayāt-i Jāvīd</i> (“eternal life”), a work of great +merit.</p> + +<p>Another writer whose work, though chiefly in prose, deals with +poetry and poetic style, is Maulavī Muḥammad Ḥusain Āzād, lately +professor of Arabic at the Government College, Lahore. He has not +himself composed much verse; but his biographies of Urdū poets, +with criticisms of their works, entitled <i>Äb-i Ḥayāt</i> (“Water of Life,” +Lahore, 1883), is by far the best book dealing with the subject. +His prose style is much admired. As Ḥālī was the pupil of Ghālib, +so was Āzād that of Ẕauq, of whose poems he has published a revised +and annotated edition. His other works in prose are <i>Qiṣaṣ-i +Hind</i>, episodes of Indian history arranged for schools; <i>Nairang-i +Khayāl</i>, an allegory dealing with human life; and <i>Darbār-i Akbarī</i>, +an account of the reign of Akbar.</p> + +<p>Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān’s life and work are dealt with elsewhere. +Among his literary achievements may be mentioned the <i>Ā<span class="un">s</span>āruṣ-Ṣanādid</i> +(“Vestiges of Princes”), an excellent account of Delhi +and its monuments, which has passed through several editions +since it was first lithographed in 1847. His essays and occasional +papers, published in the <i>Alīgaṛh Institute Gazette</i> (started in 1864), +and afterwards (from 1870 onwards) in a periodical entitled <i>Tahẕībul-Akhlāq</i> +(or “Muhammadan Social Reformer”), handle all the problems +of religious, social and educational advancement among +Indian Musalmāns—the cause with which his life was identified. +His great <i>Commentary on the Qur‘ān</i>, in seven volumes, the last +finished only a few days before his death in 1898, is carried to the +end of Sūrah xx., a little more than half the book. In him Urdū +prose found its most powerful wielder for the diffusion of modern +ideas, and the movement which he set on foot has been the spring +of the best literature in the language during recent years.</p> + +<p>Another excellent writer of Urdū is Shamsul-’Ulamā Maulavī +Naẕīr Aḥmad of Delhī, who is the author of a series of novels describing +domestic life, of a somewhat didactic character, which +have had a wide popularity, and from their admirable moral tone +have been specially serviceable in the education of Indian women. +These are entitled the <i>Mir‘ātul-‘Arūs</i> (or “Brides’ Mirror”); +<i>Taubatun-Naṣūḥ</i> (“the Repentance of Naṣūḥ”), <i>Banātun-Na’sh</i> +(“the Seven Stars of the Great Bear”), <i>Ibnul-Waqt</i> (“Son of the +Age”), and <i>Ayāmā</i> (“Widows”). But Naẕīr Aḥmad is a man of +many sides; before he took to novel-writing he was the principal +translator into Urdū of the <i>Indian Penal Code</i> (1861), which is +reckoned a masterpiece in the exact rendering of European legal +ideas; and more lately he gave to the world the best Urdū version +of the Quran. He has been a popular lecturer on social subjects, +displaying a rich vein of humour, and in his old age even ventured +upon verse. During the latter portion of his life he was most closely +associated with Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān.</p> + +<p>The novel is one of the most noteworthy features of recent +literary composition in Urdū. India has from time immemorial been +rich in stories and romances of adventure; but the description of +actual life and character in action, as the modern novel is understood +in Europe, is quite a new development. The most admired +production of this kind in Urdū is a work entitled <i>Fisāna-e Āzād</i>, +by Paṇḍit Ratan-nāth Sarshār of Lucknow. The story, which is very +long, is remarkable for the faithful and vivid pictures of Lucknow +society which it presents, and its exact and lifelike delineation of +character; it appeared originally as a <i>feuilleton</i> of the <i>Awadh +Akhbār</i>, of which paper the author was at the time editor. Another +good writer in the same branch of literature is Maulavī ‘Abdul-Ḥalīm +Sharar, also a native of the neighbourhood of Lucknow, but +settled at Hyderabad. He was editor of a monthly periodical +called the <i>Dil-gudāz</i> (“melter of hearts”), which contained essays +and papers in European style, and in it his novels, which are all of +an historical character, in the style of Sir Walter Scott, originally +appeared. The best are <i>‘Azīz and Virginā</i>, a tale of the Crusades, +and <i>Mansūr and Mōhinā</i>, a story of which the scene is laid in India +at the time of the invasions of Sultan Maḥmūd of Ghaznī.</p> + +<p>Although Urdū chiefly represents Musalmān culture, its use is +by no means confined to adherents of that faith. It has just been +mentioned that the most popular Urdū novelist is a Hindū (a +Brāhman from Kashmīr); and the statistics of the vernacular +press show that this form of the language is widely used by Hindūs +as well as Musalmāns. Thus, of eighty periodicals in Urdū published +in the United Provinces, twenty-nine are conducted by +Hindūs; similarly, in the Punjab, of forty-eight Urdū journals, +twenty are edited by Hindus.</p> + +<p>“High Hindī” has scarcely adapted itself to modern requirements +with the thoroughness displayed by Urdū. It is taught in the schools +where the population is mainly Hindū, and books of science have been +written in it with a terminology borrowed from Sanskrit, in place +of the Persian terms used in the other dialect. But Sanskrit is far +removed from the daily life of the people, and the majority of works +in this style are read only by Paṇḍits, the great bulk of them dealing +with religion, philosophy and the ancient literature. There are +thirty-seven Hindī and four Hindī-Urdū journals in the United +Provinces; but many of them are exclusively religious in their +character, and several, though written in Dēvanāgarī, employ a +mixed language which admits Persian words freely. The old +dialects of literature, Awadhī and Braj-bhāshā, are now only used +for poetry; High Hindī has been a complete failure for this +purpose.</p> + +<p>The most noticeable authors in Hindī since the middle of the 19th +century have been Bābū Harishchandra and Rājā Ṡiva Prasād, both +of Benares. The former, during his short life (1850-1885), was an +enthusiastic cultivator of the old poetic art, using the dialects just +mentioned. He published in the <i>Sundarī Tilak</i> an anthology of the +best Hindī poetry, and in the <i>Kabi-bachan-Sudhā</i> (“ambrosia of the +words of poets”) and the magazine called <i>Harishchandrikā</i> a quantity +of old texts, with much added matter. He also wrote a volume of +biographies of famous men, European and Indian, and many critical +studies, historical and literary. In history especially he cleared up +many problems, and traced the lines for further investigation. In +his <i>Kashmīr Kusum</i>, or history of Kashmīr, a list is given of about +a hundred works by him. He was also the real founder of the modern +Hindī drama; he wrote plays himself, and inspired others. Rājā +Ṡiva Prasād (1823-1895) served for many years in the educational +department, and published a number of works intended for use in +schools, which have greatly contributed to the formation of a sound +vernacular form of Hindī, not excessively Sanskritized, and not +rejecting current Persian forms. The society at Benares called the +<i>Nāgarī Prachārinī Sabhā</i> (“Society for promoting the use of the +Nāgarī character”) has, since the death of Harishchandra, been +active in procuring the publication of works in Hindī, and has +issued many useful books, besides conducting a systematic search +for old MSS.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The best account in English of Hindī literature +is Dr G. A. Grierson’s <i>Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindōstān</i>, +issued by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889; the dates in this +work, which is founded on indigenous compilations, have, however, +in many cases to be received with caution. Before it appeared, +Garcin de Tassy’s <i>Histoire de la littérature Hindouie et Hindoustanie</i>, +and his annual summaries of the progress made from 1850 to 1877, +were our chief authority, and may still be consulted with advantage. +For the religious literature of the Vaishnava sects, Professor H. H. +Wilson’s <i>Essay on the Religious Sects of the Hindus</i> (vol. i. of his +collected works) has not yet been superseded.</p> + +<p>For Urdū poets, Professor Āzād’s <i>Āb-i Ḥayāt</i> (in Urdū) is the most +trustworthy record. For the new school of Urdū literature reference +may be made to a series of lectures (in English) by Shaikh ‘Abdul-Qādir +of Lahore, printed in 1898. The catalogues by Professor Blumhardt +of Hindōstānī and Hindī books in the libraries of the British +Museum and the India Office will give a good idea of the volume of +the recent productions of the press in those languages.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. J. L.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Urdū</i> is a Turkish word meaning a camp or army with its +followers, and is the origin of the European word <i>horde</i>. <i>Rēkhta</i> +means “scattered, strewn,” referring to the way in which Persian +words are intermixed with those of Indian origin; it is used chiefly +for the literary form of Urdū.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The only known exceptions are a work in Hindī called the +<i>Chaurāsī Vārtā</i> (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems; +the latter can scarcely be called literature.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A fresh critical edition of the text by Paṇḍit Mōhan Lāl Vishnu +Lāl Paṇḍia at Benares, under the auspices of the <i>Nāgarī Prachārinī +Sabhā</i>, had reached canto xxiv. in 1907.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See <i>J.A.S.B.</i> (1886), pp. 6 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Annals and Antiquities</i>, ii. 452 n. and 472 n.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Worshippers of the energic power—<i>Śaktī</i>—of Śiva, represented +by his consort Pārvatī or Bhawāní.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Quoted from G. A. Grierson, chapter on “Literature,” in the +<i>India Gazetteer</i> (ed. 1907).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathurā on +the Jumna river. That of Rāma is probably still more ancient; the +name occurs in stories of the Buddha.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Religious Sects of the Hindus</i>, p. 40.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> This name of Krishna, which means “He who quits the battle,” +is connected with the story of the transfer of the Yādava clan from +Mathurā to the new capital on the coast of the peninsula of +Kāthiawār, the city of Dwārāka. This migration was the result of +an invasion of Braj by Jarāsandha, king of Magadhā, before whom +Krishna resolved to retreat. As his path southwards took him +through Rajpūtānā and Gujarāt, it is in these regions that his form +Raṇchhōṛ is most generally venerated as a symbol of the shifting of +the centre of divine life from Gangetic to southern India.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> In the <i>Granth</i> Nāmdēo is called a calico-printer, <i>Chhīpī</i>. The +Marāthi tradition is that he was a tailor, <i>Shimpī</i>; it is probable that +the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been wrongly +rendered by the former.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> It will be remembered that Akbar’s reign was remarkable for the +translation into Persian of a large number of Sanskrit works of +religion and philosophy, most of the versions being made by, or in +the names of, members of his court.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13i" id="ft13i" href="#fa13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Religious Sects</i>, p. 132.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14i" id="ft14i" href="#fa14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Amīr Khusrau is credited with the authorship of many still +popular rhymes, riddles or punning verses (called <i>pahēlīs</i> and +<i>mukurīs</i>); but these, though often containing Persian words, are in +Hindī and scanned according to the prosody of that language; they +are, therefore, like Malik Muḥammad’s <i>Padmāwat</i>, not Urdū or +Rekhta verse (see Professor Āzād’s <i>Ābi-Ḥayāt</i>, pp. 72-76). A late +Dakkhanī poet who used the <i>takkalluṣ</i> of Sa’dī is said by Āzād (p. 79) +to have been confused by Mīrzā Rafī‘us-Saudā in his <i>Tazkira</i> with +Sa’dī of Shīrāz.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15i" id="ft15i" href="#fa15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> An exception may be made to this general statement in favour +of the <i>genre</i> pictures of city and country life contained in the <i>ma<span class="un">s</span>navīs</i> +of Saudā and Naẕīr. These are often satires (in the vein of Horace +rather than Juvenal), and are full of interest as pictures of society. +In Saudā, however, the conventional language used in description is +often Persian rather than Indian.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16i" id="ft16i" href="#fa16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> To be carefully distinguished from the reformer of the same +name who flourished half a century later.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDU CHRONOLOGY.<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> The subject of Hindu chronology +divides naturally into three parts: the calendar, the eras, and +other reckonings.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. The Calendar</p> + +<p>The Hindus have had from very ancient times the system +of lunisolar cycles, made by the combination of solar years, +regulated by the course of the sun, and lunar years, regulated +by the course of the moon, but treated in such a manner as to +keep the beginning of the lunar year near the beginning of the +solar year. The exact manner in which they arranged the details +of their earliest calendar is still a subject of research. We deal +here with their calendar as it now stands, in a form which was +developed from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 under the influence of the Greek +astronomy which had been introduced into India at no very +long time previously.</p> + +<p>The Hindu calendar, then, is determined by years of two +kinds, solar and lunar. For civil purposes, solar years are used +in Bengal, including Orissa, and in the Tamil and Malayāḷam +districts of Madras, and lunar years throughout the rest of India. +But the lunar year regulates everywhere the general religious +rites and festivals, and the details of private and domestic life, +such as the selection of auspicious occasions for marriages and +for starting on journeys, the choice of lucky moments for shaving, +and so on. Consequently, the details of the lunar year are +shown even in the almanacs which follow the solar year. On +the other hand, certain details of the solar year, such as the +course of the sun through the signs and other divisions of the +zodiac, are shown in the almanacs which follow the lunar year. +We will treat the solar year first, because it governs the lunisolar +system, and the explanation of it will greatly simplify +the process of explaining the lunar calendar.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span></p> + +<p>The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical solar +year. The latter professes to begin at the vernal equinox, +but the actual position is as follows. In our Western +astronomy the signs of the zodiac have, in consequence +<span class="sidenote">The astronomical solar year.</span> +of the precession of the equinoxes, drawn away to +a large extent from the constellations from which +they derived their names; with the result that the sun now +comes to the vernal equinox, at the first point of the sign Aries, +not in the constellation Aries, but at a point in Pisces, about +28 degrees before the beginning of Aries. The Hindus, however, +have disregarded precession in connexion with their calendar +from the time (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 499, 522, or 527, according to different schools) +when, by their system, the signs coincided with the constellations; +and their sign Aries, called Mēsha by them, is still their +constellation Aries, beginning, according to them, at or near +the star ζ Piscium. Their astronomical solar year is, in fact, +not the tropical year, in the course of which the sun really +passes from one vernal equinox to the next, but a sidereal year, +the period during which the earth makes one revolution in its +orbit round the sun with reference to the first point of Mēsha; +its beginning is the moment of the Mēsha-saṁkrānti, the entrance +of the sun into the sidereal sign Mēsha, instead of the tropical +sign Aries; and it begins, not with the true equinox, but with +an artificial or nominal equinox.</p> + +<p>The length of this sidereal solar year was determined in the +following manner. The astronomer selected what the Greeks +termed an <i>exeligmos</i>, the Romans an <i>annus magnus</i> or <i>mundanus</i>, +a period in the course of which a given order of things is completed +by the sun, moon, and planets returning to a state of conjunction +from which they have started. The usual Hindu <i>exeligmos</i> +has been the Great Age of 4,320,000 sidereal solar years, the +aggregate of the Kṛita or golden age, the Trētā or silver age, +the Dvāpara or brazen age, and the Kali or iron age, in which +we now are; but it has sometimes been the Kalpa or aeon, +consisting according to one view of 1000, according to another +view of 1008, Great Ages. He then laid down the number of +revolutions, in the period of his <i>exeligmos</i>, of the <i>nakshatras</i>, +certain stars and groups of stars which will be noticed more +definitely in our account of the lunar year; that is, the number +of rotations of the earth on its axis, or, in other words, the number +of sidereal days. A deduction of the number of the years from +the number of the sidereal days gave, as remainder, the number +of civil days in the <i>exeligmos</i>. And, this remainder being +divided by the number of the years, the quotient gave the +length of the sidereal solar year: refinements, suggested by +experience, inference, or extraneous information, were made +by increasing or decreasing the number of sidereal days assigned +to the <i>exeligmos</i>. The Hindus now recognize three standard +sidereal solar years determined in that manner. (1) A year of +365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to the <i>Āryabhaṭīya</i>, +otherwise called the <i>First Ārya-Siddhānta</i>, which was written +by the astronomer Āryabhaṭa (b. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 476): this year is +used in the Tamil and Malayāḷam districts, and, we may add, +in Ceylon. (2) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30.915 sec. +according to the <i>Rājamṛigā ka</i>, a treatise based on the <i>Brāhma-Siddhānta</i> +of Brahmagupta (b. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 598) and attributed to +king Bhōja, of which the epoch, the point of time used in it +for calculations, falls in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1042: this year is used in parts +of Gujarāt (Bombay) and in Rājputānā and other western parts +of Northern India. (3) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. +36.56 sec. according to the present <i>Sūrya-Siddhānta</i>, a work +of unknown authorship which dates from probably about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000: this year is used in almost all the other parts of +India. It may be remarked that, according to modern science, +the true mean sidereal solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. +9.6 sec., and the mean tropical year measures 365 days 5 hrs. +48 min. 46.054440 sec.</p> + +<p>The result of the use of this sidereal solar year is that the +beginning of the Hindu astronomical solar year, and with it +the civil solar year and the lunar year and the nominal incidence +of the seasons, has always been, and still is, travelling slowly +forward in our calendar year by an amount which varies according +to the particular authority.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> For instance, Āryabhaṭa’s +year exceeds the Julian year by 12 min. 30 sec. This amounts +to exactly one day in 115<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> years, and five days in 576 years. +Thus, if we take the longer period and confine ourselves to a +time when the Julian calendar (old style) was in use, according +to Āryabhaṭa the Mēsha-saṁkrānti began to occur in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 603 +on 20th March, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1179 on 25th March. The intermediate +advances arrange themselves into four steps of one +day each in 116 years, followed by one step of one day in 112 +years: thus, the Mēsha-saṁkrānti began to occur on 21st +March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 719, on 22nd March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 835, on 23rd March +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 951, and on 24th March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1067 (whence 112 years +take us to 25th March in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1179). It is now occurring sometimes +on 11th April, sometimes on the 12th; having first come +to the 12th in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1871.</p> + +<p>The civil solar year exists in more varieties than one. The +principal variety, conveniently called the Mēshādi year, <i>i.e.</i> +“the year beginning at the Mēsha-saṁkrānti,” is +the only one that we need notice at this point. The +<span class="sidenote">The civil solar year.</span> +beginning of it is determined directly by the astronomical +solar year; and for religious purposes it begins, +with that year, at the moment of the Mēsha-saṁkrānti. Its +first civil day, however, may be either the day on which the +<i>saṁkrānti</i> occurs, or the next day, or even the day after that: +this is determined partly by the time of day or night at which +the <i>saṁkrānti</i> occurs, which, moreover, of course varies in +accordance with the locality as well as the particular authority +that is followed; partly by differing details of practice in +different parts of the country. In these circumstances an +exact equivalent of the Mēshādi civil solar year cannot be +stated; but it may be taken as now beginning on or closely +about the 12th of April.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The solar year is divided into twelve months, in accordance with +the successive <i>saṁkrāntis</i> or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal) +signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are twelve in +number. The names of the signs in Sanskṛit are as +<span class="sidenote">The solar month.</span> +follows: Mēsha, the ram (Aries); Vṛishabha, the bull +(Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini); Karka, Karkaṭa, +Karkaṭaka, the crab (Cancer); Siṁha, the lion (Leo); Kanyā, the +maiden (Virgo); Tulā, the scales (Libra); Vṛiśchika, the scorpion +(Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius); Makara, the sea-monster +(Capricornus); Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius); and +Mīna, the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some +parts by the names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them; +and these are the best names for them for general use, because they +lead to no confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of +names, preserving the connexion of them with the lunar months: +the Sanskṛit forms of these names are Chaitra, Vaiśākha, Jyaishṭha, +Āshāḍha, Śrāvaṇa, Bhādrapada, Āśvina or Āśvayuja, Kārttika, +Mārgaśira or Mārgaśīrsha (also known as Agrahāyaṇa), Pausha, +Māgha, and Phālguna: in some localities these names are used +in corrupted forms, and in others vernacular names are substituted +for some of them; and, while in some parts the name Chaitra is +attached to the month Mēsha, in other parts it is attached to the +month Mīna, and so on throughout the series in each case. The +astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one <i>saṁkrānti</i> +of the sun to the moment of the next <i>saṁkrānti</i>; and, as the signs +of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as with us, +while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its orbit +round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the length +of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span> +longest is Mithuna. The civil solar month begins with its first +civil day, which is determined, in different localities, in the same +manner with the first civil day of the Mēshādi year, as indicated +above. The civil month is of variable length; partly for that +reason, partly because of the variation in the length of the astronomical +month. No exact equivalents of the civil months, therefore, +can be stated; but, speaking approximately, we may say that, +while the month Mēsha now begins on or closely about 12th April, +the beginning of a subsequent month may come as late as the 16th +day of the English month in which it falls.</p> + +<p>The solar year is also divided into six seasons, the Sanskrit names +of which are Vasanta, spring; Grīshma, the hot weather; Varshā, +the rainy season; Śarad, autumn; Hēmanta, the cold +weather; and Śiśira, the dewy season. Vasanta begins +<span class="sidenote">The seasons.</span> +at the Mīna-saṁkrānti; the other seasons begin at each +successive second <i>saṁkrānti</i> from that. Originally, this scheme was +laid out with reference to the true course of the sun, and the starting-point +of it was the real winter solstice, with Śiśira, as the first season, +beginning then; now, owing partly to the disregard of precession, +partly to our introduction of New Style, each season comes +about three weeks too late; Vasanta begins on or about 12th +March, instead of 19th or 20th February, and so on with the rest. +It may be added that in early times the year was also divided into +three or four, and even into five or seven, seasons; and there +appears to have been also a practice of reckoning the seasons according +to the lunar months, which, however, would only give a +very varying arrangement, in addition to neglecting the point that +the seasons are naturally determined by the course of the sun, not +of the moon. But there is now recognized only the division into +six seasons, determined as stated above.</p> + +<p>The solar year is also divided into two parts called Uttarāyaṇa, +the period during which the sun is moving to the north, and Dakshiṇāyana, +the period during which it is moving to the south. +The Uttarāyaṇa begins at the nominal winter solstice, +<span class="sidenote">The solstitial divisions of the year.</span> +as marked by the Makara-saṁkrānti; and the day on +which this solstice occurs, usually 12th January at +present, is still a special occasion of festivity and rejoicing; +the Dakshiṇāyana begins at the nominal summer +solstice, as marked by the Karka-saṁkrānti. It may be +added here that, while the Hindus disregard precession in the actual +computation of their years and the regulation of their calendar, +they pay attention to it in certain other respects, and notably as +regards the solstices: the precessional solstices are looked upon as +auspicious occasions, as well as the non-precessional solstices, and +are customarily shown in the almanacs; and some of the almanacs +show also the other precessional <i>saṁkrāntis</i> of the sun.</p> + +<p>The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are +<span class="sidenote">The civil day.</span> +numbered 1, 2, 3, &c., in unbroken succession to the end of the +month. And, the length of the month being variable +for the reasons stated above, the number of the civil +days may range from twenty-nine to thirty-two.</p> + +<p>The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual +appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some +of the names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit +Ādityavāra or Ravivāra, the day of the sun, sometimes +called Ādivāra, the beginning-day (Sunday); Sōmavāra, +<span class="sidenote">The weekday.</span> +the day of the moon (Monday); Maṅgalavāra, the day of Mars +(Tuesday); Budhavāra, the day of Mercury (Wednesday); Bṛihas-pativāra +or Guruvāra, the day of Jupiter (Thursday); Sukravāra, +the day of Venus (Friday); and Śanivāra, the day of Saturn +(Saturday). It may be mentioned, as a matter of archaeological +interest, that, while some of the astronomical books perhaps postulate +an earlier knowledge of the “lords of the days,” and other writings +indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven days, the first +proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is of the year +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor district, +Central India.</p> + +<p>The divisions of the civil day, as far as we need note them, are +60 <i>vipalas</i> = 1 <i>pala</i> = 24 seconds; 60 <i>palas</i> = 1 <i>ghaṭikā</i> = 24 minutes; +<span class="sidenote">Divisions of the day.</span> +60 <i>ghaṭikās</i> = 24 hours = 1 day. There is also the <i>muhūrta</i> += 2 <i>ghaṭikās</i> = 48 minutes: this is the nearest approach +to the “hour.” The comparative value of these measures +of time may perhaps be best illustrated thus: 2½ <i>muhūrtas</i> += 2 hours; 2½ <i>ghaṭikās</i> = 1 hour; 2½ <i>palas</i> = 1 minute; 2½ <i>vipalas</i> = +1 second.</p> + +<p>As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count +all their times, in <i>ghaṭikās</i> and <i>palas</i>, from that moment. But +the moment is a varying one, though not in India to +anything like the extent to which it is so in European +<span class="sidenote">Civil time.</span> +latitudes; and under the British Government the Hindus +have recognized the advantage, and in fact the necessity, especially +in connexion with their lunar calendar, of having a convenient +means of referring their own times to the time which prevails officially. +Consequently, some of the almanacs have adopted the +European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours and +minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset +from noon.</p> +</div> + +<p>The lunar year consists primarily of twelve lunations or +lunar months, of which the present Sanskṛit names, generally +used in more or less corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vaiśākha, +&c., to Phālguna, as given above in connexion with the solar +<span class="sidenote">The lunar year.</span> +months. It is of two principal varieties, according as +it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or +with the corresponding day in Kārttika: the former +variety is conveniently known as the Chaitrādi year; the +latter as the Kārttikādi year. For religious purposes the lunar +year begins with its first lunar day: for civil purposes it begins +with its first civil day, the relation of which to the lunar day +will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which, as +we shall explain, the beginning of the lunar year is always +shifting backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay +down any close equivalents for comparison: but an indication +may be given as follows. The first civil day of the Chaitrādi +year is the day after the new-moon conjunction which occurs +next after the entrance of the sun into Mīna, and it now falls +from about 13th March to about 11th April: the first civil +day of the Kārttikādi year is the first day after the new-moon +conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun +into Tulā, and it now falls from about 17th October to about +15th November.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were +derived from the <i>nakshatras</i>, which are certain conspicuous stars +and groups of stars lying more or less along the neighbourhood +of the ecliptic. The <i>nakshatras</i> are regarded +<span class="sidenote">The lunar month.</span> +sometimes as twenty-seven in number, sometimes as +twenty-eight, and are grouped in twelve sets of two or three each, +beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the list, with the +pair Kṛittikā and Rōhiṇī, and including in the sixth place Chitrā +and Svāti, and ending with the triplet Rēvatī, Aśvinī and Bharaṇī. +They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes +spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac; and it is, no doubt, +chiefly in connexion with the moon that they are now taken into +consideration. But they mark divisions of the ecliptic: according +to one system, twenty-seven divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes; +according to two other systems, twenty-seven or twenty-eight +unequal divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs +show the course of the sun through them, as well as the course of +the moon; and the course of the sun was marked by them only, +before the time when the Hindus began to use the twelve signs of +the solar zodiac. So there is nothing exclusively lunar about them. +The present names of the lunar months were derived from the +<i>nakshatras</i> in the following manner: the full-moon which occurred +when the moon was in conjunction with Chitrā (the star α Virginis) +was named Chaitrī, and the lunar month, which contained the +Chaitrī full-moon, was named Chaitra; and so on with the others. +The present names have superseded another set of names which +were at one time in use concurrently with them; these other names +are Madhu (= Chaitra), Mādhava, Śukra, Śuchi, Nabhas, Nabhasya, +Isha, Ūrja (= Kārttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and Tapasya +(= Phālguna): they seem to have marked originally solar season-months +of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar +year.</p> + +<p>A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new-moon, +which is called <i>amāvāsyā</i>, or with the full-moon, which is +called <i>pūrṇamāsī</i>, <i>pūrṇimā</i>: a month of the former kind is termed +<i>amānta</i>, “ending with the new-moon,” or <i>śuklādi</i>, “beginning with +the bright fortnight;” a month of the latter kind is termed pūrṇimānta, +“ending with the full-moon,” or <i>kṛishṇādi</i>, “beginning with +the dark fortnight.” For all purposes of the calendar, the <i>amānta</i> +month is used in Southern India, and the <i>pūrṇimānta</i> month in +Northern India. But only the <i>amānta</i> month, the period of the +synodic revolution of the moon, is recognized in Hindu astronomy, +and for the purpose of naming the lunations and adjusting the +lunar to the solar year by the intercalation and suppression of +lunar months; and the rule is that the lunar Chaitra is the <i>amānta</i> +or synodic month at the first moment of which the sun is in the sign +Mīna, and in the course of which the sun enters Mēsha: the other +months follow in the same way; and the lunar Kārttika is the +<i>amānta</i> month at the first moment of which the sun is in Tulā, and +in the course of which the sun enters Vṛiśchika. The connexion +between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by the point +that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice to the +solar Mīna, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to +another practice to the solar Mēsha, in which the lunar Chaitra +ends. Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious +purposes with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its +first civil day.</p> + +<p>One mean lunar year of twelve lunations measures very nearly +354 days 8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures +365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to Āryabhaṭa, or slightly +more according to the other two authorities. Consequently, the +<span class="sidenote">Intercalation and suppression of lunar months.</span> +beginning of a lunar year pure and simple would be always travelling +backwards through the solar year, by about eleven days on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +each occasion, and would in course of time recede entirely through +the solar year, as it does in the Mahommedan calendar. The +Hindus prevent that in the following manner. The length +of the Hindu astronomical solar month, measured by the +<i>saṁkrāntis</i> of the sun, its successive entrances into the +signs of the zodiac, ranges, in accordance with periodical +variations in the speed of the sun, from about 29 days +7 hrs. 38 min. up to about 31 days 15 hrs. 28 min. The +length of the <i>amānta</i> or synodic lunar month ranges, +in accordance with periodical variations in the speed of the moon +and the sun, from about 29 days 19 hrs. 30 min. down to about +29 days 7 hrs. 20 min. Consequently, it happens from time to +time that there are two new-moon conjunctions, so that two lunations +begin, in one astronomical solar month, between two <i>saṁkrāntis</i> +of the sun, while the sun is in one and the same sign of the +zodiac, and there is no <i>saṁkrānti</i> in the lunation ending with the +second new-moon: when this is the case, there are two lunations +to which the same name is applicable, and so there is an additional +or intercalated month, in the sense that a name is repeated: thus, +when two new-moons occur while the sun is in Mēsha, the lunation +ending with the first of them, during which the sun has entered +Mēsha, is Chaitra; the next lunation, in which there is no <i>saṁkrānti</i>, +is Vāiśākha, because it begins when the sun is in Mēsha; and the +next lunation after that is again Vaiśākha, for the same reason, +and also because the sun enters Vṛishabha in the course of it: in +these circumstances, the first of the two Vaiśākhas is called Adhika-Vaiśākha, +“the additional or intercalated Vaiśākha,” and the +second is called simply Vaiśākha, or sometimes Nija-Vaiśākha, +“the natural Vaiśākha.” On the other hand, it occasionally +happens, in an autumn or winter month, that there are two <i>saṁkrāntis</i> +of the sun in one and the same <i>amānta</i> or synodic lunar +month, between two new-moon conjunctions, so that no lunation +begins between the two <i>saṁkrāntis</i>: when this is the case, there is +one lunation to which two names are applicable, and there is a +suppressed month, in the sense that a name is omitted: thus, if +the sun enters both Dhanus and Makara during one synodic lunation, +that lunation is Mārgaśira, because the sun was in Vṛiśchika at the +first moment of it and enters Dhanus in the course of it;<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the next +lunation is Māgha, because the sun is in Makara by the time when +it begins and will enter Kumbha in the course of it; and the name +Pausha, between Mārgaśira and Māgha, is omitted. When a month +is thus suppressed, there is always one intercalated month, and +sometimes two, in the same Chaitrādi lunar year, so that the lunar +year never contains less than twelve months, and from time to +time consists of thirteen months. There are normally seven intercalated +months, rising to eight when a month is suppressed, in 19 +solar years, which equal very nearly 235 lunations;<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and there is +never less than one year without an intercalated month between +two years with intercalated months, except when there is only +one such month in a year in which a month is suppressed; then +there is always an intercalated month in the next year also. The +suppression of a month takes place at intervals of 19 years and +upwards, regarding which no definite statement can conveniently +be made here. It may be added that an intercalated Chaitra or +Kārttika takes the place of the ordinary month as the first month +of the year; an intercalated month is not rejected for that purpose, +though it is tabooed from the religious and auspicious points of +view.</p> + +<p>The manner in which this arrangement of intercalated and suppressed +months works out, so as to prevent the beginning of the +Chaitrādi lunar year departing far from the beginning of the Mēshādi +solar year, may be illustrated as follows. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1815 the Mēsha-saṁkrānti +occurred on 11th April; and the first civil day of the +Chaitrādi year was 10th April. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1816 and 1817 the first +civil day of the Chaitrādi year fell back to 29th March and 18th +March. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1817, however, there was an intercalated month, +Śrāvaṇa; with the result that in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1818 the first civil day of the +Chaitrādi year advanced to 6th April. And, after various shiftings +of the same kind—including in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1822 an intercalation of Āśvina +and a suppression of Pausha, followed in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1823, when the first +civil day of the Chaitrādi year had fallen back to 13th March, by +an intercalation of Chaitra itself—in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1834, when the Mēsha-saṁkrānti +occurred again on 11th April, the first civil day of the +Chaitrādi year was again 10th April.</p> + +<p>The lunar month is divided into two fortnights (<i>paksha</i>), called +bright and dark, or, in Indian terms, <i>śukla</i> or <i>śuddha</i>, <i>śudi</i>, <i>sudi</i>, +and <i>kṛishṇa</i> or <i>bahula</i>, <i>badi</i>, <i>vadi</i>: the bright fortnight, +<i>śukla-paksha</i>, is the period of the waxing moon, ending +<span class="sidenote">The lunar fortnight.</span> +at the full-moon; the dark fortnight, <i>kṛishṇa-paksha</i>, +is the period of the waning moon, ending at the new-moon. +In the <i>amānta</i> or <i>śuklādi</i> month, the bright fortnight precedes +the dark; in the <i>pūrṇimānta</i> or <i>kṛishṇādi</i> month, the dark +fortnight comes first; and the result is that, whereas, for instance, +the bright fortnight of Chaitra is the same period of time throughout +India, the preceding dark fortnight is known in Northern India as +the dark fortnight of Chaitra, but in Southern India as the dark +fortnight of Phālguna. This, however, does not affect the period +covered by the lunar year; the Chaitrādi and Kārttikādi years +begin everywhere with the bright fortnight of Chaitra and Kārttika +respectively; simply, by the <i>amānta</i> system the dark fortnights +of Chaitra and Kārttika are the second fortnights, and by the +<i>pūrṇimānta</i> system they are the last fortnights, of the years. Like +the month, the fortnight begins for religious purposes with its first +lunar day, and for civil purposes with its first civil day.</p> + +<p>The lunar fortnights are divided each into fifteen tithis or lunar +days.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The <i>tithi</i> is the time in which the moon increases her distance +from the sun round the circle by twelve degrees; and the +almanacs show each <i>tithi</i> by its ending-time; that is, +<span class="sidenote">The lunar day.</span> +by the moment, expressed in <i>ghaṭikās</i> and <i>palas</i>, after +sunrise, at which the moon completes that distance. In accordance +with that, the <i>tithi</i> is usually used and cited with the weekday on +which it ends; but there are special rules regarding certain rites, +festivals, &c., which sometimes require the <i>tithi</i> to be used and cited +with the weekday on which it begins or is current at a particular +time. The first <i>tithi</i> of each fortnight begins immediately after the +moment of new-moon and full-moon respectively; the last <i>tithi</i> +ends at the moment of full-moon and new-moon. The <i>tithis</i> are +primarily denoted by the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., for each fortnight; +but, while the full-moon <i>tithi</i> is always numbered 15, the new-moon +<i>tithi</i> is generally numbered 30, even where the <i>pūrṇimānta</i> month +is used. The <i>tithis</i> may be cited either by their figures or by the +Sanskṛit ordinal words <i>prathamā</i>, “first,” <i>dvitīyā</i>, “second,” &c., +or corruptions of them. But usually the first <i>tithi</i> of either fortnight +is cited by the term <i>pratipad</i>, <i>pratipadā</i>, and the new-moon and full-moon +<i>tithis</i> are cited by the terms <i>amāvāsyā</i> and <i>pūrṇimā</i>; or here, +again, corruptions of the Sanskṛit terms are used. And special +names are sometimes prefixed to the numbers of the <i>tithis</i>, according +to the rites, festivals, &c., prescribed for them, or events or merits +assigned to them: for instance, Vaiśākha śukla 3 is Akshaya or +Akshayya-tṛitīyā, the third <i>tithi</i> which ensures permanence to acts +performed on it; Bhādrapada śukla 4 is Gaṇēsa-chaturthī, the +fourth <i>tithi</i> dedicated to the worship of the god Gaṇēśa, Gaṇapati, +and the <i>amānta</i> Bhādrapada or <i>pūrṇimānta</i> Āśvina kṛishṇa 13 is +Kaliyugādi-trayōdaśī, as being regarded (for some reason which +is not apparent) as the anniversary of the beginning of the +Kaliyuga, the present Age. The first <i>tithi</i> of the year is styled +Saṁvatsara-pratipadā, which term answers closely to our “New +Year’s Day.”</p> + +<p>The civil days of the lunar month begin, like those of the solar +month, at sunrise, and bear in the same way the names of the +weekdays. But they are numbered in a different manner; +fortnight by fortnight and according to the <i>tithis</i>. The +<span class="sidenote">The civil day.</span> +general rule is that the civil day takes the number of the +<i>tithi</i> which is current at its sunrise. And the results are as follows. +As the motions of the sun and the moon vary periodically, a tithi +is of variable length, ranging, according to the Hindu calculations, +from 21 hrs. 34 min. 24 sec. to 26 hrs. 6 min. 24 sec.: it may, therefore, +be either shorter or longer than a civil day, the duration of +which is practically 24 hours (one minute, roughly, more or less, +according to the time of the year). A <i>tithi</i> may end at any moment +during the civil day; and ordinarily it ends on the civil day after +that on which it begins, and covers only one sunrise and gives its +number to the day on which it ends. It may, however, begin on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +one civil day and end on the next but one, and so cover two sunrises; +and it is then treated as a repeated <i>tithi</i>, in the sense that +its number is repeated: for instance, if the seventh <i>tithi</i> so begins +and ends, the civil day on which it begins is numbered 6, from the +<i>tithi</i> which is current at the sunrise of that day and ends on it; the +day covered entirely by the seventh <i>tithi</i> is numbered 7, because +that <i>tithi</i> is current at its sunrise; the next day, at the sunrise of +which the seventh <i>tithi</i> is still current and during which it ends, +is again numbered 7; and the number 8 falls to the next day after +that, when the eighth tithi is current at sunrise.<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> On the other +hand, a <i>tithi</i> may begin and end during one and the same civil day, +so as not to touch a sunrise at all: in this case, it exists for any +practical purposes for which it may be wanted (it is, however, to be +avoided if possible, as being an unlucky occasion), but it is suppressed +or expunged for the numbering of the civil day, in the +sense that its number is omitted; for instance, if the seventh <i>tithi</i> +begins and ends during one civil day, that day is numbered 6 from, +as before, the <i>tithi</i> which is current at its sunrise and ends when the +seventh <i>tithi</i> begins; the next day is numbered 8, because the +eighth <i>tithi</i> is current at its sunrise; and there is, in this case, no +civil day bearing the number seven. In consequence of this method +of numbering, it sometimes happens, as the result of the suppression +of a <i>tithi</i>, that the day of a full-moon is numbered 14 instead of 15; +that the day of a new-moon is numbered 14 instead of 30; and that +the first day of a fortnight, and even the first day of a lunar year, +is numbered 2 instead of 1.</p> + +<p>There are, on an average, thirteen suppressed <i>tithis</i> and seven +repeated <i>tithis</i> in twelve lunar months; and so the lunar year +averages 354 days, rising to about 384 when a month is intercalated. +It occasionally happens that there are two suppressions of <i>tithis</i> in +one and the same fortnight; and the almanacs show such a case in +the bright fortnight of Jyaishṭha, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1878: but this occurs only +after very long intervals.</p> + +<p>The <i>tithi</i> is divided into two <i>karanas</i>; each <i>karana</i> being the +time in which the moon increases her distance from the sun by six +degrees. But this is a detail of astrological rather than +chronological interest. So, also, are two other details +<span class="sidenote">The Karana.</span> +to which a prominent place is given in the lunar calendars; +to yōga, or time in which the joint motion in longitude, the sum +of the motions of the sun and the moon, is increased by 13 degrees +20 minutes; and the <i>nakshatra</i>, the position of the moon as referred +to the ecliptic by means of the stars and groups of stars which have +been mentioned above under the lunar month.</p> + +<p>In the Indian calendar everything depends upon exact times, +which differ, of course, on every different meridian; and (to cite +what is perhaps the most frequent and generally important occurrence) +suppression and repetition may affect one <i>tithi</i> and civil day +in one locality, and another <i>tithi</i> and civil day in another locality +not very far distant. Consequently, neither for the lunar nor for +the solar calendar is there any almanac which is applicable to even +the whole area in which any particular length of the astronomical +solar year prevails; much less, for the whole of India. Different +almanacs are prepared and published for places of leading importance; +details for minor places, when wanted, have to be worked +out by the local astrologer, the modern representative of an ancient +official known as Sāṁmvatsara, the “clerk of the year.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Eras</p> + +<p>As far as the available evidence goes (and we have no reason +to expect to discover anything opposed to it), any use of eras, +in the sense of continuous reckonings which originated in historical +occurrences or astronomical epochs and were employed for +official and other public chronological purposes, did not prevail +in India before the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Prior to that time, there +existed, indeed, in connexion with the sacrificial calendar, a +five-years lunisolar cycle, and possibly some extended cycles of +the same nature; and there was in Buddhist circles a record of +the years elapsed since the death of Buddha, which we shall +mention again further on. But, as is gathered from books and is +well illustrated by the edicts of Aśōka (reigned 264-227 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and +the inscriptions of other rulers, the years of the reign of each +successive king were found sufficient for the public dating of proclamations +and the record of events. There is no known case in +which any Indian king, of really ancient times, deliberately +applied himself to the foundation of an era: and we have no +reason for thinking that such a thing was ever done, or that any +Hindu reckoning at all owes its existence to a recognition of +historical requirements. The eras which came into existence +from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards mostly had their origin in the +fortuitous extension of regnal reckonings. The usual course has +been that, under the influence of filial piety, pride in ancestry, +loyalty to a paramount sovereign, or some other such motive, +the successor of some king continued the regnal reckoning of his +predecessor, who was not necessarily the first king in the dynasty, +and perhaps did not even reign for any long time, instead of +starting a new reckoning, beginning again with the year 1, +according to the years of his own reign. Having thus run for two +reigns, the reckoning was sufficiently well established to continue +in the same form, and to eventually develop into a generally +accepted local era, which might or might not be taken over by +subsequent dynasties ruling afterwards over the same territory. +In these circumstances, we find the establisher of any particular +era in that king who first continued his predecessor’s regnal +reckoning, instead of replacing it by his own; but we regard as +the founder of the era that king whose regnal reckoning was so +continued. We may add here that it was only in advanced +stages that any of the Hindu eras assumed specific names: +during the earlier period of each of them, the years were simply +cited by the term <i>saṁvatsara</i> or <i>varsha</i>, “the year (bearing such-and-such +a number),” or by the abbreviations <i>saṁvat</i> and <i>sam</i>, +without any appellative designation.</p> + +<p>The Hindus have had two religious reckonings, which it will +be convenient to notice first. Certain, statements in the +Ceylonese chronicles, the <i>Dīpavaṁsa</i> and <i>Mahāvaṁsa</i>, +endorsed by an entry in a record of Aśōka, show that in +<span class="sidenote">The Buddhist and Jain religious reckonings.</span> +the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there existed among the Buddhists +a record of the time elapsed since the death of Buddha +in 483 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, from which it was known that Aśōka was +anointed to the sovereignty 218 years after the +death. The reckoning, however, was confined to esoteric Buddhist +circles, and did not commend itself for any public use; and the +only known inscriptional use of it, which also furnishes the +latest known date recorded in it, is found in the Last Edict of +Aśōka, which presents his dying speech delivered in 226 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, 256 +years after the death of Buddha. In Ceylon, where, also the +original reckoning was not maintained, there was devised in the +12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a reckoning styled Buddhavarsha, “the years +of Buddha,” which still exists, and which purports to run from +the death of Buddha, but has set up an erroneous date for that +event in 544 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This later reckoning spread from Ceylon to +Burma and Siam, where, also, it is still used. It did not obtain +any general recognition in India, because, when it was devised, +Buddhism had practically died out there, except at Bōdh-Gayā. +But, as there seems to have been constant intercourse between +Bōdh-Gayā and Ceylon as well as other foreign Buddhist countries, +we should not be surprised to find an occasional instance of its +use at Bōdh-Gayā: and it is believed that one such instance, +belonging to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1270, has been obtained.</p> + +<p>The Jains have had, and still maintain, a reckoning from the +death of the founder of their faith, Vīra, Mahāvīra, Vardhamāna, +which event is placed by them in 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This reckoning +figures largely in the Jain books, which put forward dates in it +for very early times. But the earliest known synchronous date +in it—by which we mean a date given by a writer who recorded +the year in which he himself was writing—is one of the year 980, +or, according to a different view mentioned in the passage itself, +of the year 993. This reckoning, again, did not commend itself +for any official or other public use. And the only known inscriptional +instances of the use of it are modern ones, of the 19th +century. While it is certain that the Jain reckoning, as it exists, +has its initial point in 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it has not yet been determined +whether that is actually the year in which Vīra died. All that can +be said on this point is that the date is not inconsistent with +certain statements in Buddhist books, which mention, by a +Prākrit name of which the Sanskṛit form is Nirgrantha-Jńāta-putra, +a contemporary of Buddha, in whom there is recognized +the original of the Jain Vīra, Mahāvīra, or Vardhamāna, and who, +the same books say, died while Buddha was still alive. But there +are some indications that Nirgrantha-Jñātaputra may have died +only a short time before Buddha himself; and the event may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +easily have been set back to 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in circumstances, attending +a determination of the reckoning long after the occurrence, +analogous to those in which the Ceylonese Buddhavarsha set up +the erroneous date of 544 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for the death of Buddha.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the class of eras of royal origin, brought into existence in the +manner indicated above, the Hindus have had various reckonings +which have now mostly fallen into disuse. We may +<span class="sidenote">Bygone Eras of royal origin.</span> +mention them, without giving them the detailed treatment +which the more important of the still existing +reckonings demand.</p> + +<p>The Kalachuri or Chēdi era, commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 248 +or 249, is known best from inscriptional records, bearing dates +which range from the 10th to the 13th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, of the Kalachuri +kings of the Chēdi country in Central India; and it is from them +that it derived the name under which it passes. In earlier times, +however, we find this era well established, without any appellation, +in Western India, in Gujarāt and the Ṭhāṇa district of Bombay, +where it was used by kings and princes of the Chalukya, Gurjara, +Sēndraka, Kaṭachchuri and Traikūṭaka families. It is traced +back there to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 457, at which time there was reigning a Traikūṭaka +king named Dahrasēna. Beyond that point, we have at present no +certain knowledge about it. But it seems probable that the founder +of it may be recognized in an Ābhīra king Īśvaṛasēna, or else in +his father Śivadatta, who was reigning at Nāsik in or closely about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 248-49.</p> + +<p>The Gupta era, commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320, was founded by Chandragupta +I., the first paramount king in the great Gupta dynasty of +Northern India. When the Guptas passed away, their reckoning +was taken over by the Maitraka kings of Valabhī, who succeeded +them in Kāṭhiāwār and some of the neighbouring territories; and +so it became also known as the Valabhī era.</p> + +<p>From Halsi in the Beḷgaum district, Bombay, we have a record +of the Kadamba king Kākusthavarman, which was framed during +the time when he was the Yuvarāja or anointed successor to the +sovereignty, and may be referred to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500. It is dated +in “the eightieth victorious year,” and thus indicates the preservation +of a reckoning running from the foundation of the Kadamba +dynasty by Mayūravarman, the great-grandfather of Kākusthavarman. +But no other evidence of the existence of this era has been +obtained.</p> + +<p>The records of the Gāṅga kings of Kaliṅganagara, which is the +modern Mukhaliṅgam-Nagarikaṭakam in the Gañjām district, +Madras, show the existence of a Gāṅga era which ran for at any +rate 254 years. And various details in the inscriptions enable us +to trace the origin of the Gāṅga kings to Western India, and to +place the initial point of their reckoning in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 590, when a certain +Satyāśraya-Dhruvarāja-Indravarman, an ancestor and probably +the grandfather of the first Gāṅga king Rājasiṁha-Indravarman I., +commenced to govern a large province in the Koṅkaṇ under the +Chalukya king Kīrtivarman I.</p> + +<p>An era commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 605 or 606 was founded in Northern +India by the great king Harshavardhana, who reigned first at +Ṭhāṇēsar and then at Kanauj, and who was the third sovereign in +a dynasty which traced its origin to a prince named Naravardhana. +A peculiarity about this era is that it continued in use for apparently +four centuries after Harshavardhana, in spite of the fact that his line +ended with him.</p> + +<p>The inscriptions assert that the Western Chālukya king Vikrama +or Vikramāditya VI. of Kalyāṇi in the Nizam’s dominions, who +reigned from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1076 to 1126, abolished the use of the Śaka era +in his dominions in favour of an era named after himself. What +he or his ministers did was to adopt, for the first time in that dynasty, +the system of regnal years, according to which, while the Śaka era +also remained in use, most of the records of his time are dated, not +in that era, but in the year so-and-so of the Chālukya-Vikrama-kāla +or Chālukya-Vikrama-varsha, “the time or years of the Chālukya +Vikrama.” There is some evidence that this reckoning survived +Vikramāditya VI. for a short time. But his successors introduced +their own regnal reckonings; and that prevented it from acquiring +permanence.</p> + +<p>In Tirhut, there is still used a reckoning which is known as the +Lakshmaṇasēna era from the name of the king of Bengal by whom +it was founded. There is a difference of opinion as to the exact +initial point of this reckoning; but the best conclusion appears to +be that which places it in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1119. This era prevailed at one +time throughout Bengal: we know this from a passage in the +<i>Akbarnāma</i>, written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1584, which specifies the Śaka era as +the reckoning of Gujarāt and the Dekkan, the Vikrama era as the +reckoning of Mālwā, Delhi, and those parts, and the Lakshmaṇasēna +era as the reckoning of Bengal.</p> + +<p>The last reckoning that we have to mention here is one known +as the Rājyābhishēka-Śaka, “the era of the anointment to the +sovereignty,” which was in use for a time in Western India. It +dated from the day Jyaishṭha śukla 13 of the Śaka year 1597 current, += 6 June, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1674, when Śivajī, the founder of the Marāṭhā +kingdom, had himself enthroned.</p> + +<p>There are four reckonings which it is difficult at present to class +exactly. Two inscriptions of the 15th and 17th centuries, recently +brought to notice from Jēsalmēr in Rājputānā, present a reckoning +which postulates an initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 624 or in the preceding +<span class="sidenote">Miscellaneous Eras.</span> +or the following year, and bears an appellation, Bhāṭika, +which seems to be based on the name of the Bhaṭṭi +tribe, to which the rulers of Jēsalmēr belong. No historical +event is known, referable to that time, which can +have given rise to an era. It is possible that the apparent initial +date represents an epoch, at the end of the Śaka year 546 or thereabouts, +laid down in some astronomical work composed then or +soon afterwards and used in the Jēsalmēr territory. But it seems +more probable that it is a purely fictitious date, set up by an attempt +to evolve an early history Of the ruling family.</p> + +<p>In the Tinnevelly district of Madras, and in the territories of the +same presidency in which the Malayāḷam language prevails, namely, +South Kanara below Mangalore, the Malabar district, and the +Cochin and Travancore states, there is used a reckoning which is +known sometimes as the Kollam or Kōlamba reckoning, sometimes +as the era of Paraśurāma. The years of it are solar: in the southern +parts of the territory in which it is current, they begin with the +month Siṁha; in the northern parts, they begin with the next +month, Kanyā. The initial point of the reckoning is in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825; +and the year 1076 commenced in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900. The popular view about +this reckoning is that it consists of cycles of 1000 years; that we +are now in the fourth cycle; and that the reckoning originated in +1176 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with the mythical Paraśurāma, who exterminated the +Kshatriya or warrior caste, and reclaimed the Koṅkaṇ countries, +Western India below the Ghauts, from the ocean. But the earliest +known date in it, of the year 149, falls in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 973; and the reckoning +has run on in continuation of the thousand, instead of beginning +afresh in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1825. It seems probable, therefore, that the reckoning +had no existence before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825. The years are cited sometimes as +“the Kollam year (of such-and-such a number),” sometimes as +“the year (so-and-so) after Kollam appeared;” and this suggests +that the reckoning may possibly owe its origin to some event, +occurring in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825, connected with one or other of the towns and +ports named Kollam, on the Malabar coast; perhaps Northern +Kollam in the Malabar district, perhaps Southern Kollam, better +known as Quilon, in Travancore. But the introduction of Paraśurāma +into the matter, which would carry back (let us say) the +foundation of Kollam to legendary times, may indicate, rather, a +purely imaginative origin. Or, again, since each century of the +Kollam reckoning begins in the same year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> with a century of +the Saptarshi reckoning (see below under III. Other Reckonings), +it is not impossible that this reckoning may be a southern offshoot +of the Saptarshi reckoning, or at least may have had the same +astrological origin.</p> + +<p>In Nēpāl there is a reckoning, known as the Nēwār era and commencing +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 879, which superseded the Gupta and Harsha eras +there. One tradition attributes the foundation of it to a king +Rāghavadēva; another says that, in the time and with the permission +of a king Jayadēvamalla, a merchant named Sākhwāl +paid off, by means of wealth acquired from sand which turned into +gold, all the debts then existing in the country, and introduced the +new era in commemoration of the occurrence. It is possible that +the era may have been founded by some ruler of Nēpāl: but nothing +authentic is known about the particular names mentioned in connexion +with it. This era appears to have been discarded for state +and official purposes, in favour of the Śaka era, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1768, when +the Gūrkhas became masters of Nēpāl; but manuscripts show that +in literary circles it has remained in use up to at any rate <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1875.</p> + +<p>Inscriptions disclose the use in Kāṭhiāwār and Gujarāt, in the +12th and 13th centuries, of a reckoning, commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1114, +which is known as the Siṁha-saṁvat. No historical occurrence is +known, on which it can have been based; and the origin of it is +obscure.</p> +</div> + +<p>The eras mentioned above have for the most part served their +purposes and died out. But there are three great +reckonings, dating from a very respectable antiquity, +<span class="sidenote">Three great Eras in general use.</span> +which have held their own and survived to the present +day. These are the Kaliyuga, Vikrama, and Śaka eras. +It will be convenient to treat the Kaliyuga first, though, +in spite of having the greatest apparent antiquity, it is the +latest of the three in respect of actual date of origin.</p> + +<p>The Kaliyuga era is the principal astronomical reckoning of +the Hindus. It is frequently, if not generally, shown in the +almanacs: but it can hardly be looked upon as being +now in practical use for civil purposes; and, as regards +<span class="sidenote">The Kaliyuga Era of 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span> +the custom of previous times as far as we can judge it +from the inscriptional use, which furnishes a good +guide, the position is as follows: from Southern India we +have one such instance of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 634, one of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 770, three of the +10th century, and then, from the 12th century onwards, but +more particularly from the 14th, a certain number of instances, +not exactly very small in itself, but extremely so in comparison +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +with the number of cases of the use of the Vikrama and Śaka +eras and other reckonings: from Northern India the earliest +known instance of is <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1169 or 1170, and the later ones number +only four. Its years are by nature sidereal solar years, commencing +with the Mēsha-saṁkrānti, the entrance of the sun +into the Hindu constellation and sign Mēsha, <i>i.e.</i> Aries (for +this and other technical details, see above, under the Calendar);<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +but they were probably cited as lunar years in the inscriptional +records which present the reckoning; and the almanacs appear +to treat them either as Mēshādi civil solar years with solar months, +or as Chaitrādi lunar years with lunar months <i>amānta</i> (ending +with the new-moon) or <i>pūrṇimānta</i> (ending with the full-moon) +as the case may be, according to the locality. Its initial point lies +in 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and the year 5002 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900.<a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This reckoning is not an historical era, actually running from +3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was devised for astronomical purposes at some time +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400, when the Hindu astronomers, having taken over +the principles of the Greek astronomy, recognized that they required +for purposes of computation a specific reckoning with a definite +initial occasion. They found that occasion in a conjunction of the +sun, the moon, and the five planets which were then known, at the +first point of their sign Mēsha. There was not really such a conjunction; +nor, apparently, is it even the case that the sun was +actually at the first point of Mēsha at the moment arrived at. But +there was an approach to such a conjunction, which was turned +into an actual conjunction by taking the mean instead of the true +positions of the sun, the moon, and the planets. And, partly from +the reckoning which has come down to us, partly from the astronomical +books, we know that the moment assigned to the assumed +conjunction was according to one school the midnight between +Thursday the 17th, and Friday the 18th, February, 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and +according to another school the sunrise on the Friday.</p> + +<p>The reckoning thus devised was subsequently identified with +the Kaliyuga as the iron age, the last and shortest, with a duration +of 432,000 years, of the four ages in each cycle of ages in the Hindu +system of cosmical periods. Also, traditional history was fitted +to it by one school, represented notably by the Purāṇas, which, +referring the great war between the Pāṇḍavas and the Kurus, which +is the topic of the Mahābhārata, to the close of the preceding age, +the Dvāpara, placed on the last day of that age the culminating +event which ushered in the Kali age; namely, the death of Kṛishṇa +(the return to heaven of Vishṇu on the termination of his incarnation +as Kṛishṇa), which was followed by the abdication of the +Pāṇḍava king Yudhishṭhira, who, having installed his grand-nephew +Parikshit as his successor, then set out on his own journey to heaven. +Another school, however, placed the Pāṇḍavas and the Kurus +653 years later, in 2449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A third school places in 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the +anointment of Yudhishṭhira to the sovereignty, and treats that +event as inaugurating the Kali age; from this point of view, the +first 3044 years of the Kaliyuga—the period from its commencement +in 3102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the commencement of the first historical era, the +so-called Vikrama era, in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—are also known as “the era of +Yudhishṭhira.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The Vikrama era, which is the earliest of all the Hindu eras +in respect of order of foundation, is the dominant era and the +great historical reckoning of Northern India—that +is, of the territory on the north of the rivers Narbadā +<span class="sidenote">The Vikrama Era of 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span> +and Mahānadī—to which part of the country its use +has always been practically confined. Like, indeed, +the Kaliyuga and Śaka eras, it is freely cited in almanacs in any +part of India; and it is sometimes used in the south by immigrants +from the north: but it is, by nature, so essentially foreign to +the south that the earliest known inscriptional instance of the +use of it in Southern India only dates from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1218, and the +very few later instances that have been obtained, prior to the +15th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, come, along with the instance of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1218, +from the close neighbourhood of the dividing-line between the +north and the south. The Vikrama era has never been used for +astronomical purposes. Its years are lunar, with lunar months, +but seem liable to be sometimes regarded as solar, with solar +months, when they are cited in almanacs of Southern India +which present the solar calendar. Originally they were Kārtti-kādi, +with <i>pūrṇimānta</i> months (ending with the full-moon). +They now exist in the following three varieties: in Kāṭhiāwār +and Gujarāt, they are chiefly Kārttikādi, with <i>amānta</i> months +(ending with the new-moon); and they are shown in this form +in almanacs for the other parts of the Bombay Presidency; +but there is also found in Kāṭhiāwār and that neighbourhood +an Āshāḍhādi variety, commencing with Āshāḍha śukla I, +similarly with <i>amānta</i> months; in the rest of Northern India, +they are Chaitrādi, with <i>pūrṇimānta</i> months. The era has its +initial point in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and its first civil day, Kārttika śukla I, +is 19th September in that year if we determine it with reference +to the Hindu Tulā-saṁkrānti, or 18th October if we determine +it with reference to the tropical equinox. The years of the +three varieties, Chaitrādi, Āshaḍhādi, and Kārttikādi, all +commence in the same year <span class="scs">A.D.</span>; and the year 1958 began in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hindu legend connects the foundation of this era with a king +Vikrama or Vikramāditya of Ujjain in Mālwā, Central India: one +version is that he began to reign in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; another is that he +died in that year, and that the reckoning commemorates his death. +Modern research, however, based largely on the inscriptional records, +has shown that there was no such king, and that the real +facts are very different. The era owes its existence to the Kushan +king Kaṇishka, a foreign invader, who established himself in +Northern India and commenced to reign there in <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 58.<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> He was +the founder of it, in the sense that the opening years of it were +the years of his reign. It was established and set going as an era +by his successor, who continued the reckoning so started, instead of +breaking it by introducing another according to his own regnal +years. And it was perpetuated as an era, and transmitted as such +to posterity by the Mālavas, the people from whom the modern +territory Mālwā derived its name, who were an important section +of the subjects of Kaṇishka and his successors. In consonance +with that, records ranging in date from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 473 to 879 style it +“the reckoning of the Mālavas, the years of the Mālava lords, the +Mālava time or era.” Prior to that, it had no specific name; the +years of it were simply cited, in ordinary Hindu fashion, by the +term <i>saṁvatsara</i>, “the year (of such-and-such a number),” or by +its abbreviations <i>saṁvat</i> and <i>saṁ</i>: and the same was frequently +done in later times also, and is habitually done in the present day; +and so, in modern times, this era has often been loosely styled +“the Saṁvat era.” The idea of a king Vikrama in connexion with +it appears to date from only the 9th or 10th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The Śaka era, though it actually had its origin in the south-west +corner of Northern India, is the dominant era and the +great historical reckoning of Southern India; that +is, of the territory below the rivers Narbadā and +<span class="sidenote">The Śaka Era of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78.</span> +Mahānadī. It is also the subsidiary astronomical +reckoning, largely used, from the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +onwards, in the <i>Karaṇas</i>, the works dealing with practical +details of the calendar, for laying down epochs or points of time +furnishing convenient bases for computation. As a result +of that, it came to be used in past times for general purposes +also, to a limited extent, in parts of Northern India where it +was not indigenous. And it is now used more or less freely, +and is cited in almanacs everywhere. Its years are usually +lunar, Chaitrādi, and its months are <i>pūrṇimānta</i> (ending with +the full-moon) in Northern India, and <i>amānta</i> (ending with +the new-moon) in Southern India; but in times gone by it was +sometimes treated for purposes of calculation as having astronomical +solar years, and it is now treated as having Mēsh di +civil solar years and solar months in those parts of India where +that form of the solar calendar prevails. It has its initial point +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78; and its first civil day, Chaitra śukla I, is 3rd March +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +in that year, as determined with reference either to the Hindu +M’na-saṁkrānti or to the entrance of the sun into the tropical +Pisces. The year 1823 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900.</p> + +<p>Regarding the origin of the Śaka era, there was current in +the 10th and 11th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a belief which, ignoring the +difference of a hundred and thirty-five years between the two +reckonings, connected the legendary king Vikrāmaditya of +Ujjain, mentioned above under the Vikrama era, with the +foundation of this era also. The story runs, from this point of +view, that the Śakas were a barbarous people who established +themselves in the western and north-western dominions of that +king, but were met in battle and destroyed by him, and that +the era was established in celebration of that event. The modern +belief, however, ascribes the foundation of this era to a king +Śālivāhana of Pratishṭhāna, which is the modern Paiṭhaṇ, on +the Gōdāvarī, in the Nizam’s dominions. But in this case, +again, research has shown that the facts are very different. +Like the Vikrama era, the Śaka era owes its existence to foreign +invaders. It was founded by the Chhaharāta or Kshaharāta +king Nahapāna, who appears to have been a Pahlava or Palhava, +<i>i.e.</i> of Parthian extraction, and who reigned from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78 to +about 125.<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> He established himself first in Kāṭhiāwār, but +subsequently brought under his sway northern Gujarāt (Bombay) +and Ujjain, and, below the Narbadā, southern Gujarāt, +Nāsik and probably Khāndēsh. His capital seems to have been +Dōhad, in the Pańch Mahāls. And he had two viceroys: one, +named Bhūmaka, of the same family with himself, in Kāṭhiāwār; +and another, Chashṭana, son of Ghsamotika, at Ujjain. Soon +after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 125, Nahapāna was overthrown, and his family was +wiped out, by the Sātavāhana-Sātakarṇi king Gautamīputra-Śrī-Sātakarṇi, +who thereby recovered the territories on the +south of the Narbadā, and perhaps secured for a time Kāṭhiāwār +and some other parts on the north of that river. Very soon, +however, Chashṭana, or else his son Jayadāman, established +his sway over all the territory which had belonged to Nahapāna +on the north of the Narbadā; founded a line of Hinduized +foreign kings, who ruled there for more than three centuries; +and, continuing Nahapāna’s regnal reckoning, established +the era to which the name Śaka eventually became attached. +Inscriptions and coins show that, up to at least the second +decade of its fourth century, this reckoning had no specific appellation; +its years were simply cited, in the usual fashion, as <i>varsha</i>, +“the year (of such-and-such a number).” The reckoning was +then taken up by the astronomers. And we find it first called +Śakakāla, “the time or era of the Śakas,” in an epochal date, +the end of the year 427, falling in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 505, which was used by +the astronomer Varāhamihira (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 587) in his Pańchasiddhāntikā. +That this name came to be attached to it appears to be +due to the points that, along with some of the Pahlavas or Palhavas +and the Yavanas or descendants of the Asiatic Greeks, +some of the Śakas, the Scythians, had made their way into +Kāṭhiāwār and neighbouring parts by about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100, and that +the Śakas incidentally came to acquire prominence in the memory +of the Hindus regarding these occurrences, in such a manner +that their name was selected when the occasion arose to devise +an appellation for an era the exact origin of which had been +forgotten. The name of the imaginary king Sālivāhana first +figures in connexion with the era in a record of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1272, and +seems plainly to have been introduced in imitation of the coupling +of the name Vikrama, Vikramāditya, with the era of <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 58.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>That the Śaka era, though it had its origin in the south-west +corner of Northern India, is essentially an era of Southern India, +is proved by its inscriptional and numismatic history. During the +period before the time when it was taken up by the astronomers, +it is found only in the inscriptions of Nahapāna, and in the similar +records and on the coins of the descendants of Chashṭana. After +that same time, it figures first in a record of the Chalukya king +Kīrtivarman I., at Bādāmi in the Bijāpūr district, Bombay, which +is dated on the full-moon day of the month Kārttika, falling in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 578, “when there had elapsed five centuries of the years of the +anointment of the Śaka king to the sovereignty.” And from this +date onwards the records of a large part of Southern India are +mostly dated in this era, by various expressions all of which include +the term Śaka or Śāka. In Northern India the case is very different. +We have a record dated in the month Kārttika, the Śaka year 631 +(expired), falling in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 709: it comes from Multāī in the Bētūl +district, Central Provinces, that is, from the south of the Narbadā; +but it belongs to Gujarāt (Bombay), and perhaps to the north, +though more probably to the south, of that province. But, setting +that aside, the earliest inscriptional instance of the use of this era +in Northern India, outside Kāṭhiāwār and Gujarāt, is found in a +record of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 862 at Dēōgaṛh near Lalitpūr, the headquarters +town of the Lalitpūr district, United Provinces of Agra and Oude; +here, however, the record is primarily dated, with the full details of +the month, &c., in “Saṁvat 919,” that is, in the Vikrama year 919; +it is only as a subsidiary detail that the Śaka year 784 is given in a +separate passage at the end of the record, a sort of postscript. +From this date onwards the era is found in other records of Northern +India, but to any appreciable extent only from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1137, and to +only a very small extent in comparison with the Vikrama and other +northern eras; and the cases in which it was used exclusively there, +without being coupled with one or other of the northern reckonings, +are still more conspicuously few. In short, the general position is +that the Śaka era has been essentially foreign to Northern India +until recent times; it was used there quite exceptionally and +sporadically, and in very few cases indeed at any appreciable distance +from the dividing-line between the north and the south. That it +found its way into Northern India, outside Kāṭhiāwār and northern +Gujarāt at all, is unquestionably due to its use by the astronomers. +It also travelled, across the sea, by the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> to Cambodia, +and somewhat later to Java; to which parts it was doubtless taken +in almanacs, or in invoices, statements of account, &c., by the persons +engaged in the trade between Broach and the far east via Tagara +(Tēr) and the east coast. It also found its way in subsequent times +to Assam and Ceylon, and more recently still to Nēpāl.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Other Reckonings</p> + +<p>We come now to certain reckonings consisting of cycles, +and will take first the cycles of Guru or Bṛihaspati, Jupiter. +This planet, a very conspicuous object in eastern +skies, requires a period of 4332.6 days, = 50.4 days +<span class="sidenote">The Cycles of Jupiter.</span> +less than twelve Julian years, to make a circuit of the +heavens, and has provided the Hindus with two reckonings, +each in more than one variety; a cycle of twelve years, +and a cycle of sixty years. The years of Jupiter, in all their +varieties, are usually styled <i>saṁvatsara</i>; and it is convenient +to use this term here, in order to preserve clearly the distinction +between them and the solar and lunar years. The <i>saṁvatsaras</i> +have no divisions of their own; the months, days, &c., cited +with them are those of the ordinary solar or lunar calendar, +as the case may be.</p> + +<p>The older reckoning of Jupiter appears to be that of the 12-years +cycle, which is found in two varieties; in both of them the +<i>saṁvatsaras</i> bear, according to certain rules which need +not be explained here, the same names with the +<span class="sidenote">The 12-years Cycle.</span> +lunar months, Chaitra, Vaiśākha, &c. In one variety, +each <i>saṁvatsara</i> runs from one of the planet’s heliacal +risings—that is, from the day on which it becomes visible as a +morning star on the eastern horizon—to the next such rising; +and the length of such a <i>saṁvatsara</i>, according to the Hindu data, +is from 392 to 405 days, with an average of 399 days. Inscriptional +instances of the use of this cycle are found in six of the +Gupta records of Northern India, ranging from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 475 to 528.</p> + +<p>In the other variety of the 12-years cycle, which is mentioned +in astronomical works from the time of Āryabhaṭa onwards +(b. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 476), the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> are regulated by Jupiter’s course +with reference to his mean motion and mean longitude: a +<i>saṁvatsara</i> of this variety commences when Jupiter thus enters a +sign of the zodiac, and lasts for the time occupied by him in +traversing that sign from the same point of view; and the period +taken by him to do that—that is, the duration of such a <i>saṁvatsara</i>—is +slightly in excess, according to the Hindu data, of +361.02 days, which amount is very close to the actual fact, +361.05 days. Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle are +perhaps found in two records of Southern India of the Kadamba +series, belonging to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 575.</p> + +<p>The 12-years mean-sign cycle seems to be still used in some +parts. And the heliacal risings of Jupiter, as also, indeed, those +of the other planets, are shown in almanacs for astrological +purposes. In either variety, however, the 12-years cycle is now +chiefly of antiquarian interest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span></p> + +<p>The cycle of Jupiter now in general use is a cycle of sixty years, +the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> of which bear certain special names, +Prabhava, Vibhava, Śukla, Pramōda, &c., again +<span class="sidenote">The 60-years cycle.</span> +in accordance with certain rules which we need not +explain here. This cycle exists in three varieties.</p> + +<p>According to the original constitution of this cycle, the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> +are determined as in the second or mean-sign variety of +the 12-years cycle: each <i>saṁvatsara</i> commences when Jupiter +enters a sign of the zodiac with reference to his mean motion and +longitude; and it lasts for slightly more than 361.02 days. +This variety is traced back in inscriptional records to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 602, +and is still used in Northern India.</p> + +<p>Now, the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> are calculated by means of the astronomical +solar year commencing with the Mēsha-saṁkrānti, the +entrance of the sun into the sign Mēsha (Aries). The process +gives the number of the <i>saṁvatsara</i> last expired before any +particular Mēsha-saṁkrānti, with a remainder denoting the +portion of the current <i>saṁvatsara</i> elapsed up to the same time; +and the remainder, reduced to months, &c., gives the moment of +the commencement of the current <i>saṁvatsara</i>, by reckoning back +from the Mēsha-saṁkrānti. As the result, apparently, of unwillingness +to take the trouble to work out the full details, at some +time about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800 a practice arose, in some quarters, according +to which that <i>saṁvatsara</i> of the 60-years cycle which was current +at any particular Mēsha-saṁkrānti was taken as coinciding with +the astronomical solar year beginning at that <i>saṁkrānti</i>, and +with the Chaitrādi lunar year belonging to that same solar year. +And this practice set up a lunisolar variety of the cycle, in connexion +with which we have to notice the following point. While +the duration of a mean-sign <i>saṁvatsara</i> is closely about 361.02 +days, the length of the Hindu astronomical solar year is closely +about 365.258 days. It consequently happens, after every 85 or +86 years, that a mean-sign <i>saṁvatsara</i> begins and ends between +two successive Mēsha-saṁkrāntis. In the mean-sign cycle, such +a <i>saṁvatsara</i> retains its existence unaffected; and the names +Prabhava, Vibhava, &c., run on without any interruption. According +to the lunisolar system, however, the position is different; +the <i>saṁvatsara</i> beginning and ending between the two Mēsha-saṁkrāntis +is expunged or suppressed, in the sense that its +name is omitted and is replaced by the next name on the list. The +second variety of the 60-years cycle, thus started, ran on alongside +of the mean-sign variety, and, being eventually transferred, with +that variety, to Northern India, is now known as the northern +lunisolar variety. It preserves a connexion between the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> +and the movements of Jupiter: but the connexion is an +imperfect one; and both in this variety, and still more markedly +in the remaining one still to be described, the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> practically +became mere appellations for the solar and lunar years.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, just after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 900, another development occurred, +and there was started a third variety, which is now known as the +southern lunisolar variety. The precise year in which this happened +depends on the particular authority that we follow. If we +take the elements adopted in the Sūrya-Siddhānta as the proper +data for that time and for the locality—Western India below the +Narbadā—to which the early history of the cycle belongs, the +position was as follows. At the Mēsha-saṁkrānti in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 908 +there was current, by the mean-sign system, the <i>saṁvatsara</i> +No. 2, Vibhava: but No. 4, Pramōda, was current by the same +system at the Mēsha-saṁkrānti in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909; and No. 3, Śukla, +began and ended between the two Mēsha-saṁkrāntis. Accordingly, +No. 2, Vibhava, was the lunisolar <i>saṁvatsara</i> for the +Mēshādi solar year and the Chaitrādi lunar year commencing in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 908; and by the strict lunisolar system, which was adhered +to by some people and is now known as the northern lunisolar +system, it was followed in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909 by No. 4, Pramōda, the name +of the intermediate <i>saṁvatsara</i>, No. 3, Śukla, being passed over. +On the other hand, whether through oversight, or whatever the +reason may have been, by other people the name of No. 3, Śukla, +was not passed over, but that <i>saṁvatsara</i> was taken as the lunisolar +<i>saṁvatsara</i> for the Mēshādi solar year and the Chaitrādi +lunar year beginning in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909, and No. 4, Pramōda, followed it +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 910. On subsequent similar occasions, also, there was, in +the same quarters, no passing over of the name of any <i>saṁvatsara</i>. +And this practice established itself in Southern India, to the +exclusion there of the mean-sign and the northern lunisolar +varieties; the discrepancy between the last-mentioned variety +and the variety thus set up continuing, of course, to increase by +one <i>saṁvatsara</i> after every 85 or 86 years. In this variety, the +southern lunisolar variety, all connexion between the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> +and the movements of Jupiter has now been lost.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The present position of the 60-years cycle in its three varieties +may be illustrated thus. In Northern India, by the mean-sign system +the <i>saṁvatsara</i> No. 46, Paridhāvin, began, according to different +authorities, in August, September or October, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1899. Consequently, +by the northern or expunging lunisolar system, that same +<i>saṁvatsara</i>, No. 46, Paridhāvin, coincided with the Mēshādi civil +solar year beginning with or just after 12th April, and with the +Chaitrādi lunar year beginning with 31st March, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900. But by +the southern or non-expunging lunisolar system those same solar +and lunar years were No. 34, Śarvarin.</p> + +<p>The treatment of the cycles of Jupiter in the Sanskrit books +shows that it was primarily from the astrological point of view +that they appealed to the Hindus; it was only as a secondary +consideration that they acquired anything of a chronological nature. +For the practical application of any of them to historical purposes, +it is, of course, necessary that, along with the mention of a <i>saṁvatsara</i>, +there should always be given the year of some known era, or some +other specific guide to the exact period to which that <i>saṁvatsara</i> is +to be referred. But it is fortunately the case that the <i>saṁvatsaras</i> +have been but rarely cited in the inscriptional records without such +a guide, of some kind or another.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Saptarshi reckoning is used in Kashmīr, and in the Kāṇgra +district and some of the Hill states on the south-east of Kashmir; +some nine centuries ago it was also in use in the Punjab, +and apparently in Sind. In addition to being cited by +<span class="sidenote">The Saptarshi reckoning.</span> +such expressions as Saptarshi-saṁvat, “the year (so-and-so) +of the Saptarshis,” and Śāstra-saṁvatsara, +“the year (so-and-so) of the scriptures,” it is found mentioned +as Lōkakāla, “the time or era of the people,” and by other terms +which mark it as a vulgar reckoning. And it appears that modern +popular names for it are Pahāṛī-saṁvat and Kachchā-saṁvat, +which we may render by “the Hill era” and “the crude era.” +The years of this reckoning are lunar, Chaitrādi; and the months +are <i>pūrṇimānta</i> (ending with the full-moon). As matters stand +now, the reckoning has a theoretical initial point in 3077 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +and the year 4976, more usually called simply 76, began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +1900; but there are some indications that the initial point was +originally placed one year earlier.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The idea at the bottom of this reckoning is a belief that the +Saptarshis, “the Seven Rishis or Saints,” Marīchi and others, were +translated to heaven, and became the stars of the constellation +Ursa Major, in 3076 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or 3077); and that these stars possess an +independent movement of their own, which, referred to the ecliptic, +carries them round at the rate of 100 years for each <i>nakshatra</i> or +twenty-seventh division of the circle. Theoretically, therefore, the +Saptarshi reckoning consists of cycles of 2700 years; and the +numbering of the years should run from 1 to 2700, and then commence +afresh. In practice, however, it has been treated quite +differently. According to the general custom, which has distinctly +prevailed in Kashmīr from the earliest use of the reckoning for +chronological purposes, and is illustrated by Kalhaṇa in his history +of Kashmīr, the <i>Rājataraṁgiṇī</i>, written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1148-1150, the numeration +of the years has been centennial; whenever a century has +been completed, the numbering has not run on 101, 102, 103, &c., +but has begun again with 1, 2, 3, &c. Almanacs, indeed, show +both the figures of the century and the full figures of the entire +reckoning, which is treated as running from 3076 B. C., not from +376 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the commencement of a new cycle, the second; thus, +an almanac for the year beginning in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1793 describes that year +as “the year 4869 according to the course of the Seven Ṛishis, +and similarly the year 69.” And elsewhere sometimes the full. +figures are found, sometimes the abbreviated ones; thus, while a +manuscript written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1648 is dated in “the year 24” (for +4724), another, written in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1224 is dated in “the year 4300.” +But, as in the <i>Rājataraṁgiṇī</i>, so also in inscriptions, which range +from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1204 onwards, only the abbreviated figures have hitherto +been found. Essentially, therefore, the Saptarshi reckoning is a +centennial reckoning, by suppressed or omitted hundreds, with its +earlier centuries commencing in 3076, 2976 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and so on, and its +later centuries commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 25, 125, 225, &c.; on precisely the +same lines with those according to which we may use, <i>e.g.</i> 98 to mean +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1798, and 57 to mean <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1857, and 9 to mean <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1909. +And the practical difficulties attending the use of such a system for +chronological purposes are obvious; isolated dates recorded in +such a fashion cannot be allocated without some explicit clue to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +the centuries to which they belong. Fortunately, however, as +regards Kashmīr, we have the necessary guide in the facts that +Kalhaṇa recorded his own date in the Śaka era as well as in this +reckoning, and gave full historical details which enable us to determine +unmistakably the equivalent of the first date in this reckoning +cited by him, and to arrange with certainty the chronology presented +by him from that time.</p> + +<p>The belief underlying this reckoning according to the course of +the Seven Ṛishis is traced back in India, as an astrological detail, +to at least the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> But the reckoning was first adopted +for chronological purposes in Kashmīr and at some time about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800; the first recorded date in it is one of “the year 89,” +meaning 3889, = <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 813-814, given by Kalhaṇa. It was introduced +into India between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 925 and 1025.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Grahaparivṛitti is a reckoning which is used in the +southernmost parts of Madras, particularly in the Madura +district. It consists of cycles of 90 Mēshādi solar +years, and is said, in conformity with its name, which +<span class="sidenote">The Grahaparivṛitti cycle.</span> +means “the revolution of planets,” to be made up +by the sum of the days in 1 revolution of the sun, +22 of Mercury, 5 of Venus, 15 of Mars, 11 of Jupiter, and 29 of +Saturn. The first cycle is held to have commenced in 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +the second in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67, and so on; and, in accordance with +that view, the year 34, which began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900, was the 34th +year of the 22nd cycle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>No inscriptional use of this cycle has come to notice. There +seems no substantial reason for believing that the reckoning was +really started in 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The alleged constitution of the cycle, which +appears to be correct within about twelve days, and might possibly +be made apparently exact, suggests an astrological origin. And, +if a guess may be hazarded, we would conjecture that the reckoning +is an offshoot of the southern lunisolar variety of the 60-years cycle +of Jupiter, and had its real origin in some year in which a Prabhava +<i>samvatsara</i> of that variety commenced, and to which the first year +of a Grahaparivṛitti cycle can be referred: that was the case in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 967 and at each subsequent 180th year.</p> +</div> + +<p>In part of the Gañjām district, Madras, there is a reckoning, +known as the Oṅko or Aṅka, <i>i.e.</i> literally “the number or +numbers,” consisting of lunar years, each commencing +with Bhādrapada śukla 12, which run theoretically +<span class="sidenote">The Oṅko cycle.</span> +in cycles of 59 years. But the reckoning has the +peculiarity that, whether the explanation is to be found in a +superstition about certain numbers or in some other reason, +the year 6, and any year the number of which ends with 6 or 0 +(except the year 10), is omitted from the numbering; so that, +for instance, the year 7 follows next after the year 5. The +origin of the reckoning is not known. But the use of it seems +to be traceable in records of the Gaṅga kings who reigned in +that part of the country and in Orissa in the 12th and following +centuries. And the initial day, Bhādrapada śukla 12, which +figures again in the Vilayāti and Amli reckoning of Orissa (see +farther on), is perhaps to be accounted for on the view that this +day was the day of the anointment, in the 7th century, of the +first Gāṅga king, Rājasiṁha-Indravarman I.</p> + +<p>In the Chittagong district, Bengal, there is a solar reckoning, +known by the name Maghī, of which the year 1262 either began +or ended in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; so that it has an initial point +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 639 or 638. It appears that Chittagong was +<span class="sidenote">The Maghī reckoning.</span> +conquered by the king of Arakan in the 9th century, +and remained usually in the possession of the Maghs—the +Arakanese or a class of them—till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1666, when it was +finally annexed to the Mogul empire. In these circumstances +it is plain that the Magh reckoning took its name from the +Maghs; its year, which is Mēshādi, from Bengal; and its +numbering from the Sakkarāj, the ordinary era of Arakan and +Burma, which has its initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 638.</p> + +<p>The Hijra (Hegira) era, the reckoning from the flight of +Mahomet, which dates from the 16th of July, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 662, is, of +course, used by the Mahommedans in India, and is +customarily shown, with the details of its calendar, +<span class="sidenote">Hinduized offshoots of the Hijra era.</span> +in the Hindu almanacs. An account of it does not +fall within the scope of this article. But we have +to mention it because we come now to certain Hinduized +reckonings which are hybrid offshoots of it. We need +only say, however, in explanation of some of the following +figures, that the years of the Hijra era are purely lunar, consisting +of twelve lunar months and no more; with the result that the +initial day of the year is always travelling backwards through +the Julian year, and makes a complete circuit in thirty-four +years. The reckonings derived from it, which we have to describe, +have apparent initial points in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 591, 593, 594, and 600. +They had their real origin, however, in the 14th, 16th, and 17th +centuries.</p> + +<p>The emperor Akbar succeeded to the throne in February, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1556, in the Hijra year 963, which ran from 16th November +1555 to 3rd November 1556. Amongst the reforms aimed at +by him and his officials, one was to abolish, or at least minimize, +by introducing uniformity of numbering, the confusion due +to the existence of various reckonings, both Mahommedan and +Hindu. And one step taken in that direction was to assign to +the Hindu year the same number with the Hijra year. It is +believed that this was first done by the Persian clerks of the +revenue and financial offices at an early time in Akbar’s reign, +and that it received authoritative sanction in the Hijra year +971 (21st August 1563 to 8th August 1564). At any rate, the +innovation was certainly first made in Upper India; and the +numbering started there was introduced into Bengal and those +parts as Akbar extended his dominions, but without interfering +with local customs as to the commencement of the Hindu year. +The result is that we now have the following reckonings, the +years of which are used as revenue years:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the United Provinces and the Punjab, there is an Āśvinādi +lunar reckoning, known as the Fasli, according to which the year +1308 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; so that the reckoning has an +apparent initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 593. The name of this +<span class="sidenote">The Fasli reckoning of Upper India.</span> +reckoning is derived from <i>faṣl</i>, “a harvest,” of which +there are two; the <i>faṣl-i-rabī</i> or “spring harvest,” +commencing in February, and the <i>faṣl-i-kharīf</i>, or “autumn +harvest” commencing in October. The years of this reckoning +begin with the <i>pūrṇimānta</i> Āśvina krishna 1, which now falls in +September. A peculiar feature of it is that, though the months are +lunar, they are not divided into fortnights, and the numbering of +the days runs on, as in the Mahommedan month, from the first to +the end of the month without being affected by any expunction and +repetition of <i>tithis</i>; and, for this and other reasons, it seems that +in this case a new form of Hindu year was devised, of such a kind +as to enable the agriculturists to realize their produce and pay +their assessments comfortably within the year. The Hijra era +has, of course, now drawn somewhat widely away from this and +the other reckonings derived from it; the Hijra year commencing +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900 was 1318, ten years in advance of the Fasli +year.</p> + +<p>In Orissa and some other parts of Bengal, there is a reckoning, +or two almost identical reckonings, the facts of which are not quite +clear. According to one account, the term Amli-san, +“the official year,” is only another name of the Vilāyati-san, +<span class="sidenote">The Vilāyati-san and Amli-san of Orissa.</span> +“the year received from the <i>vilāyat</i> or province +of Hindustān.” But we are also told that the Vilāyati-san +is a Kanyādi solar year, whereas the Amli-san, +though it too has solar months, changes its number on +the lunar day Bhādrapada śukla 12 (mentioned above in connexion +with the Oṅko cycle of Orissa), which comes sometimes in Kanyā, +but sometimes in the preceding month, Siṁha. Elsewhere, again, +it is the Vilāyati-san which is shown as changing its number on +Bhādrapada śukla 12. In either case, the year 1308 of this reckoning, +also, began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; and so, like the Fasli of Upper India, +this reckoning, too, has an apparent initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 593. The +day Bhādrapada śukla 12 now usually falls in September, but may +come during the last three days of August. The first day of the +solar month Kanyā now falls on 15th or 16th September.</p> + +<p>In Bengal there is in more general use a Mēshādi solar reckoning, +known as the Bengāli-san or “Bengal year,” according +<span class="sidenote">The Bengāli-san.</span> +to which the year 1307 began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; so that this +reckoning has an apparent initial point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 594. The +initial day of the year is the first day of the solar month Mēsha, +now falling on 12th or 13th April.</p> + +<p>The system of Fasli reckonings was introduced into Southern +India under the emperor Shāh Jahān, at some time in the Hijra +year 1046, which ran from 26th May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1636, to 15th +May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1637. But the numbering which was current +<span class="sidenote">The Fasli of Bombay and Madras.</span> +in Northern India was not taken over. A new start was +made; and, as the year of the Hijra had gone back, +during the intervening seventy-three Julian years, by +two years and a quarter (less by only five days) from the date of its +commencement in the year 971, the Fasli reckoning of Southern +India began with a nominal year 1046 (instead of 971 + 73 = 1044), +commencing in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1636. The Fasli reckoning of Southern India +exists in two varieties. The years of the Bombay Fasli are popularly +known as Mrigasāl years, because they commence when the sun +enters the <i>nakshatra</i> Mṛigaśiras, which occurs now on 6th or 7th June: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +the reckoning seems to have taken over this initial day from the +Marāṭhā Sūr-san (see below). The Fasli years of Madras originally +began at the Karka-saṁkrānti, the nominal summer solstice: +under the British government, the commencement of them was first +fixed to 12th July, on which day the <i>saṁkrānti</i> was then usually +occurring; but it was afterwards changed to 1st July as a more +convenient date. The years of the Bombay and Madras Fasli +have no division of their own into months, fortnights, &c.; the year +is always used along with one or other of the real Hindu reckonings, +and the details are cited according to that reckoning.</p> + +<p>Another offshoot of the Hijra era, but one of earlier date and not +belonging to the class of Fasli reckonings, is found, in the Marāṭhā +country, in the Sūr-san or Shahūr-san, “the year of +months,” also known as Arabī-san, “the Arab year.” +<span class="sidenote">The Marāṭhā Sūr-san or Aṙabī-san.</span> +This reckoning, which is met with chiefly in old <i>sanads</i> or +charters, appears to have branched off in or closely about +the Hijra year 745, which ran from 15th May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1344, to +3rd May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1345; but the exact circumstance in which +it originated is not known. The years of this reckoning begin, like +those of the Bombay Fasli, with the entrance of the sun into the +<i>nakshatra</i> Mṛigaśiras, which now occurs on 6th or 7th June; but the +months and days are those of the Hijra year. The Sūr-san year 1301 +began in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900; and so the reckoning has an apparent initial +point in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 600. A peculiarity attending this reckoning is that, +whatever may be the vernacular of a clerk, he uses the Arabic +numeral words in reading out the year; and the same words are +given alongside of the figures in the Hindu almanacs.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The Hindu astronomy had already begun to +attract attention before the close of the 18th century. The investigation, +however, of the calendar and the eras, along with the +verification of dates, was started by Warren, whose <i>Kala Sankalita</i> +was published in 1825. The inquiry was carried on by Prinsep in +his <i>Useful Tables</i> (1834-1836), by Cowasjee Patell in his <i>Chronology</i> +(1866), and by Cunningham in his <i>Book of Indian Eras</i> (1883). +But Warren’s processes, though mostly giving accurate results, were +lengthy and troublesome; and calculations made on the lines laid +down by his successors gave results which might or might not be +correct, and could only be cited as approximate results. The exact +calculation of Hindu dates by easy processes was started by Shankar +Balkrishna Dikshit, in an article published in the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, +vol. 16 (1887). This was succeeded by methods and tables devised +by Jacobi, which were published in the next volume of the same +journal. There then followed several contributions in the same +line by other scholars, some for exact, others for closely approximate, +results, and some valuable articles by Kielhorn on some of the +principal Hindu eras and other reckonings, which were published in +the same journal, vols. 17 (1888) to 26 (1897). And the treatment +of the matter culminated for the time being in the publication, +in 1896, of Sewell and Dikshit’s <i>Indian Calendar</i>, which contains an +appendix by Schram on eclipses of the sun in India, and was supplemented +in 1898 by Sewell’s <i>Eclipses of the Moon in India</i>. The +present article is based on the above-mentioned and various detached +writings, supplemented by original research. For the exact +calculation of Hindu dates and the determination of the European +equivalents of them, use may be made either of Sewell and Dikshit’s +works mentioned above, or of the improved tables by Jacobi +which were published in the <i>Epigraphia Indica</i>, vols. 1 and 2 +(1892-1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. F. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The disregard of precession, and the consequent travelling +forward of the year through the natural seasons, is, of course, a +serious defect in the Hindu calendar, the principles of which are +otherwise good. Accordingly, an attempt was made by a small +band of reformers to rectify this state of things by introducing a +precessional calendar, taking as the first lunar month the synodic +lunation in which the sun enters the tropical Aries, instead of the +sidereal Mēsha; and the publication was started, in or about 1886, +of the Sāyana-Pañchāng or “Precessional Almanac.”</p> + +<p>Further, the Hindu sidereal solar year is in excess of the true +mean sidereal year by (if we use Āryabhaṭa’s value) 3 min. 20.4 +sec. If we take this, for convenience, at 3 min. 20 sec., the excess +amounts to exactly one day in 432 years. And so even the sidereal +Mēsha-saṁkrānti is now found to occur three or four days later +than the day on which it should occur. Accordingly, another reformer +had begun, in or about 1865, to publish the Navīn athavā +Paṭwardhanī Pañchāng, the “New or Paṭwardhanī Almanac,” in +which he determined the details of the year according to the proper +Mēsha-saṁkrānti.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It might also be called Pausha, because the sun enters Makara +in the course of it; and it may be observed that, in accordance +with a second rule which formerly existed, it would have been +named Pausha because it ends while the sun is in Makara, and the +omitted name would have been Mārgaśira. But the more important +condition of the present rule, that Pausha begins while the sun is +in Dhanus, is not satisfied.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The well-known Metonic cycle, whence we have by rearrangement +our system of Golden Numbers, naturally suggests itself; +and we have been told sometimes that that cycle was adopted by +the Hindus, and elsewhere that the intercalation of a month by +them generally takes place in the years 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 19 of +each cycle, differing only in respect of the 14th year, instead of the +13th, from the arrangement which is said to have been fixed by +Meton. As regards the first point, however, there is no evidence that +a special period of 19 years was ever actually used by the Hindus +during the period with which we are dealing, beyond the extent +to which it figures as a component of the number of years, 19 × 150 = +2850, forming the lunisolar cycle of an early work entitled <i>Rōmaka-Siddhānta</i>; +and, as was recognized by Kalippos not long after the +time of Meton himself, the Metonic cycle has not, for any length of +time, the closeness of results which has been sometimes supposed +to attach to it; it requires to be readjusted periodically. As +regards the second point, the precise years of the intercalated +months depend upon, and vary with, the year that we may select +as the apparent first year of a set of 19 years, and it is not easy to +arrange the Hindu years in sets answering to a direct continuation +of the Metonic cycle.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It is customary to render the term <i>tithi</i> by “lunar day:” it +is, in fact, explained as such in Sanskṛit works; and, as the <i>tithis</i> +do mark the age of the moon by periods approximating to 24 hours, +they are, in a sense, lunar days. But the <i>tithi</i> must not be confused +with the lunar day of western astronomy, which is the interval, +with a mean duration of about 24 hrs. 54 min., between two successive +meridian passages of the moon.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> We illustrate the ordinary occurrences. But there are others. +Thus, a repeated <i>tithi</i> may occasionally be followed by a suppressed +one: in this case the numbering of the civil days would be 6, 7, 7, 9, +&c., instead of 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, &c. Or it may occasionally be preceded +by a suppressed one: in this case the numbering would be 5, 7, 7, +8, &c., instead of 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It is always to be borne in mind that, as already explained, +while the Hindu Mēsha answers to our Aries, it does not coincide +with either the sign or the constellation Aries.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> We select <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900 as a gauge-year, in preference to the year +in which we are writing, because its figures are more convenient +for comparative purposes. In accordance with the general tendency +of the Hindus to cite expired years, the almanacs would mostly +show 5001 (instead of 5002) as the number for the Kaliyuga year +answering to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1900-1901. And, for the same reason, this +reckoning has often been called the Kaliyuga era of 3101 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> There +is, perhaps, no particular objection to that, provided that we then +deal with the Vikrama and Śaka eras on the same lines, and bear in +mind that in each case the initial point of the reckoning really lies +in the preceding year. But we prefer to treat these reckonings with +exact correctness.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views +regarding the date of Kaṇishka and the origin of the Vikrama era. +Some writers hold that Kaṇishka began to reign in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 78, and +founded the so-called Śaka era beginning in that year; one writer +would place his initial date about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 123, others would place it +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held +at one time by Sir A. Cunningham: and, as some others have +already begun to recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating +in support of the correctness of it.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See the preceding note.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 39353-h.htm or 39353-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/3/5/39353/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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