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<pre>

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5
       "Hinduism" to "Home, Earls of"

Author: Various

Release Date: March 23, 2012 [EBook #39232]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net






</pre>



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Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
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<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>

<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>

<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<hr class="full" />
<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE V<br /><br />
Hinduism to Home, Earls of</h3>
<hr class="full" />
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">

<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HINDUISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HODY, HUMPHREY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HINDU KUSH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HOE, RICHARD MARCH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HINDUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HOE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HINGANGHAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HOEFNAGEL, JORIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HINGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HOF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HINGHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HOFER, ANDREAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HÖFFDING, HARALD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HINSCHIUS, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HINTERLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HINTON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HIOGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HIP-KNOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HIPPARCHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HOFMANN, MELCHIOR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HIPPEASTRUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HIPPED ROOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HIPPIAS OF ELIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HOGARTH, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HIPPO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HOGG, JAMES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HIPPOCRAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HIPPOCRATES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HOGMANAY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HIPPOCRENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HOGSHEAD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HIPPODAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HOHENASPERG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HIPPODROME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HOHENFRIEDBERG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HIPPOLYTUS</a> (Greek legend hunter)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HOHENHEIM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HIPPOLYTUS</a> (writer of the early Church)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HOHENLIMBURG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HOHENLOHE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HIPPONAX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HOHENSTAUFEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HIPPOPOTAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HOHENSTEIN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HIPPURIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HOHENZOLLERN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HIPURNIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HOKKAIDO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HIRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HOKUSAI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HIRADO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HOLBEACH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HIRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HOLBEIN, HANS</a> (the elder)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HIROSAKI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HOLBEIN, HANS</a> (the younger)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HIROSHIGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HIROSHIMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HOLBORN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HIRPINI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HOLCROFT, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HIRSAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HIRSCH, MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HIRSCHBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HIRSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HIRTIUS, AULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HOLGUÍN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HISH&#256;M IBN AL-KALB&#298;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HOLIDAY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HISPELLUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HISSAR</a> (district in Central Asia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HOLKAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HISSAR</a> (town &amp; district of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HOLL, FRANK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HISTIAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HOLLAND, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HISTOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HOLLAND, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HISTORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HOLLAND, HENRY FOX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HOLLAND, HENRY RICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HITCHCOCK, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HITCHCOCK, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HOLLAND, PHILEMON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HOLLAND, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HITCHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HOLLAND</a> (country)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HITTITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HOLLAND</a> (Michigan, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HITZACKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HOLLAND</a> (cloth)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HITZIG, FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HIUNG-NU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HIVITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HOLLOWAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HJÖRRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HOLLY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HKAMTI LÔNG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HOLLYHOCK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HLOTHHERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HOLLY SPRINGS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOACTZIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HOLMAN, JAMES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOADLY, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOAR, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HOLMFIRTH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HOLOCAUST</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HOLOCENE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOBART, JOHN HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HOBART PASHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOBART</a> (capital of Tasmania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HOLSTEIN</a> (duchy of Germany)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOBBES, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOBBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HOLSTER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HOLT, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOBOKEN</a> (town of Belgium)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOBOKEN</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOBSON&rsquo;S CHOICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOBY, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOCHE, LAZARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HOLUB, EMIL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOCHHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HOLY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HÖCHST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HOLY ALLIANCE, THE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HÖCHSTÄDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HOLYHEAD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HOLY ISLAND</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HOCKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HOCK-TIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HOLYOKE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HOCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HOLYSTONE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HODDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">HOLY WATER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HODDESDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">HOLY WEEK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HODEDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">HOLYWELL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HODENING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">HOLYWOOD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HODGE, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">HOLZMINDEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HODGKIN, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">HOLZTROMPETE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HODGKINSON, EATON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">HOMAGE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">HOMBERG, WILHELM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HODOGRAPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">HOME, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
</table>

<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">HINDUISM,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a term generally employed to comprehend the
social institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the
great majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous
crop of their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course
of many centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical
scriptures. The actual proportion of the total population of
India (294 millions) included under the name of &ldquo;Hindus&rdquo;
has been computed in the census report for 1901 at something
like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made up
partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans,
Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous
forms of belief which have at various times separated from the
main stock, and developed into independent systems, such as
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill
and jungle tribes, such as the Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols,
whose crude animistic tendencies have hitherto kept them,
either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale of the
Brahmanical community. The name &ldquo;Hindu&rdquo; itself is of
foreign origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the
river Sindhu was called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied
to the inhabitants of that frontier district, and gradually extended
over the upper and middle reaches of the Gangetic valley,
whence this whole tract of country between the Himalaya and
the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to be called by
the foreign conquerors &ldquo;Hindustan,&rdquo; or the abode of the
Hindus; whilst the native writers called it &ldquo;Aryavarta,&rdquo; or
the abode of the Aryas.</p>

<p>But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term
Hinduism would thus range over the entire historical development
of Brahmanical India, it is also not infrequently used in
a narrower sense, as denoting more especially the modern phase
of Indian social and religious institutions&mdash;from the earlier
centuries of the Christian era down to our own days&mdash;as distinguished
from the period dominated by the authoritative doctrine
of pantheistic belief, formulated by the speculative theologians
during the centuries immediately succeeding the Vedic period
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahmanism</a></span>). In this its more restricted sense the term
may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering
variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social
concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though
one may at times find it convenient to speak of &ldquo;Brahmanism
and Hinduism,&rdquo; it must be clearly understood that the distinction
implied in the combination of these terms is an extremely
vague one, especially from the chronological point of view.
The following considerations will probably make this clear.</p>

<p>The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists
in the conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma
(neutr.), being the one and only reality, itself unconditioned,
and the original cause and ultimate
<span class="sidenote">Connexion with Brahmanism.</span>
goal of all individual souls (<i>j&#299;va</i>, <i>i.e.</i> living things).
Coupled with this abstract conception are two other
doctrines, viz. first, the transmigration of souls (<i>sa&#7747;s&#257;ra</i>),
regarded by Indian thinkers as the necessary complement of
a belief in the essential sameness of all the various spiritual
units, however contaminated, to a greater or less degree, they
may be by their material embodiment; and in their ultimate
re-union with the <i>Param&#257;tman</i>, or Supreme Self; and second,
the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless working
of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and destructive
principle, represented respectively by the divine personalities
of Brahma (masc.), Vish&#7749;u and &#346;iva, forming the
<i>Trim&#363;rti</i> or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric,
doctrine, there can be little doubt of its owing its origin to
considerations of theological expediency, as being calculated
to supply a sufficiently wide formula of belief for general acceptance;
and the very fact of this divine triad including the
two principal deities of the later sectarian worship, Vish&#7751;u and
&#346;iva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must have
been already in those early days favourite objects of popular
adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored
by a diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a
common creed. Thus, so far from sectarianism being a mere
modern development of Brahmanism, it actually goes back
to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical creed. Nay,
when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two
divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of
several previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may
well be traced right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of
the triple manifestation of the deity was indeed only a compromise
between Brahmanical aspirations and popular worship,
probably largely influenced by the traditional sanctity of the
number three, is sufficiently clear from the fact that, whilst
Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very embodiment
of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a
mere figurehead in the actual worship of the people, &#346;iva, on
the other hand, so far from being merely the destroyer, is also
the unmistakable representative of generative and reproductive
power in nature. In fact, Brahma, having performed his legitimate
part in the mundane evolution by his original creation
of the universe, has retired into the background, being, as it
were, looked upon as <i>functus officio</i>, like a venerable figure of
a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly
styled <i>pit&#257;maha</i>, &ldquo;the grandsire.&rdquo; But despite the artificial
character of the <i>Trim&#363;rti</i>, it has retained to this day at least its
theoretical validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also
undoubtedly exercised considerable influence in shaping sectarian
belief, in promoting feelings of toleration towards the claims
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
of rival deities; and in a tendency towards identifying divine
figures newly sprung into popular favour with one or other of
the principal deities, and thus helping to bring into vogue that
notion of avatars, or periodical descents or incarnations of the
deity, which has become so prominent a feature of the later
sectarian belief.</p>

<p>Under more favourable political conditions,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the sacerdotal
class might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing
something like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous
medley of races and tribes scattered over the peninsula, just
as they certainly did succeed in establishing the social prerogative
of their own order over the length and breadth of India. They
were, however, fated to fall far short of such a consummation;
and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to wink at,
or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive
practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of
godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and
symbols of every description. Indeed, according to a recent
account by a close observer of the religious practices prevalent
in southern India, fully four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian
race, whilst nominally acknowledging the spiritual guidance
of the Brahmans, are to this day practically given over to the
worship of their nondescript local village deities (<i>gr&#257;ma-devat&#257;</i>),
usually attended by animal sacrifices frequently involving the
slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of thousands of
victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly all of
the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people
&ldquo;Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village
deity is regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more
intimately concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the
villagers. The origin of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity,
but it is probable that it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more
or less modified in various parts of south India by Brahmanical
influence. At the same time, many of the deities themselves
are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to observe a deity in
making even at the present day.&rdquo;<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It is a significant fact that,
whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at which no animal
sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are almost invariably
Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the popular
performance of those &ldquo;gloomy and weird rites for the propitiation
of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when
the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes,
even from the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society.&rdquo;</p>

<p>As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from
that of social organization no clear line of demarcation can be
drawn between Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though
it was not till later times that the network of class
<span class="sidenote">Caste.</span>
divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the degree of
intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its origin the
caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of Brahmanism,
and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
The cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the
preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief
and ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been
operative from the very dawn of the history of Aryanized India.
The social organism of the Aryan tribe did not probably differ
essentially from that of most communities at that primitive
stage of civilization; whilst the body of the people&mdash;the <i>Vi&#347;</i>
(or aggregate of <i>Vai&#347;yas</i>)&mdash;would be mainly occupied with
agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional classes&mdash;those
of the warrior and the priest&mdash;had already made good their
claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal community
would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But
when the fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact
with, and drove back or subdued the dark-skinned race that
occupied the northern plains&mdash;doubtless the ancestors of the
modern Dravidian people&mdash;the preservation of their racial
type and traditionary order of things would naturally become
to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme north-western
districts&mdash;the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from
the fairly uniform physical features of the present population
of these parts&mdash;they seem to have been signally successful in
their endeavour to preserve their racial purity, probably by
being able to clear a sufficiently extensive area of the original
occupants for themselves with their wives and children to
settle upon. The case was, however, very different in the
adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the sacred <i>Madhyadesa</i>
or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan immigrants
were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing
a considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must
remain uncertain whether it was that the thickly-populated
character of the land scarcely admitted of complete occupation,
but only of a conquest by an army of fighting men, starting
from the Aryanized region&mdash;who might, however, subsequently
draw women of their own kin after them&mdash;or whether, as has
been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place
at that time through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus
and northern Kashmir, where the nature of the road would
render it impracticable for the invading bands to be accompanied
by women and children. Be this as it may, the physical appearance
of the population of this central region of northern India&mdash;Hindustan
and Behar&mdash;clearly points to an intermixture of
the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized,
dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming
more pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
Now, it was precisely in this part of India that mainly arose
the body of literature which records the gradual rise of the
Brahmanical hierarchy and the early development of the caste-system.</p>

<p>The problem that now lay before the successful invaders
was how to deal with the indigenous people, probably vastly
outnumbering them, without losing their own racial identity.
They dealt with them in the way the white race usually deals
with the coloured race&mdash;they kept them socially apart. The
land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the
most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate
calling of the Aryan settler, the <i>Vai&#347;ya</i>; whilst handicrafts,
gradually multiplying with advancing civilization and menial
service, were assigned to the subject race. The generic name
applied to the latter was <i>&#346;&#363;dra</i>, originally probably the name
of one of the subjected tribes. So far the social development
proceeded on lines hardly differing from those with which one
is familiar in the history of other nations. The Indo-Aryans,
however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to
keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves,
but to shut them out from all participation in their own
higher aims, and especially in their own religious convictions
and ceremonial practices. So far from attempting to raise
their standard of spiritual life, or even leaving it to ordinary
intercourse to gradually bring about a certain community of
intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they deliberately
set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own traditional
modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious
practices of the servile race. The serf, the <i>&#346;&#363;dra</i>, was not to
worship the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the
system of four castes (<i>var&#7751;a</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;colour&rdquo;; or <i>j&#257;ti</i>, &ldquo;gens&rdquo;).
Though the Brahman, who by this time had firmly secured his
supremacy over the <i>kshatriya</i>, or noble, in matters spiritual
as well as in legislative and administrative functions, would
naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the social
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper
classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary
privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing,
indeed, is more remarkable in the whole development of the
caste-system than the jealous pride which every caste, from the
highest to the lowest, takes in its own peculiar occupation and
sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a member of the three
upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread (<i>s&#363;tra</i>)&mdash;made
of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective caste&mdash;with
which he was invested at the <i>upanayana</i> ceremony, or
initiation into the use of the sacred <i>s&#257;vitri</i>, or prayer to the sun
(also called <i>g&#257;yatr&#299;</i>), constituting his second birth. Whilst the
Arya was thus a <i>dvi-ja</i>, or twice-born, the Sudra remained
unregenerate during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope
that, on the faithful performance of his duties in this life, he
might hereafter be born again into a higher grade of life. In
later times, the strict adherence to caste duties would naturally
receive considerable support from the belief in the transmigration
of souls, already prevalent before Buddha&rsquo;s time, and from the
very general acceptance of the doctrine of <i>karma</i> (&ldquo;deed&rdquo;),
or retribution, according to which a man&rsquo;s present station and
manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his actions and
thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will again,
by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his
status and condition in his next existence. Though this
doctrine is especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its
designation as a specific term (Pali, <i>Kamma</i>) may be due to
that creed, the notion itself was doubtless already prevalent in
pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to be necessarily and
naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in metempsychosis;
whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul, the
theory of the net result or fruit of a man&rsquo;s actions serving hereafter
to form or condition the existence of some new individual
who will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a
peculiarly artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it
may, &ldquo;the doctrine of <i>karma</i> is certainly one of the firmest
beliefs of all classes of Hindus, and the fear that a man shall
reap as he has sown is an appreciable element in the average
morality ... the idea of forgiveness is absolutely wanting;
evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious deeds so
far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is not
effaced, and must be atoned for&rdquo; (<i>Census Report</i>, i. 364).</p>

<p>In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the
intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems
to have proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity
of women of the Aryan stock would probably render these
mixed unions almost a necessity from the very outset; and the
vaunted purity of blood which the caste rules were calculated
to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more than a
relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain
it is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively
early period; and at the time of Buddha&mdash;some
five or six centuries before the Christian era&mdash;the social
organization would seem to have presented an appearance
not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be confessed,
however, that our information regarding the development
of the caste-system is far from complete, especially in
its earlier stages. Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture
on the important point as to the original social organization
of the subject race. Though doubtless divided into different
tribes scattered over an extensive tract of land, the subjected
aborigines were slumped together under the designation of
Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in all the
various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright
sordid and degrading character which it was left to <i>vratyas</i> or
outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts
and habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was
the process one of spontaneous growth adapting an already
existing social organization to a new order of things; or was
it originated and perpetuated by regulation from above? Or
was it rather that the status and duties of existing offices and
trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some
such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code
succeeded for a time in organizing the Roman society in the
5th century of our era? &ldquo;It is well known&rdquo; (says Professor
Dill) &ldquo;that the tendency of the later Empire was to stereotype
society, by compelling men to follow the occupation of their
fathers, and preventing a free circulation among different
callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain
from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made
it into loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs
from Samnium, Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine
and oil, the men who fed the furnaces of the public baths, were
bound to their callings from one generation to another. It was
the principle of rural serfdom applied to social functions. Every
avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to his calling
not only by his father&rsquo;s but also by his mother&rsquo;s condition.
Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the
daughter of one of the baker caste married a man not belonging
to it, her husband was bound to her father&rsquo;s calling. Not even
a dispensation obtained by some means from the imperial
chancery, not even the power of the Church could avail to break
the chain of servitude.&rdquo; It can hardly be gainsaid that these
artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those
of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were
comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps
so much that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less
congenial to its permanent growth, but because it was not
allowed sufficient time to become firmly rooted; for already
great political events were impending which within a few decades
were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In India, on the other
hand, the institution of caste&mdash;even if artificially contrived
and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler&mdash;had at least
ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social
habits, and even in the affections, of the people. At the same
time, one could more easily understand how such a system
could have found general acceptance all over the Dravidian
region of southern India, with its merest sprinkling of Aryan
blood, if it were possible to assume that class arrangements
of a similar kind must have already been prevalent amongst
the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether
a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs
of those rude tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively
free from Hindu influences may yet throw some
light on this question, remains to be seen. But, by this as it
may, the institution of caste, when once established, certainly
appears to have gone on steadily developing; and not even the
long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising
resistance to the Brahman&rsquo;s claim to being the sole arbiter
in matters of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable
retardant effect upon the progress of the movement. It was not
only by the formation of ever new endogamous castes and
sub-castes that the system gained in extent and intricacy, but
even more so by the constant subdivision of the castes into
numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often involving
gradations of social status important enough to seriously affect
the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various
other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or
daughter had to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but
within his caste. But whilst for his son he might choose a wife
from a lower sept than his own, for his daughter, on the other
hand, the law of hypergamy compelled him, if at all possible,
to find a husband in a higher sept. This would naturally lead
to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and would
render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably
married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom
and incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly
be doubted that this custom has been largely responsible for
the crime of female infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India;
as it also probably is to some extent for infant marriages, still
too common in some parts of India, especially Bengal; and
even for the all but universal repugnance to the re-marriage
of widows, even when these had been married in early childhood
and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept,
and are liable&mdash;in accordance with the general custom in which
communal matters are regulated in India&mdash;to be brought before
a special council (<i>panch&#257;yat</i>), originally consisting of five (<i>pancha</i>),
but now no longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly
the greater or less strictness in the observance of caste rules and
the orthodox ceremonial generally that determine the status
of the sept in the social scale of the caste. Whilst community
of occupation was an important factor in the original formation
of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of life have led to
considerable laxity in this respect&mdash;not least so in the case of
Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would
seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions
of their caste. Thus, &ldquo;the prejudice against eating cooked food
that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong
that, although the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food
cooked by a Kshatriya or Vai&#347;ya, yet the Brahmans, in most
parts of the country, would not eat such food. For these reasons,
every Hindu household&mdash;whether Brahman, Kshatriya or Sudra&mdash;that
can afford to keep a paid cook generally entertains the
services of a Brahman for the performance of its <i>cuisine</i>&mdash;the
result being that in the larger towns the very name of Brahman
has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a
cook&rdquo; (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, <i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i>).
In this caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds
of occupation to which a member could not turn for a livelihood
without incurring serious defilement. In fact, adherence to
the traditional ceremonial and respectability of occupation
go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst agricultural castes,
those engaged in vegetable-growing or market-gardening are
inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as the Jat and
Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage
ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition
of ceremonial orthodoxy&mdash;though racially there seems little,
if any, difference between the two; and the Rajput, again, is
looked down upon by the Babhan of Behar because he does not,
like himself, scruple to handle the plough, instead of invariably
employing low-caste men for this manual labour. So also
when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of Bengal,
ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure,
&ldquo;they will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any
form of manual labour, and thus necessarily carry on their
cultivation by means of hired servants&rdquo; (H. H. Risley, <i>Census
Report</i>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public
opinion is concisely reviewed (<i>ib.</i>) as revealing itself &ldquo;in the facts
that particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives
of one or other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system;
that Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans
of high standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes,
though not served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got
Brahmans of their own whose rank varies according to circumstances;
that certain castes are not served by Brahmans at all but have
priests of their own; that the status of certain castes has been
raised by their taking to infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage
of widows; that the status of others has been modified
by their pursuing some occupations in a special or peculiar way;
that some can claim the services of the village barber, the village
palanquin-bearer, the village midwife, &amp;c., while others cannot;
that some castes may not enter the courtyards of certain temples;
that some castes are subject to special taboos, such as that they
must not use the village well, or may draw water only with their
own vessels, that they must live outside the village or in a separate
quarter, that they must leave the road on the approach of a high-caste
man and must call out to give warning of their approach.&rdquo; ...
&ldquo;The first point to observe is the predominance throughout India
of the influence of the traditional system of four original castes.
In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the list. Then
come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern
representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the
mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vai&#347;yas. When we
leave the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a
uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient
designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we
can point to no group that is generally recognized as representing
it. The term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote
a considerable number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher
of whom are considered &lsquo;clean&rsquo; Sudras, while the precise status
of the lower is a question which lends itself to endless controversy.&rdquo;
... In northern and north-western India, on the other hand,
&ldquo;the grade next below the twice-born rank is occupied by a number
of castes from whose hands Brahmans and members of the higher
castes will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats. Below
these again is rather an indeterminate group from whom water is
taken by some of the higher castes, not by others. Further down,
where the test of water no longer applies, the status of the caste
depends on the nature of its occupation and its habits in respect of
diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the twice-born, but who
do not commit the crowning enormity of eating beef.... In
western and southern India the idea that the social state of a
caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats
from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule
take water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste.
In Madras especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity
of an unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration.
Thus the table of social precedence attached to the Cochin report
shows that while a Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only
by touching him, people of the Kammalan group, including masons,
blacksmiths, carpenters and workers in leather, pollute at a distance
of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at 36 ft., Pulayan or Cheruman cultivators
at 48 ft., while in the case of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef
the range of pollution is no less than 64 ft.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions,
the Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the
dominant position, being respected and even worshipped by all
the others. &ldquo;The more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration
for the priestly class to such a degree that they will not cross
the shadow of a Brahman, and it is not unusual for them to be
under a vow not to eat any food in the morning, before drinking
<i>Bipracharanamrita</i>, <i>i.e.</i> water in which the toe of a Brahman
has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the Brahmans
is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods
worshipped in a Sudra&rsquo;s house by Brahman priests&rdquo; (Jog.
Nath Bh.). There are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans
who, for various reasons, have become degraded from their high
station, and formed separate castes with whom respectable
Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief amongst
these are the Brahmans who minister for &ldquo;unclean&rdquo; Sudras
and lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous
liquors; as well as those who officiate at the great public shrines
or places of pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept
forbidden gifts, and, as a matter of fact, often amass considerable
wealth; and those who officiate as paid priests at cremations and
funeral rites, when the wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased
are not unfrequently claimed by them as their perquisites.</p>

<p>As regards the other two &ldquo;twice-born&rdquo; castes, several
modern groups do indeed claim to be their direct descendants,
and in vindication of their title make it a point to perform the
<i>upanayana</i> ceremony and to wear the sacred thread. But
though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in the reasonableness
of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of policy
that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two
higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged
by miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical
Sanskrit literature, the term <i>dvija</i>, or twice-born, is used simply
as a synonym for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups
included under the term of Sudras, the distinction between
&ldquo;clean&rdquo; and &ldquo;unclean&rdquo; Sudras is of especial importance for
the upper classes, inasmuch as only the former&mdash;of whom nine
distinct castes are usually recognized&mdash;are as a rule considered
fit for employment in household service.</p>

<p>The picture thus presented by Hindu society&mdash;as made up of a
confused congeries of social groups of the most varied standing,
each held together and kept separate from others
by a traditional body of ceremonial rules and by the
<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span>
notion of social gradations being due to a divinely
instituted order of things&mdash;finds something like a counterpart
in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also
in the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types
represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there,
we meet with the same failure of welding the confused mass
into a well-ordered whole. In their theory of a triple manifestation
of an impersonal deity, the Brahmanical theologians, as
we have seen, had indeed elaborated a doctrine which might
have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative creed for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions;
yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of
a comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the
sacerdotal class themselves had made its universal acceptance
an impossibility, seeing that their laws, by which the relations
of the classes were to be regulated, aimed at permanently excluding
the entire body of aboriginal tribes from the religious
life of their Aryan masters. They were to be left for all time
coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and practices.
However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be
permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even
prior to the definite establishment of the caste-system, the
mingling of the lower race with the upper classes, especially
with the aristocratic landowners and still more so with the
yeomanry, had probably been going on to such an extent as to
have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate types of
colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to have
facilitated the ultimate division into four &ldquo;colours&rdquo; (<i>varna</i>).
In course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen,
assumed such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride
of blood, felt naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only
two &ldquo;colours,&rdquo; the Aryan Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra.
Under these conditions the religious practices of the lower race
could hardly have failed in the long run to tell seriously upon the
spiritual life of the lay body of the Brahmanical community.
To what extent this may have been the case, our limited knowledge
of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the people
does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the
same process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually
draw the lower race more or less under the influence of the Brahmanical
forms of worship, and thus contributed towards the
shaping of the religious system of modern Hinduism. The
grossly idolatrous practices, however, still so largely prevalent
in the Dravidian South, show how superficial, after all, that
influence has been in those parts of India where the admixture
of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had no
effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-day
practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them,
help at all events to explain the aversion with which the strange
rites of the subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers
of the Vedic pantheon. At the same time, in judging the apparently
inhuman way in which the Sudras were treated in the
caste rules, one has always to bear in mind the fact that the
belief in metempsychosis was already universal at the time, and
seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the apparent
injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good things
in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from
the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion
in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation
and his union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in
his case as in that of any other sentient being. What it did make
impossible for him was to attain that union immediately on the
cessation of his present life, as he would first have to pass through
higher and purer stages of mundane existence before reaching
that goal; but in this respect he only shared the lot of all but
a very few of the saintliest in the higher spheres of life, since
the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink, after his present
life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra.</p>

<p>To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the
Aryan classes underwent in post-Vedic times, may have been
due to aboriginal influences is a question not easily answered,
though the later creeds offer only too many features in which
one might feel inclined to suspect influences of that kind. The
literary documents, both in Sanskrit and Pali, dating from about
the time of Buddha onwards&mdash;particularly the two epic poems,
the <i>Mahabharata</i> and <i>Ramayana</i>&mdash;still show us in the main the
<i>personnel</i> of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has
changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost
purely mythological figures. A number of the chief gods,
sometimes four, but generally eight of them, now appear as
<i>lokapalas</i> or world-guardians, having definite quarters or
intermediate quarters of the compass assigned to them as their
special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god of wealth, is
a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual and
ethical of Vedic deities&mdash;the king of the gods and the universe;
the nightly, star-spangled firmament&mdash;has become the Indian
Neptune, the god of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a
kind of superior raja, residing in <i>svarga</i>, and as such is on visiting
terms with earthly kings, driving about in mid-air with his
charioteer Matali. As might happen to any earth-lord, Indra
is actually defeated in battle by the son of the demon-king
of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till ransomed
by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror.
A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is
Hanuman, the deified chief of monkeys&mdash;probably meant to
represent the aboriginal tribes of southern India&mdash;whose wonderful
exploits as Rama&rsquo;s ally on the expedition to Lanka Indian
audiences will never weary of hearing recounted. The Gandharvas
figure already in the Veda, either as a single divinity,
or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma
and as connected with the moon. In the later Vedic times
they are represented as being fond of, and dangerous to, women;
the Apsaras, apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely
associated with them. In the heroic age the Gandharvas have
become the heavenly minstrels plying their art at Indra&rsquo;s court,
with the Apsaras as their wives or mistresses. These fair
damsels play, however, yet another part, and one far from
complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics considerable
merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic practices
by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring
supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods&mdash;a
notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic
conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their
own ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed
to employ the usually successful expedient of despatching
some lovely nymph to lure the saintly men back to worldly
pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems, as repeated by professional
reciters, either in their original Sanskrit text, or in their
vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions based
on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual enjoyment
for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these
heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear,
still enters largely into the religious convictions of the people.
&ldquo;These popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into
Gujarati in easy, flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand,
the sweetest of our bards. They are read out by an intelligent
Brahman to a mixed audience of all classes and both sexes.
It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu character. I believe
the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to be seen in
most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious habits,
can be traced to that influence; and little wonder&rdquo; (B. M.
Malabari, <i>Gujarat and the Gujaratis</i>). Hence also the universal
reverence paid to serpents (<i>naga</i>) since those early days; though
whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired
by the insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the
verbal coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-Aryan
tribe of Nagas had something to do with it must remain
doubtful. Indian myth represents them as a race of demons
sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage Kasyapa, with a jewel
in their heads which gives them their sparkling look; and
inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth
(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs
or kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters
often entering into matrimonial alliances with men, like the
mermaids of western legend.</p>

<p>In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we
meet in the religious life of this period with an element of more
serious aspect in the two gods, on one or other of whom the
religious fervour of the large majority of Hindus has ever since
concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and Siva. Both these divine
figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions&mdash;the genial Vishnu
mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same name;
whilst the stern Siva, <i>i.e.</i> the kind or gracious one&mdash;doubtless
a euphemistic name&mdash;has his prototype in the old fierce
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span>
storm-god Rudra, the &ldquo;Roarer,&rdquo; with certain additional features
derived from other deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of
flocks and bestower of prosperity, worked up therewith. The
exact process of the evolution of the two deities and their advance
in popular favour are still somewhat obscure. In the epic poems
which may be assumed to have taken their final shape in the
early centuries before and after the Christian era, their popular
character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in the
Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult
is likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early
centuries of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the
Trimurti does not by any means exclude a certain rivalry between
them; but, on the contrary, a supreme position as the true
embodiment of the Divine Spirit is claimed for each of them
by their respective votaries, without, however, an honourable,
if subordinate, place being refused to the rival deity, wherever
the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not actually represented
as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst
at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the
adoration of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the
people did not fail to extend the pantheon by groups of new
deities in connexion with them. Two of such new gods actually
pass as the sons of Siva and his consort Parvati, viz. Skanda&mdash;also
called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or Subrahmanya
(in the south)&mdash;the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and
Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva&rsquo;s troupes of attendants, being
at the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of
wisdom; whilst a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the
god of love, gets his popular epithet of Ananga, &ldquo;the bodiless,&rdquo;
from his having once, in frolicsome play, tried the power of his
arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere practices, when
a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the angry god
reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief attendant,
the great god (Mahadeva, Mahe&#347;vara) has already with him
the &ldquo;holy&rdquo; Nandi&mdash;presumably, though his shape is not
specified, identical in form as in name with Siva&rsquo;s sacred bull
of later times, the appropriate symbol of the god&rsquo;s reproductive
power. But, in this <span class="correction" title="amended from repect">respect</span>, we also meet in the epics with the
first clear evidence of what in after time became the prominent
feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over
India, viz. the feature represented by the <i>linga</i>, or phallic
symbol.</p>

<p>As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement
to the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the
entire framework of legendary matter on which the later Vaishnava
creeds are based. The theory of Avataras which makes
the deity&mdash;also variously called Narayana, Purushottama,
or Vasudeva&mdash;periodically assume some material form in order
to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully developed;
the ten universally recognized &ldquo;descents&rdquo; being enumerated
in the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms,
the incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnavism;
and the fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana
(Rama), and one of the prominent warriors of the Mahabharata
(Krishna) become in this way identified with the supreme god,
and remain to this day the chief objects of the adoration of
Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to these creeds a human
interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly wanting in
the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too true
that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed
features of a highly objectionable character.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of
the Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous
practices, this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and
spirits indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with
the pantheistic doctrine of the <i>Ekam Advitiyam</i>, &ldquo;the One without
a Second&rdquo;? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little
difficulty in answering that question. For him there is only the
One Absolute Being, the one reality that is all in all; whilst all the
phenomenal existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses
are nothing more than an illusion of the individual soul estranged
for a time from its divine source&mdash;an illusion only to be dispelled
in the end by the soul&rsquo;s fuller knowledge of its own true nature
and its being one with the eternal fountain of blissful being. But
to the man of ordinary understanding, unused to the rarefied atmosphere
of abstract thought, this conception of a transcendental,
impersonal Spirit and the unreality of the phenomenal world can
have no meaning: what he requires is a deity that stands in intimate
relation to things material and to all that affects man&rsquo;s life. Hence
the exoteric theory of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and
that not only the manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing
the cardinal processes of mundane existence&mdash;creation,
preservation, and destruction or regeneration&mdash;but even such as
would tend to supply a rational explanation for superstitious
imaginings of every kind. For &ldquo;the Indian philosophy does not
ignore or hold aloof from the religion of the masses: it underlies,
supports and interprets their polytheism. This may be accounted
the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which accepts and even
encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining everything by
giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships as outward,
visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to show how each
particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of universal
divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore natural
objects and forces&mdash;a mountain, a river or an animal. The Brahman
holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling, divine
energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes
man&rsquo;s understanding&rdquo; (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, <i>Brahminism</i>).</p>
</div>

<p>During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where
countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by
the side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu
gods seems to have made steady progress. The caste-system,
<span class="sidenote">Sectarianism.</span>
always calculated to favour unity of religious
practice within its social groups, must naturally have contributed
to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the support
it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works
of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial character,
mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which
eighteen principal (<i>maha-purana</i>) and as many secondary ones
(<i>upa-purana</i>) are recognized, the oldest of which may go back
to about the 4th century of our era. It was probably also
during this period that the female element was first definitely
admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine objects of
sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal gods
viewed as their <i>sakti</i>, or female energy, theoretically identified
with the <i>Maya</i>, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta,
and the <i>Prakriti</i>, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya
philosophy, as the primary source of mundane things. The
connubial relations of the deities may thus be considered &ldquo;to
typify the mystical union of the two eternal principles, spirit
and matter, for the production and reproduction of the universe.&rdquo;
But whilst this privilege of divine worship was claimed for
the consorts of all the gods, it is principally to Siva&rsquo;s consort,
in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration on an
extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries,
the <i>Saktas</i>.</p>

<p>In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an attempt was
made, about the latter part of the 8th century, by the distinguished
Malabar theologian and philosopher Sankara
Acharya to restore the Brahmanical creed to
<span class="sidenote">Sankara.</span>
something like its pristine purity, and thus once more
to bring about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief.
Though himself, like most Brahmans, apparently by predilection
a follower of Siva, his aim was the revival of the doctrine of the
Brahma as the one self-existent Being and the sole cause of
the universe; coupled with the recognition of the practical
worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods of the
Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical
result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the
<i>Smartas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> adherents of the <i>smriti</i> or tradition, which has a
numerous following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst
professing Sankara&rsquo;s doctrines, is usually classed as one of the
Saiva sects, its members adopting the horizontal sectarial
mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in their case of a triple line,
the <i>tripundra</i>, prepared from the ashes of burnt cow-dung and
painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four Maths,
or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri
in Mysore, the spiritual head (<i>Guru</i>) of which wields considerable
power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of
southern India. In northern India, the professed followers of
Sankara are mainly limited to certain classes of mendicants
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
and ascetics, although the tenets of this great Vedanta teacher
may be said virtually to constitute the creed of intelligent
Brahmans generally.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Whilst Sankara&rsquo;s chief title to fame rests on his philosophical
works, as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he
doubtless played an important part in the partial remodelling of
the Hindu system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly
losing ground in India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists
ever having been actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less
of Sankara himself ever having done so; but the traditional belief
in some personal god, as the principal representative of an invisible,
all-pervading deity, would doubtless appeal more directly to the
minds and hearts of the people than the colourless ethical system
promulgated by the Sakya saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship
appear as a rule to have been destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but
they seem rather to have been taken over by them for their own
religious uses; at any rate there are to this day not a few Hindu
shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to Dharmaraj, &ldquo;the prince
of righteousness,&rdquo; as the Buddha is commonly styled. That the
tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as Buddhism, so
long prevalent in India, cannot but have left their marks on Hindu
life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so easy
to lay one&rsquo;s finger on the precise features that might seem to betray
such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals,
based on the principle of <i>ahimsa</i>, or inflicting no injury on sentient
beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have
made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that sentiments
of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of Manu.
Thus, in v. 46-48, &ldquo;He who does not willingly cause the pain of
confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all,
obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without
effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his
mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals,
and the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss:
from flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain.&rdquo; Moreover, in view
of the fact that Jainism, which originated about the same time as
Buddhism, inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant
degree, it seems by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness
towards living beings generally was already widely diffused among
the people when these new doctrines were promulgated. To the
same tendency doubtless is due the gradual decline and ultimate
discontinuance of animal sacrifices by all sects except the extreme
branch of Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown
to serpents and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a somewhat
different light, as having a mythical background; whilst quite
a special significance attaches to the sacred character assigned to
the cow by all classes of Hindus, even those who are not prepared
to admit the claim of the Brahman to the exalted position of the
earthly god usually conceded to him. In the Veda no tendency
shows itself as yet towards rendering divine honour to the cow;
and though the importance assigned her in an agricultural community
is easily understood, still the exact process of her deification
and her identification with the mother earth in the time of Manu
and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized type of
the useful quadruped&mdash;likewise often identified with the earth&mdash;presents
itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or &ldquo;wish-cow&rdquo;
(Kamadhenu, or Kamadugha, <i>i.e.</i> wish-milker), already appearing
in the Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified
with Surabhi, &ldquo;the fragrant,&rdquo; the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha.
Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna&mdash;his being reared at
Gokula (cow-station); his tender relations to the <i>gopis</i>, or cow-herdesses,
of Vrindavana; his epithets <i>Gopala</i>, &ldquo;the cowherd,&rdquo;
and <i>Govinda</i>, &ldquo;cow-finder,&rdquo; actually explained as &ldquo;recoverer of
the earth&rdquo; in the great epic, and the <i>go-loka</i>, or &ldquo;cow-world,&rdquo;
assigned to him as his heavenly abode&mdash;may have some connexion
with the sacred character ascribed to the cow from early times.</p>
</div>

<p>Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years,
the gods Vishnu and Siva, or <i>Hari</i> and <i>Hara</i> as they are also
commonly called&mdash;with their wives, especially that
of the latter god&mdash;have shared between them the
<span class="sidenote">Worship.</span>
practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But, though
the people have thus been divided between two different religious
camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within
reasonable limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning
special allegiance to one of the two gods as his <i>ish&#7789;&#257; devat&#257;</i>
(favourite deity), will not withhold his tribute of adoration from
the other gods of the pantheon. The high-caste Brahman will
probably keep at his home a &#347;&#257;lagr&#257;m stone, the favourite
symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of Siva
and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the morning;
and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will
not fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava
shrines there. Indeed, &ldquo;sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness
are to be found chiefly among the professional leaders of the
modern brotherhoods and their low-caste followers, who are
taught to believe that theirs are the only true gods, and that the
rest do not deserve any reverence whatever&rdquo; (Jog. Nath).
The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the celebration of
the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of these&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>
the <i>Sankranti</i> (called <i>Pongal</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;boiled rice,&rdquo; in the south),
which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn
and the beginning of its northward course (<i>uttar&#257;yana</i>) on the
1st day of the month M&#257;gha (c. Jan. 12); the <i>Ga&#7751;e&#347;a-caturth&#299;</i>,
or 4th day of the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September),
considered the birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the
<i>Holi</i>, the Indian Saturnalia in the month of Ph&#257;lgun&#7681; (February
to March)&mdash;have nothing of a sectarian tendency about them;
others again, which are of a distinctly sectarian character&mdash;such
as the <i>Krishna-janm&#257;sh&#7789;am&#299;</i>, the birthday of Krishna on
the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of
&#346;r&#257;va&#7751;a (July-August), the <i>Durga-puja</i> and the <i>Dipavali</i>,
or lamp feast, celebrating Krishna&rsquo;s victory over the demon
Narakasura, on the last two days of A&#347;vina (September-October)&mdash;are
likewise observed and heartily joined in by the whole
community irrespective of sect. Widely different, however, as is
the character of the two leading gods are also the modes of
worship practised by their votaries.</p>

<p><i>Siva</i> has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
and his worship is accordingly more widely extended than
that of his rival, especially in southern India. Indeed there is
hardly a village in India which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated
to Siva, and containing the emblem of his reproductive power;
for almost the only form in which the &ldquo;Great God&rdquo; is adored
is the <i>Linga</i>, consisting usually of an upright cylindrical block
of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular perforated
slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however,
to be but little understood by the common people; and, as
H. H. Wilson remarks, &ldquo;notwithstanding the acknowledged
purport of this worship, it is but justice to state that it is unattended
in Upper India by any indecent or indelicate ceremonies,
and it requires a rather lively imagination to trace any
resemblance in its symbols to the objects they are supposed
to represent.&rdquo; In spite, however, of its wide diffusion, and
the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva
has never assumed a really popular character, especially in
northern India, being attended with scarcely any solemnity
or display of emotional spirit. The temple, which usually stands
in the middle of a court, is as a rule a building of very moderate
dimensions, consisting either of a single square chamber, surmounted
by a pyramidal structure, or of a chamber for the
linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having first circumambulated
the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at his
right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and
presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating
priest receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts
his hands&mdash;joined so as to leave a hollow space between the
palms&mdash;to his forehead, muttering a short prayer, and takes
his departure. Amongst the many thousands of Lingas, twelve
are usually regarded as of especial sanctity, one of which, that
of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is worshipped as &ldquo;the lord
of Soma,&rdquo; was, however, shattered by Mahmud of Ghazni;
whilst another, representing Siva as <i>Visvesvara</i>, or &ldquo;Lord of the
Universe,&rdquo; is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great
centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the
other hand, single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples
which are supposed to enshrine as many characteristic aspects
(linga) of the god in the form of the five elements, the most
holy of these being the shrine of Chidambaram (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;thought-ether&rdquo;)
in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the ether-linga. According
to Pandit S. M. Natesa (<i>Hindu Feasts, Fasts and Ceremonies</i>),
&ldquo;the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines are
considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
natural bases are the five elements&mdash;earth, water, fire, air
and ether. The apprehension of God in the last of these five
as ether is, according to the Saiva school of philosophy, the
highest form of worship, for it is not the worship of God in a
tangible form, but the worship of what, to ordinary minds, is
vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of a knowledge
of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the
shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is
the case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he
ever asks the priests to show him the God in the temple he is
pointed to an empty space in the holy of holies, which has been
termed the Akasa, or ether-linga.&rdquo; But, however congenial
this refined symbolism may be to the worshipper of a speculative
turn of mind, it is difficult to see how it could ever satisfy the
religious wants of the common man little given to abstract
conceptions of this kind.</p>

<p>From early times, detachment from the world and the practice
of austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly conducive
to a spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a
state of ecstatic communion with the deity. On these
<span class="sidenote">Mendicant orders.</span>
grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for a man
solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last
two of the four stages (<i>&#257;&#347;rama</i>) of his life in such conditions of
renunciation and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect
which has not contributed its share to the element of religious
mendicancy and asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in connexion
with the Siva-cult that these tendencies have been most
extensively cultivated. Indeed, the personality of the stern
God himself exhibits this feature in a very marked degree,
whence the term <i>mah&#257;yog&#299;</i> or &ldquo;great ascetic&rdquo; is often applied
to him.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are
considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following
may be mentioned: (1) <i>Da&#7751;&#7693;&#299;s</i>, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand
with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it,
and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They
worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the &ldquo;terrible.&rdquo; A sub-section
of this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so
called from their assuming one of the names of Sankara&rsquo;s four
disciples, and six of their pupils. (2) <i>Yogis</i> (or popularly, Jogis),
<i>i.e.</i> adherents of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic
practices enjoined by it with the view of mental abstraction and the
supposed attainment of superhuman powers&mdash;practices which,
when not merely pretended, but rigidly carried out, are only too
apt to produce vacuity of mind and wild fits of frenzy. In these
degenerate days their supernatural powers consist chiefly in conjuring,
sooth-saying, and feats of jugglery, by which they seldom
fail in imposing upon a credulous public. (3) <i>Sannyasis</i>, devotees
who &ldquo;renounce&rdquo; earthly concerns, an order not confined either
to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva persuasion. Those of the
latter are in the habit of smearing their bodies with ashes, and
wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary of <i>rudraksha</i> berries
(Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. &ldquo;Rudra&rsquo;s eye&rdquo;), sacred to Siva, and
allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted and filthy. (4)
<i>Parama-hamsas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;supreme geese (or swans),&rdquo; a term applied to
the world-soul with which they claim to be identical. This is the
highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed to be
solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be &ldquo;equally
indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and incapable
of satiety or want.&rdquo; Some of them go about naked, but
the majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) <i>Aghora Panthis</i>, a vile
and disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their
filthy habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding,
even to the extent of eating offal and dead men&rsquo;s flesh, look almost
like a direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial
purity and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and
manner of eating and drinking; and they certainly make them
objects of loathing and terror wherever they are seen.</p>

<p>On the general effect of the manner of life led by <i>Sadhus</i> or &ldquo;holy
men,&rdquo; a recent observer (J. C. Oman, <i>Mystics, Ascetics and Saints
of India</i>, p. 273) remarks: &ldquo;<i>Sadhuism</i>, whether perpetuating the
peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of
far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testimony
to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the
world as a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion
with the Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before
men&rsquo;s eyes, as the highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and
contempt of the world and human affairs. It has also necessarily
maintained amongst the laity a sense of the righteous claims of
the poor upon the charity of the more affluent members of the
community. Moreover, <i>sadhuism</i>, by the multiplicity of the independent
sects which have arisen in India, has engendered and
favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot escape the notice of the
most superficial observer.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly
Saiva sect, are the <i>V&#299;ra &#346;aivas</i>, more commonly called <i>Lingayats</i>
(popularly Lingaits) or <i>Lingavats</i>, from their
practice of wearing on their person a phallic emblem
<span class="sidenote">Lingayats.</span>
of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed
in a case suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from
the movable nature of their badge, their <i>Gurus</i> are called <i>Jangamas</i>
(&ldquo;movable&rdquo;). This sect counts numerous adherents in
southern India; the Census Report of 1901 recording nearly
a million and a half, including some 70 or 80 different, mostly
endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather reformer,
of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum
district who seems to have lived in the 11th or 12th century.
According to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his
caste and went to reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the
Chalukya kingdom, and later on at Sangamesvara near Ratnagiri,
where he was initiated into the V&#299;ra &#346;aiva faith which he
subsequently made it his life&rsquo;s work to propagate. His doctrine,
which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against the
severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of
the southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples
there being adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries
are only occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants,
leading about a neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva&rsquo;s
sacred bull <i>Nandi</i>. Though the Lingayats still show a certain
animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are
accordingly <span class="correction" title="amended from classes">classed</span> as an independent group beside the Hindus,
still they can hardly be excluded from the Hindu community,
and are sure sooner or later to find their way back to the
Brahmanical fold.</p>

<p>Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival,
has from early times proved to the lay mind a more attractive
object of adoration on account of the genial and,
so to speak, romantic character of his mythical personality.
<span class="sidenote">Avatars.</span>
It is not, however, so much the original figure of the
god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as
the additional elements it has received through the theory of
periodical &ldquo;descents&rdquo; (<i>avat&#257;ra</i>) or incarnations applied to this
deity. Whilst the Saiva philosophers do not approve of the
notion of incarnations, as being derogatory to the dignity of
the deity, the Brahmans have nevertheless thought fit to adopt
it as apparently a convenient expedient for bringing certain
tendencies of popular worship within the pale of their system,
and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist doctrines;
and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as
the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether
the incarnation theory started from the original solar nature
of the god suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or
in what other way it may have originated, must remain doubtful.
Certain, however, it is that at least one of his Avatars is clearly
based on the Vedic conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the
dwarf who claims as much ground as he can cover by three steps,
and then gains the whole universe by his three mighty strides.
Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by different authorities,
only two have entered to any considerable extent into the
religious worship of the people, viz. those of <i>Rama</i> (or Ramachandra)
and <i>Krishna</i>, the favourite heroes of epic romance.
That these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the
hearts and feelings of the people, especially the warlike Kshatriyas,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
than the austere Siva is only what might have been
expected; and, indeed, since the time of the epics their cult
seems never to have lacked numerous adherents. But, on the
other hand, the essentially human nature of these two gods
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations
between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the
modes and forms of adoration features of a more popular and
more human kind. And accordingly it is exactly in connexion
with these two incarnations of Vishnu, especially that of Krishna,
that a new spirit was infused into the religious life of the people
by the sentiment of fervent devotion to the deity, as it found
expression in certain portions of the epic poems, especially the
<i>Bhagavadgita</i>, and in the <i>Bhagavata-purana</i> (as against the more
orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the Vishnu-purana),
and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith
in the <i>Sandilya-sutra</i>, and ultimately translated into practice
by the Vaishnava reformers.</p>

<p>The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara&rsquo;s
reconstructed creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman
of the 12th century. His followers, the Ramanujas,
or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called, worship
<span class="sidenote">Ramanujas.</span>
Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi
(the goddess of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama
with Sita and Krishna with Rukmini. Ramanuja&rsquo;s doctrine,
which is especially directed against the Linga-worship, is essentially
based on the tenets of an old Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas
or Pancharatras, who worshipped the Supreme Being under
the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with Krishna,
as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars
with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial
mark of the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of
another division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana,
between the hair and the root of the nose, with a red
or yellow vertical stroke (representing the female element)
between the two white lines. They also usually wear, like all
Vaishnavas, a necklace of <i>tulas&#299;</i>, or basil wood, and a rosary of
seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their most important
shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly, Mailkote
in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar
coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with
Vishnu&rsquo;s emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The
Ramanuja Brahmans are most punctilious in the preparation
of their food and in regard to the privacy of their meals, before
taking which they have to bathe and put on woollen or silk
garments. Whilst Sankara&rsquo;s mendicant followers were prohibited
to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity
of Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only
allowed his followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating
any food cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative
side, Ramanuja also met Sankara&rsquo;s strictly monistic theory
by another recognizing Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the
Supreme Spirit animating the material world as well as the
individual souls which have become estranged from God through
unbelief, and can only attain again conscious union with him
through devotion or love (<i>bhakti</i>). His tenets are expounded
in various works, especially in his commentaries on the Vedanta-sutras
and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja
have split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas
as their chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets
on the Nalayir, a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point
of doctrine, they differ in their view of the relation between
God Vishnu and the human soul; whilst the former sect define
it by the <i>ape</i> theory, which makes the soul cling to God as the
young ape does to its mother, the latter explain it by the cat
theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues the souls
as the mother cat does her young ones.</p>

<p><i>Madhva Acharya</i>, another distinguished Vedanta teacher
and founder of a Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1199,
was less intolerant of the Linga cult than Ramanuja,
but seems rather to have aimed at a reconciliation of
<span class="sidenote">Madhvas.</span>
the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The <i>Madhvas</i>
or <i>Madhvacharis</i> favour Krishna and his consort as their special
objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their
son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in
some of their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi
in South Kanara, with eight monasteries connected with it.
This shrine contains an image of Krishna which is said to have
been rescued from the wreck of a ship which brought it from
Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up of old by
no other than Krishna&rsquo;s friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava
princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with
in Upper India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-Vaishnavas,
except that their central line is black instead of
red or yellow. Madhva&mdash;who after his initiation assumed
the name Anandatirtha&mdash;composed numerous Sanskrit works,
including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (<i>i.e.</i> the Vedanta
aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads.
His philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating distinctness
of nature for the divine and the human soul, and
hence independent existence, instead of absorption, after the
completion of mundane existence.</p>

<p>The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a
numerous northern sect of similar tenets to those of the Ramanujas.
Indeed its founder, Ramananda, who probably
flourished in the latter part of the 14th century,
<span class="sidenote">Ramats.</span>
according to the traditional account, was originally a Sri-Vaishnava
monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity
in observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations,
and been ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals
apart from his brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set
up a schismatic math of his own at Benares. The sectarial
mark of his sect differs but slightly from that of the parent stock.
The distinctive features of their creed consist in their making
Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the chief objects of
their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and their attaching
little or no importance to the observance of privacy in the
cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members,
usually known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect,
drawn from all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder&rsquo;s
twelve chief disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver,
a currier, a Rajput, a Jat and a barber&mdash;for, they argue, seeing
that Bhagavan, the Holy One (Vishnu), became incarnate even
in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may be born even in the
lowest of castes. Ramananda&rsquo;s teaching was thus of a distinctly
levelling and popular character; and, in accordance therewith,
the Bhakta-mal&#257; and other authoritative writings of the sect
are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A
follower of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the
composer of the beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and
other works which &ldquo;exercise more influence upon the great
body of Hindu population than the whole voluminous series
of Sanskrit composition&rdquo; (H. H. Wilson).</p>

<p>The traditional list of Ramananda&rsquo;s immediate disciples
includes the name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man
who would accordingly have lived in the latter part
of the 15th century, and who is claimed by both Hindus
<span class="sidenote">Kabir.</span>
and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story
goes that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda&rsquo;s
teaching, he sought to attach himself to him; and, one day
at Benares, in stepping down the ghat at daybreak to bathe
in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way of the teacher,
the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his foot, uttered
his customary exclamation &ldquo;Ram Ram,&rdquo; which, being also
the initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such,
making him Ramananda&rsquo;s disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir&rsquo;s
own reformatory activity lay in the direction of a compromise
between the Hindu and the Mahommedan creeds, the religious
practices of both of which he criticized with equal severity.
His followers, the Kabir Panthis (&ldquo;those following Kabir&rsquo;s
path&rdquo;), though neither worshipping the gods of the pantheon,
nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are nevertheless
in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the
Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity,
when they do not rather address their homage, in hymns and
otherwise, to the founder of their creed himself. Whilst very
numerous, particularly amongst the low-caste population, in
western, central and northern India, resident adherents of
Kabir&rsquo;s doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
&ldquo;there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may
not be found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as translated
into the local dialects.&rdquo; The mendicants of this creed,
however, never actually solicit alms; and, indeed, &ldquo;the quaker-like
spirit of the sect, their abhorrence of all violence, their
regard for truth and the inobtrusiveness of their opinions render
them very inoffensive members of the state&rdquo; (H. H. Wilson).
The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly in the form of dialogues,
in numerous Hindi works, composed by his disciples
and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the teacher&rsquo;s
own words.</p>

<p>The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried
on with even greater zeal from the latter part of the 15th century
by one of his followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the
creed of the <i>Nanak Shahis</i> or <i>Sikhs</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> (Sanskr.) <i>sishya</i>, disciples,
whose guru, or teacher, he called himself&mdash;a peaceful
sect at first until, in consequence of Mahommedan persecution,
a martial spirit was infused into it by the tenth, and last, guru,
Govind Shah, changing it into a political organization. Whilst
originally more akin in its principles to the Moslem faith, the sect
seems latterly to have shown tendencies towards drifting back
to the Hindu pale.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Of Ramananda&rsquo;s disciples and successors several others, besides
Kabir, have established schismatic divisions of their own, which
do not, however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The
most important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu
about the year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar,
one section of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service,
whilst the others are either householders or mendicants. The
followers of this creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge,
except a skull-cap; nor do they worship any visible image of any
deity, the repetition (<i>japa</i>) of the name of Rama being the only
kind of adoration practised by them.</p>
</div>

<p>Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their
adoration of Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Ramachandra,
usually associate with these gods their
wives, as their <i>saktis</i>, or female energies, the sexual
<span class="sidenote">Eroticism and Krishna worship.</span>
element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope
to enhance the emotional character of the rites of
worship. In some of the later Vaishnava creeds, on the other
hand, this element is far from being kept within the bounds of
moderation and decency. The favourite object of adoration
with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his mate&mdash;but
not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and
deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded
lord of Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala
Gopala, &ldquo;the cowherd lad,&rdquo; the foster son of the cowherd Nanda
of Gokula, taken up with his amorous sports with the <i>Gopis</i>,
or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana (Brindaban, near Mathura
on the Yamuna), especially his favourite mistress Radha or
Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna has
every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few
allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the
Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and
the Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with
the life of Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions,
especially the Hindi <i>Prem-sagar</i>, or &ldquo;ocean of love,&rdquo; a favourite
romance all over India, and has doubtless helped largely to
popularize the cult of Krishna. Strange to say, however, no
mention is as yet made by any of these works of Krishna&rsquo;s
favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana&mdash;though scarcely
deserving that designation&mdash;that she makes her appearance,
viz. in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna&rsquo;s amours in
Nanda&rsquo;s cow-station are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome
detail; whilst the poet Jayadeva, in the 12th century, made
her love for the gay and inconstant boy the theme of his beautiful,
if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama, <i>Gita-govinda</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in
their worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or
Nimbarka (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the sun of the Nimba tree&rdquo;), a teacher of uncertain
date, said to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently
established himself at Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where
the headquarters of his sect have remained ever since. The Mahant
of their monastery at Dhruva Kshetra near Mathura, who claims
direct descent from Nimbarka, is said to place the foundation of
that establishment as far back as the 5th century&mdash;doubtless an
exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is alleged, and seems by
no means improbable, was really a follower of Nimbarka, this
teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early part of the
12th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be
identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known
to have completed his chief work in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1150. It is worthy of
remark, in this respect, that&mdash;in accordance with Ramanuja&rsquo;s and
Nimbarka&rsquo;s philosophical theories&mdash;Jayadeva&rsquo;s presentation of
Krishna&rsquo;s fickle love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical
sense, as allegorically depicting the human soul&rsquo;s striving, through
love, for reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many
backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their
tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though
several works, ascribed to Nimbarka&mdash;partly of a devotional character
and partly expository of Vedanta topics&mdash;are still extant.
Adherents of this sect are fairly numerous in northern India,
their frontal mark consisting of the usual two perpendicular white
lines, with, however, a circular black spot between them.</p>

<p>Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of
their far larger following, are the two sects founded early in the
16th century by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya.
In the forms of worship favoured by votaries of these creeds the
emotional and erotic elements are allowed yet freer scope than in
those that preceded them; and, as an effective auxiliary to these
tendencies, the use of the vernacular dialects in prayers and hymns
of praise takes an important part in the religious service. The
Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called, from the title of
their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the cow-lords
(<i>gosvamin</i>) residing in Gokula,&rdquo; are very numerous in western and
central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman, after
extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near
Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala.
About the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions
of the Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in
Udaipur (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha (&ldquo;the lord of Sri,&rdquo;
<i>i.e.</i> Vishnu) continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents
of this creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura
at the same time, are located at different places in Rajputana.
Vallabha himself went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he
died. In the doctrine of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic
theory of Sankara is resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous
cult of the deity. For, if the human soul is identical with God, the
practice of austerities must be discarded as directed against God,
and it is rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and
the pleasures of life that man&rsquo;s love for God will best be shown.
The followers of his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy
merchants and bankers, direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lal,
the boyish Krishna of Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously
attended like a revered living person eight times a day&mdash;from its
early rising from its couch up to its retiring to repose at night.
The sectarial mark of the adherents consists of two red perpendicular
lines, meeting in a semicircle at the root of the nose, and having a
round red spot painted between them. Their principal doctrinal
authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as commented upon by Vallabha
himself, who was also the author of several other Sanskrit
works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect, children are
solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of four, and
even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108 beads of
basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are taught
the use of the octo-syllabic formula <i>Sri-Krishnah saranam mama</i>,
&ldquo;Holy Krishna is my refuge.&rdquo; Another special feature of this
sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called Maharajas,
so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and austere
practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow themselves
to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice kinds
of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the
&ldquo;lord of the Gopis&rdquo; himself, they claim and receive in their own
persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even,
it is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final
judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before
the Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these improprieties
were severely commented upon; and though so unsparing
a critic of Indian sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in
actual immoral practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he
admits that &ldquo;the corrupting influence of a religion, that can make
its female votaries address amorous songs to their spiritual guides,
must be very great.&rdquo;</p>

<p>A modern offshoot of Vallabha&rsquo;s creed, formed with the avowed
object of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the
early years of the 19th century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the
Oudh country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami
Narayana. Having entered on his missionary labours at Ahmadabad,
and afterwards removed to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting
with Bishop Heber, he subsequently settled at the village of Wartal,
to the north-west of Baroda, and erected a temple to Lakshmi-Narayana,
which, with another at Ahmadabad, forms the two chief
centres of the sect, each being presided over by a Maharaja. Their
worship is addressed to Narayana, <i>i.e.</i> Vishnu, as the Supreme
Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as to Krishna and Radha.
The sect is said to be gaining ground in Gujarat. Chaitanya, the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
founder of the great Vaishnava sect of Bengal, was the son of a
high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous Bengal seat of Sanskrit
learning, where he was born in 1485, two years after the birth of
Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married in due
time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he lived as
a &ldquo;householder&rdquo; (<i>grihastha</i>) till the age of 24, when he renounced
his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant (<i>vairagin</i>),
visiting during the next six years the principal places of pilgrimage
in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success his
doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the Supreme
Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples the
task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve
years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship of
Vishnu as Jagannatha, or &ldquo;lord of the world,&rdquo; which he remodelled
in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of
Jayadeva to be recited before the images in the morning and evening
as part of the daily service; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava
creeds, seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into
accord with the experience of human love. To this end, music,
dancing, singing-parties (<i>sankirtan</i>), theatricals&mdash;in short anything
calculated to produce the desired impression&mdash;would prove welcome
to him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional
feeling in the <i>Bhaktas</i>, or faithful adherents: viz. (<i>santi</i>)
calm contemplation of the deity; (<i>dasya</i>) active servitude; (<i>sakhya</i>)
friendship or personal regard; (<i>vatsalya</i>) tender affection as between
parents and children; (<i>madhurya</i>) love or passionate attachment,
like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also seems
to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing
scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or &ldquo;car-procession,&rdquo;
in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of
pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother
Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car,
by the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be,
attended by people from all parts of India, without distinction of
caste or sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted
by Chaitanya as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances
are recommended as more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of
worship is a very simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the
constant repetition of names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha,
which of itself is considered sufficient to ensure future bliss. The
partaking of flesh food and spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited.
By the followers of this sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence
is habitually paid to their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chaitanya
himself, as well as his immediate disciples, have come to be
regarded as complete or partial incarnations of the deity to whom
adoration is due, as to Krishna himself; and their modern successors,
the Gosains, share to the fullest extent in the devout attentions
of the worshippers. Chaitanya&rsquo;s movement, being chiefly
directed against the vile practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent
in Bengal, was doubtless prompted by the best and purest of intentions;
but his own doctrine of divine, though all too human,
love was, like that of Vallabha, by no means free from corruptive
tendencies,&mdash;yet, how far these tendencies have worked their way,
who would say? On this point, Dr W. W. Hunter&mdash;who is of
opinion that &ldquo;the death of the reformer marks the beginning of
the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship,&rdquo; observes (<i>Orissa</i>, i. 111),
&ldquo;The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship at the present
day is that which has covered the temple walls with indecent
sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with licentious
rites&rdquo; ... yet ... &ldquo;it is difficult for a person not a Hindu to
pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu
can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest
really knows the truth about their inner mysteries&rdquo;; whilst the
well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out
(<i>Antiquities of Orissa</i>, i. 111) that &ldquo;such as they are, these
sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and
cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers.
As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have
had the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most
secret of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively,
and have had opportunities of judging which no European can
have, and I have no hesitation in saying that, &lsquo;the mystic songs&rsquo;
of Jayadeva and the &lsquo;ocean of love&rsquo; notwithstanding, there is
nothing in the rituals of Jagannatha which can be called licentious.&rdquo;
Whilst in Chaitanya&rsquo;s creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha,
remains at least theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable
step was taken by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance
to the female element, and making Krishna&rsquo;s love for his
mistress the guiding sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it
will suffice to mention that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the
latter part of the 16th century, who worship Krishna as Radha-vallabha,
&ldquo;the darling of Radha.&rdquo; The doctrines and practices
of these sects clearly verge upon those obtaining in the third principal
division of Indian sectarians which will now be considered.</p>
</div>

<p>The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the <i>sakti</i>,
or the female principle as a primary factor in the creation and
reproduction of the universe. And as each of the principal
gods is supposed to have associated with him his own
<span class="sidenote">Saktas</span>
particular <i>sakti</i>, as an indispensable complement enabling
him to properly perform his cosmic functions, adherents of this
persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all
sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but
though Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its
luxuriant growth of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly
favourable to a development in this direction, it is practically
only in connexion with the Saiva system that an independent cult
of the female principle has been developed; whilst in other
sects&mdash;and, indeed, in the ordinary Saiva cult as well&mdash;such
worship, even where it is at all prominent, is combined with, and
subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has made this
cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is doubtless
the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in
addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see,
is likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory
of the god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already
foreshadowed in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst
in the speculative treatises of the later Vedic period, as well
as in the post-Vedic Brahmanical writings, the assumption of
the self-existent being dividing himself into a male and a female
half usually forms the starting-point of cosmic evolution.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In
the later Saiva mythology this theory finds its artistic representation
in Siva&rsquo;s androgynous form of Ardha-narisa, or &ldquo;half-woman-lord,&rdquo;
typifying the union of the male and female energies;
the male half in this form of the deity occupying the right-hand,
and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this
type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into
two distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater
importance to the male or to the female principle; viz. the
<i>Dakshinacharis</i>, or &ldquo;right-hand-observers&rdquo; (also called <i>Dak-shina-margis</i>,
or followers &ldquo;of the right-hand path&rdquo;), and the
<i>Vamacharis</i>, or &ldquo;left-hand-observers&rdquo; (or <i>Vama-margis</i>,
followers &ldquo;of the left path&rdquo;). Though some of the Puranas,
the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely into
Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these
are fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost
invariably composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule,
in answer to questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds
the mysteries of this occult creed.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of
India&mdash;Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its
adherents profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart
from the implied purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode
of adoration does not seem to offer any very objectionable features.
And even amongst the adherents of the left-hand mode of worship,
many of these are said to follow it as a matter of family tradition
rather than of religious conviction, and to practise it in a sober and
temperate manner; whilst only an extreme section&mdash;the so-called
<i>Kaulas</i> or <i>Kulinas</i>, who appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulopanishad,
as the divine authority of their tenets&mdash;persist in carrying
on the mystic and licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras.
But strict secrecy being enjoined in the performance of these rites,
it is not easy to check any statements made on this point. The
Sakta cult is, however, known to be especially prevalent&mdash;though
apparently not in a very extreme form&mdash;amongst members of the
very respectable Kayastha or writer caste of Bengal, and as these
are largely employed as clerks and accountants in Upper India,
there is reason to fear that their vicious practices are gradually
being disseminated through them.</p>
</div>

<p>The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is
Siva&rsquo;s wife&mdash;the <i>Devi</i> (goddess), <i>Mahadevi</i> (great goddess),
or <i>Jagan-mata</i> (mother of the world)&mdash;in one or other of her
numerous forms, benign or terrible. The forms in which she
is worshipped in Bengal are of the latter category, viz. <i>Durga</i>,
&ldquo;the unapproachable,&rdquo; and <i>Kali</i>, &ldquo;the black one,&rdquo; or, as some
take it, the wife of <i>Kala</i>, &ldquo;time,&rdquo; or death the great dissolver,
viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the <i>Durga-puja</i> is celebrated
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
during ten days at the time of the autumnal equinox, in commemoration
of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon
Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding
a weapon in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast
into the water on the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence
the festival itself is commonly called Dasara in western India.
<i>Kali</i>, on the other hand, the most terrible of the goddess&rsquo;s forms,
has a special service performed to her, at the <i>Kali-puja</i>, during
the darkest night of the succeeding month; when she is represented
as a naked black woman, four-armed, wearing a garland
of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of skulls round her
neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala), with
gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be
propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On
other occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices,
usually one or more kids; the head of the victim, which
has to be severed by a single stroke, being always placed in front
of the image of the goddess as a blood-offering (<i>bali</i>), with an
earthen lamp fed with ghee burning above it, whilst the flesh
is cooked and served to the guests attending the ceremony,
except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste musicians
who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this
class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use
certain kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead.
The use of wine, which at one time was very common on these
occasions, seems also to have become much more restricted;
and only members of the extreme section would still seem to
adhere to the practice of the so-called five <i>m&rsquo;s</i> prescribed by
some of the Tantras, viz. <i>mamsa</i> (flesh), <i>matsya</i> (fish), <i>madya</i>
(wine), <i>maithuna</i> (sexual union), and <i>mudra</i> (mystical finger
signs)&mdash;probably the most degrading cult ever practised under
the pretext of religious worship.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory
has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either
special forms and personifications or attendants of the &ldquo;Great
Goddess.&rdquo; They are generally arranged in groups, the most important
of which are the <i>Mahavidyas</i> (great sciences), the 8 (or 9)
<i>Mataras</i> (mothers) or <i>Mahamataras</i> (great mothers), consisting of
the wives of the principal gods; the 8 <i>Nayikas</i> or mistresses; and
different classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called <i>Yoginis</i>, <i>Dakinis</i>
and <i>Sakinis</i>. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure
Vedic <i>mantras</i>, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on
that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition
of superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables
called <i>bija</i> (germ), of magic circles (<i>chakra</i>) and diagrams (<i>yantra</i>),
and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of
fancied mysterious import.</p>
</div>

<p>This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little
the character of their divine objects of worship is calculated to
exert that elevating and spiritualizing influence,
so characteristic of true religious devotion. In all
<span class="sidenote">General conclusions.</span>
but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is
only too apt to degenerate into that very state of
sexual excitation which devotional exercises should surely tend
to repress. If the worship of Siva, despite the purport of
his chief symbol, seems on the whole less liable to produce
these undesirable effects than that of the rival deity, it is doubtless
due partly to the real nature of that emblem being little
realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat
repellent character of the &ldquo;great god,&rdquo; more favourable to
evoking feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion.
All the more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with
the adoration of his consort, calculated to work up the carnal
instincts of the devotees to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy.
In the Vaishnava camp, on the other hand, the cult of Krishna,
and more especially that of the youthful Krishna, can scarcely
fail to exert an influence which, if of a subtler and more insinuating,
is not on that account of a less demoralizing kind.
Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less consonant with
godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this juvenile
god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by
dint of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for
all their refinements take these amusing adventures any the less
<i>au pied de la lettre</i>. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be
found with the legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly
honour and virtue, even as his consort Sita is the very model
of a noble and faithful wife; and yet this cult has perhaps
retained even more of the character of mere hero-worship than
that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted doctrine of
<i>karman</i> (deed) or <i>karmavipaka</i> (&ldquo;the maturing of deeds&rdquo;)
man himself&mdash;either in his present, or some future, existence&mdash;enjoys
the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad
actions, there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a
belief in the remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution.
And accordingly the &ldquo;descents&rdquo; or incarnations of
the deity have for their object, not so much the spiritual regeneration
of man as the deliverance of the world from some material
calamity threatening to overwhelm it. The generally recognized
principal Avatars do not, however, by any means constitute
the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in worldly
affairs, but&mdash;in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the
sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these
luminaries being temporarily swallowed by the dragon <i>Rahu</i>
(or <i>Graha</i>, &ldquo;the seizer&rdquo;)&mdash;so any uncommon occurrence would
be apt to be set down as a special manifestation of divine power;
and any man credited with exceptional merit or achievement,
or even remarkable for some strange incident connected with
his life or death, might ultimately come to be looked upon as a
veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of influencing the
destinies of man, and might become an object of local adoration
or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of people.
That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the
departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal
abode, would naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this
kind can scarcely be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this
respect is the worship of the <i>Pitris</i> (&ldquo;fathers&rdquo;) or deceased
ancestors, as entering largely into the everyday life and family
relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to offer reverential
homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to the third
degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has to
discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative
rite of obsequies called <i>Sraddha</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> an oblation &ldquo;made in faith&rdquo;
(<i>sraddha</i>, Lat. <i>credo</i>)&mdash;is the duty and privilege of the eldest son
of the deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby
establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance;
and those other relatives who have the right to take part in the
ceremony are called <i>sapinda</i>, <i>i.e.</i> sharing in the <i>pindas</i> (or balls of
cooked rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual
offering to the Manes)&mdash;such relationship being held a bar to
intermarriage. The first <i>Sraddha</i> takes place as soon as possible
after the <i>antyeshti</i> (&ldquo;final offering&rdquo;) or funeral ceremony proper,
usually spread over ten days; being afterwards repeated once a
month for a year, and subsequently at every anniversary and
otherwise voluntarily on special occasions. Moreover, a simple
libation of water should be offered to the Fathers twice daily at
the morning and evening devotion called <i>sandhya</i> (&ldquo;twilight&rdquo;).
It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with sentiments
of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of offering
gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also
frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to
the Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family
being afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling
them to use but sparingly their little store of provisions,
in case the supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same
time one also meets with frank avowals of a superstitious fear
lest any irregularity in the performance of the obsequial rites
should cause the Fathers to haunt their old home and trouble the
peace of their undutiful descendant, or even prematurely draw
him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the Fathers, supposed
to be located in the southern region. Terminating as it usually
does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number of
Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers&rsquo; own
caste, the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a
matter of very considerable expense; and more than ordinary
benefit to the deceased is supposed to accrue from it when it takes
place at a spot of recognized sanctity, such as one of the great
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
places of pilgrimage like Prayaga (Allahabad, where the three
sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, meet), Mathura,
and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the <i>tirtha-yatra</i>,
or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself considered
an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to the
time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places
is legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great
rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the
Narbada, the Krishna (Kistna), are studded with them, and the
water of these rivers is supposed to be imbued with the essence
of sanctity capable of cleansing the pious bather of all sin and
moral taint. To follow the entire course of one of the sacred
rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and back again on
the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction&mdash;that is,
always keeping the stream on one&rsquo;s right-hand side&mdash;is held to be
a highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry
through. No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the
Ganges, is sent and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used
on occasion as healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In
Vedic times, at the <i>Rajasuya</i>, or inauguration of a king, some
water from the holy river Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling
water used for consecrating the king. Hence also sick persons are
frequently conveyed long distances to a sacred river to heal them
of their maladies; and for a dying man to breathe his last at the
side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be the surest way of
securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand
years ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts
such as these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism
is likely to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about
by the modern theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and
Arya-samaj, as so close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life
and thought as Sir A. Lyall seems to think? &ldquo;The Hindu mind,&rdquo;
he remarks, &ldquo;is essentially speculative and transcendental; it will
never consent to be shut up in the prison of sensual experience, for
it has grasped and holds firmly the central idea that all things are
manifestations of some power outside phenomena. And the tendency
of contemporary religious discussion in India, so far as it can
be followed from a distance, is towards an ethical reform on the
old foundations, towards searching for some method of reconciling
their Vedic theology with the practices of religion taken as a rule
of conduct and a system of moral government. One can already
discern a movement in various quarters towards a recognition of
impersonal theism, and towards fixing the teaching of the philosophical
schools upon some definitely authorized system of faith and
morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical standard, and may thus
permanently embody that tendency to substitute spiritual devotion
for external forms and caste rules which is the characteristic of
the sects that have from time to time dissented from orthodox
Brahminism.&rdquo;</p>

<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Census of India</i> (1901), vol. i. part i.; <i>India</i>, by
H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. <i>Ethnographical Appendices</i>,
by H. H. Risley; <i>The Indian Empire</i>, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907);
J. Muir, <i>Original Sanskrit Texts</i> (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873);
Monier Williams, <i>Religious Thought and Life in India</i> (London,
1883); <i>Modern India and the Indians</i> (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879);
<i>Hinduism</i> (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, <i>Asiatic Studies</i>
(2 series, London, 1899); &ldquo;Hinduism&rdquo; in <i>Religious Systems of the
World</i> (London, 1904); &ldquo;Brahminism&rdquo; in <i>Great Religions of the
World</i> (New York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, <i>Modern
Hinduism</i> (London, 1887); J. C. Oman, <i>Indian Life, Religious and
Social</i> (London, 1879); <i>The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India</i>
(London, 1903); <i>The Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India</i>
(London, 1907); S. C. Bose, <i>The Hindus as they are</i> (2nd ed.,
Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson, <i>Hinduism and Christianity</i> (Edinburgh
and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J. Murray Mitchell, <i>Hinduism Past
and Present</i> (2nd ed., London, 1897); Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya,
<i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i> (Calcutta, 1896); A. Barth, <i>The Religions
of India</i> (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, <i>The Religions of India</i>
(London, 1896).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. E.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can
best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform
worked upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized
and executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the
Holy Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic.&rdquo; Sir Alfred C.
Lyall, <i>Asiatic Studies</i>, i. 2.</p>

<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, <i>The Village Deities
of Southern India</i> (Madras, 1907).</p>

<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
basis.&rdquo;  Sir A. C. Lyall, <i>Brahmanism</i>.</p>

<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Thus, in Berar, &ldquo;there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the
dregs of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races
which have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become
fused with the general community, while these same races are still
distinct tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle.&rdquo; Sir Alfred C.
Lyall, <i>As. St.</i>, i. 6.</p>

<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the present
age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the Brahmans,
and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when pictured,
is always of a dark-blue colour.</p>

<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> As in the case of Siva&rsquo;s traditional white complexion, it may
not be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed
to them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown respectively.
The names of the two heroes meaning simply &ldquo;black&rdquo;
or &ldquo;dark,&rdquo; the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu,
who is also called <i>p&#299;tavasas</i>, dressed in yellow garment, <i>i.e.</i> the
colours of sky and sun combined.</p>

<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic cosmogonic
hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that&mdash;&ldquo;that one
(existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its <i>svadha</i> (? inherent
power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was
generated by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came
upon it, which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces
there were, <i>svadha</i> below, <i>prayati</i> (? will) above.&rdquo;</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINDU KUSH,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout
500 m. of its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it
fades into the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range
forms the water-divide between the Kabul and the Oxus basins,
and, for the first 200 m. reckoning westwards, the southern
boundary of Afghanistan. It may be said to spring from the
head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites with the great
meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and the yet
more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base
of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of
Kanjut. The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash
Pamir into the sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction
of the three great chains of mountains. As the Hindu
Kush strikes westwards, after first rounding the head of an Oxus
tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which Curzon considers to be the true
source of the Oxus), it closely overlooks the trough of that
glacier-fed stream under its northern spurs, its crest at the nearest
point being separated from the river by a distance which cannot
much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the northern boundary
of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the southern
boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan
kingdom at that point.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Physiography.</i>&mdash;For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush
is a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting
the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad.
As the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks
on the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level.
Even here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the
chain, is apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be
looked for to the south, where the great square-headed giant called
Tirach Mir dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40
or 50 m. of this south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus,
where the Hindu Kush overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan
to the west, the crest is intersected by many passes, of which
the most important is the Dorah group (including the Minjan and
the Mandal), which rise to about 15,000 ft., and which are, under
favourable conditions, practicable links between the Oxus and
Chitral basins.</p>

<p>From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it
is seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the
Hindu Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in
altitude, the water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and
<span class="sidenote">Kafiristan section.</span>
Badakshan. Here its exact position is matter of conjecture.
It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible region of snowbound
crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000 ft. above
sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the passage
of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved
on a rock in the pass.</p>

<p>The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul
river, leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of
Kabul, is now an excellent kafila route, the road having
been engineered under the amir Abdur Rahman&rsquo;s direction,
<span class="sidenote">Passes.</span>
and it is said to be available for traffic throughout the year. From
the Khawak to the head of the Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush
which, rising to the north-west of Kabul, flows north-east to meet
the Panjshir near Charikar, whence they run united into the plains
of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is intersected by passes at intervals,
all of which were surveyed, and several utilized, during the return
of the Russo-Afghan boundary commission from the Oxus to Kabul
in 1886. Those utilized were the Kaoshan (the &ldquo;Hindu Kush&rdquo;
pass <i>par excellence</i>), 14,340 ft.; the Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which
is a link in one of the amir of Afghanistan&rsquo;s high roads to Turkestan;
and the Shibar (9800 ft.), which is merely a diversion into the upper
Ghorband of that group of passes between Bamian and the Kabul
plains which are represented by the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &amp;c. About
this point it is geographically correct to place the southern extremity
of the Hindu Kush, for here commences the Koh-i-Baba system
into which the Hindu Kush is merged.</p>

<p>The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of
the Khawak, no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock
composition as at present exists to the north, points to
its construction under the same conditions of upheaval
<span class="sidenote">General conformation.</span>
and subsequent denudation as are common to the western
Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland.
Its upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the
north-west of the Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had
massed itself as a formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively
recent geologic period, and the same thrust upwards of
vast masses of cretaceous limestone has disturbed the overlying
recent beds of shale and clays with very similar results to those
which have left so marked an impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive
flexures or ridges are ranged in more or less parallel lines,
and from between the bands of hard, unyielding rock of older
formation the soft beds of recent shale have been washed out, to be
carried through the enclosing ridges by rifts which break across
their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but the face of a great
upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it northwards, just
as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great central tableland
of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting long, narrow,
lateral valleys and transverse lines of &ldquo;antecedent&rdquo; drainage, is
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span>
similar. There are few passes across the southern section of the
Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the politico-geographical
point of view, more important to India than the whole Himalayan
system) which have not to surmount a succession of crests or ridges
as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan. The exceptions
are, of course, notable, and have played an important part
in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of
Chitral and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies
on the watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic.
Its contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on
conditions of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses
towards one end. It marks the commencement of the water-divide
which primarily separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun,
or Chitral, river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat
and Bajour from that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar
river (it is called by all three names) is the longest
affluent of the Kabul, and it is in many respects a more important
river than the Kabul. Throughout its length it is closely flanked
on its left bank by this main water-divide, which is called Moshabar
or Shandur in its northern sections, and owns a great variety of
names where it divides Bajour from the Kunar valley. It is this
range, crowned by peaks of 22,000 ft. altitude and maintaining an
average elevation of some 10,000 ft. throughout its length of 250 m.,
that is the real barrier of the north&mdash;not the Hindu Kush itself.
Across it, at its head, are the glacial passes which lead to the foot
of the Baroghil. Of these Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each
side, is typical. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilgit</a></span>.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka)
from the Pamir regions, which lead into the rocky gorges and
defiles of the upper affluents of the Hunza to the east of the Darkot,
belong rather to the Muztagh system than to the Hindu Kush.
Other passes across this important water-divide are the Shandur
(12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj; the Lowarai (10,450 ft.),
between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys; and farther south certain
lower crossings which once formed part of the great highway between
Kabul and India.</p>

<p>Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway
between its source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is
the village and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the
right bank of the river, and extending for some 70 m.
<span class="sidenote">Chitral.</span>
from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush
known as Shawal, across which one or two difficult passes lead into
the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This spur carries the boundary of
Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some 50 m. below Chitral),
where it crosses the river to the long Shandur watershed. South
of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of Afghanistan (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kunar</a></span>). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British India may
be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100 m.
(direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar
Kisht on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu
Kush intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way
between the two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on
either side are rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the
only pass which leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The
Mandal pass, a few miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link
between the Oxus and the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the
Bashgol valley leads directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai,
about 50 m. below Chitral. Nor must we overlook the connexion
between north and south of the Hindu Kush which is afforded by
the long narrow valley of the Chitral (or Yashkun) itself, leading up
to the Baroghil pass. This route was once made use of by the
Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for invasion. Access to
Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter of practicable tracks,
or passes, in two or three directions, and the measure of practicability
under any given conditions can best be reckoned from Chitral
itself. By most authorities the possibility of an advance in force
from the north, even under the most favourable conditions, is considered
to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and passes of the
Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are left as nature
has made them.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Historical Notices.</i>&mdash;Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander&rsquo;s
historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the
latter term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only
when the alpine barrier is in question. Whether the name was
given in mere vanity to the barrier which Alexander passed (as
Arrian and others repeatedly allege), or was founded also on
some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was no doubt
regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a
great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east,
whether called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself
applies Caucasus distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application
of the name Tanais to the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion
with Colchian Caucasus. Alexander, after building an
Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian near Charikar),
crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or Adrapsa. This
has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably
crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The
ancient Zend name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the
essential part of Paropamisus; this accounts for the great
Asiastic <i>Parnassus</i> of Aristotle, and the <i>Pho-lo-sin-a</i> of Hsüan
Tsang.</p>

<p>The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (<i>c.</i>
1332) from Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name
which, however doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer,
&ldquo;because of the number of Indian slaves who perished in passing&rdquo;
its snows. Baber always calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way
in which he speaks of it shows clearly that it was a range that was
meant, not a solitary pass or peak (according to modern local use,
as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes). Probably, however, the
title was confined to the section from Khawak to Koh-i-Baba.
The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified into
Hindu <i>Koh</i> (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more
light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become
known to European geographers by the Oriental translations of
the two Petis de la Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and
D&rsquo;Anville. Rennell and Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes
first crossed the range (1832). A British force was stationed at
Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost at Saighan.</p>

<p>The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has
been the limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the
boundary of a considerable power. Greeks, White Huns,
Samanidae of Bokhara, Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and
Timuridae, down to Saddozais and Barakzais, have ruled both
sides of this great alpine chain.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is
now comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
of 1884 and the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for
geographical investigation, and the information collected is to be
found in the reports and gazetteers of the Indian government.
The following are the chief recent authorities:&mdash;Report of the Russo-Afghan
Boundary Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart&rsquo;s
Mission (1886); Report of Asmar Boundary Commission (1895);
Report of Pamir Boundary Commission (1896); J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes
of the Hindu Kush</i> (Calcutta, 1880); W. M&rsquo;Nair, &ldquo;Visit to Kafiristan,&rdquo;
vol. vi. <i>R.G.S. Proc.</i>, 1884; F. Younghusband, &ldquo;Journeys
on the Pamirs, &amp;c.,&rdquo; vol. xiv. <i>R.G.S. Proc.</i>, 1892; Colonel Durand,
<i>Making a Frontier</i> (London, 1899); Sir G. Robertson, <i>Chitral</i>
(London, 1899).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINDUR,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nalagarh</span>, one of the Simla hill states, under
the government of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551;
area, 256 sq. m.; estimated revenue, £8600. The country was
overrun by the Gurkhas for some years before 1815, when they
were driven out by the British, and the raja was confirmed in
possession of the territory. The principal products are grain
and opium.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINGANGHAT,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a town of British India in Wardha district,
Central Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901)
12,662. It is a main seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here
produced in the rich Wardha valley having given its name to
one of the best indigenous staples of India. The principal
native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have large transactions
and export on their own account; but the greater
number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and
several ginning and pressing factories.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINGE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (in Mid. Eng. <i>henge</i> or <i>heeng</i>, from <i>hengen</i>, to
hang), a movable joint, particularly that by which a door or
window &ldquo;hangs&rdquo; from its side-post, or by which a lid or cover
is attached to that which it closes; also any device which allows
two parts to be joined together and move upon each other
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joinery</a></span>). Figuratively the word is used of that on which
something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINGHAM,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900)
5059 (969 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910)
4965. Area, about 30 sq. m. The township is traversed by
the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway, and contains
the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham Center, and
South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
founded and endowed with about £12,000 in 1784 by Sarah
Derby (1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public
library (1868), with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting
House, erected in 1681, is one of the oldest church buildings in
the country used continuously. Manufactures were relatively
much more important in the 17th and 18th centuries than since.
There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of them&mdash;notably
Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry Hobart,&mdash;being
natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name;
and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township
of Hingham.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>History of the Town of Hingham</i> (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1794-1861),
German philosopher, studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy
at Heidelberg under Hegel (q.v.), who wrote a preface to
his <i>Religion im innern Verhältniss zur Wissenschaft</i> (Heidelberg,
1722). He became a <i>Privatdozent</i> in 1819, and held professorships
at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>&mdash;(1) Philosophical: <i>Grundlinien der Philosophie der
Logik</i> (Halle, 1826); <i>Genesis des Wissens</i> (Heidelberg, 1835). (2)
On aesthetics: <i>Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust</i> (Halle, 1825);
<i>Schillers Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang</i> (Leipzig,
1837-1839). By these works he became a recognized exponent of
orthodox Hegelianism. (3) Historical: <i>Geschichte der Rechts- und
Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig,
1848-1852); <i>Die Könige</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINSCHIUS, PAUL<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son
of Franz Sales August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in
Berlin on the 25th of December 1835. His father was not only
a scientific jurist, but also a lawyer in large practice in Berlin.
After working under his father, Hinschius in 1852 began to study
jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin, the teacher who had
most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig Richter (1808-1864),
to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of the
study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took
the degree of <i>doctor utriusque juris</i>, and in 1859 was admitted to
the juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor
extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to
Berlin in 1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the
university of Kiel, which he represented in the Prussian Upper
House (1870-1871). He also assisted his father in editing the
<i>Preussische Anwaltszeitung</i> from 1862 to 1866 and the <i>Zeitschrift
für Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in Preussen</i> from 1867 to 1871.
In 1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical
law at Berlin. In the same year he took part in the conferences
of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which issued in the famous
&ldquo;Falk laws.&rdquo; In connexion with the developments of the
<i>Kulturkampf</i> which resulted from the &ldquo;Falk laws,&rdquo; he wrote
several treatises: <i>e.g.</i> on &ldquo;The Attitude of the German State
Governments towards the Decrees of the Vatican Council&rdquo;
(1871), on &ldquo;The Prussian Church Laws of 1873&rdquo; (1873), &ldquo;The
Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875&rdquo; (1875), and
&ldquo;The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880&rdquo; (1881). He
sat in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878,
and again in 1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented
the university of Berlin in the Prussian Upper House.
He died on the 13th of December 1898.</p>

<p>The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame
are the <i>Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni</i>
(2 parts, Leipzig, 1863) and <i>Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken
und Protestanten in Deutschland</i>, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877).
The first of these, for which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered
materials in Italy, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland,
Holland and Belgium, was the first critical edition of the False
Decretals. His most monumental work, however, is the <i>Kirchenrecht</i>,
which remains incomplete. The six volumes actually
published (<i>System des katholischen Kirchenrechts</i>) cover only
book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an exhaustive
historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic hierarchy
and its government of the church. The work is planned with
special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces
the whole of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles
and practice. Unfortunately even this part of the work remains
incomplete; two chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii.,
which was to have dealt with &ldquo;the rights and duties of the
members of the hierarchy,&rdquo; remain unwritten; the most notable
omission is that of the ecclesiastical law in relation to the regular
orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the <i>Kirchenrecht</i> remains
a work of the highest scientific authority. Epoch-making in
its application of the modern historical method to the study of
ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become the
model for the younger school of canonists.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the articles <i>s.v.</i> by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
(3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie</i>, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINTERLAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (German for &ldquo;the land behind&rdquo;), the region
lying behind a coast or river line, or a country dependent for
trade or commerce on any other region. In the purely physical
sense &ldquo;interior&rdquo; <span class="correction" title="amended from on">or</span> &ldquo;back country&rdquo; is more commonly used,
but the word has gained a distinct political significance. It
first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when Germany
insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the
territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had
occupied. The &ldquo;doctrine of the hinterland&rdquo; was that the
possessor of the littoral was entitled to as much of the back
country as geographically, economically or politically was
dependent upon the coast lands, a doctrine which, in the space
of ten years, led to the partition of Africa between various
European powers.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HINTON, JAMES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1822-1875), English surgeon and author,
son of John Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and
author of the <i>History and Topography of the United States</i> and
other works, was born at Reading in 1822. He was educated
at his grandfather&rsquo;s school near Oxford, and at the Nonconformist
school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father&rsquo;s removal
to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel.
After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk in
an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study,
and this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his
interest in moral problems, so affected his health that in his
nineteenth year he resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts
by running away to sea. His intention having, however, been
discovered, he was sent, on the advice of the physician who
was consulted regarding his health, to St Bartholomew&rsquo;s
Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his
diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at
Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone
to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage
thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned
to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon
in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially
in aural surgery, and gave also much of his attention to physiology.
He made his first appearance as an author in 1856 by contributing
papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the <i>Christian
Spectator</i>; and in 1859 he published <i>Man and his Dwelling-place</i>.
A series of papers entitled &ldquo;Physiological Riddles,&rdquo;
in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, afterwards published as <i>Life in Nature</i>
(1862), as well as another series entitled <i>Thoughts on Health</i>
(1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition.
After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy&rsquo;s Hospital in 1863,
he speedily acquired a reputation as the most skilful aural
surgeon of his day, which was fully borne out by his works,
<i>An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana tympani</i> (1874), and
<i>Questions of Aural Surgery</i> (1874). But his health broke down,
and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores of
acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875.
In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author
of <i>The Mystery of Pain</i> (1866) and <i>The Place of the Physician</i>
(1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of
many of the important moral and social problems of the time,
his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i>, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIOGO<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Hyogo</span>], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu,
Nippon, on the western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining
the foreign settlement of Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
growth of its prosperity has been very remarkable. Its population,
including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in 1891, and 285,002
in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its trade increased
nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a few
staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade,
in which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches,
and cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much
of its prosperity to the fact of serving largely as the shipping
port of Osaka, the chief manufacturing town in Japan. The
foreign community, exclusive of Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons.
Kobe is considered the brightest and healthiest of all the places
assigned as foreign settlements in Japan, its pure, dry air and
granite subsoil constituting special advantages. It is in railway
communication with all parts of the country, and wharves
admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo
without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated
for a foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners
received permission to lease lands and houses direct from
Japanese owners beyond the treaty limits, a privilege which,
together with that of building villas on the hills behind the town,
ultimately involved some diplomatic complications. Kobe has
a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate neighbourhood.</p>

<p>Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near
it a huge bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa,
which flows into the sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple
commemorates the spot where Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror
of Japanese loyalty, met his death in battle in 1336. The temple
of Ikuta was erected on the site of the ancient fane built by Jingo
on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.</p>

<p>Hiogo&rsquo;s original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance
of the Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a
very early period, but it did not become really prominent until
the 12th century, when Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan,
transferred the capital from Kioto to Fukuhara, in Hiogo&rsquo;s
immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various public works
for improving the place. The change of capital was very brief,
but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIP.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1) (From O. Eng. <i>hype</i>, a word common in various forms
to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch <i>heup</i>, and Ger. <i>Hüfte</i>),
the projecting part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone
and the side of the pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known
as the haunch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joints</a></span>). (2)(O. Eng. <i>héope</i>, from same root
as M. H. Ger. <i>hiefe</i>, a thorn-bush), the fruit of the dog-rose
(<i>Rosa canina</i>); &ldquo;hips&rdquo; are usually joined with &ldquo;haws,&rdquo; the
fruit of the hawthorn.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIP-KNOB,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof,
between the barge-boards of a gable.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPARCHUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (fl. 146-126 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek astronomer, was born
at Nicaea in Bithynia early in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He observed
in the island of Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146
until about 126 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and made the capital discovery of the
precession of the equinoxes in 130 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
The outburst of a new star in 134 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is stated by Pliny (<i>Hist.
nat.</i> ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation of his catalogue
of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy&rsquo;s <i>Almagest</i>.
Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first table
of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention
of the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude
and longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental
part of his astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea.
None of his many works has survived except a Commentary
on the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus and Eudoxus, published by P.
Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by D. Petavius
in his <i>Uranologium</i> (Paris, 1630). A new edition was published
by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. B. J. Delambre, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;astronomie ancienne</i>, i. 173;
P. Tannery, <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;astr. ancienne</i>, p. 130;
A. Berry, <i>Hist. of Astronomy</i>, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>,
i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Astronomy of the Ancients</i>, p. 207; R.
Grant, <i>Hist. of Phys. Astronomy</i>, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll, <i>Sphaera</i>,
p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 45;
J. F. Montucla, <i>Hist. des mathématiques</i>, t. i. p. 257; J. A. Schmidt,
<i>Variorum philosophicorum decas</i>, cap. i. (Jenae, 1691).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> Pythagorean philosopher,
was one of the earliest of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is
mentioned both by Diogenes Laërtius and by Iamblichus, but
nothing is known of his life. Diogenes says that he left no
writings, but other authorities make him the author of a <span class="grk" title="mystikos
logos">&#956;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> directed against the Pythagoreans. According to Aristotle
(<i>Metaphysica</i>, i. 3), he was an adherent of the Heraclitean fire-doctrine,
whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the theory
that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have
regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates
the orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire,
or Hestia, to the more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite
of this divergence, Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, <i>History of Greek and Roman
Philosophy</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pythagoras</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPEASTRUM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order
Amaryllidaceae, containing about 50 species of bulbous plants,
natives of tropical and sub-tropical South America. In cultivation
they are generally known as <i>Amaryllis</i>. The handsome
funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster of two to many, at
the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the numerous
hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great
variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest
deep crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or
blended colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming
habit. Like other bulbs they are increased by offsets, which
should be carefully removed when the plants are at rest, and
should be allowed to attain a fair size before removal. These
young bulbs should be potted singly in February or March, in
mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about
two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil,
which should be made quite solid. They should be removed to
a temperature of 60° by night and 70° by day, very carefully
watered until the roots have begun to grow freely, after which
the soil should be kept moderately moist. As they advance
the temperature should be raised to 70° at night, and to 80° or
higher with sun heat by day. They do not need shading, but
should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily in the afternoon.
When growing they require a good supply of water. After the
decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist
temperature of from 70° to 80° by day during summer to perfect
their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the
winter they should have less water, but must not be kept entirely
dry. The minimum temperature should now be about 55°, to
be increased 10° or 15° in spring. As the bulbs get large they
will occasionally need shifting into larger pots. Propagation
is also readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties. Seeds
are sown when ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a
temperature of about 65°. The seedlings when large enough
to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several
in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist
atmosphere with a temperature from 60° to 70°. <i>H. Ackermanni</i>,
with large, handsome, crimson flowers&mdash;itself a hybrid&mdash;is the
parent of many of the large-flowered forms; <i>H. equestre</i> (Barbados
lily), with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also
given rise to several handsome forms; <i>H. aulicum</i> (flowers
crimson and green), <i>H. pardinum</i> (flowers creamy-white spotted
with crimson), and <i>H. vittatum</i> (flowers white with red stripes,
a beautiful species and the parent of many varieties), are stove
or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds, however, are now
only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely grown in
private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted
by the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved
during the past 100 years. <i>H. Johnsoni</i> is named after a
Lancashire watchmaker who raised it in 1799 by crossing <i>H.
Reginae</i> with <i>H. vittatum</i>. Since that time other species have
been used for hybridizing, notably <i>H. reticulatum</i>, <i>H. aulicum</i>,
<i>H. solandriflorum</i>, and sometimes <i>H. equestre</i> and <i>H. psittacinum</i>.
The finest forms since 1880 have been evolved from <i>H. Leopoldi</i>
and <i>H. pardinum</i>.</p>
<div class="author">(J. Ws.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPED ROOF,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> the name given in architecture to a roof
which slopes down on all four sides instead of terminating on
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
two sides against a vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise
is made between the two, half the roof being hipped and half
resting on the vertical wall; this gives much more room inside
the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect, which is one
of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the south
of England, and is rarely found in other countries.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1741-1796), German
satirical and humorous writer, was born on the 31st of January
1741, at Gerdauen in East Prussia, where his father was rector
of a school. He enjoyed an excellent education at home, and in
his sixteenth year he entered Königsberg university as a student
of theology. Interrupting his studies, he went, on the invitation
of a friend, to St Petersburg, where he was introduced at the
brilliant court of the empress Catherine II. Returning to
Königsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but, falling
in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was
aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with
enthusiasm to legal studies. He was successful in his profession,
and in 1780 was appointed chief burgomaster in Königsberg,
and in 1786 privy councillor of war and president of the town.
As he rose in the world, however, his inclination for matrimony
vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his ambition was
forgotten. He died at Königsberg on the 23rd of April 1796,
leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary
talents, rich in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of
contrasts and contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion,
dry pedantry and piety, morality and sensuality; simplicity
and ostentation composed his nature; and, hence, his literary
productions never attained artistic finish. In his <i>Lebensläufe
nach aufsteigender Linie</i> (1778-1781) he intended to describe the
lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually confined
himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons
well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of
heterogeneous reflections on life and philosophy. <i>Kreuz- und
Querzüge des Ritters A bis Z</i> (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against
the follies of the age&mdash;ancestral pride and the thirst for orders,
decoration and the like. Among others of his better known
works are <i>Über die Ehe</i> (1774) and <i>Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung
der Weiber</i> (1792). Hippel has been called the fore-runner
of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to this
author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of
scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly
influenced by Laurence Sterne.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel&rsquo;s works in 14 vols.,
was issued at Berlin. <i>Über die Ehe</i> has been edited by E. Brenning
(Leipzig, 1872), and the <i>Lebensläufe nach aufsteigender Linie</i> has in
a modernized edition by A. von Öttingen (1878), gone through
several editions. See J. Czerny, <i>Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul</i>
(Berlin, 1904).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPIAS OF ELIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> Greek sophist, was born about the middle
of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was thus a younger contemporary
of Protagoras and Socrates. He was a man of great versatility
and won the respect of his fellow-citizens to such an extent that
he was sent to various towns on important embassies. At
Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and other leading
thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists,
he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and
lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar,
history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy.
He boasted that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was
prepared at any moment to deliver an extempore address on
any subject to the assembly at Olympia. Of his ability there
is no question, but it is equally certain that he was superficial.
His aim was not to give knowledge, but to provide his pupils
with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in discussion
on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing
nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato&rsquo;s
two dialogues, the <i>Hippias major</i> and <i>minor</i>, contain an exposé
of his methods, exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument
but written with full knowledge of the man and the class which
he represented. Ast denies their authenticity, but they must
have been written by a contemporary writer (as they are
mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and undoubtedly
represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing influence
of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question
that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting
on the meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style.
He is credited with an excellent work on Homer, collections of
Greek and foreign literature, and archaeological treatises, but
nothing remains except the barest notes. He forms the connecting
link between the first great sophists, Protagoras and
Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who brought their name
into disrepute.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sophists</a></span>; also histories of Philosophy (<i>e.g.</i> Windelband, Eng.
trans. by Tufts, pt. 1, c. 2, §§ 7 and 8).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPO,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed
with the Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary
of Archelaus and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle
declared that he was unworthy of the name of philosopher, and,
while comparing him with Thales in his main doctrine, adds that
his intellect was too shallow for serious consideration. He held
that the principle of all things is moisture (<span class="grk" title="to hygron">&#964;&#8056; &#8017;&#947;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span>); that fire
develops from water, and from fire the material universe.
Further he denied all existence save that of material things as
known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among the
&ldquo;Atheists.&rdquo; The gods are merely great men canonized by
popular tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph,
wherein he claims for himself a place in this company.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRAS,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine
mixed with spices&mdash;such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar&mdash;and
strained through woollen cloths. The early spelling usual in English
was <i>ipocras</i>, or <i>ypocras</i>. The word is an adaptation of the Med.
Lat. <i>Vinum Hippocraticum</i>, or wine of Hippocrates, so called, not
because it was supposed to be a receipt of the physician, but from
an apothecary&rsquo;s name for a strainer or sieve, &ldquo;Hippocrates&rsquo;
sleeve&rdquo; (see W. W. Skeat, <i>Chaucer</i>, note to the <i>Merchant&rsquo;s Tale</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRATES,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> Greek philosopher and writer, termed the
&ldquo;Father of Medicine,&rdquo; was born, according to Soranus, in Cos,
in the first year of the 80th Olympiad, <i>i.e.</i> in 460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was a
member of the family of the Asclepiadae, and was believed to
be either the nineteenth or seventeenth in direct descent from
Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he was descended from
Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied medicine
under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in
philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were
his masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous
Asclepion of Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled
extensively, and taught and practised his profession at Athens,
probably also in Thrace, Thessaly, Delos and his native island.
He died at Larissa in Thessaly, his age being variously stated as
85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of his life are shrouded by
uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up in the absence of
any authentic record; the earliest biography was by one of the
Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd
century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and
Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is
internal evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related
are elsewhere told of other persons, and certain of them are
quite irreconcilable with his character, so far as it can be judged
of from his writings and from the opinions expressed of him by his
contemporaries; we may safely reject, for instance, the legends
that he set fire to the library of the Temple of Health at Cnidos, in
order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and that he refused
to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus, during
a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing be
assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (<i>Protag.</i> p. 283;
<i>Phaedr.</i> p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion
is also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held
by the Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have
been thrown on his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of
his writings bespeaks a man of the highest integrity and purest
morality.</p>

<p>Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its
traditions and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
superstition aside, and to base the practice of medicine on the principles
of inductive philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly
the influence exercised upon him by the great men of his time,
but one cannot fail to connect his emancipation of medicine from
superstition with the widespread power exercised over Greek life
and thought by the living work of Socrates, Plato, Aeschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was a
period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a
powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the
same influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be
remembered that his training was not altogether bad, although
superstition entered so largely into it. He had a great master in
Democritus, the originator of the doctrine of atoms, and there is
every reason to believe that the various &ldquo;asclepia&rdquo; were very
carefully conducted hospitals for the sick, possessing a curious
system of case-books, in the form of votive tablets, left by the
patients, on which were recorded the symptoms, treatment and
result of each case. He had these records at his command; and
he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and
the treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great
merits is that he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft,
and to direct exclusive attention to the natural history of
disease. How strongly his mind revolted against the use of
charms, amulets, incantations and such devices appears from his
writings; and he has expressly recorded, as underlying all his
practice, the conviction that, however diseases may be regarded
from the religious point of view, they must all be scientifically
treated as subject to natural laws (<i>De aëre</i>, 29). Nor was he
anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and
medicine which had for long existed in a confused and confusing
fashion.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> His knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology
was necessarily defective, the respect in which the dead body was
held by the Greeks precluding him from practising dissection;
thus we find him writing of the tissues without distinguishing
between the various textures of the body, confusing arteries,
veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the muscles as
&ldquo;flesh.&rdquo; But when we come to study his observations on the
natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we
recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician.
Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of
the existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, <span class="grk" title="physis">&#966;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>,
the <i>vis medicatrix naturae</i>, in the management of which the art
of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only
obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at
large, but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated
blind empiricism; the aphorism &ldquo;<span class="grk" title="hê peira sphalerê, hê krisis
chalepê">&#7969; &#960;&#949;&#8150;&#961;&#945; &#963;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#961;&#942;, &#7969; &#954;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#967;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#960;&#942;</span>&rdquo; (whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position.
Holding firmly to the principle, <span class="grk" title="nousôn physies iêtroi">&#957;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#969;&#957; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#949;&#962; &#7984;&#951;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#943;</span>, he did not
allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he
was not a merely &ldquo;expectant&rdquo; physician; as Sydenham puts it,
his practice was &ldquo;the support of enfeebled and the coercion of
outrageous nature.&rdquo; He largely employed powerful medicines
and blood-letting both ordinary and by cupping. He advises,
however, great caution in their application. He placed great
dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of his
directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the
reasons given, there is much which is still adhered to at the
present day. His treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#941;&#961;&#969;&#957;, &#8017;&#948;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#969;&#957;</span> (<i>Airs,
Waters, and Places</i>) contains the first enunciation of the principles
of public health. Although the treatises <span class="grk" title="Peri krisimôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#954;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span> cannot
be accepted as authentic, we find in the <span class="grk" title="Prognôstikon">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span> evidence of
the acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence
of critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of
reporting cases is most interesting and instructive; in them we
can read how thoroughly he had separated himself from the
priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are indebted for the
practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea was suggested
to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the presence of
morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular directions, by
means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion regarding their
nature. Laennec says, &ldquo;Hippocrate avait tenté l&rsquo;auscultation
immédiate.&rdquo; Although the treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri nousôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#957;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#969;&#957;</span> is doubtfully
from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of
having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of
the Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions
reached at the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is
shown by the retention in modern medicine of the name and the
practice of &ldquo;Hippocratic succussion.&rdquo; The power of graphic
description of phenomena in the Hippocratic writings is illustrated
by the retention of the term &ldquo;facies Hippocratica,&rdquo;
applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured in the
<i>Prognostics</i>. In surgery his writings are important and interesting,
but they do not bear the same character of caution as the
treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay <i>On Injuries of
the Head</i>, he advocates the operation &ldquo;of trephining&rdquo; more
strongly and in wider classes of cases than would be warranted
by the experience of later times.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The <i>Hippocratic Collection</i> consists of eighty-seven treatises, of
which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has
been submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times
by a large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators,
see Adams&rsquo;s <i>Genuine Works of Hippocrates</i>, Sydenham
Society, i. 27, 28). The treatises have been classified according
to (1) the direct evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style
and method, and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions
opposed to the general Hippocratic teaching&mdash;greatest weight
being attached to the opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general
estimate of commentators is thus stated by Adams: &ldquo;The peculiar
style and method of Hippocrates are held to be conciseness of
expression, great condensation of matter, and disposition to regard
all professional subjects in a practical point of view, to eschew
subtle hypotheses and modes of treatment based on vague abstractions.&rdquo;
The treatises have been grouped in the four following
sections: (1) genuine; (2) those consisting of notes taken by
students and collected after the death of Hippocrates; (3) essays
by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious. Littré accepts the following
thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) <i>On Ancient Medicine</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri
archaiês iêtrikês">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#951;&#962; &#7984;&#951;&#964;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962;</span>); (2) <i>The Prognostics</i> (<span class="grk" title="Prognôstikon">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>); (3) <i>The
Aphorisms</i> (<span class="grk" title="Aphorismoi">&#7944;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>); (4) <i>The Epidemics</i>, i. and iii. (<span class="grk" title="Epidêmiôn
a' kai g'">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#8182;&#957; &#945;&prime; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#947;&prime;</span>); (5) <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri diaitês oxeôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962; &#8000;&#958;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>);
(6) <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#941;&#961;&#969;&#957;, &#8017;&#948;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#969;&#957;</span>);
(7) <i>On the Articulations</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri arthrôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7940;&#961;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>); (8) <i>On Fractures</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri agmôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#947;&#956;&#8182;&#957;</span>);
(9) <i>The Instruments of Reduction</i> (<span class="grk" title="Mochlikos">&#924;&#959;&#967;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>); (10) <i>The Physician&rsquo;s
Establishment, or Surgery</i> (<span class="grk" title="Kat' iêtreion">&#922;&#945;&#964;&#8125; &#7984;&#951;&#964;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>); (11) <i>On Injuries of the
Head</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn en kephalê trômatôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#957; &#954;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#8135; &#964;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>); (12) <i>The Oath</i> (<span class="grk" title="Horkos">&#8013;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>);
(13) <i>The Law</i> (<span class="grk" title="Nomos">&#925;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>). Of these Adams accepts as certainly genuine
the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as
&ldquo;pretty confidently acknowledged as genuine, although the evidence
in their favour is not so strong,&rdquo; the 1st, 10th and 13th, and, in
addition, (14) <i>On Ulcers</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri helkôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7953;&#955;&#954;&#8182;&#957;</span>); (15) <i>On Fistulae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri
syringôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#963;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#947;&#947;&#969;&#957;</span>); (16) <i>On Hemorrhoids</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri haimorrhoïdôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#945;&#7985;&#956;&#959;&#8164;&#8165;&#959;&#8147;&#948;&#969;&#957;</span>); (17) <i>On the
Sacred Disease</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hierês nousou">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8134;&#962; &#957;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#959;&#965;</span>). According to the sceptical
and somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection
is to be regarded as spurious except <i>Epidemics</i>, books i. and iii.
(with a few interpolations), <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i>, <i>On Injuries
of the Head</i> (&ldquo;insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei&rdquo;), the former
portion of the treatise <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i>, and the
&ldquo;obviously Hippocratic&rdquo; fragments of the <i>Coan Prognostics</i>.
Perhaps also the <i>Oath</i> may be accepted as genuine; its comparative
antiquity is not denied. The <i>Aphorisms</i> are certainly later and
inferior. In the other non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he
can distinguish the hands of no fewer than nineteen different authors,
most of them anonymous, and some of them very late.</p>

<p>The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which
was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio);
it was speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more
accurate and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent
editions, probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort,
1595, 1621, Geneva, 1657), until the publication of the great works
of Littré, <i>&OElig;uvres complètes d&rsquo;Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec
le texte grec en regard, collationnée sur les manuscrits et toutes les
éditions, accompagnée d&rsquo;une introduction, de commentaires médicaux,
de variantes, et de notes philologiques</i> (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861),
and of F. Z. Ermerins, <i>Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum
reliquiae</i> (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited
above), and Reinhold&rsquo;s <i>Hippocrates</i> (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867).
Daremberg&rsquo;s edition of the <i>&OElig;uvres choisies</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1855)
includes the <i>Oath</i>, the <i>Law</i>, the <i>Prorrhetics</i>, book i., the <i>Prognostics,
On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics</i>, books i. and iii., <i>Regimen</i>,
and <i>Aphorisms</i>. Of the separate works attributed to Hippocrates
the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of the
<i>Prognostics</i>, for example, seventy editions are known, while of the
<i>Aphorisms</i> there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For
some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of
which greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference
may be made to Flügel&rsquo;s contribution to the article &ldquo;Hippokrates&rdquo;
in the <i>Encyklopädie</i> of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially
catalogued by Fabricius in his <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. B. T.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria
dignus, ab studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit, vir et arte
et facundia insignis&rdquo; (Celsus, <i>De medicina</i>).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRENE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (the &ldquo;fountain of the horse,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="hê hippou krênê">&#7969; &#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#961;&#942;&#957;&#951;</span>),
the spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other
spring there, Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo,
and hence taken as the source of poetic inspiration. The spring,
surrounded by an ancient wall, is now known as <i>Kryopegadi</i> or
the cold spring. According to the legend, it was produced by
the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon&rsquo;s horse Pegasus. The
same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and the
spring Peirene at Corinth.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPODAMUS,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th
century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was he who introduced order and regularity
into the planning of cities, in place of the previous intricacy
and confusion. For Pericles he planned the arrangement of
the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians
founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as architect,
and afterwards, in 408 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he superintended the building of
the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad,
straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPODROME<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippodromos">&#7985;&#960;&#960;&#972;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, horse, and
<span class="grk" title="dromos">&#948;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for
horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman <i>circus</i>,
except that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas
ten or more contended in the Greek games, so that the width
was far greater, being about 400 ft., the <span class="correction" title="amended from cource">course</span> being 600 to
700 ft. long. The Greek hippodrome was usually set out on the
slope of a hill, and the ground taken from one side served to
form the embankment on the other side. One end of the
hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with
an extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were
the stalls for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome
is more for equestrian and other displays than for horse racing.
The Hippodrome in Paris somewhat resembles the Roman
amphitheatre, being open in the centre to the sky, with seats
round on rising levels.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte,
queen of the Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter
and charioteer and favourite of Artemis. His stepmother
Phaedra became enamoured of him, but, finding her advances
rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter in which she accused
Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus thereupon
drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon his
father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving
along the shore at Troezen (the scene of the <i>Hippolytus</i> of
Euripides), a sea-monster (a bull or <i>phoca</i>) sent by Poseidon
emerged from the waves; the horses were scared, Hippolytus
was thrown out of the chariot, and was dragged along, entangled
in the reins, until he died. According to a tradition of Epidaurus,
Asclepius restored him to life at the request of Artemis, who
removed him to Italy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virbius</a></span>). At Troezen, where he had
a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine
honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to
have been rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to
have been placed amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga).
It was also the custom of the Troezenian maidens to cut off a
lock of their hair and to dedicate it to Hippolytus before marriage
(see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. 1). Well-known classical
parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and Antea (or
Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the
subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant),
of a tragedy by Seneca and of Racine&rsquo;s <i>Phèdre</i>. A trace of it
has survived in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr
Hippolytus, a Roman officer who was torn to pieces by wild
horses as a convert to Christianity (see J. J. Döllinger, <i>Hippolytus
and Callistus</i>, Eng. tr. by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39,
51-60).</p>

<p>According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented
the sun, which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the
story of Phaëthon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind
the sun, but is unable to overtake it. It is more probable,
however, that he was a local hero famous for his chastity, perhaps
originally a priest of Artemis, worshipped as a god at Troezen,
where he was closely connected and sometimes confounded with
Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech put into the mouth
of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course believes his
wife&rsquo;s story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws his
son&rsquo;s pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his
teeth. This seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual
and that of Poseidon, the chief deity of Troezen, in which the
representative of the intruding religion meets his death through
the agency of the offended god, as Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to
pieces by the votaries of the jealous Dionysus. According to
S. Reinach (<i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, x., 1907, p. 47),
the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis of an
equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful,
who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses.
Death was followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths
of Adonis (the sacred boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the
fawn), Phaëthon (the white sun-horse).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Wilamowitz-Möllendorff&rsquo;s Introduction to his German translation
of Euripides&rsquo; <i>Hippolytus</i> (1891); A. Kalkmann, <i>De Hippolytis
Euripideis</i> (Bonn, 1882); and (for representations in art) &ldquo;Über
Darstellung der Hippolytussage&rdquo; in <i>Archäologische Zeitung</i> (xli.
1883); J. E. Harrison, <i>Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens</i>
(1890), cl.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a writer of the early Church. The mystery
which enveloped the person and writings of Hippolytus,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> one of
the most prolific ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some
light thrown upon it for the first time about the middle of the
19th century by the discovery of the so-called <i>Philosophumena</i>
(see below). Assuming this writing to be the work of Hippolytus,
the information given in it as to the author and his times can be
combined with other traditional dates to form a tolerably clear
picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second half of
the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in
his <i>Bibliotheca</i> (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the
context of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that
Hippolytus himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and
even if it were, it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus
enjoyed the personal teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop;
it may perhaps merely refer to that relation of his theological
system to that of Irenaeus which can easily be traced in his
writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome under Bishop
Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his
learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a
young man, heard him preach (Hieron. <i>Vir. ill.</i> 61; cp. Euseb.
<i>H.E.</i> vi. 14, 10). It was probably not long before questions of
theology and church discipline brought him into direct conflict with
Zephyrinus, or at any rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.).
He accused the bishop of favouring the Christological heresies
of the Monarchians, and, further, of subverting the discipline of
the Church by his lax action in receiving back into the Church
those guilty of gross offences. The result was a schism, and for
perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as bishop at the head of
a separate church. Then came the persecution under Maximinus
the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop,
were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that
both of them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year
354 (<i>Catalogus Liberianus</i>) we learn that on the 13th of August,
probably in 236, the bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome
and that of Hippolytus in the cemetery on the Via Tiburtina.
So we must suppose that before his death the schismatic was
received again into the bosom of the Church, and this is confirmed
by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in the
Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to
him one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius (<i>Peristephanon</i>, 11)
drew a highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details
of which are certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus
the son of Theseus was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of
the historical Hippolytus little remained in the memory of after
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
ages. Neither Eusebius (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (<i>Vir. ill.</i> 61)
knew that the author so much read in the East and the Roman
saint were one and the same person. The notice in the <i>Chronicon
Paschale</i> preserves one slight reminiscence of the historical facts,
namely, that Hippolytus&rsquo;s episcopal see was situated at Portus
near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found
in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the
seat were carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of
numerous writings. It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work
at any rate of the 3rd century; at the time of Pius IX. it
was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in stone of a lost
tradition.</p>

<p>Hippolytus&rsquo;s voluminous writings, which for variety of
subject can be compared with those of Origen, embrace the
spheres of exegesis, homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography
and ecclesiastical law. His works have unfortunately
come down to us in such a fragmentary condition that it is
difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion of his intellectual
and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the best
preserved are the <i>Commentary on the Prophet Daniel</i> and the
<i>Commentary on the Song of Songs</i>. In spite of many instances of
a want of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain
sobriety and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable
to form an opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the <i>Homilies
on the Feast of Epiphany</i> which go under his name are wrongly
attributed to him. He wrote polemical words directed against
the pagans, the Jews and heretics. The most important of these
polemical treatises is the <i>Refutation of all Heresies</i>, which has
come to be known by the inappropriate title of the <i>Philosophumena</i>.
Of its ten books, the second and third are lost;
Book i. was for a long time printed (with the title <i>Philosophumena</i>)
among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were found in
1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the
author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally
admitted that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and
iv.-x. belong to the same work. The importance of the work has,
however, been much overrated; a close examination of the
sources for the exposition of the Gnostic system which is contained
in it has proved that the information it gives is not
always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on <i>Christ and
Antichrist</i> survives in a complete state. Among other things it
includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the
world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution
under Septimius Severus, <i>i.e.</i> about 202. The influence of
Hippolytus was felt chiefly through his works on chronographic
and ecclesiastical law. His chronicle of the world, a compilation
embracing the whole period from the creation of the world up to
the year 234, formed a basis for many chronographical works
both in the East and West. In the great compilations of ecclesiastical
law which arose in the East since the 4th century (see
below: also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolic Constitutions</a></span>) much of the material was
taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is
genuinely his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it
wrongly attributed to him, can no longer be determined beyond
dispute even by the most learned investigation.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The edition of J. A. Fabricius, <i>Hippolyti opera
graece et latine</i> (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi,
<i>Bibliotheca veterum patrum</i> (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, <i>Cursus
patrol. ser. Graeca</i>, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a
complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian
Academy of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty,
for the textual problems of the various writings are complex
and confused: the Greek original is extant in a few cases only
(the <i>Commentary on Daniel</i>, the <i>Refutation, on Antichrist</i>, parts of
the <i>Chronicle</i>, and some fragments); for the rest we are dependent
on fragments of translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not
even published. Of the Academy&rsquo;s edition one volume was published
at Berlin in 1897, containing the <i>Commentaries on Daniel</i> and on
the <i>Song of Songs</i>, the treatise on <i>Antichrist</i>, and the <i>Lesser Exegetical</i>
and <i>Homiletic Works</i>, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans
Achelis. The <i>Commentary on the Song of Songs</i> has also been
published by Bonwetsch (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation
based on a Russian translation by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian)
text, and he added to it (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small
exegetical pieces, which are preserved in a Georgian version only
(<i>The Blessing of Jacob</i>, <i>The Blessing of Moses</i>, <i>The Narrative of
David and Goliath</i>). A great part of the original of the <i>Chronicle</i>
has been published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the <i>Codex
Matritensis Graecus</i>, 221. For the <i>Refutation</i> we are still dependent
on the editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin
(Göttingen, 1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation
is to be found in the <i>Ante-Nicene Christian Library</i> (Edinburgh,
1868-1869).</p>

<p>See Bunsen, <i>Hippolytus and his Age</i> (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger.
ed., 1853); Döllinger, <i>Hippolytus und Kallistus</i> (Regensb. 1853;
Eng. transl., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Ficker, <i>Studien zur Hippolytfrage</i>
(Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, <i>Hippolytstudien</i> (Leipzig, 1897);
Karl Johannes Neumann, <i>Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu
Staat und Welt</i>, part i. (Leipzig, 1902); Adhémar d&rsquo;Alès, <i>La Théologie
de Saint Hippolyte</i> (Paris, 1906).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. K.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier
who was converted by St Lawrence.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF.<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> This book stands at the
head of a series of Church Orders, which contain instructions in
regard to the choice and ordination of Christian ministers, regulations
as to widows and virgins, conditions of reception of converts
from heathenism, preparation for and administration of baptism,
rules for the celebration of the eucharist, for fasting, daily prayers,
charity suppers, memorial meals, first-fruits, &amp;c. We shall give
(1) a description of the book as we have it at present; (2) a brief
statement of its relation to allied documents; (3) some remarks
on the evidence for its date and authorship.</p>

<p>1. We possess the <i>Canons of Hippolytus</i> only in an Arabic
version, itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek.
Attention was called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf
towards the end of the 17th century, but it was only in 1870 that
it was edited by Haneberg, who added a Latin translation, and
so made it generally accessible. In 1891 H. Achelis reproduced
this translation in a revised form, embodying it in a synopsis
of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and
derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its contents
with a free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made
by H. Riedel, based on fresh MSS. These showed that the book,
as hitherto edited, had been thrown into disorder by the displacement
of two pages near the end; they also removed other
difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation had been
based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have
added to our materials for the study of the book.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The book is attributed to &ldquo;Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops
of Rome,&rdquo; and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short
headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but
it is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon 1 is prefatory;
it contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially
in the Word, the Son of God; and it speaks of the expulsion of
heretics from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the
selection and ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The
bishop is chosen by the whole congregation: &ldquo;one of the bishops
and presbyters&rdquo; is to lay hands upon him and say a prayer which
follows (3): he is at once to proceed with &ldquo;the offering,&rdquo; taking
up the eucharistic service at the point where the <i>sursum corda</i>
comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be ordained with the same prayer
as a bishop, &ldquo;with the exception of the word bishop&rdquo;; but he is
given no power of ordination (this appears to be inconsistent with
c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and the prayer of his
ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various classes in the
Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith (6) is to
be counted a presbyter without ordination: &ldquo;his confession is his
ordination.&rdquo; Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel,
but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination
on the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts
are clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained
(9): &ldquo;ordination is for men only.&rdquo; Canons 10-15 describe conditions
for the admission of converts. Certain occupations are
incompatible with Christian life: only under compulsion may a
Christian be a soldier. Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations
concerning women. Canon 19 is a long one dealing with catechumens,
preparation for baptism, administration of that sacrament, and of
the eucharist for the newly baptized. The candidate is twice
anointed: first, with the oil of exorcism, after he has said, with his
face westward, &ldquo;I renounce thee, O devil, and all thy following&rdquo;;
and, again, immediately after the baptism. As he stands in the
water, he declares his faith in response to an interrogatory creed;
and after each of the three clauses he is immersed. After the
second anointing the bishop gives thanks &ldquo;for that Thou hast made
them worthy that they should be born again, and hast poured out
Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one of
them, to the body of the Church&rdquo;: he signs them with the cross
on their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds:
&ldquo;the bishop gives them of the body of Christ and says, This is the
body of Christ, and they answer Amen&rdquo;; and similarly for the cup.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
Milk and honey are then given to them as being &ldquo;born a second
time as little children.&rdquo; A warning is added against eating anything
before communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily
services in church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23
seems as if it closed the series, speaking, as it does, of &ldquo;our brethren
the bishops&rdquo; who in their cities have made regulations &ldquo;according
to the commands of our fathers the apostles&rdquo;: &ldquo;let none of our
successors alter them; because it saith that the teaching is greater
than the sea, and hath no end.&rdquo; We pass on, however, to regulations
about the sick (24) who are to be visited by the bishop, &ldquo;because
it is a great thing for the sick that the high-priest should visit them
(for the shadow of Peter healed the sick).&rdquo; Canons 25-27 deal again
with prayers and church-services. The &ldquo;seven hours&rdquo; are specified,
with reasons for their observance (25): attendance at sermons is
urged (26), &ldquo;for the Lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed&rdquo;
(comp. <i>Didachè</i> 4, part of the <i>Two Ways</i>). When there
are no prayers in church, reading at home is enjoined (27): &ldquo;let
the sun each morning see the book upon thy knees&rdquo; (comp. Ath.
<i>Ad virg.</i>, § 12, &ldquo;Let the sun when he ariseth see the book in thy
hands&rdquo;). Prayer must be preceded by the washing of the hands.
&ldquo;No believer must take food before communicating, especially
on fast-days&rdquo;: only believers may communicate (28). The sacred
elements must be guarded, &ldquo;lest anything fall into the cup, and it
be a sin unto death for the presbyters.&rdquo; No crumb must be dropped,
&ldquo;lest an evil spirit get possession of it.&rdquo; Canons 30-35 contain
various rules, and specially deal with suppers for the poor (<i>i.e.</i>
<i>agapae</i>) and memorial feasts. Then we have a prayer for the offering
of first-fruits (36); a direction that ministers shall wear fair garments
at &ldquo;the mysteries&rdquo; (37); and a command to watch during the
night of the resurrection (38). The last canon hereupon passes into
a general exhortation to right living, which forms a sixth part of
the whole book. In Riedel&rsquo;s translation we read this for the first
time as a connected whole. It falls into two parts, and describes,
first, the true life of ordinary Christians, warning them against an
empty profession, and laying down many precepts of morality;
and then it addresses itself to the &ldquo;ascete&rdquo; who &ldquo;wishes to belong
to the rank of the angels,&rdquo; and who lives a life of solitude and
poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat strange
lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned against
spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes with
an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in St
Matthew xxv.</p>
</div>

<p>2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of
Hippolytus without some reference to allied documents (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolical Constitutions</a></span>). (<i>a</i>) The most important of
these is what is now commonly called the <i>Egyptian Church
Order</i>. This is preserved to us in Coptic and Aethiopic versions,
of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German translations. The
subject-matter and arrangement of these canons correspond
generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are
modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A
new light was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler&rsquo;s
discovery (1900) of a Latin version (of which, unfortunately,
about half is missing) in the Verona palimpsest, from which
he has also given us large Latin fragments of the <i>Didascalia</i>
(which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic Constitutions, and
which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac). The Latin
of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than
the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the
<i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>. It has a preface which refers to a treatise
<i>Concerning Spiritual Gifts</i>, as having immediately preceded it;
but neither this nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the
introduction or concluding exhortation which is found in the
<i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>. (<i>b</i>) <i>The Testament of the Lord</i> is a document
in Syriac, of which the opening part had been published
by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani (1899) has given us the whole.
It professes to contain instructions given by our Lord to the
apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction containing
apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate directions
for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded
form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of
the preface to that document which appears in the Latin version.
It cannot be placed with probability earlier than the latter part
of the 4th century. (<i>c</i>) The <i>Apostolic Constitutions</i> is a composite
document, which probably belongs to the end of the 4th century.
Its first six books are an expanded edition of a <i>Didascalia</i> which
we have already mentioned: its seventh book similarly expands
and modifies the <i>Didachè</i> its eighth book begins by treating
of &ldquo;spiritual gifts,&rdquo; and then in c. 3 passes on to expand in like
manner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has
wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of
the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek
recension. (<i>d</i>) The <i>Canons of Basil</i> is the title of an Arabic
work, of which a German translation has been given us by
Riedel, who thinks that they have come through Coptic from
an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified form,
considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus.</p>

<p>3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship.
Much of the material has been quite recently brought to
light, and criticism has not had time to investigate and pronounce
upon it. Some provisional remarks, therefore, are all that can
prudently be made. It seems plain that we have two lines of
tradition: (1) The Canons of Hippolytus, followed by the
Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself represented
(<i>a</i>) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and
the Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the
same preface (or portions of it); (<i>b</i>) by the Coptic and Aethiopic
versions. Now, the preface of the Latin version points to a time
when the canons were embodied in a <i>corpus</i> of similar materials,
or, at the least, were preceded by a work on &ldquo;Spiritual Gifts.&rdquo;
The Canons of Hippolytus have a wholly different preface, and
also a long exhortation at the close. The question which criticism
must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons of Hippolytus
are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is derived,
or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both.
At present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the
true explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to
contain contradictory regulations (<i>e.g.</i> cc. 2 and 4 of the
presbyters), and also suggest that they have received a considerable
supplement (after c. 23). There is, however, no doubt that
they present us with a more primitive stage of Church life than
we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The mention of sub-deacons
(which, after Riedel&rsquo;s fresh manuscript evidence, cannot
now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult
to assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd
century.</p>

<p>The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with
the temper of the writer to whom the Arabic title attributes
them; and it is to be noted that the exhortation at the
close contains a quotation from 2 Peter actually attributed
to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the earliest
author who can with certainty be said to have used this epistle.
But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple, straight-forward
and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the
closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented
to us in his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than
that of the writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of
Hippolytus as it would be to think of Origen in such a connexion.
How, then, are we to account for the attribution? There is
evidence to show that Hippolytus was highly reverenced throughout
the East: his writings, which were in Greek, were known,
but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed to
be &ldquo;a pupil (<span class="grk" title="gnôrimos">&#947;&#957;&#974;&#961;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>) of apostles&rdquo; (Palladius, 4th century),
and the Arabic title calls him &ldquo;chief of the bishops of Rome,&rdquo;
<i>i.e.</i> archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution
more than the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the <i>Dormitio
Mariae</i> to &ldquo;Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who
was the second after Peter the apostle&rdquo; (<i>Texts and Studies</i>, iv.
2-44)&mdash;Evodius being by tradition first bishop of Antioch.
A whole group of books on Church Order bears the name of
Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our canons to Hippolytus
may be only an example of the same tendency. The
fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise <i>Concerning Spiritual Gifts</i>,
and that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin
preface to the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found
at the beginning of book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions,
introduces an interesting complication; but we cannot here
pursue the matter further. Dom Morin&rsquo;s ingenious attribution
of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the ground of
Eusebius, <i>H.E.</i> vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the broader
church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean
authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
the strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were
compiled in their present form.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis,
<i>Texte u. Unters.</i> vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, <i>Testamentum Domini</i>
(1899); Hauler, <i>Didascaliae Apostolorum</i> (1900); Riedel, <i>Kirchenrechtsquellen
des Patriarchats Alexandrien</i> (1900).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. A. R.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPONAX,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from
Ephesus in 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge
in Clazomenae, where he spent the rest of his life in poverty.
His deformed figure and malicious disposition exposed him to
the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus and Athenis, upon
whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a series of
satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes
and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and
predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling,
his rude vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous
allusions to matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming
a favourite in Attica. He was considered the inventor
of parody and of a peculiar metre, the <i>scazon</i> or <i>choliambus</i>,
which substitutes a spondee for the final iambus of an iambic
senarius, and is an appropriate form for the burlesque character
of his poems.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Fragments in Bergk, <i>Poëtae lyrici Graeci</i>; see also B. J. Peltzer,
<i>De parodica Graecorum poèsi</i> (1855), containing an account of
Hipponax and the fragments.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPOPOTAMUS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (&ldquo;river-horse,&rdquo; Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, horse and
<span class="grk" title="potamos">&#960;&#959;&#964;&#945;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>, river), the name of the largest representative of the
non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living
and extinct relatives. The common hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus
amphibius</i>), which formerly inhabited all the great rivers
of Africa but whose range has now been much restricted, is most
likely the <i>behemoth</i> of Scripture, and may very probably in
Biblical times have been found in the Jordan valley, since at a
still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a large part of
Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a family,
<i>Hippopotamidae</i>, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and
peccaries, or <i>Suidae</i>, by the following assemblage of characters:
Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with
four subequal toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching
the ground in walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously
growing; those of the upper jaw curved and directed downwards;
those of the lower straight and procumbent. Canines
very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones directed
downwards. Premolars <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span>; molars <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>. Stomach complex. No
caecum.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:373px" src="images/img522.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption">The Hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>).</td></tr></table>

<p>In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature,
measuring in the largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the extremity
of the upper lip to the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily
attains a length of 12 ft., with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders,
and a girth round the thickest part of the body almost equal to
its length. The small ears are exceedingly flexible, and kept in
constant motion when the animal is seeking to catch a distant
sound; the eyes are placed high up on the head, but little below
the level of the ears; while the gape is wide, and the upper lip
thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large tusks when the
mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped grinding-surfaces
are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances,
while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved
chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural
implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but
little elevated above the ground; and the feet, which are small
in proportion to the size of the animal, terminate in four short
toes each bearing a small hoof. With the exception of a few tufts
of hair on the lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the
extremity of the short robust tail, the skin of the hippopotamus,
some portions of which are 2 in. in thickness, is destitute of
covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious animals, living in herds
of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and in the beds of
rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily find
appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic
plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the
stomach being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They
feed principally by night, remaining in the water during the day,
although in districts where they are little disturbed they are less
exclusively aquatic. In such remote quarters, they put their
heads boldly out of the water to blow, but when rendered suspicious
they become exceedingly cautious in this respect, only
exposing their nostrils above the water, and even this they
prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their
enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and
divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight
minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least
1 ft. of water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when,
as often happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated
ground, they do immense damage to growing crops, destroying
by their ponderous tread even more than they devour. To scare
away these unwelcome visitors the natives in such districts are
in the habit of kindling fires at night. Although hippopotamuses
do not willingly go far from the water on which their existence
depends, they occasionally travel long distances by night in
search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are able
to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a
wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the
water and galloping inland, he writes: &ldquo;I never could have
imagined that so unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such
speed. No man could have had a chance of escape.&rdquo; The
hippopotamus does not confine itself to rivers and lakes, but has
been known to prefer the waters of the ocean as its home during
the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it seeks to avoid
collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence of
its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are
capsized and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks;
the bellowing grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a
mile away. As among elephants, so also among hippopotamuses
there are &ldquo;rogues&rdquo;&mdash;old bulls which have become soured in
solitude, and are at all times dangerous. Assuming the offensive
on every occasion, they attack all and sundry without shadow
of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which are
usually well known.</p>

<p>The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus,
<i>H.</i> (<i>Choeropsis</i>) <i>liberiensis</i>, of West Africa, an animal not larger
than a clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized
by having generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is
much less aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the
habits of a pig.</p>

<p>A small extinct species (<i>H. lemerlei</i>) inhabited Madagascar at
a comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were
natives of Crete (<i>H. minutus</i>) and Malta and Sicily (<i>H. pentlandi</i>)
during the Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species
(<i>H. amphibius major</i>) was distributed over Europe as far north
as Yorkshire at the same epoch; while an allied species (<i>H.
palaeindicus</i>) inhabited Pleistocene India. Contemporary with
the latter was, however, a species (<i>H. namadicus</i>) with three
pairs of incisors; and &ldquo;hexaprotodont&rdquo; hippopotamuses are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span>
also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (<i>H.
sivalensis</i> and <i>H. iravadicus</i>), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern
Europe (<i>H. hipponensis</i>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artiodactyla</a></span>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPPURIC ACID<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, horse, <span class="grk" title="ouron">&#959;&#8022;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, urine), benzoyl
glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">9</span>NO<span class="su">3</span> or
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, an organic acid found in the urine of
horses and other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic
compounds, such as benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally.
J. v. Liebig in 1829 showed that it differed from benzoic
acid, and in 1839 determined its constitution, while in 1853
V. Dessaignes (<i>Ann.</i> 87, p. 325) synthesized it by acting with
benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It is also formed by
heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius, <i>Ber.</i>, 1884,
17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with monochloracetic
acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble
in hot water, melt at 187° C. and decompose at about 240° C. It
is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid and
glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid,
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·O·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to
form hippuryl hydrazine, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, which
was used by Curtius for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIPURNIAS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000
in number, living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their
houses are long, low and narrow: the side walls and roof are one,
poles being fixed in the ground and then bent together so as to
meet and form a pointed arch for the cross-sections. They use
small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are poisoned arrows.
They have a native god called Guintiniri.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRA,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd
century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32°
N., 44° 20&prime; E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa&rsquo;ade
canal, on the shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum.
Its kings governed the western shore of the lower Euphrates and
of the Persian Gulf, their kingdom extending inland to the confines
of the Nejd. This Lakhmid kingdom was more or less
dependent, during the four centuries of its existence, on the
Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer state
towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding
of Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into
decay. The ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while extensive,
are insignificant in appearance and give no indications
of the existence of important buildings.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRADO,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an island belonging to Japan, 19½ m. long and 6 m.
wide, lying off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu,
in 33° 15&prime; N. and 129° 25&prime; E. It is celebrated as the site of the
original Dutch factory&mdash;often erroneously written Firando&mdash;and
as the place where one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains
of Japan (<i>Hiradoyaki</i>) was produced in the 17th and 18th
centuries. The kilns are still active.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in the law of contract, a
form of bailment of goods, on credit, which has extended very
considerably of late years. Originally applied to the sale of
the more expensive kinds of goods, such as pianos and articles
of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement has now been extended
to almost every description. The agreement is usually in writing,
with a stipulation that the payments to purchase shall be by
weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is virtually
one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to
recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment,
it is treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision
that when the last instalment has been paid the goods shall
become the property of the hirer. A clause provides that in
case of default of any instalment, or breach of any part of the
agreement, all previous payments shall be forfeited to the lender,
who can forcibly recover the goods. Such agreements, therefore,
do not pass the property in the goods, which remains in the
lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the terms
of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature
of the transaction between the parties, where, for example, the
hire-purchase is merely to create a security for money. In such
a case a judge will look to the true nature of the transaction.
If it is not a real letting and hiring, the agreement will require
registration under the Bills of Sale Acts. If the agreement
contains words to the effect that a person has &ldquo;bought or agreed
to buy&rdquo; goods, the transaction comes under the Factors Act
1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose
of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership,
by which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in
his apparent possession, has been somewhat modified by trade
customs, in accordance with which property is frequently let
out on the hire-purchase system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRING<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>hýrian</i>, a word common to many Teutonic
languages cf. Ger. <i>heuern</i>, Dutch <i>huren</i>, &amp;c.), in law, a contract
by which one man grants the use of a thing to another in return
for a certain price. It corresponds to the <i>locatio-conductio</i> of
Roman law. That contract was either a letting of a thing
(<i>locatio-conductio rei</i>) or of labour (<i>locatio operarum</i>). The
distinguishing feature of the contract was the price. Thus the
contracts of <i>mutuum</i>, <i>commodatum</i>, <i>depositum</i> and <i>mandatum</i>,
which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price is fixed,
cases of <i>locatio-conductio</i>. In modern English law the term can
scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense. The
contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the
head of <i>locatio-conductio</i>&mdash;such as those of landlord and tenant,
master and servant, &amp;c.&mdash;are not in English law treated as cases
of hiring but as independent varieties of contract. Neither
in law books nor in ordinary discourse could a tenant farmer
be said to hire his land. Hiring would generally be applied to
contracts in which the services of a man or the use of a thing
are engaged for a short time.</p>

<p><i>Hiring Fairs</i>, or <i>Statute Fairs</i>, still held in Wales and some
parts of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every
important country town. These fairs served to bring together
masters and servants. The men and maids seeking work stood
in rows, the males together and the females together, while masters
and mistresses walked down the lines and selected those who
suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were always held on
Martinmas Day (11th of November). Now they are held on
different dates in different towns, usually in October or November.
In Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their
mouths. In Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and
employed was closed by the giving of the &ldquo;fasten-penny,&rdquo; the
earnest money, usually a shilling, which &ldquo;fastened&rdquo; the contract
for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the Statute Fair it
was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or Runaway
Mop. &ldquo;Mop&rdquo; (from Lat. <i>mappa</i>, napkin, or small cloth)
meant in Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called,
it is suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those
seeking employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his
hat, the cowherd a tuft of cow&rsquo;s hair, and so on. Another
possible explanation would be to take the word &ldquo;mop&rdquo; in its
old provincial slang sense of &ldquo;a fool,&rdquo; mop fair being the fools&rsquo;
fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were too dull or
slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps &ldquo;runaway&rdquo;
suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness,
or those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring
and so ran away.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIROSAKI,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku
or Rikuchiu, north Nippon, 22 m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop.
about 37,000. The fine isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain
of pilgrimage, rises to the west. Hirosaki is a very old place,
formerly residence of a great daimio (or daimyo) and capital of
a vast principality, and still the seat of a high court with jurisdiction
over the surrounding districts of Aomori and Akita.
Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continuous
verandas extending from house to house, and affording a
promenade completely sheltered from the snows of winter.
Apples of fine flavour grow in the district, which also enjoys
some reputation for its peculiar green lacquer-ware.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIROSHIGE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the
principal members of that branch of the <i>Ukiyo-ye</i> or Popular
School of Painting in Japan, a school which chiefly made
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
colour-prints. His family name was And&#333; Tokitar&#333;; that under
which he is known having been, in accordance with Japanese
practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was
a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the
account given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a
visit to Japan; where a sketch of a procession drawn with great
skill by Hiroshige at the age of ten years only is mentioned as
one of the remarkable sights seen. At the age of fifteen he
applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the studio of the elder
Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro. On the
death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own
account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (T&#333;ky&#333;) he
removed to Ki&#333;to, where he published a set of landscapes. He
soon returned to Yedo, where his work soon became popular,
and was imitated by other artists. He died in that city on the
6th day of the 9th month of the year, Ansei 5th, at the age of
sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his pupils,
Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and
another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were
closely associated with the work signed with the name of the
master. Hiroshige II. some time after the year 1863 fell into
disgrace and was compelled to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where
he died; Hiroshige III. then called himself Hiroshige II. He
died in 1896. The earlier prints by these artists, whose work
can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit. They
applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes
of depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of
convention that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan,
and by no European. Most of their subjects were derived from
the neighbourhood of Yedo, or were scenes on the old high road&mdash;the
Tokaid&#333;&mdash;that ran from that city to Ki&#333;to. The two
elder of the name were competent painters, and pictures and
drawings by them are occasionally to be met with.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E. F. Strange, &ldquo;Japanese Colour-prints&rdquo; (<i>Victoria and
Albert Museum Handbook</i>, 1904).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIROSHIMA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the
government of its name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545.
It is very beautifully situated on a small plain surrounded by
hills, the bay being studded with islands. In its general aspect it
resembles Osaka, from which it is 190 m. W. by rail, and next to
that place and Hiogo it is the most important commercial centre
on the Inland Sea. The government has an area of about 3000
sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000. Hiroshima is
famous all over Japan owing to its association with the neighbouring
islet of Itaku-Shima, &ldquo;Island of Light,&rdquo; which is dedicated
to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders
of Japan. The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the
island, which is inhabited largely by priests and their attendants,
is annually visited by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed
soil is never tilled, so that all provisions have to be brought from
the surrounding districts.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRPINI<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from an Oscan or Sabine stem <i>hirpo-</i>, &ldquo;wolf&rdquo;), an
inland Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was
bounded by that of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the
S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and Frentani on the E. and N.E. On
the N. we find them, politically speaking, identified with the
Pentri and Carac&#275;ni, and with them constituting the Samnite
alliance in the wars of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samnites</a></span>).
The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these allies by
the foundation of Beneventum in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and henceforward they
are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and retained
their independence until, after joining in the Social war,
which in their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till
the final defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they received
the Roman franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the
evidence of their place-names, only a few fragments survive
(R. S. Conway, <i>The Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 170 ff.; and for <i>hirpo-</i>,
<i>ib.</i> p. 200). In the ethnology of Italy the Hirpini appear from
one point of view as the purest type of Safine stock, namely, that
in which the proportion of ethnica formed with the suffix <i>-no-</i> is
highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal or municipal
epithets being formed thereby (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Caudini</i>, <i>Compsani</i>) and only
one with the suffix -<i>ti</i>- (<i>Abellinates</i>), where it is clearly secondary.
On the significance of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>.</p>
<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRSAU<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (formerly <i>Hirschau</i>), a village of Germany, in the
kingdom of Württemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-Horb
railway, 2 m. N. of Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some
small manufactures, but it owes its origin and historical interest
to its former Benedictine monastery, <i>Monasterium Hirsaugiense</i>,
at one period one of the most famous in Europe. Its picturesque
ruins, of which only the chapel with the library hall are still in
good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of the establishment.
It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw, at
the instigation of his son, Bishop Notting of Vercelli, who enriched
it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius.
Its first occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from
Fulda, disciples of Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo,
headed by the abbot Liudebert. During about a century and a
half, under the fostering care of the counts of Calw, it enjoyed
great prosperity, and became an important seat of learning; but
towards the end of the 10th century the ravages of the pestilence
combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the selfishness
and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest ebb.
After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years
it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William&mdash;Wilhelm von
Hirsau&mdash;abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its
former splendour. By his <i>Constitutiones Hirsaugienses</i>, a new
religious order, the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of
which was afterwards adopted by many monastic establishments
throughout Germany, such as those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and
Schaffhausen. The friend and correspondent of Pope Gregory
VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot William took active
part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of his time;
while a treatise from his pen, <i>De musica et tonis</i>, as well as the
<i>Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii.</i>, bears
witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end
of the 12th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau
was again very perceptibly on the decline; and it never afterwards
again rose into importance. In consequence of the
Reformation it was secularized in 1558; in 1692 it was laid in
ruins by the French. The <i>Chronicon Hirsaugiense</i>, or, as in the
later edition it is called, <i>Annales Hirsaugienses</i> of Abbot Trithemius
(Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is, although containing much
that is merely legendary, an important source of information,
not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on the early
history of Germany. The <i>Codex Hirsaugiensis</i> was edited by
A. F. Gfrörer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Steck, <i>Das Kloster Hirschau</i> (1844); Helmsdörfer, <i>Forschungen
zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau</i> (Göttingen, 1874);
Weizsäcker, <i>Führer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau</i>
(Stuttgart, 1898); Süssmann, <i>Forschungen zur Geschichte des
Klosters Hirschau</i> (Halle, 1903); Giseke, <i>Die Hirschauer während
des Investiturstreits</i> (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, <i>Das Kloster
Hirschau</i> (Tübingen, 1886); and Baer, <i>Die <span class="correction" title="amended from Hirsauers">Hirsauer</span> Bauschule</i>
(Freiburg, 1897).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRSCH, MAURICE DE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron Hirsch auf Gereuth</span>, in the
baronage of Bavaria (1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist
(German by birth, Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at
Munich, 9th December 1831. His grandfather, the first Jewish
landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled with the <i>prädikat</i> &ldquo;auf
Gereuth&rdquo; in 1818; his father, who was banker to the Bavarian
king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for generations has
occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish community.
At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to school,
but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855
he became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim
&amp; Goldschmidt, of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a
large fortune, which he increased by purchasing and working
railway concessions in Austria, Turkey and the Balkans, and by
speculations in sugar and copper. While living in great splendour
in Paris and London and on his estates in Hungary, he devoted
much of his time to schemes for the relief of his Hebrew co-religionists
in lands where they were persecuted and oppressed.
He took a deep interest in the educational work of the Alliance
Israélite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the society
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly paid
the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several
thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations
and presented the society with securities producing an annual
income of £16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary
of the emperor Francis Joseph&rsquo;s accession to the Austrian throne
he gave £500,000 for the establishment of primary and technical
schools in Galicia and the Bukowina. The greatest charitable
enterprise on which he embarked was in connexion with the
persecution of the Jews in Russia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>). He
gave £10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation of the
refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame conclusion
to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the Russian
Jews, he offered the Russian Government £2,000,000 for the endowment
of a system of secular education to be established in the
Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing
to accept the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be
concerned in its control or administration. Thereupon Baron
de Hirsch resolved to devote the money to an emigration and
colonization scheme which should afford the persecuted Jews
opportunities of establishing themselves in agricultural colonies
outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization Association
as an English society, with a capital of £2,000,000, and in 1892
he presented to it a further sum of £7,000,000. On the death of
his wife in 1899 the capital was increased to £11,000,000, of which
£1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death
duties. This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest
charitable trust in the world, is now managed by delegates of
certain Jewish societies, chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of
London and the Alliance Israélite Universelle of Paris, among
whom the shares in the association have been divided. The
association, which is prohibited from working for profit, possesses
large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia Minor. In
addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and complex
machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish persecution,
including emigration and distributing agencies, technical
schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model
dwellings in the congested Russian jewries. It also subventions
and assists a large number of societies all over the world whose
work is connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish
refugees. Besides this great organization, Baron de Hirsch
founded in 1891 a benevolent trust in the United States for the
benefit of Jewish immigrants, which he endowed with £493,000.
His minor charities were on a princely scale, and during his
residence in London he distributed over £100,000 among the
local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the
whole gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English
turf, of which he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said
himself, &ldquo;for the London hospitals,&rdquo; and in 1892, when his filly,
La Flêche, won the Oaks, St Leger and One Thousand Guineas,
his donations from this source amounted to about £40,000.
Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara, daughter of
Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had a
son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at
Ogyalla, near Komorn, in Hungary, 21st April 1896. The
baroness, who seconded her husband&rsquo;s charitable work with
great munificence&mdash;their total benefactions have been estimated
at £18,000,000,&mdash;died at Paris on the 1st of April 1899.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For details of Baron de Hirsch&rsquo;s chief charities see the annual
reports of the Alliance Israélite Universelle and of the &ldquo;Administration
Centrale&rdquo; of the Jewish Colonization Association.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(L. W.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1808-1888), Jewish theologian,
was born in Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main
in 1888. He opposed the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and
presented Jewish orthodoxy in a new and attractive light. His
philosophical conception of tradition, associated as it was with
conservatism in ritual practice, created what is often known as
the Frankfort &ldquo;Neo-Orthodoxy.&rdquo; Hirsch exercised a profound
influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide
of liberalism. His famous <i>Nineteen Letters</i> (1836), with which
the Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by
Drachmann (New York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were
<i>Horeb</i>, and commentaries on the Pentateuch and Psalms. These
are marked by much originality, but their exegesis is fanciful.
Three volumes of his essays have been published (1902-1908);
these were collected as <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> from his periodical
<i>Jeschurun</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For Hirsch&rsquo;s religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, <i>A Book of
Essays</i> (London, 1905).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRSCHBERG,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and
Zacken, 1120 ft. above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Görlitz, on the
railway to Glatz, with branches to Grünthal and Schmiedeberg.
Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is surrounded by pleasant promenades
occupying the site of its former fortifications. It possesses an
Evangelical church, the church of the Holy Cross, one of the six
<i>Gnaden Kirchen</i> for the Silesian Protestants stipulated for in the
agreement at Altranstädt between Charles XII. of Sweden and the
emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches, one of
which dates from the 14th century, a synagogue, several schools,
an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium
of commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include
the carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and
cotton fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain,
sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a
lively trade in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town
is celebrated for its romantic surroundings, including the
Cavalierberg, from which there is a splendid view, the Hausberg,
the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric temple, the Kreuzberg,
with walks commanding beautiful views, and the Sattler
ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was
in existence in the 11th century, and obtained town rights in
1108 from Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the
Hussites in 1427, and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640.
The foundation of its prosperity was laid in the 16th century by
the introduction of the manufacture of linen and veils.</p>

<p>Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the
Saale with manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRSON,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of
Aisne, 35 m. by rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906)
8335. It occupies an important strategic position close to the
point of intersection of several railway lines, and not far from
the Belgian frontier. For its defence there are a permanent fort
and two batteries, near the railway junction. The town carries
on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles, iron and tin goods,
wool-spinning and brewing.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIRTIUS, AULUS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 90-43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman historian and statesman.
He was with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the
civil war broke out in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to
protect Caesar&rsquo;s interests. He was also a personal friend of
Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius Pansa by Caesar for
the consulship of 43; and after the dictator&rsquo;s assassination in
March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial party
against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The
consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus
Brutus. On the 15th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius
at Forum Gallorum, about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life
in the engagement. Hirtius, however, compelled Antonius to
retire on Mutina, where another battle took place on the 25th
(or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain. Of the continuations
of Caesar&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>&mdash;the eighth book of the Gallic war,
the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish wars&mdash;the
first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian war
is perhaps by him (or Oppius); the last two are supposed to have
been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the
events described, with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation
in his proposed work on military commanders. The language
of Hirtius is good, but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M.
Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Literatur</i>, i.; also R. Schneider,
<i>Bellum Africanum</i> (1905). For the history of the period see under
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius</a></span>; Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i> (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier,
<i>Cicero and his Friends</i> (Eng. trans., 1897).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISH&#256;M IBN AL-KALB&#298;<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> [Ab&#363;-l Mundhir Hish&#257;m ibn
Ma&#7717;ommed ibn us-S&#257;&rsquo;b ul-Kalb] (d. <i>c.</i> 819), Arabic historian,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
was born in Kufa, but spent much of his life in Bagdad. Like his
father, on whose authority he relied largely, he collected information
about the genealogies and history of the ancient Arabs.
According to the <i>Fihrist</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nad&#299;m</a></span>) he wrote 140 works. As
independent works they have almost entirely ceased to exist, but
his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually quoted
in the <i>Kit&#257;b ul-Agh&#257;ni</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Large extracts from another of his works, the <i>Kit&#257;b ul-Asn&#257;m</i>,
are contained in the <i>Khiz&#257;nat ul-Adab</i> (iii. 242-246) and in the
geography of Y&#257;q&#363;t (q.v.). These latter have been translated with
comments by J. Wellhausen in his <i>Reste des arabischen Heidentums</i>
(2nd ed., Berlin, 1897).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISPELLUM<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria,
Italy, 3 m. N. of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia,
1030 ft. above sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned
before the time of Augustus, who founded a colony there (<i>Colonia
Iulia Hispellum</i>) and extended its territory to the springs of the
Clitumnus, which had originally belonged to the territory of
Mevania. It received the name of Flavia Constans by a rescript
of the emperor Constantine, a copy of which on a marble tablet
is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which the town is
entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it; two
other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks
of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what
is possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an
amphitheatre, and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern
high-road, outside the town.</p>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISSAR,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a district in Central Asia, lying between 66° 30&prime; and 70°
E. and 39° 15&prime; and 37° N. and dependent on the amir of Bokhara.
It forms that part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which
lies on the north side of the river, opposite the Afghan province
of Balkh. The western prolongation of the Tian-shan, which
divides the basin of the Zarafshan from that of the upper Amu,
after rising to a height of 12,300 ft., bifurcates in 67° 45&prime; E. The
main chain, the southern arm of this bifurcation, designated the
Hissar range, but sometimes called also Koh-i-tau, forms the N.
and N.W. boundaries of Hissar. On the W. it is wholly bounded
by the desert; the Amu limits it on the S. and S.E.; and Karateghin
and Darvaz complete the boundary on the E. Until
1875 it was one of the least known tracts of Central Asia. Hissar
is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the Amu,
viz. the Surkhab or Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-darya,
which descend from the snowy mountains to the north
and form a series of fertile valleys, disposed in a fan-shape,
within which lie the principal towns. In the N.W. boundary
range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated the defile
formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, B&#257;b-al-Had&#299;d, Dar
Ahan&#299;n and in Chinese T&rsquo;ie-m&#275;n-kuan) but now styled Buzghol-khana
or the Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be
a Mongol word meaning barrier. This pass is described as a deep
but narrow chasm in a transverse range, whose rocks overhang
and threaten to choke the tortuous and gloomy corridor (in
places but five paces wide) which affords the only exit from the
valley. In ancient times it was a vantage point of much importance
and commanded one of the chief routes between
Turkestan and India. Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who
passed through it in the 7th century, states that there were
then two folding doors or gates, cased with iron and hung
with bells, placed across the pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambassador
to the court of Timur, heard of this when he passed
through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the gates had then
disappeared.</p>

<p>The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its
upper portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but
its chief products are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop.
15,000) commands the entrance into the fertile valleys of the
Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as Kabadian at the southern end
of the latter defends them from the south. Hissar was long
famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods. Kulab
produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from
the surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing
town, and is surrounded with rice-fields.</p>

<p>The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks,
the former predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks
into the hills. On the banks of the Amu there are Turkomans
who work the ferries, drive sheep and accompany caravans.
Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are other elements
of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar and
Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the
north and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals
and garden plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown
in the district of Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and
rock-salt are all exported.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;This country was anciently part of the Persian
empire of the Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the
Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, and then subject to the invading
Asiatic tribes who broke up that kingdom, <i>e.g.</i> the Yue-chi.
It was afterwards conquered by the Ephthalites or White
Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early part of the
7th century. It then became subject successively to the Mahommedan
invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty
of Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subsequently
became a cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed
by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in 1869-1870, soon after the Russian
occupation of Samarkand.</p>
<div class="author">(J. T. Be.; C. El.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISSAR,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana
railway and the Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi.
Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was founded in 1356 by the emperor
Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to supply it with water;
but this fell into decay during the 18th century, owing to the
constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely
depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards
occupied by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas,
who built a fort and collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly
known for its cattle and horse fairs, and has a cotton factory.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms
the western border district of the great Bikanir desert, and
consists for the most part of sandy plains dotted with shrub
and brushwood, and broken by undulations towards the
south, which rise into hills of rock like islands out of a
sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose supply is
uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower
Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by
<i>jhils</i>, which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna
canal crosses the district from east to west, irrigating many
villages. The soil is in places hard and clayey, and difficult
to till; but when sufficiently irrigated it is highly productive.
Old mosques and other buildings exist in parts of the district.
Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white oxen, which are
in great request for the carriages of natives. The district has
always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this kind
of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has
suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in
1901 was 781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade,
whereas in the previous decade there had been an increase of
15%. The climate is very dry, hot westerly winds blowing
from the middle of March till July. Cotton weaving, ginning
and pressing are carried on. The district is served by the
Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the Jodhpur-Bikanir
railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi,
Hissar and Sirsa.</p>

<p>Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract
of which Hissar district now forms part was the retreat of
Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the end of the 18th century the
Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after bloody struggles.
To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts, nature lent
her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally
to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810.
Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time
to British rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or
compelled to fly. The Bhattis rose under their hereditary
chiefs, and the majority of the Mahommedan population followed
their example. Before Delhi had been recovered, the rebels
were utterly routed.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISTIAEUS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (d. 494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian
king Darius Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered
great service to Darius while he was campaigning in Scythia by
persuading his fellow-despots not to destroy the bridge over
the Danube by which the Persians must return. Choosing his
own reward for this service, he became possessor of territory near
Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and minerals.
The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to Susa,
where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually
a prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing
power in Ionia. During this period the Greek cities were left
under native despots supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-law
of Histiaeus, being ruler of Miletus in his stead. This prince,
having failed against Naxos in a joint expedition with the satrap
Artaphernes, began to stir up the Ionians to revolt, and this
result was brought to pass, according to Herodotus, by a secret
message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a formidable
character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could
quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at
the coast found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ultimately
driven to establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate;
more probably in charge of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium.
After the total failure of the revolt at the battle of Lade, he made
various attempts to re-establish himself, but was captured by
the Persian Harpagus and crucified by Artaphernes at Sardis.
His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who gave it honourable
burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian revolt
was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible;
there is evidence to show that the Ionians had been meditating
since about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination
and the &ldquo;tyrants&rdquo; on whom it rested (see Grote, <i>Hist. of
Greece</i>, ed. 1907, especially p. 122 note; art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionia</a></span>, and
authorities; also S. Heinlein in <i>Klio</i>, 1909, pp. 341-351).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISTOLOGY<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="histos">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, web, tissue, properly the web-beam
of the loom, from <span class="grk" title="histanai">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, to make to stand), the science which
deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cytology</a></span>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HISTORY.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> The word &ldquo;history&rdquo; is used in two senses. It
may mean either the record of events, or events themselves.
Originally (see below) limited to inquiry and statement, it was
only in comparatively modern times that the meaning of the word
was extended to include the phenomena which form or might
form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat careless
transference of ideas that this extension was brought about.
Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the
&ldquo;history of England&rdquo; without reference to any literary narrative.
We term kings and statesmen the &ldquo;makers of history,&rdquo; and sometimes
say that the historian only records the history which
they make. History in this connexion is obviously not the
record, but the thing to be recorded. It is unfortunate that such
a double meaning of the word should have grown up, for it
is productive of not a little confusion of thought.</p>

<p>History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely
all the phenomena of human life, but those of the natural
world as well. It includes everything that undergoes change;
and as modern science has shown that there is nothing absolutely
static, therefore the whole universe, and every part of it, has
its history. The discovery of ether brought with it a reconstruction
of our ideas of the physical universe, transferring the
emphasis from the mathematical expression of static relationships
to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant transformation;
matter in equipoise became energy in gradual readjustment.
Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in every
particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage
between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal
activity has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history.
It is the same with the other sciences&mdash;especially the biological
division, where the doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude
of mind which is distinctly historical.</p>

<p>But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely
the attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in
just this particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the
unstable nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more
and more capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no
longer held to be inevitable and immutable creations. We do
not attempt to fit them to absolute formulae, but continually
adapt them to a changing environment. Even modern architecture,
notably in America, reflects the consciousness of change.
The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was
fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the
architect builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which
will inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole
society not only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its
growing consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its
arts. In literature, philosophy and political science, there is the
same historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute
standards; it applies the standards of the author&rsquo;s own environment.
We no longer condemn Shakespeare for having violated
the ancient dramatic laws, nor Voltaire for having objected to
the violations. Each age has its own expression, and in judging
each we enter the field of history. In ethics, again, the revolt
against absolute standards limits us to the relative, and morals
are investigated on the basis of history, as largely conditioned
by economic environment and the growth of intellectual freedom.
Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds as a source of
knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As for
political science, we do not regard the national state as that
ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman
Empire. It has hardly come into being before forces are evident
which aim at its destruction. Internationalism has gained
ground in Europe in recent years; and Socialism itself, which is
based upon a distinct interpretation of history, is regarded by its
followers as merely a stage in human progress, like those which
have gone before it. It is evident that Freeman&rsquo;s definition of
history as &ldquo;past politics&rdquo; is miserably inadequate. Political
events are mere externals. History enters into every phase of
activity, and the economic forces which urge society along are
as much its subject as the political result.</p>

<p>In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field.
The world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a
dynamic universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change.
Owing to this insistent change all things which happen, or seem
to happen, are history in the broader sense of the word. The
encyclopaedia itself is a history of them in the stricter sense,&mdash;the
description and record of this universal process. This
narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of this article.</p>

<p>The word &ldquo;history&rdquo; comes from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="historia">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>, which was
used by the Ionians in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for the search for
knowledge in the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation,
not narrative. It was not until two centuries later that the
historikos, the reciter of stories, superseded the <i>histore&#333;n</i> (<span class="grk" title="historeôn">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>),
the seeker after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of
scientific research,&mdash;much the same as what the Athenians later
termed philosophy. Herodotus himself was as much a scientific
explorer as a reciter of narrative, and his life-long investigation
was <i>histori&#275;</i> in his Ionian speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself
who first hinted at the new use of the word, applied merely to the
details accumulated during a long search for knowledge. It
is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it definitely applied
to the literary product instead of the inquiry which precedes it.
From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. <i>historia</i>) has been
a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment of
to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the
forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct
operations, one of which, investigation, is in the field of science,
while the other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art.</p>

<p>The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as
art flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and
the literary gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel
with the scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with
scientific activity. Those periods which have been dominated
by the great masters of style have been less interested in the
criticism of the historian&rsquo;s methods of investigation than in the
beauty of his rhetoric. The scientific historian, deeply interested
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
in the search for truth, is generally but a poor artist, and his
uncoloured picture of the past will never rank in literature beside
the splendid distortions which glow in the pages of a Michelet or
Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is conditioned upon
genius, has no single traceable line of development. Here the
product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the
works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those
of Pheidias as models for all time. On the other hand, history
the science has developed so that it has not only gained recognition
among historians as a distinct subject, but it has raised with
it a group of auxiliary sciences which serve either as tools for
investigation or as a basis for testing the results. The advance
in this branch of history in the 19th century was one of its greatest
achievements. The vast gulf which lies between the history of
Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is the measure
of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the
scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of
&#256;bydos than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather
from the priests of Saïs. In tracing the history of history we
must therefore keep in mind the double aspect.</p>

<p>History itself, this double subject, the science and the art
combined, begins with the dawn of memory and the invention
of speech. It is wrong to term those ages <i>pre-historic</i> whose
history has not come down to us, including in one category the
pre-literary age and the literary whose traces have been lost.
Even the pre-literary had its history, first in myth and then in
saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the myth, for
in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of the
gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination.
Poetry, as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium
for fact. The bard will exaggerate or distort his story. True
history, as a record of what really has happened, first reached
maturity in prose. Therefore, although much of the past has
been handed down to us in epic, in ballad and in the legends of
folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became history in
the narrower sense.</p>

<p>The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions.
Their inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their
permanence depends not upon their importance, but upon the
durability of the substance on which they are inscribed. A note
for a wedding ring baked into the clay of Babylon has been
preserved, while the history of the greatest events has perished.
In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know how
to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral
tradition flourishes,&mdash;being within the reach of every man. It
is only recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art,
has undertaken to interpret for us this first written history.
The process by which the modern fits together all the obtainable
remains of an antiquity, and reconstructs even that past which
left no written record, lies outside the field of this article. But
such enlargement of the field of history is a modern scientific
product, and is to be distinguished from the imperfect beginnings
of history-writing which the archaeologist is able to decipher.</p>

<p>Next to the inscriptions,&mdash;sometimes identical with them,&mdash;are
the early chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family
chronicles preserved the memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds
in the earliest age would have passed into the keeping of the
bards. Such family archives were perhaps the main source for
Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome or Greece.
Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the vehicle
for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in which
Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs.</p>

<p>In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself
became the chief repository of records. There were simple
religious annals, votive tablets recording miracles accomplished
at a shrine, lists of priests and priestesses, accounts of benefactions,
of prodigies and portents. In some cases, as in Rome, the
pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely of religious history,
but of important political events as well. Down to the time of
the Gracchi (131 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the year&rsquo;s
events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the
Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These
pontifical &ldquo;annals&rdquo; thus came to be a sort of civic history.
Chronicles of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical
authors, as for instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the
inventor of letters. But they were continued and edited by men
in whom the critical spirit was awakening, as when the chroniclers
of Ionian towns began the criticism of Homer.</p>

<p>The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities;
men who carried their inquiry (<i>histori&#275;</i>) beyond both written
record and oral tradition to a study of the world around them.
Their &ldquo;saying&rdquo; (<i>logos</i>) was gathered mostly from contemporaries;
and upon the basis of a widened experience they became
critics of their traditions. The opening lines of Hecataeus of
Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in words
which read like a sentence from Voltaire. &ldquo;Hecataeus of
Miletus thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of
the Greeks seem to me manifold and laughable.&rdquo; Those words
mark an epoch in the history of thought. They are the introduction
to historical criticism and scientific investigation. Whatever
the actual achievement of Hecataeus may have been, from his
time onward the scientific movement was set going. Herodotus
of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology, and established
chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a professional
story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific
investigation. Herodotus&rsquo; inquiry was not simply that of an idle
tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It
is easy for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources,
and his failure here or there to discriminate between fact and
fable. But given the imperfect medium for investigation and
the absence of an archaeological basis for criticism, the work of
Herodotus remains a scientific achievement, as remarkable for its
approximation to truth as for the vastness of its scope. Yet it
was Herodotus&rsquo; chief glory to have joined to this scientific spirit
an artistic sense which enabled him to cast the material into
the truest literary form. He gathered all his knowledge of the
ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it around the
story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and
the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme
is like that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose
epos, in which science is to this extent subordinated to art. &ldquo;This
is the showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus,
to the end that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse
of time, nor the works, great and marvellous, which have been
produced, some by Hellenes, some by Barbarians, may lose their
renown, and especially that the causes may be remembered for
which these waged war with one another&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the Persian war).</p>

<p>In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was combined
with a higher science. He scorned the story-teller &ldquo;who
seeks to please the ear rather than to speak the truth,&rdquo; and yet
his rhetoric is the culmination of Greek historical prose. He
withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious that his narrative
would be considered &ldquo;disappointing to the ear,&rdquo; yet he recast the
materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift that
narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and
documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story.
It was his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian
war out of its separate parts. And yet this art was merely the
language of a scientist. The &ldquo;laborious task&rdquo; of which he speaks
is that of consulting all possible evidence, and weighing conflicting
accounts. It is this which makes his rhetoric worth while, &ldquo;an
everlasting possession, not a prize competition which is heard
and forgotten.&rdquo;</p>

<p>From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon&rsquo;s straight-forward
story, history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus
into the field of rhetoric. A revival of the scientific instinct of
investigation is discernable in Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of
the 4th century, but his attack upon his predecessors was the
text of a more crushing attack upon himself by Polybius, who
declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by passion.
Polybius&rsquo; comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise
upon history. He protests against its use for controversial
pamphlets which distort the truth. &ldquo;Directly a man assumes
the moral attitude of an historian he ought to forget all
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
considerations, such as love of one&rsquo;s friends, hatred of one&rsquo;s
enemies.... He must sometimes praise enemies and blame friends.
For as a living creature is rendered useless if deprived of its eyes,
so if you take truth from History, what is left but an improfitable
tale&rdquo; (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke. Unfortunately
Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was
no artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and
the rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions,
so closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator;
history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In
Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an
extensive study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek
rhetoricians upon Roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint
of science. Cicero, although he said that the duty of the
historian is to conceal nothing true, to say nothing false, would
in practice have written the kind of history that Polybius
denounced. He finds fault with those who are <i>non exornatores
rerum sed tantum narratores</i>. History for him is the mine from
which to draw argument in oratory and example in education.
It is not the subject of a scientific curiosity.</p>

<p>It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the
expansion of Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as
well. Universal history was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician,
and formed the theme of Polybius and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks
were the first to write histories of Rome worthy of the name.
The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon the
scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most
important <i>chronica</i> of antiquity.</p>

<p>History-writing in Rome,&mdash;except for the Greek writers
resident there,&mdash;was until the first half of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in
the form of annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation,&mdash;and
the Ciceronian era. The first Roman historian who rose to the
conception of a science and art combined was Sallust, the student
of Thucydides. The Augustan age produced in Livy a great
popular historian and natural artist and a trained rhetorician
(in the speeches),&mdash;but as uncritical and inaccurate as he was
brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from
Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate
artist. His style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the
sternness and sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic
expression in its epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his
searching study of authorities, his keen judgment of men, and
his perception of underlying principles of moral law, his view was
warped by the heat of faction, which glows beneath his external
objectivity. After him Roman history-writing speedily degenerated.
Suetonius&rsquo; <i>Lives of the Caesars</i> is but a superior kind of
journalism. But his gossip of the court became the model for
historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source for
the <i>Historia Augusta</i>. The importance to us of this uncritical
collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of
history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th
century the epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy
the lessening curiosity in the past and became the handbooks
for the middle ages. The single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus
stands out of this age like a belated disciple of Tacitus. But
the world was changing from antique to Christian ideals just as
he was writing, and with him we leave this outline of ancient
history.</p>

<p>The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history
of history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and
in its place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the
world force which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that
small fraction of antiquity from which it sprang,&mdash;the Jews.
Christianity from the first had forced thinking men to reconstruct
their philosophy of history, but it was only after the
Church&rsquo;s triumph that its point of view became dominant in
historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan
models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to
the 17th&mdash;from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a
thousand years,&mdash;mankind was to look back along the line of
Jewish priests and kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest
only as it came into Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were
to illustrate the judgments of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect
the glory of Solomon. The process by which the &ldquo;gentiles&rdquo;
have been robbed of their legitimate history was the inevitable
result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay figures for
the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became
the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in
Sunday schools and in common opinion, not nations of living
men, with the culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do
not enter into the divine scheme of the world&rsquo;s history. When a
line was drawn between pagan and Christian back to the creation
of the world, it left outside the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity.
But it must be remembered that that antiquity was one in which
the German nations had no personal interest. Scipio and the
Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The one living organization
with which they came into touch was the Church. So
Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian,
the organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and
Constantine, the murderer, a saint.</p>

<p>Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church.
With Eusebius of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age
of persecutions gave way to a calm review of three centuries of
Christian progress. Eusebius&rsquo; biography of Constantine shows
what distortion of fact the father of Church history permitted
himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was fortunately written
for those who wanted to know what really happened, and
remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities.
With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and
the Latin manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the
<i>Historia tripartita</i>), it formed the body of Church history during
all the middle ages. An even greater influence, however, was
exercised by Eusebius&rsquo; <i>Chronica</i>. Through Jerome&rsquo;s translation
and additions, this scheme of this world&rsquo;s chronology became the
basis for all medieval world chronicles. It settled until our own
day the succession of years from the Creation to the birth of
Christ,&mdash;fitting the Old Testament story into that of ancient
history. Henceforth the Jewish past,&mdash;that one path back to
the beginning of the world,&mdash;was marked out by the absolute laws
of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out;
Sulpicius Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his <i>Historia
sacra</i>, adorned it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius
was admirably fitted to interpret the miraculous Bible story to
the middle ages. But there were few who could write like him,
and Jerome&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i> itself, or rather portions of it, became,
in the age which followed, a sort of universal preface for the
monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts to
continue &ldquo;imperial chronicles,&rdquo; but they were insignificant
compared with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome.</p>

<p>From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its
earliest apologists sought to show how the world had followed a
divine plan in its long preparation for the life of Christ. From
this central fact of all history, mankind should continue through
war and suffering until the divine plan was completed at the
judgment day. The fate of nations is in God&rsquo;s hands; history
is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether He intervenes
directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation,
He is master of men&rsquo;s fate. This idea, which has underlain all
Christian philosophy of history, from the first apologists who
prophesied the fall of the Empire and the coming of the millennium,
down to our own day, received its classic statement in St
Augustine&rsquo;s <i>City of God</i>. The terrestrial city, whose eternity had
been the theme of pagan history, had just fallen before Alaric&rsquo;s
Goths. Augustine&rsquo;s explanation of its fall passes in review not
only the calamities of Roman history&mdash;combined with a pathetic
perception of its greatness,&mdash;but carries the survey back to the
origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this <i>civitas
terrena</i> he sets the divine city which is to be realized in Christendom.
The Roman Empire,&mdash;the last general form of the earthly
city,&mdash;gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main
thread of Augustine&rsquo;s philosophy of history. The mathematical
demonstration of its truth was left by Augustine for his disciple,
Paulus Orosius.</p>

<p>Orosius&rsquo; <i>Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans</i>, written
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
as a supplement to the <i>City of God</i>, is the first attempt at a
Christian &ldquo;World History.&rdquo; This manual for the middle ages
arranged the rise and fall of empires with convincing exactness.
The history of antiquity, according to it, begins with Ninus.
His realm was overthrown by the Medes in the same year in
which the history of Rome began. From the first year of Ninus&rsquo;
reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis there were
sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and the
building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after
each city was built, it was taken,&mdash;Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by
Alaric, and Cyrus&rsquo; conquest took place just when Rome began the
Republic. But before Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon
and Carthage intervene, guardians of Rome&rsquo;s youth (<i>tutor
curatorque</i>). This scheme of the four world-monarchies, which
was to prevail through all the middle ages, was developed through
seven books filled with the story of war and suffering. As it was
Orosius&rsquo; aim to show that the world had improved since the
coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius&rsquo; war history, written
to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of victory,&mdash;disaster
and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were
plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths
in Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through
the confusion of the German invasions one may look forward to
Christendom,&mdash;and its peace.</p>

<p>The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the
chronicle, which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere
notes on Easter tables, to the dignity of national monuments.
Utterly lacking in perspective, and dominated by the idea of the
miraculous, they are for the most part a record of the trivial or
the marvellous. Individual historians sometimes recount the
story of their own times with sober judgment, but seldom know
how to test their sources when dealing with the past. Contradictions
are often copied down without the writer noticing them;
and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many documents,&mdash;monasteries,
towns and corporations gaining privileges
or titles of possession by the bold use of them,&mdash;the narrative
of medieval writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it
by collateral evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising,
Guibert of Nogent or Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if
they had had our appliances for comparison. But even men like
Roger Bacon, who deplored the inaccuracy of texts, had worked
out no general method to apply in their restoration. Toward the
close of the middle ages the vernacular literatures were adorned
with Villani&rsquo;s and Froissart&rsquo;s chronicles. But the merit of both
lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary narrative.
Neither was a history in the truest sense.</p>

<p>The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic
sense, in the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of
the antique world. They did not altogether succeed; antiquity
to them meant largely Plato and Cicero. Their interests were
literary, and the un-Ciceronian centuries were generally ignored.
Those in which the foundations of modern Europe were laid,
which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities, Dante and
Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened
the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only
one degree better than that of the middle ages. History became
the servant to literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it
passed into the schools, where text-books still in use devote 200
pages to the Peloponnesian war and two to the Athens of Pericles.</p>

<p>But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to
the progress of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation
of texts first made that progress possible. Historical criticism
soon awoke. Laurentius Valla&rsquo;s brilliant attack on the &ldquo;Donation
of Constantine&rdquo; (1440), and Ulrich von Hutten&rsquo;s rehabilitation
of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark the rise of the
new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of controversy
it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of
humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with
the grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the
German scholars turned back to the sources of their national
history. Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered
Otto of Freising and Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the
search for manuscripts, and Vienna became a great humanistic
centre. Conrad Celtes left his <i>Germania illustrata</i> unfinished,
but he had found the works of Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger
gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room in Vienna, and
published several,&mdash;among them Gregory of Tours. This
national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in
France or England, where the classical humanities reigned.
The Reformation meanwhile gave another turn to the work of
German scholars.</p>

<p>The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a
strange starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the
Renaissance, brought out scientific methods of historical investigation.
It not only sobered the humanist tendency to
sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect, it called for the documents
of the Church and subjected them to the most hostile criticism.
Luther himself challenged them. Then in the <i>Magdeburg
Centuries</i> (1559-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its
attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources
accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic
work is the first monument of modern historical research. The
reply of Cardinal Baronius (<i>Annales ecclesiastici</i>, 1588-1697)
was a still greater collection, drawn from archives which till
then had not been used for scientific history. Baronius&rsquo;
criticism and texts are faulty, though far surpassing anything
before his day, and his collection is the basis for most subsequent
ones,&mdash;in spite of J. J. Scaliger&rsquo;s refutation, which was to contain
an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius.</p>

<p>The movement back to the sources in Germany until the
Thirty Years&rsquo; War was a notable one. Collections were made
by Simon Schard (1535-1573), Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608),
Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior Goldast (1576-1635)
and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new epoch, both
by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena, and
by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association
(1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were,
instead of &ldquo;correcting&rdquo; them, was a notable advance. But
from Leibnitz until the 19th century German national historiography
made little progress,&mdash;although church historians like
Mosheim and Neander stand out among the greatest historians
of all time.</p>

<p>France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian&rsquo;s
Renaissance historians. The father of modern French history,
or at least of historical research, was André Duchesne (1584-1640),
whose splendid collections of sources are still in use.
Jean Bodin wrote the first treatise on scientific history (<i>Methodus
ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</i>, 1566), but he did not apply
his own principles of criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine
monks of the Congregation of St Maur to establish definitely
the new science. The place of this school in the history of history
is absolutely without a parallel. Few of those in the audiences
of Molière, returning home under the grey walls of St Germain-des-Près,
knew that within that monastery the men whose
midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific
history; and few of the later historians of that age have been
any wiser. But when Luc d&rsquo;Achery turned from exegetics to
patristics and the lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian
humanist, he led the way to that vast work of collection and
comparison of texts which developed through Mabillon, Montfaucon,
Ruinart, Martène, Bouquet and their associates, into
the indispensable implements of modern historians. Here, as
in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product.
Jean Mabillon&rsquo;s treatise, <i>De re diplomatica</i> (1681), was due to
the criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose <i>Acta
Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur</i> (1643, &amp;c., see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>)
was destined to grow into the greatest repository of legend and
biography the world has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch&rsquo;s
criticisms of the chronicle of St Denis, Mabillon prepared this
manual for the testing of medieval documents. Its canons are
the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the science of diplomatic
(q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval research. Henceforth
even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical rules
by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon implements.
Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to
texts, we should go as far astray as any medieval chronicler.
The France of the Maurists supplied the most essential of these
instruments. The great &ldquo;glossary&rdquo; of Ducange is still in
enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia of the middle
ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new
footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon&rsquo;s <i>Palaeographia graeca</i>
(1708), the monumental <i>Art de vérifier les dates</i> (3rd ed., 1818-1831,
in 38 vols.), and the <i>Nouveau Traité de diplomatique</i> (1750-1765)
of Dom Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of
texts which the Maurists published are too many and too vast
to be enumerated here (see C. Langlois, <i>Manuel de bibliographie
historique</i>, pp. 293 ff.). Dom Bouquet&rsquo;s <i>Historiens de la Gaule
et de la France</i>&mdash;the national repertory for French historians&mdash;is
but one of a dozen tasks of similar magnitude. During the
18th century this deep under-work of scientific history continued
to advance, though for the most part unseen by the brilliant
writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history
in the salons of the old régime. Interrupted by the Revolution,
it revived in the 19th century, and the roll of honour of the
French École des Chartes has almost rivalled that of St
Germain-des-Prés.</p>

<p>The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori
(1672-1750), the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast
collection of sources (<i>Rerum Italicarum scriptores</i>), prepared
amid every discouragement, remains to-day the national monument
of Italian history; and it is but one of his collections.
His output is perhaps the greatest of any isolated worker in the
whole history of historiography. The same haste, but much less
care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the compiler
of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by the
Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during
the 17th and 18th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684)
produced a national literary history of the first rank.</p>

<p>England in the 16th century kept pace with Continental
historiography. Henry VIII.&rsquo;s chaplain, John Leland, is the
father of English antiquaries. Three of the most precious
collections of medieval manuscripts still in existence were then
begun by Thomas Bodley (the Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop
Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at Cambridge), and Robert
Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British Museum). In
Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign a serious effort was made to arrange the national
records, but until the end of the 18th century they were scattered
in not less than fifteen repositories. In the 17th and 18th
centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments
of research as William Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Monasticon</i>, Thomas Madox&rsquo;s
<i>History of the Exchequer</i>, Wilkins&rsquo;s <i>Concilia</i>, and Thomas Rymer&rsquo;s
<i>Foedera</i>. But these works, important as they were, gave but
little idea of the wealth of historical sources which the 19th
century was to reveal in England.</p>

<p>In the 19th century the science of history underwent a sort
of industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented
by the genius of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in
all the archives of Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers
grew into national or international associations, producing from
archives vast collections of material to be worked up into the
artistic form of history. The result of this movement has been
to revolutionize the whole subject. These men of the factory&mdash;devoting
their lives to the cataloguing of archives and libraries,
to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task of
indexing what they have produced&mdash;have made it possible for
the student in an American or Australian college to master in a
few hours in his library sources of history which baffled the long
years of research of a Martène or Rymer. The texts themselves
have mostly become as correct as they can ever be, and manuals
and bibliographies guide one to and through them, so that no one
need go astray who takes the trouble to make use of the mechanism
which is at his hand. For example, since the papal archives
were opened, so many <i>regesta</i> have appeared that soon it will be
possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day by
day for century after century.</p>

<p>The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here.
Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or
calendared; government commissions have rescued numberless
documents from oblivion or destruction, and learned societies
have supplemented and criticized this work and co-ordinated the
results. Every state in Europe now has published the main
sources for its history. The &ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series, the <i>Monumenta
Germaniae historica</i>, and the <i>Documents inédits</i> are but the more
notable of such national products. A series of periodicals
keeps watch over this enormous output. The files and indices
of the <i>English Historical Review</i>, <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, <i>Revue
historique</i>, or <i>American Historical Review</i> will alone reveal the
strength and character of historical research in the later 19th
century.</p>

<p>Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a
way an implement in this great factory system, in which the past
is welded together again. Psychology has been drawn upon to
interpret the movements of revolutions or religions, anthropology
and ethnology furnish a clue to problems to which the key of
documents has been lost. Genealogy, heraldry and chronology
run parallel with the wider subject. But the real auxiliary
sciences to history are those which deal with those traces of the
past that still exist, the science of language (philology), of
writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of seals
(sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures,
and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences
underlie the whole development of scientific history. Dictionaries
and manuals are the instruments of this industrial revolution.
Without them the literary remains of the race would still
be as useless as Egyptian inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archaeology
itself remained but a minor branch of art until the
machinery was perfected which enabled it to classify and interpret
the remains of the &ldquo;pre-historic&rdquo; age.</p>

<p>This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of
history&mdash;the recovery of that past which had already been lost
when our literary history began. The perspective stretches out
as far the other side of Homer as we are this. The old &ldquo;providential&rdquo;
scheme of history disintegrates before a new interest in
the &ldquo;gentile&rdquo; nations to whose high culture Hebrew sources bore
unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism is a part of the historic
process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible basis of history,
are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which they were
partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place in
the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone
left us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources,
and now fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The
scientific historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather
than in the quiet of a library with the classics spread out before
him. There he can reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan
age to which Homeric poems look back, as the Germanic epics
looked back to Rome or Verona. His discoveries, co-ordinated
and arranged in vast <i>corpora inscriptionum</i>, stand now alongside
Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their criticism.
Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men
were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals
and castles are studied as genuine historic documents.</p>

<p>The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and
literary, has remade historical criticism. Ranke&rsquo;s application
of the principles of &ldquo;higher criticism&rdquo; to works written since
the invention of printing (<i>Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber</i>) was
an epoch-making challenge of narrative sources. Now they are
everywhere checked by contemporary evidence, and a clearer
sense of what constitutes a primary source has discredited much
of what had been currently accepted as true. This is true not
only of ancient history, where last year&rsquo;s book may be a thousand
years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an &ldquo;old master&rdquo;
remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote,
Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than
their truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the fall of
the Western Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in
1450, dates which once enclosed the middle ages. The perspective
changes&mdash;the Renaissance grows less and the middle
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes a complex of
economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution a
vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &amp;c., &amp;c.
The result has been a complete transformation of history since
the middle of the 19th century.</p>

<p>In the 17th century the Augustinian scheme of world history
received its last classic statement in Bossuet&rsquo;s <i>Histoire universelle</i>.
Voltaire&rsquo;s reply to it in the 18th (<i>Essai sur les m&oelig;urs</i>) attacked
its limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure
on that of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the
evolutionary theory in this work, neither the <i>philosophe</i> historians
nor Hume nor Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in
history which could take the place of the Providence they
rejected. Religion, though false, might be a real historic force.
History became the tragic spectacle of a game of dupes&mdash;the
real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns slowly
acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves
themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation
of the laws which determine the direction of this evolution.
Giovanni Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there
is no science of human history. But his lonely life and unrecognized
labours leave him apart from the main movement,
until his works were discovered again in the 19th century. It
was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the 19th century,
first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history
which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of
its evolution. Heeren&rsquo;s own influence, however, was slight. The
first half of the century (apart from the scientific activity of
Pertz, Guizot, &amp;c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists,
with their exaggeration of the individual. Carlyle&rsquo;s &ldquo;great man
theory of history&rdquo; is logically connected with the age of Scott.
It was a philosophy of history which lent itself to magnificent
dramatic creations; but it explained nothing. It substituted
the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of
Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as
Truth and Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but
dealing in words to say that the meaning of it all is God&rsquo;s revelation
of Himself. Granting that, what is the process? Why does
it so slowly reveal the Right of the middle ages (as in slavery for
instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle stands to Bossuet
as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to realities. His
idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the keynote of
progress, and describes the function of each&mdash;Judaism to typify
duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism
patience, and Christianity love&mdash;does not account for the facts
of the history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the
real process of evolution, but an ideal which history has not
realized. Besides, it does not face the question how far religion
itself is a product or a cause, or both combined.</p>

<p>In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in
their philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in
his spiritism&mdash;recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment
and not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in
his <i>History of Civilization in England</i> (1857), was the first to work
out the influences of the material world upon history, developing
through a wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and
the general aspect of nature upon the formation of society.
Buckle did not, as is generally believed, make these three factors
dominate all history. He distinctly stated that &ldquo;the advance of
European civilization is characterized by a diminishing influence
of physical laws and an increasing influence of mental laws,&rdquo;
and &ldquo;the measure of civilization is the triumph of mind over
external agents.&rdquo; Yet his challenge, not only to the theologian,
but also to those &ldquo;historians whose indolence of thought&rdquo; or
&ldquo;natural incapacity&rdquo; prevented them from attempting more than
the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from
almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away,
we see that in spite of Buckle&rsquo;s too confident formulation of his
laws, his pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the
Augustine of the scientific age. Among historians, however,
Buckle&rsquo;s theory received but little favour for another generation.
Meanwhile the economists had themselves taken up the problem,
and it was from them that the historians of to-day have learned
it. Ten years before Buckle published his history, Karl Marx had
already formulated the &ldquo;economic theory of history.&rdquo; Accepting
with reservation Feuerbach&rsquo;s attack on the Hegelian &ldquo;absolute
idea,&rdquo; based on materialistic grounds (<i>Der Mensch ist, was er isst</i>),
Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process of
growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in
the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to
socialism, which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation
of history. But the truth or falseness of socialism does
not affect the theory of history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the
Young-Hegelians that to separate history from natural science
and industry was like separating the soul from the body, and
&ldquo;finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross material
production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of heaven&rdquo;
(<i>Die heilige Familie</i>, p. 238). In his <i>Misère de la philosophie</i>
(1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships largely
depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles,
ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal
than the relations they express, but are historical and transitory
products. In the famous <i>Manifesto of the Communist Party</i>
(1848) the theory was applied to show how the industrial revolution
had replaced feudal with modern conditions. But it had
little vogue, except among Socialists, until the third volume of
<i>Das Kapital</i> was published in 1894, when its importance was
borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the controversy
has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation.
It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation
of all human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology
rests upon the postulate of Marx.</p>

<p>The content of history always reflects the interests of the age
in which it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval
chronicles. Modern historians began with politics. But as the
complex nature of society became more evident in the age of
democracy, the economic or sociological history gained ground.
Histories of commerce and cities now rank beside those on war
and kings, although there are readers still who prefer to follow
the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the slow
evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history
has its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy.
Only now we know that no one of these is more than a single
glimpse at a vast complex of phenomena, most of which lie for
ever beyond our ken.</p>

<p>This expansion of interest has intensified specialization.
Historians no longer attempt to write world histories; they
form associations of specialists for the purpose. Each historian
chooses his own epoch or century and his own subject, and
spends his life mastering such traces of it as he can find. His
work there enables him to judge of the methods of his fellows,
but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of material
which has been accumulated on the single subject before him.
Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative&mdash;the
<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Lavisse and Rambaud&rsquo;s <i>Histoire
générale</i>, or Lavisse&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de France</i>, like Hunt and Poole&rsquo;s
<i>Political History of England</i>, and Oncken&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Geschichte
in Einzeldarstellungen</i>. But even these vast sets cover but the
merest fraction of their subjects. The Cambridge history passes
for the most part along the political crust of society, and seldom
glances at the social forces within. This limitation of the professed
historian is made up for by the growingly historical
treatment of all the sciences and arts&mdash;a tendency noted before,
to which this edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> is itself
a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless
subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp
and stress of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph&mdash;<i>si
historiam requiris, circumspice</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See Ch. V. Langlois, <i>Manuel de bibliographie
historique</i> (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of
this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of historical
research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject. Similar
bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the
articles where they properly belong, <i>e.g.</i> in English medieval history
the manual of Chas. Gross, <i>Sources and Literature of English History</i>;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
in German history the <i>Quellenkunde</i> of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th ed.);
for France the <i>Bibliographie de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> of G. Monod
(antiquated, 1888), or the <i>Sources de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> so ably
begun by A. Molinier&rsquo;s volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps
the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is
the clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, <i>Introduction
to the Study of History</i> (trans. with preface by F. York
Powell, London, 1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim&rsquo;s
<i>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mit
Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der
Geschichte</i> (3rd and 4th ed., Leipzig, 1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIT,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on
the west bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in
33° 38&prime; 8&Prime; N., 42° 52&prime; 15&Prime; E. It is picturesquely situated on a line
of hills, partly natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the
accumulation of centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft.
in height, bordering the river. The houses are built of field stones
and mud. A striking feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned
minaret, which leans quite perceptibly. Behind
and around Hit is an extensive but utterly barren plain, through
which flow several streams of bitter water, coming from mineral
springs. Directly behind the town are two bitumen springs, one
cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The gypsum
cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out here
and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the
whole place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the
river there are naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one
possessing great potential wealth in mineral oils and the like.
Hit, with its fringe of palms, is like an oasis in the desert
occasioned by the outcrop of these deposits. From time
immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of bitumen for
Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon its
bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the government,
but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them.
There is also a shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Babylonian
boats are still made, smeared within and without with
bitumen. Hit is the head of navigation on the Euphrates. It is
also the point from which the camel-post starts across the desert
to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from Hit, on a bitter stream,
lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is mentioned, under the
name of Ist, in the Karnak inscription as paying tribute to
Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 15) it is called
Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been <i>Ihi</i>,
which becomes in the Talmud <i>Ihidakira</i>, in Ptolemy <span class="grk" title="Idikara">&#921;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#961;&#945;</span>, and
in Zosimus and Ammianus <span class="grk" title="Dakira">&#916;&#945;&#954;&#943;&#961;&#945;</span> and Diacira.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Geo. Rawlinson&rsquo;s <i>Herodotus</i>, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlinson;
J. P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (1897); H. V. Geere, <i>By Nile and
Euphrates</i> (1904).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1544?-1605?), Spanish novelist
and poet, was born at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the 16th
century. He served in the campaign of 1569-1571 against the
Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed history of the city of Lorca
which remained unpublished till 1889. He owes his wide celebrity
to the <i>Historia de los bandos de Zegríes y Abencerrajes</i> (1595-1604),
better known as the <i>Guerras civiles de Granada</i>, which
purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original ascribed
to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage,
and the <i>Guerras de Granada</i> is in reality a historical novel, perhaps
the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical
novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which
led to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon
brilliancy, and Hita&rsquo;s sympathetic transcription of life at the
Emir&rsquo;s court has clearly suggested the conventional presentation
of the picturesque, chivalrous Moor in the pages of Mlle de
Scudéry, Mme de Lafayette, Châteaubriand and Washington
Irving. The second part is concerned with the author&rsquo;s personal
experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though
Calderón&rsquo;s play, <i>Amar después de la muerte</i>, is derived from it, the
second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first.
The exact date of Hita&rsquo;s death is unknown. His blank verse
rendering of the <i>Crónica Troyana</i>, written in 1596, exists in
manuscript.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, EDWARD<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1793-1864), American geologist,
was born of poor parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the
24th of May 1793. He owed his education chiefly to his own
exertions, and was preparing himself to enter Harvard College
when he was compelled to interrupt his studies from a weakness
in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the academy of
his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order
to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821
pastor of the Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he employed
his leisure in making a scientific survey of the western
counties of the state. From 1825 to 1845 he was professor of
chemistry and natural history, from 1845 to 1864 was professor of
natural theology and geology at Amherst College, and from 1845
to 1854 was president; the college owed its early success largely
to his energetic efforts, especially during the period of his presidency.
In 1830 he was appointed state geologist of Massachusetts,
and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of the state of
New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from
Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College,
Vermont. Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and
botany, Hitchcock took an active interest in agriculture, and in
1850 he was sent by the Massachusetts legislature to examine
into the methods of the agricultural schools of Europe. In
geology he made a detailed examination and exposition of the
fossil footprints from the Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut
valley. His collection is preserved in the Hitchcock Ichnological
Museum of Amherst College, and a description of it was published
in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature on the
ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as
those of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook,
with the aid of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont,
which was completed in 1861. As a writer on geological science,
Hitchcock was largely concerned in determining the connexion
between it and religion, and employing its results to explain
and support what he regarded as the truths of revelation. He
died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Charles Henry Hitchcock</span> (1836-&emsp;&emsp;), did good
service in geology, in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and
other parts of America, and became professor of geology at Dartmouth
in 1868.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following are Edward Hitchcock&rsquo;s principal works: <i>Geology
of the Connecticut Valley</i> (1823); <i>Catalogue of Plants growing without
cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst</i> (1829); <i>Reports on the Geology
of Massachusetts</i> (1833-1841); <i>Elementary Geology</i> (1840; ed. 2,
1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); <i>Fossil Footmarks
in the United States</i> (1848); <i>Outline of the Geology of the Globe and
of the United States in particular</i> (1853); <i>Illustrations of Surface
Geology</i> (1856); <i>Ichnology of New England</i> (1858); <i>The Religion of
Geology and its Connected Sciences</i> (1851; new ed., 1869); <i>Reminiscences
of Amherst College</i> (1863); and various papers in the <i>American
Journal of Science</i>, and other periodicals.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, GEORGE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), American artist, was
born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from
Brown University in 1872 and from the law school of Harvard
University in 1874; then turned his attention to art and became
a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He attracted notice
in the Salon of 1885 with his &ldquo;Tulip Growing,&rdquo; a Dutch garden
which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at
Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy
of Arts, the Munich Secession Society, and other art bodies; and
is represented in the Dresden gallery; the imperial collection,
Vienna; the Chicago Art Institute, and the Detroit Museum of
Fine Arts.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1817-1887), American
divine, was born at East Machias, Maine, on the 15th of August
1817, graduated at Amherst College in 1836, and later studied at
Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After a visit to Germany
he was a tutor at Amherst in 1839-1842, and was minister of the
First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1845-1852.
He became professor of natural and revealed religion in
Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855
professor of church history in the Union Theological Seminary
in New York, of which he was president in 1880-1887. He died
at Somerset, Mass., on the 16th of June 1887.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among his works are: <i>Life of Edward Robinson</i> (1863); <i>Socialism</i>
(1879); <i>Carmina Sanctorum</i> (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885);
and <i>Eternal Atonement</i> (1888).</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITCHIN,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32 m.
N. from London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 10,072. It is the junction of the main line with
the Cambridge branch, and with a branch of the Midland railway
to Bedford. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, with a fine
porch, a painting of the Adoration of the Magi, attributed to
Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by Cromwell as a
prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments.
Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation
of the early 14th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later
in the same century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions
of the buildings appear in an existing block of almshouses. The
grammar school (1632) was reconstituted in 1889 for boys and
girls. Straw-plaiting, malting, brewing, and the cultivation and
distillation of lavender and peppermint are carried on.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITTITES,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the
earlier records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names,
in Egyptian records of the XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties,
and in Assyrian from about 1100 to 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They appear also in
the Vannic cuneiform texts, and are believed to be the authors of
a class of monuments bearing inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic
character, and widely distributed over Asia Minor and
N. Syria, around which much controversy has raged during the
past thirty years.</p>

<p>1. <i>The Bible.</i>&mdash;In the Old Testament the name of the race is
written <i>Heth</i> (with initial aspirate), members of it being <i>Hitti</i>,
<i>Hittim</i>, which the Septuagint renders <span class="grk" title="chet">&#967;&#941;&#964;</span>, <span class="grk" title="chettaios">&#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="chettein">&#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#957;</span> or
<span class="grk" title="chetteim">&#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#956;</span>, keeping, it will be noted, &epsilon; in the stem throughout. The
race appears in two connexions, (<i>a</i>) In pre-Israelite Palestine,
it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3), and in the central
uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised &ldquo;from the
wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the river
Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites.&rdquo; The term &ldquo;wilderness&rdquo;
here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually
taken to mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land
before the coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel
(xvi. 3) to Jerusalem, &ldquo;thy mother (was) an Hittite,&rdquo; is quoted
in confirmation. Under the monarchy we hear frequently of
Hittites within the borders of Israel, but either as a small subject
people, coupled with other petty tribes, or as individuals in the
Jewish service (<i>e.g.</i> Uriah, in the time of David). It appears,
therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late times a detached
Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes
intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations
now amicable, now tyrannical (<i>e.g.</i> Hittites were made tributary
bondsmen by Solomon, 1 Kings ix. 20, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8).
(<i>b</i>) An independent and powerful Hittite people was domiciled
N. of Palestine proper, organized rather as a confederacy of tribes
than a single monarchy (1 Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presumably
it was a daughter of these Hittites that Solomon took to wife.
If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv. 64, &ldquo;Tahtim-hodshi,&rdquo; based on
the Septuagint version <span class="grk" title="gên chetteim kadês">&#947;&#8052;&#957; &#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#8054;&#956; &#954;&#945;&#948;&#942;&#962;</span> be accepted, we hear of
them at Kadesh on Orontes; and some minor Hittite cities are
mentioned, <i>e.g.</i> Luz; but no one capital city of the race is clearly
indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates, though mentioned
three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi. 2), is not
connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not surprising,
since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the epoch
of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament
goes, therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable
people, widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some
extent assimilated by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter
portion was not much known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely
feared as a power in the early days of the monarchy, though not
in the later pre-Captivity period. The identification of the
northern and southern Hittites, however, presents certain
difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must
assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the
north and of a tribal population not confined to that country.</p>

<p>2. <i>Egyptian Records.</i>&mdash;The decipherment of the inscriptions
of the XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the
19th century, to the discovery of the important part played in
the Syrian campaigns of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t<span class="su">8</span>
(vulgarly transliterated <i>Kheta</i>, though the vocalization is uncertain).
The coincidence of this name, beginning with an
aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with Heth.
That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of
the race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta
(&ldquo;Great&rdquo; and &ldquo;Little&rdquo;) in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh,
but at Carchemish, though they had not been in possession of the
latter place long (not in the epoch of Tethmosis I.&rsquo;s Syrian
campaign). They were a power strong enough to give the
Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Ancient
History</i>, § &ldquo;The New Empire&rdquo;). Though he says he levied
tribute upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all
record fresh wars with the Kheta who appear as the northernmost
of Pharaoh&rsquo;s enemies, and Amenophis or Amenhotep III.
saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian princess, who may or
may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some supposed to
have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which blossomed
in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the succeeding
dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called
Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366
<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by
Seti, the Kheta returned and were found holding Kadesh by
Rameses II., who, in his fifth year, there fought against them and
a large body of allies, drawn probably in part from beyond
Taurus, the battle which occasioned the monumental poem of
Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded in
Rameses&rsquo;s twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and &ldquo;Khetasar&rdquo;
(<i>i.e.</i> Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy.
The discovery of a cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this
same treaty, in the Babylonian language, was reported from
Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H. Winckler in 1907. It argues
the Kheta a people of considerable civilization. The Kheta king
subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him his daughter to wife.
Rameses&rsquo; successor, Mineptah, remained on terms with the
Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the
latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on
Egypt which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this
point (<i>c.</i> 1150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)&mdash;the point at which (roughly) the monarchic
history of Israel in Palestine opens&mdash;Egyptian records cease to
mention Kheta; and as we know from other sources that the
latter continued powerful in Carchemish for some centuries to
come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite state interposed
an effective political barrier.</p>

<p>3. <i>Assyrian Records.</i>&mdash;In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I.
(about 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), first deciphered in 1857, a people called <i>Khatti</i>
is mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (<i>i.e.</i>
Carchemish); and in other records of the same monarch, subsequently
read, much mention is made of this and of other N.
Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in the inscriptions of
Assur-nazir-pal (early 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in whose time Carchemish
was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far
over N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II.
(d. 825 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) raided the Khatti and their allies year after year;
and at last Sargon III., in 717 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, relates that he captured
Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and put an end to its independence.
We hear no more of it thenceforward. These <i>Khatti</i>,
there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with <i>Kheta</i>. (For the
chronology see further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and Assyria</a></span>.)</p>

<p>4. <i>Other Cuneiform Records.</i>&mdash;The name of the race appears in
certain of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Babylonian
script to Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892
on the site of his capital. Some of his governors in Syrian
districts (<i>e.g.</i> one Aziru of Phoenicia) report movements of the
Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive policy (about
1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). There are also other letters from rulers of principalities
in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who
write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been
Hittites.</p>

<p>Certain <i>Khat&#275;</i> or <i>Khati</i> are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions
(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
kings of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle
Euphrates N. of Taurus in the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This name
again may safely be identified with <i>Khatti-Kheta</i>.</p>

<p>The Khatti also appear on a &ldquo;prophecy-tablet,&rdquo; referring
ostensibly to the time of Sargon of Agadé (middle of 4th
millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but the document is probably of very
much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary chronicle of the 1st
Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by them
about 1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>

<p>From all these various sources we should gather that the
Hittites were among the more important racial elements in N.
Syria and S.E. Asia Minor for at least a thousand years. The
limits at each end, however, are very ill defined, the superior
falling not later than 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and the inferior not earlier than
600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This people was militant, aggressive and unsettled in
the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and enervated
in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia
in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records
the <i>maneh</i> &ldquo;of Carchemish.&rdquo; These Hittites had close relations
with other Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy.
During the later part of their history they were in continual
contact with Assyria, and, as a Syrian power, and perhaps also
as a Cappadocian one, they finally succumbed to Assyrian
pressure.</p>

<p><i>The &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; Monuments.</i>&mdash;It remains to consider in the light
of the foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention
began to be called about 1870. In that year two Americans,
Consul J. A. Johnson and the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at
Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five basaltic blocks bearing
pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of which had been reported
by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their efforts and
subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard
Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be
obtained; and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to
W. Wright of Beirut, casts were taken and the stones themselves
sent to Constantinople by Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually
happens when a new class of antiquities is announced, it was soon
found that the &ldquo;Hamathite&rdquo; inscriptions did not stand alone.
A monument in the same script had been seen in Aleppo by
Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still exists, built
into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain clay
sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H.
Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh),
as long ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a &ldquo;doubtful character,&rdquo;
were compared by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite
class. A new copy of the long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in
S.W. Cappadocia was published by E. J. Davis in 1876, and
clearly showed Hamathite characters accompanying the figures.
Davis also reported, but did not see, a similar inscription at Bulgar
Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W. Skene and George
Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to excavations
being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and to
the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying
sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct
of these excavations, owing to the death of George Smith,
devolved on Consul Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satisfactorily
carried out. Meanwhile Wright, Ward and Sayce had
all suggested &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; as a substitute for &ldquo;Hamathite,&rdquo;
because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in ancient
records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find
acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Carchemish
(but without positive proof to this day), and the occurrence
of Hamathite monuments there was held to confirm the
Hittite theory.</p>

<p>In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain
Hittite signs and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote
syllabary, and suggested that the comparison might lead to a
beginning of decipherment; but the hope has proved vain. To
this scholar, however, is owed the next great step ahead. In
1879 it first occurred to him to compare the rock-monuments
at Boghaz Keui (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia,
discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently
explored by G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now
saw, bore Hittite pictographs. Other rock-sculptures at Giaur
Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel pass near Smyrna, he
suspected of belonging to the same class<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>; and visiting the
last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite pictographs
accompanying one of the two figures.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He announced his discoveries
in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite
empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the
dead. A month later he had the good fortune to recover copies
of a silver boss, or hilt-top, offered to various museums about
1860, but rejected by them as a meaningless forgery and for a
long time lost again to sight. Round the rim was a cuneiform
legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with six Hittite symbols
engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading the cuneiform
as <i>Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme</i> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;T. king of the country E.&rdquo;),
Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the syllables
of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters,
reserving two as &ldquo;ideograms&rdquo; of &ldquo;king&rdquo; and &ldquo;country,&rdquo;
and launched into the field of decipherment. But he subsequently
recognized that this was a false start, and began afresh
from another basis. Since then a number of other monuments
have been found, some on new sites, others on sites already
known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen
by reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed
that, so far as at present known, they cluster most closely in
Commagene, Cappadocia and S. Phrygia.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following notes supplement the map:&mdash;</p>

<p>A. <span class="sc">West Asia Minor.</span>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Niobe</i>&rdquo; (<i>Suratlu Tash</i>) and <i>Karabel</i>
(two); rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief.
Remains of buildings, not yet explored, lie near the &ldquo;Niobe&rdquo; figure.
Nothing purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian
excavation; but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna
and Aidin.</p>

<p>B. <span class="sc">Phrygia.</span>&mdash;<i>Giaur-Kalessi</i>; rock-cut figures and remains of a
stronghold, but no inscriptions. <i>Doghanlüdere</i> and <i>Beikeui</i> in the
Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured
rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment
of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. <i>Kolitolu
Yaila</i>, near Ilghin; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from mounds
apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. <i>Eflatun Bunar</i>
(= Plato&rsquo;s Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building with rude
and greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription.
Fassiler, W. of Konia; gigantic <i>stela</i>, or composite statue (figure
on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. <i>Konia</i>; relief of
warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful
Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford,
was bought there in 1903. <i>Emirghazi</i> (anc. <i>Ardistama</i>?); three
inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently
an important Hittite site. <i>Kara-Dagh</i>; hill-sanctuary with incised
carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell
and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their <i>Thousand and One Churches</i>,
1909).</p>

<p>C. <span class="sc">North Cappadocia.</span>&mdash;<i>Boghaz Keui</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>); large city with
remains of palace, citadel, walls, &amp;c. Long rock-cut inscription of
ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and
also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language,
first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of
Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the
site are the rock reliefs of <i>Yasili Kaya</i> in two hypaethral galleries,
showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures
meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of
figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description <i>Murray&rsquo;s
Guide to Asia Minor</i>, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany
many of the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group
of Hittite remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly
explored until 1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been
superficial only and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight.
In 1906 a German expedition under Professor H. Winckler undertook
the work, and great numbers of cuneiform tablets were found.
These refer to the reigns of at least four kings from Subbiluliuma
(= Saplel, see above) to Hattusil II. or Khartusil (= Khetasar, see
above). The latter was an ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
and powerful enough to write to the Babylonian court as a sovereign
of equal standing. His letter shows that he considered the rise of
Assyria a menace to himself. Winckler claims to read <i>Hatti</i> as the
name of the possessors of Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name
the proof of the Hittite character of Syro-Cappadocian power and
of the imperial predominance of the city. But it remains to be
proved whether these tablets were written there, and not rather,
being in a foreign script, abroad, like most of the Tell el-Amarna
archives. O. Puchstein has cleared and studied important architectural
remains. <i>Euyuk</i>; large mound with remains of palace
entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but no Hittite
inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in a
native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character
and language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs
is here&mdash;a double-headed eagle &ldquo;displayed&rdquo; on the flank of one of
the gateway sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the
Seljuks of Konia their heraldic device adopted in the 13th century,
which, brought to Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem
of Teutonic empire in 1345. This derivation must be taken, however,
<i>cum grano</i>, proof of its successive steps being wanting. Kara-Euyuk;
a mound near Dedik, partially excavated by E. Chantre
in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small objects possibly, but not
certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was found on a deserted site
near <i>Yamuli</i> on the middle Halys, in 1907 by W. Attmore Robinson.</p>

<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:578px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img536.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p>D. <span class="sc">South Cappadocia.</span>&mdash;<i>Karaburna</i>; long, incised rock-inscription.
<i>Bogja</i>, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided <i>stela</i> with incised
inscription. <i>Assarjik</i>, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised rock-inscription.
<i>Ekrek</i>; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an
incised inscription on a <i>stela</i> of very late appearance. <i>Fraktin</i>
or <i>Farakdin</i> (probably anc. <i>Das-tarkon</i>); sculptured rock-panel
showing two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in
relief. <i>Arslan Tash</i>, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan
Dagh; two colossal lions, one with incised inscription. <i>Tashji</i>
in the Zamanti valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription.
<i>Andaval</i> and <i>Bor</i>; inscriptions incised on sculptured <i>stelae</i> of kings (?),
probably from Tyana (<i>Ekuzli Hissar</i>). All are now in Constantinople.
A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also
from Bor. <i>Nigdeh</i>; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription.
<i>Ivriz</i>; rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions
in relief. A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and
much defaced, was found hard by in 1906. <i>Bulgar Maden</i>; long
incised rock inscription, near silver-mines. <i>Gorun</i> (Gurun); two
rock-inscriptions in relief, much damaged. <i>Arslan-Tepe</i>, near
Ordasu (two hours from Malatia); large mound whence two sculptured
<i>stelae</i> or wall-blocks with inscriptions in relief have been
unearthed (now in Constantinople and the Louvre). Four other
reliefs, reported found near Malatia and published by J. Garstang
in <i>Annals Arch. and Anthrop.</i>, 1908, probably came also from Arslan
Tepe. <i>Palanga</i>; lower aniconic half of draped statue with incised
inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a small basalt lion. <i>Arslan
Tash</i>, near Palanga; two rude gateway lions, uninscribed. <i>Yapalak</i>;
defaced inscription, reported by J. S. Sterrett but never copied.
<i>Izgin</i>; obelisk with long inscription in relief on all four faces, now
in Constantinople. These last four places seem to lie on a main
road leading from Cappadocia to Marash and the Syrian sites.
The expedition sent out by Cornell University in 1907 found
several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near <i>Darende</i> in the valley of
the Tokhma Su.</p>

<p><span class="sc">E. North Syria.</span>&mdash;<i>Marash</i>; several monuments (<i>stelae</i>, wall-blocks
and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are
now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America); evidently one
of the most important of Hittite sites. <i>Karaburshlu</i>, <i>Arbistan</i>,
<i>Gerchin</i>, <i>Sinjerli</i>; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su.
The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein&rsquo;s notice in 1882
by the chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Constantinople,
was the scene of extensive German excavations in
1893-1894, directed by F. v. Luschan and K. Koldewey, and was
found to cover a walled town with central fortified palace. Hittite,
cuneiform and old Aramaean monuments were found with many
small objects, most of which have been taken to Berlin; but no
Hittite inscriptions came to light. <i>Sakchegeuzu</i> (Sakchegözu), a
site with several mounds between Sinjerli and Aintab; series of
reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin and Constantinople. This
site is in process of excavation by Professor J. Garstang of the
University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has come to light in
the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery, with incised
and painted decoration, has been recovered. <i>Aintab</i>; fragment
of relief inscription. <i>Samsat</i> (Samosata); sculptured stela with
incised inscription much defaced. <i>Jerablus</i>; see above. Several
Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably
came from Jerablus, others from <i>Tell Bashar</i> on the Sajur. <i>Kellekli</i>,
near Jerablus; two <i>stelae</i>, one with relief inscription. <i>Iskanderun</i>
(Alexandretta); source of a long inscription cut on both sides of
a spheroidal object of unknown origin. <i>Kirchoglu</i>, a site on the
Afrin, whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription
was sent to Berlin. <i>Aleppo</i>; inscription in relief (see above). <i>Tell
Ahmar</i> (on left bank of Euphrates); large <i>stela</i> with sculpture and
long relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs
and two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south,
a lion and a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by
Miss G. L. Bell. <i>Tell Halaf</i> in Mid-Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain;
sculptures on portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
and large mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. <i>Hamah</i>; five
blocks inscribed in relief (see above).</p>

<p>F. <span class="sc">Outlying Sites.</span>&mdash;<i>Erzerum</i>; source of an incised inscription,
perhaps not originally found there. <i>Kedabeg</i>; metal boss or hilt-top
with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be
Hittite, but doubtful. <i>Toprak Kaleh</i>; bronze fragments with two
pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. <i>Nineveh</i>; sealings, see above.
Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised inscriptions;
doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria.
The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the <i>stela</i> on the back.</p>

<p>(For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &amp;c., with
the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the bibliography.)</p>
</div>

<p><i>Structures.</i>&mdash;The structural remains found as yet on Hittite
sites are few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (<i>a</i>)
Ground plans of a palatial building and three temples and
fortifications with sculptured gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace
was built round a central court, flanked by passages and entered
by a doorway of three <i>battants</i> hung on two columns. The
whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to those
of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough
core of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The
fortifications of the citadel have an elaborate double gate
with flanking towers, (<i>b</i>) Fortifications, palace, &amp;c., at Sinjerli.
The gates here are more elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but
planned with the same idea&mdash;that of entrapping in an enclosed
space, barred by a second door, an enemy who may have forced
the first door, while flanking towers would add to his discomfiture.
The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central
pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui.
The massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of
relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems
to have been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous
kind, and accounts for most of the sculptured blocks that have
been found, <i>e.g.</i> at Jerablus, Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe,
&amp;c. Columns, probably of wood, rested on bases carved as
winged lions, (<i>c</i>) Gate with sculptured approach at Euyuk.
The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as
that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never
properly uncovered or planned, (<i>d</i>) Sculptured porticoes of
temples or palaces uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf
(see above). On other sites, <i>e.g.</i> Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan,
Marash (above the modern town and near the springs), Beikeui,
mounds, doubtless covering structures, may be seen, and
sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably
Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No
tombs certainly Hittite have been found,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> though it is possible
that some of the reliefs (<i>e.g.</i> at Fraktin) are of funerary character.</p>

<p><i>Sculptures and other Objects of Art.</i>&mdash;The sculptures hitherto
found consist of reliefs on rocks and on <i>stelae</i>, either honorific
or funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and
a few figures more or less in the round, though most of these
(<i>e.g.</i> the sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and
Marash) are not completely disengaged from the block. The
most considerable sculptured rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui
(see Pteria); the others (Ivriz, Fraktin, Karabel, Giaur Kalessi,
Doghanlüdere), it should be observed, all lie N. of Taurus&mdash;a
fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local
domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be
otherwise than <i>in situ</i>. Sculptured <i>stelae</i>, honorific or funerary,
all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing
a single regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light
at Bor, Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &amp;c. These, like
most of the rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompanying
pictographic inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom inscribed,
the exceptions (<i>e.g.</i> the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain
blocks from Marash and Jerablus) being not more certainly
wall-dados than <i>stelae</i>. The only fairly complete anthropoid
statue known is the much-defaced &ldquo;Niobe&rdquo; at Suratlu Tash,
engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an
inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and
parts of others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable
differences in execution and details, all these sculptures show
one general type of art, a type which recalls now Babylonian,
now Assyrian, now Egyptian, now archaic Ionian, style, but is
always individual and easily distinguishable from the actual
products of those peoples. The figures, whether of men or beasts,
are of a squat, heavy order, with internal features (<i>e.g.</i> bones,
muscles, &amp;c.) shown as if external, as in some Mesopotamian
sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic,
with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one
line with the sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Commagene
and the Tyana districts, the nose has a long curving tip,
of very Jewish appearance, but not unlike the outline given to
Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes. The lips are full and the
chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy is fleshy and
markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz
Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly
non-Semitic. But not much stress can be laid on these differences
owing to (1) great variety of execution in different sculptures,
which argues artists of very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether
individual portraits are intended in some cases and not in others.
The hair of males is sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail.
The fashions of head-covering and clothes are very various,
but several of them&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the
conical hat at Boghaz Keui, Fraktin, &amp;c; the &ldquo;jockey-cap&rdquo;
on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered over-robe, and the
upturned shoes&mdash;are not found on other Asiatic monuments,
except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are
represented more naturalistically than human beings, <i>e.g.</i> at
Yasili Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in
relief (<i>e.g.</i> at Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to
Mesopotamian and Egyptian, and perhaps to all primitive art.</p>

<p>The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and
divine (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice
or adoration, or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin,
Ivriz, and perhaps the figures seated beside tables at Marash
Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &amp;c.); of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sakchegeuzu);
but not, as known at present, of battle. Both at
Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same series are
widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some
showing the utmost <i>naïveté</i>, others expressing both outline and
motion with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing
hasty inductions as to relative dates from style and execution.</p>

<p>Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art-products include
a few small objects in metal (<i>e.g.</i> heavy, inscribed gold ring
bought by Sir W. M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, supported
on three lions&rsquo; claws, bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor;
inscribed silver boss of &ldquo;Tarkudimme,&rdquo; mentioned above,
&amp;c. &amp;c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in steatite),
mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few scarabaeoid,
conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic symbols,
sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection
is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship,
bodies and limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or
unfilled outlines; a few vessels (<i>e.g.</i> inscribed basalt bowl found
at Babylon) and fragments of ware painted with dark ornament
on light body-clay, or in polychrome on a cream-white slip, or
black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian sites, &amp;c. The
bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on the
Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappadocia
(see E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i>). A great many
small objects were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including
carved ivories, seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &amp;c., but
these have not been published. Nor, except provisionally, has
the pottery, found at Sakchegeuzu.</p>

<p><i>Inscriptions.</i>&mdash;These, now almost sixty in number (excluding
seals), are all in a pictographic character which employed
symbols somewhat elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to
conventional and &ldquo;shorthand&rdquo; representations in the incised
texts. So far, the majority of our Hittite inscriptions, like those
first found at Hamah, are in relief (cameo); but the incised
characters, first observed in the Tyana district, have since been
shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &amp;c., to have had a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised
inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later
date than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions,
wherein both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to
very early times, suggests that this assumption is not necessarily
correct. The Hittite symbols at present known show about
two hundred varieties; but new inscriptions continually add
to the list, and great uncertainty remains as to the distinction
of many symbols (<i>i.e.</i> whether mere variants or not), and as
to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts. The
objects represented by these symbols have been certainly
identified in only a few instances. A certain number are heads
(human and animal) detached from bodies, in a manner not
known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic system, with which some
of the other symbols show obvious analogies. Articles of dress,
weapons, tools, &amp;c., also appear. The longer inscriptions are
disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by lines, and, it
seems, they were to be read <i>boustrophedon</i>, not only as regards
the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which are
written in columnar fashion, syllable <i>below</i> syllable, and read
downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is
towards any faces which may be shown among the pictographs.
The words are perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation
marks.</p>

<p>Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this
script, ever since it was first restored to our knowledge; and
among the would-be decipherers honourable mention must be
made, for persistence and courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and
of Professor P. Jensen. Other interpretations have been put
forward by F. E. Peiser (based on conjectures as to the names
on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder (based largely on Cypriote
comparisons and phonetic values transferred from these) and
C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian and
Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the
Hittite monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary
and inadequate foundations, and for other reasons, have not been
accepted. F. Hommel, J. Halévy and J. Menant have done
useful work in distinguishing word-groups, and have essayed
partial interpretations. No other decipherers call for mention.
A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have enlisted any large body
of adherents; and the former, who has worked upon his
system for thirty years and published in the <i>Proceedings of the
Society for Biblical Archaeology</i> for 1907 a summary of his
method and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan.
His system, however, like all others, is built in the main upon
hypotheses incapable at present of quite satisfactory verification,
such, for example, as the conjectural reading &ldquo;Gargamish&rdquo;
for a group of symbols which recurs in inscriptions from Jerablus
and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the other obvious elements
of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the location of
Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very probable.
Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with the
place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce&rsquo;s
system. Jensen&rsquo;s system may be said to have been effectually
demolished by L. Messerschmidt in his <i>Bemerkungen</i> (1898);
but Sayce&rsquo;s system, which has been approved by Hommel and
others, is probably in its main lines correct. Its frequent
explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by the doctrines
of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative values
of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic
complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in
the process of &ldquo;verification,&rdquo; do not inspire confidence in
other than its broader results. Sayce&rsquo;s phonetic values and
interpretations of determinatives are his best assured achievements.
But the words thus arrived at represent a language
on which other known tongues throw little or no light, and
their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some significant
cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give striking
confirmation of Sayce&rsquo;s conjectures.</p>

<p>Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection
of Hittite texts up to date, made a <i>tabula rasa</i> of all systems of
decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred&mdash;the
bisected oval, determinative of divinity&mdash;had been interpreted
with any certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled
with the steady refusal of historians to apply the results of any
Hittite decipherment, and the obvious lack of satisfactory
verification, without which the piling of hypothesis on hypothesis
may only lead further from probability, there is no choice but
to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the inscriptions
and all deductions drawn from them.</p>

<p><i>Are the Monuments Hittite?</i>&mdash;It is time to ask this question,
although a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected
when the inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost
all &ldquo;Hittitologues&rdquo; assume a connexion between the monuments
and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites, but in various degrees;
<i>e.g.</i> while Sayce has said roundly that common sense demands
the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who were the
dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at
one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has
stated with equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only
one people out of many<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared
a common civilization, and that therefore they were authors of a
part of the monuments only&mdash;presumably the N. Syrian, Commagenian
and Cataonian groups. O. Puchstein<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> has denied to
the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments, holding these of
too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies) for the
flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian
and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh
(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the
strongest opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly
right as regards the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which
are of provincial appearance. The following considerations, however,
may be stated in favour of the ascription of the monuments
to the Hittites:&mdash;</p>

<p>(1) The monuments in question are found frequently whereever,
from other records, we know the Hittites to have been
domiciled at some period, <i>i.e.</i> throughout N. Syria and in
Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti that Carchemish was a
flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be really Carchemish,
it is significant that apparently the most numerous
and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all
the early peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from
Egyptian and Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear
frequently as leading to war peoples from far beyond Taurus.
(4) The Kheta certainly had a system of writing and a glyptic art
in the time of Rameses II., or else the Egyptian account of their
copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The physiognomy
given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly representative
of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures.</p>

<p>Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially
deciphered as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that
whether Boghaz Keui was actually the capital of the Hatti or
not, it was a great city of the Hatti, and that the latter were
an important element in Cappadocia from very early times.
Before the middle of the 16th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Cappadocian
Hatti were already in relations, generally more or less hostile,
with a rival power in Syria, that of Mitanni; and Subbiluliuma
(= Saplel or Saparura), king of these Hatti, a contemporary of
Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting
dominion in Syria by subduing Dushratta of Mitanni. Carchemish
thenceforward became a Hatti city and the southern
capital of Cappadocian power. Since all the Syrian monuments
of the Hittite class, so far known, seem comparatively late
(most show such strong Assyrian, influence that they must fall
after 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and probably even considerably later), while the
North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and
others saw long ago) are the earlier in style, we are bound to
ascribe the origin of the civilization which they represent to the
Cappadocian Hatti.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span></p>

<p>Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while
independent, and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti,
cannot be determined at present. Winckler has adduced
evidence from names of local gods to show that there was an
Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for a
similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The
majority of scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as,
at any rate, non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have
called them proto-Armenian, and believed that they have
modern descendants in the Caucasus. This racial question can
hardly be determined till those Hatti records, whether in cuneiform
or pictographic script, which are couched in a native
tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have
proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the
significant indication that the Hittite nominative ended in <i>s</i> and
the accusative in <i>m</i>. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with
the peculiar class of monuments which we have been describing,
can hardly be further questioned; and it has become more than
probable that the Hatti of Cappadocia were responsible in the
beginning for the art and script of those monuments and for the
civilization of which they are memorials. Other peoples of
north Syria and Asia Minor (<i>e.g.</i> the Kummukh or Commagenians
and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the
influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while
subject to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and
Lydia (q.v.) influences of this same Cappadocian civilization
passed towards the west; and indeed, before the Greek colonization
of Asia Minor, a loosely knit Hatti empire may have
stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi (Kara Bel) and
Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of that
extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have
kept Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast
during the Bronze Age, and that power was in all likelihood the
Hatti kingdom of Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian
aggression, this power seems to have begun to suffer decay about
1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and thereafter to have shrunk inwards, leaving the
coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose successively
out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage to
influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times.
The Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with
Hatti power obscured from their view by the intermediate and
secondary state of Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the
latter as the seat of the oldest and most godlike of mankind.
Only one Greek author, Herodotus, alludes to the pre-historic
Cappadocian power and only at the latest moment of its long
decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends seem to
show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early contact,
had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon
stories, whose local range was very extensive, and the myths of
Memnon and Pelops. The real reference of these stories, however,
was forgotten, and it has been reserved to our own generation
to rediscover the records of a power and a civilization which once
dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and occupied all the
continental roads of communication between the East and the
West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first
to divine this importance of the Hittites should always be
ascribed to Sayce.</p>

<p>The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would
appear to have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an
ethnic scattered widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at
an early period (Khatti invaded Akkad about 1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in the
reign of Samsuditana); but they first formed a strong state
in Cappadocia late in the 16th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subbiluliuma
became their first great king, though he had at least one dynastic
predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed
southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and
proceeded partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both
north Syria and western Mesopotamia where some of their
congeners were already settled. They came early into collision
with Egypt, and at the height of their power under Hattusil II.
fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II., on at least equal
terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic correspondence
of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms of
practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian
courts; and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly
with the Amorite tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or
confederacy probably included, on the west, both Phrygia and
Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence ceases to be important
with the generation following Hattusil II., and in the Assyrian
records, which begin about a couple of centuries later, we find
Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the Hatti-land.
It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre
took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north
Syria. If so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to
be sought among the remains at Jerablus and other middle
Euphratean sites, rather than in those at Boghaz Keui. The
establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not only made them
a commercial people and probably sapped their highland vigour,
but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North
Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded
with apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his
successors, Arnaunta (late 13th century?), was already feeling
the effect of Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath
Pileser I., about a century later, a long but often interrupted
series of Assyrian efforts to break up the Hatti power began.
A succession of Ninevite armies raided north Syria and even
south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced the Hatti. But
the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged. They
remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor
till well into the first millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and their Syrian seat was
not lost finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power
which took place in the latter part of the 9th century. What
had been happening to their Cappadocian province meanwhile
we do not yet know; but the presence of Phrygian inscriptions
at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of their power, suggests
that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley shook itself
free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with Assyria,
and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over
the home territory of its former suzerain. &ldquo;White Syrians,&rdquo;
however, were still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians
had destroyed the Phrygian monarchy, allowing Lydia to become
independent under the Mermnad dynasty. Croesus found them
centred at Pteria in the 6th century and dealt them a final
blow. But much of their secular or religious custom lived on
to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern
scholars as typically &ldquo;Anatolian.&rdquo;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<b>General summaries:</b> L. Messerschmidt, <i>The
Hittites</i> (&ldquo;Ancient East&rdquo; series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, <i>The
Hittites</i> (&ldquo;Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge&rdquo; series, xii., 2nd ed.
1892); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea,
Syria and Asia Minor</i> (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere,
<i>De la race et de la langue des Hétéens</i> (1891); P. Jensen, <i>Hittiter und
Armenier</i> (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht,
<i>Exploration in Bible Lands</i> (1903); W. Wright, <i>Empire of the
Hittites</i> (1884); F. Hommel, <i>Hettiter und Skythen</i> (1898); D. G.
Hogarth, <i>Ionia and the East</i> (1909); W. Max Müller, <i>Asien und
Europa</i>, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and
Assyrian history.</p>

<p><b>Inscriptions:</b> L. Messerschmidt, &ldquo;Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum,&rdquo;
<i>Zeitsch. d. d. morgenländ. Gesellschaft</i> (1900, 1902, 1906, &amp;c.), and
&ldquo;Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften,&rdquo; <i>Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
Gesellschaft</i> (1898); P. Jensen, &ldquo;Grundlagen für eine Entzifferung
der (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. d. d. morgenländ.
Gesellschaft</i> (1894); F. E. Peiser, <i>Die Hettitischen Inschriften</i> (1892);
A. H. Sayce, &ldquo;Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions,&rdquo; <i>Proc.
Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology</i> (1903), and &ldquo;Hittite Inscriptions, translated
and annotated,&rdquo; ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, &ldquo;Études
Hétéennes,&rdquo; <i>Recueil de travaux rel. à la philologie, &amp;c.</i>, and <i>Mém. de
l&rsquo;Acad. Inscr.</i>, vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Halévy in <i>Revue sémitique</i>,
vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and others
in <i>Proc.</i> and <i>Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch.</i> since 1876, and in <i>Recueil de
travaux, &amp;c.</i>, since its beginning.</p>

<p><b>Exploration:</b> G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, <i>Exploration arch. de
la Galatie</i>, &amp;c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i>
(1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, &ldquo;Syro-Cappadocian Monuments,&rdquo; in
<i>Athen. Mitteilungen</i> (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, &ldquo;Pre-Hellenic
Monuments of Cappadocia,&rdquo; in <i>Recueil de travaux</i>, &amp;c. (1892-1895);
and with Miss Gertrude Bell, <i>The Thousand and One Churches</i> (1909);
C. Humann and O. Puchstein, <i>Reisen in Nord-Syrien</i>, &amp;c. (1890).
J. Garstang in <i>Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology</i>, i. (1908)
and following numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in <i>Berl.</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
<i>Philol. Wochenschrift</i> (1891), pp. 803, 951; and F. von Luschan,
and others, &ldquo;Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli&rdquo; in <i>Mitteil. Orient-Sammlungen</i>
(Berlin Museum, 1893 ff.); and on excavations at
Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in <i>Orient. Literaturzeitung</i> (Berlin, 1907);
<i>Mitteil. Orient-Gesellschaft</i> (Dec. 1907). See also <i>s.v.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the 17th century;
first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first published
in 1840 in Ritter&rsquo;s <i>Erdkunde</i>, iii., after a drawing by Major Fischer,
made in 1837.</p>

<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The &ldquo;Niobe&rdquo; statue near Manisa was not definitely known for
&ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it.</p>

<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The &ldquo;pseudo-Sesostres&rdquo; of Herodotus, already demonstrated
non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till
found by Dr Beddoe in 1856.</p>

<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether
of the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful.</p>

<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many
peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti; and the most we can
infer from these records is that there was an occasional league formed
under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a continuous
federation.</p>

<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst</i> (Berlin, 1890).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1792-1867), French architect,
was born at Cologne on the 20th of August 1792. After serving
an apprenticeship to a mason in his native town, he went in
1810 to Paris, and studied for some years at the Academy
of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of Bélanger,
the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his
principal inspector. Succeeding Bélanger as government architect
in 1818, he designed many important public and private
buildings in Paris and also in the south of France. From 1819
to 1830 in collaboration with le Cointe he directed the royal
fêtes and ceremonials. After making architectural tours in
Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published the result
of his observations in the latter country in the work <i>Architecture
antique de la Sicile</i> (3 vols., 1826-1830; new edition, 1866-1867),
and also in <i>Architecture moderne de la Sicile</i> (1826-1835). One
of his important discoveries was that colour had been made
use of in ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially
discussed in <i>Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs</i> (1830) and in
<i>Restitution du temple d&rsquo;Empédocle à Sélinunte</i> (1851); and in
accordance with the doctrines enunciated in these works he
was in the habit of making colour an important feature in most
of his architectural designs. His principal building is the church
of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style, which was constructed
between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two fountains
in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the
Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafés and restaurants of the
Champs Elysées, the houses forming the circle round the Arc
de Triomphe de l&rsquo;Étoile, besides many embellishments of the
Bois de Boulogne and other places. In 1833 he was elected a
member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He died in Paris on the
25th of March 1867.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITZACKER,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover at the influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E.
of Lüneburg by the railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106.
It has an Evangelical church and an old castle and numerous
medieval remains. There are chalybeate springs and a hydropathic
establishment in the town. The famous library now in
Wolfenbüttel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke
of Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation
in 1643.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HITZIG, FERDINAND<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1807-1875), German biblical critic,
was born at Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor,
on the 23rd of June 1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg
under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius and
at Göttingen under Ewald. Returning to Heidelberg he became
<i>Privatdozent</i> in theology in 1829, and in 1831 published his
<i>Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testamente praktisch erörtert</i>, a
study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the
critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his
<i>Des Propheten Jonas Orakel über Moab</i>, an exposition of the
15th and 16th chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him
to the prophet Jonah mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833
he was called to the university of Zürich as professor ordinarius
of theology. His next work was a commentary on Isaiah with
a translation (<i>Übersetzung u. Auslegung des Propheten Jesajas</i>),
which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which Hermann
Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the
Psalms (1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work.
At Zürich he laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during
which, besides commentaries on <i>The Psalms</i> (1835-1836; 2nd
ed., 1863-1865), <i>The Minor Prophets</i> (1838; 3rd ed., 1863),
<i>Jeremiah</i> (1841; 2nd ed., 1866), <i>Ezekiel</i> (1847), <i>Daniel</i> (1850),
<i>Ecclesiastes</i> (1847), <i>Canticles</i> (1855), and <i>Proverbs</i> (1858), he
published a monograph, <i>Über Johannes Markus u. seine Schriften</i>
(1843), in which he maintained the chronological priority of the
second gospel, and sought to prove that the Apocalypse was
written by the same author. He also published various treatises
of archaeological interest, of which the most important are
<i>Die Erfindung des Alphabets</i> (1840), <i>Urgeschichte u. Mythologie
der Philistäer</i> (1845), and <i>Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar</i>(1855).
After the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the
founders of the well-known <i>Studien und Kritiken</i>, he was called
in 1861 to succeed him as professor of theology at Heidelberg.
Here he wrote his <i>Geschichte des Volkes Israel</i> (1869-1870), in
two parts, extending respectively to the end of the Persian
domination and to the fall of Masada, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 72, as well as a work
on the Pauline epistles, <i>Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe</i> (1870),
on the Moabite Stone, <i>Die Inschrift des Mescha</i> (1870), and on
Assyrian, <i>Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens</i> (1871), besides revising
the commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which
was first published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the
<i>Monatsschrift des wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zürich</i>, the
<i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, the
<i>Theologische Studien u. Kritiken</i>, Eduard Zeller&rsquo;s <i>Theologische
Jahrbücher</i>, and Adolf Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s <i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche
Theologie</i>. Hitzig died at Heidelberg on the 22nd of
January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank;
and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and
sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations
have been considered fanciful. &ldquo;He places the cradle of the
Israelites in the south of Arabia, and, like many other critics,
makes the historical times begin only with Moses&rdquo; (F. Lichtenberger,
<i>History of German Theology</i>, p. 569).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His lectures on biblical theology (<i>Vorlesungen über biblische
Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen</i>) were published in 1880
after his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by
his pupil, J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidelberg.
See Heinrich Steiner, <i>Ferdinand Hitzig</i> (1882); and Adolf
Kamphausen&rsquo;s article in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIUNG-NU,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hiong-nu</span>, <span class="sc">Heung-nu</span>, a people who about
the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> formed, according to Chinese
records, a powerful empire from the Great Wall of China to the
Caspian. Their ethnical affinities have been much discussed;
but it is most probable that they were of the Turki stock, as were
the Huns, their later western representatives. They are the
first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which
seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a
heterogenous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps
even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste, though the
Mongolo-Tungus element probably predominated. Towards the
close of the 1st century of the Christian era the Hiung-nu empire
broke up. Their subsequent history is obscure. Some of them
seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural river.
These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and
many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of
the modern Turks.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i> for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth,
<i>History of the Mongols</i> (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists,
Leiden, 1883 (<i>Actes</i>, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, <i>Histoire
générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares
occidentaux</i> (1756-1758).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HIVITES,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the
invading Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected
with Gibeon. The meaning of the name is uncertain; Wellhausen
derives it from <span title="Hava">&#1495;&#1493;&#1492;</span> &ldquo;Eve,&rdquo; or &ldquo;serpent,&rdquo; in which
case the Hivites were originally the snake clan; others explain
it from the Arabic <i>hayy</i>, &ldquo;family,&rdquo; as meaning &ldquo;dwellers in
(Bedouin) encampments.&rdquo; (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HJÖRRING,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the <i>amt</i>
(county) of its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula
of Jutland. Pop. (1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore
of Jammer Bay, a stretch of coast notoriously dangerous to
shipping. On the coast is Lönstrup, a favoured seaside resort.
In this neighbourhood as well as to the south-east of Hjörring,
slight elevations are seen, deserving the name of hills in this
low-lying district. Hjörring is on the northern railway of
Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of
Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HKAMTI LÔNG<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor
Hkampti by the peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
Shan states subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the
administrative border. Estimated area, 900 sq. m.; estimated
pop. 11,000. It lies between 27° and 28° N. and 97° and 98° E.,
and is bordered by the Mishmi country on the N., by the Patkai
range on the W., by the Hukawng valley on the S. and E., and
indeed all round by various Chingpaw or Kachin communities.
The country is little known. It was visited by T. T. Cooper, the
Chinese traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was
murdered; by General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in
1884, by Mr Errol Grey in the following year, and by Prince
Henry of Orleans in 1895. All of these, however, limited their
explorations to the valley of the Mali-hka, the western branch of
the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has shrunk very much from its old
size. It was no doubt the northernmost province of the Shan
kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam L&#333;ng-hpa, the brother of
the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its greatest
extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the
north has now completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry
of Orleans described it as &ldquo;a splendid territory, fertile in soil and
abundant in water, where tropical and temperate culture flourish
side by side, and the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by
mountains.&rdquo; According to him the Kiutze, the people of the
hills between the Irrawaddy and the Salween, call it the kingdom
of Moam.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HLOTHHERE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht
in 673, and appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his
nephew Eadric, son of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was
issued under both names. Neither is mentioned in the account of
the invasion of Æthelred in 676. In 685 Eadric, who seems to
have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into exile and led the
South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and died of
his wounds.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. eccl.</i> (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; <i>Saxon
Chronicle</i> (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, <i>Gesetze</i>, pp. 10
sqq.; Thorpe, <i>Ancient Laws</i>, i. 26 sqq.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOACTZIN,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hoatzin</span>, a bird of tropical South America,
thought by Buffon to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fernandez
under these names, the <i>Opisthocomus hoazin</i> or <i>O. cristatus</i>
of modern ornithologists&mdash;a very curious and remarkable form,
which has long exercised the ingenuity of classifiers. Placed by
Buffon among his &ldquo;<i>Hoccos</i>&rdquo; (Curassows), and then by P. L. S.
Müller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus <i>Phasianus</i>, some of
its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W. Illiger in 1811
as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus, <i>Opisthocomus</i>; but
various positions were assigned to it by subsequent systematic
authors. L&rsquo;Herminier was the first to give any account of its
anatomy (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our
knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes
Müller (<i>Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin</i>, 1841, p. 177), Deville (<i>Rev.
et mag. de zoologie</i>, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, <i>Expéd.
Amérique du Sud, zoologie, anatomie</i>, p. 66), Huxley (<i>Proc. Zool.
Society</i>, 1868, p. 304), Perrin (<i>Trans. Zool. Society</i>, ix. p.
353), and A. H. Garrod (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1879, p. 109). After
a minute description of the skeleton of <i>Opisthocomus</i>, with the
especial object of determining its affinities, Huxley declared that
it &ldquo;resembles the ordinary gallinaceous birds and pigeons more
than it does any others, and that when it diverges from them it is
either sui generis or approaches the <i>Musophagidae</i>.&rdquo; He accordingly
regarded it as the type and sole member of a group,
named by him <i>Heteromorphae</i>, which sprang from the great
Carinate stem later than the <i>Tinamomorphae</i>, <i>Turnicomorphae</i>,
or <i>Charadriomorphae</i>, but before the <i>Peristeromorphae</i>, <i>Pteroclomorphae</i>
or <i>Alectoromorphae</i>. This conclusion is substantially
the same as that at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived
after closely examining and dissecting specimens preserved in
spirit; but the latter has gone further and endeavoured to trace
more particularly the descent of this peculiar form and some
others, remarking that the ancestor of <i>Opisthocomus</i> must have
left the parent stem very shortly before the true <i>Gallinae</i> first
appeared, and at about the same time as the independent pedigree
of the <i>Cuculidae</i> and <i>Musophagidae</i> commenced&mdash;these two
groups being, he believed, very closely related, and <i>Opisthocomus</i>
serving to fill the gap between them.</p>

<p>The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the
extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly
unlike that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed
on the posterior part of the sternum&mdash;the fore part being, as it
were, cut away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets
the manubrium, with which it is firmly consolidated by means of
a prolonged and straight hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies
with the coracoids. This unique arrangement seems to be
correlated with the enormously capacious crop, which rests upon
the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also received in
a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral
muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as
more to resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided
by a partial constriction, after a fashion of which no other
example is known among birds. The true gizzard is greatly
reduced.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:408px" src="images/img541.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption">Hoactzin.</td></tr></table>

<p>The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant,
but is really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously
denticulated along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and
is beset by diverging bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle
of a patch of bare skin, are furnished with bristly lashes, resembling
those of horn-bills and some few other birds. The
head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish feathers.
The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and beneath
is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail
is long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the
feet stout, the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the
claws long and slightly curved. According to all who have
observed the habits of this bird, it lives in bands on the lower
trees and bushes bordering the streams and lagoons, feeding on
leaves and various wild fruits, especially, says H. W. Bates
(<i>Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>, i. 120), those of a species
of <i>Psidium</i>, and it is also credited with eating those of an arum
(<i>Caladium arborescens</i>), which grows plentifully in its haunts.
&ldquo;Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss,&rdquo; continues the same traveller,
and &ldquo;it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals
sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when disturbed
by passing canoes.&rdquo; It exhales a very strong odour&mdash;wherefore
it is known in British Guiana as the &ldquo;stink-bird&rdquo;&mdash;compared
by Bates to &ldquo;musk combined with wet hides,&rdquo; and
by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is said to be
polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above
one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays
her eggs to the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white,
somewhat profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots,
so as to resemble those of some of the <i>Rallidae</i> (<i>Proc. Zool.
Society</i>, 1867, pl. xv. fig. 7. p. 164). The young are covered
only with very scanty hair, like down, and have well-developed
claws on the first and second fingers of the wing, which they use
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; if
placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults
seem to be not at all aquatic.</p>
<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOADLY, BENJAMIN<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1676-1761), English divine, was born
at Westerham, Kent, on the 14th of November 1676. In 1691
he entered Catharine Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A.
and was for two years tutor, after which he held from 1701 to
1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the Poultry, and along with
it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer, London. His first
important appearance as a controversialist was against Edmund
Calamy &ldquo;the younger&rdquo; in reference to conformity (1703-1707),
and after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury,
first on the interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole
Anglican doctrine of non-resistance. His principal treatises
on this subject were the <i>Measures of Submission to the Civil
Magistrate</i> and <i>The Origin and Institution of Civil Government
discussed</i>; and his part in the discussion was so much appreciated
by the Commons that in 1709 they presented an address to the
queen praying her to &ldquo;bestow some dignity in the church on
Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and state.&rdquo;
The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was
not conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron
to the rectory of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed
chaplain to the king, and the same year he obtained the bishopric
of Bangor. He held the see for six years, but never visited the
diocese. In 1716, in reply to George Hickes (q.v.), he published a
<i>Preservative against the Principles and Practices of Nonjurors
in Church and State</i>, and in the following year preached before
the king his famous sermon on the <i>Kingdom of Christ</i>, which
was immediately published by royal command. These works
were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the clergy,
but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with the
power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical
ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious
history. It was at once resolved to proceed against him in
convocation, but this was prevented by the king proroguing
the assembly, a step which had consequences of vital bearing
on the history of the Church of England, since from that period
the great Anglican council ceased to transact business of a more
than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the council
in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets
known as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a
want of clearness in the statements of Hoadly, partly from the
disingenuousness of his opponents and the confusion resulting
from exasperated feelings, developed into an intricate and
bewildering maze of side discussions in which the main issues
of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the possibility
of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the
meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings
of the questions around which he aroused discussion, he was
explicit in denying the power of the Church over the conscience,
and its right to determine the condition of men in relation to
the favour of God. The most able of his opponents was William
Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of Eton, and Thomas
Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind of
the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many
as seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one
period the crisis became so serious that the business of London
was for some days virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not
unskilled in the art of flattery, was translated in 1721 to the
see of Hereford, in 1723 to Salisbury and in 1734 to Winchester.
He died at his palace at Chelsea on the 17th of April
1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if prolix and his
theological essays have little merit. He must have been a
much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high
church party and his rationalism the other sections. He was
an intimate friend of Dr Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote
a life.</p>

<p>Hoadly&rsquo;s brother, <span class="sc">John Hoadly</span> (1678-1746), was archbishop
of Dublin from 1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from
the latter date until his death on the 19th of July 1746. In early
life the archbishop was very intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then
bishop of Salisbury, and in later life he was a prominent figure
in Irish politics.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by
his son John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the
article &ldquo;Hoadly&rdquo; from the supplement to the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>.
See also L. Stephen, <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOAR, SAMUEL<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1778&mdash;1856), American lawyer, was born in
Lincoln, Massachusetts, on the 18th of May 1778. He was the
son of Samuel Hoar, an officer in the American army during the
War of Independence, for many years a member of the Massachusetts
General Court, and a member in 1820-1821 of the state
Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at Harvard in
1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began
practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate,
and for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of
Massachusetts. He was in early life a Federalist and was later
an ardent Whig in politics. He was a member of the state
senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833, and of the national house of
representatives in 1835-1837, during which time he made a
notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of congress
to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November
1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before,
he went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George
Nixon Briggs (1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina
the constitutionality of the state law which provided that &ldquo;it
shall not be lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to
come into this state on board any vessel, as a cook, steward
or mariner, or in any other employment,&rdquo; and that such free
negroes should be seized and locked up until the vessels on which
they had come were ready for sea, when they should be returned
to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment, he was
threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed
resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to
leave early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free
Soil movement in Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted
in the organization of the Republican Party. In 1850 he served
in the Massachusetts house of representatives. He married
a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut. He died at
Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in <i>Memorial Biographies of
the New England Historic Genealogical Society</i>, vol. iii. (Boston,
1883); the estimate by R. W. Emerson in <i>Lectures and Biographical
Sketches</i> (Boston, 1903); and &ldquo;Samuel Hoar&rsquo;s Expulsion from
Charleston,&rdquo; <i>Old South Leaflets</i>, vol. vi. No. 140.</p>
</div>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar</span> (1816-1895), was born
at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 21st of February 1816. He
graduated at Harvard in 1835 and at the Harvard Law School
in 1839, and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1840.
From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the Massachusetts court
of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the state supreme
court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United States
in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought
unmerited &ldquo;machine&rdquo; appointments to offices in the civil
service until at the pressure of the &ldquo;machine&rdquo; Grant asked for
his resignation from the cabinet. The Senate had already
shown its disapproval of Hoar&rsquo;s policy of civil service reform
by its failure in 1870 to confirm the President&rsquo;s nomination of
Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme court. In 1871 he was
a member of the Joint High Commission which drew up the
Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector
on the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative
in Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of
Harvard University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887,
and was president of the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887.
He was also prominent in the affairs of the Unitarian church.
He was a man of high character and brilliant wit. He died at
Concord on the 31st of January 1895.</p>

<p>Another son, <span class="sc">George Frisbie Hoar</span> (1826-1904), was born
in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He
graduated at Harvard in 1846 and at the Harvard Law School in
1849. He settled in the practice of law in Worcester, Massachusetts,
where in 1852 he became a partner of Emory Washburn
(1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single
term of service became the leader of his party in that body. He
was active in the organization of the Republican party in Massachusetts,
and in 1857 was elected to the State senate, but declined
a re-election. During 1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the
Free-State cause in Kansas. He was a member of the National
House of Representatives from 1869 until 1877, and in this body
took high rank as a ready debater and a conscientious committee
worker. He was prominent as a defender and supporter of the
Freedman&rsquo;s Bureau, took a leading part in the later reconstruction
legislation and in the investigation of the Crédit Mobilier scandal,
and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the impeachment
of General W. W. Belknap, Grant&rsquo;s secretary of war. In 1877
he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the
disputed Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he
was a member of the United States senate. In the senate almost
from the start he took rank as one of the most influential leaders
of the Republican party; he was a member from 1882 until
his death of the important Judiciary Committee, of which he was
chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most important
piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of 1886.
He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from
1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He
was a conservative by birth and training, and although he did not
leave his party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the
Philippines, and spoke and voted against the ratification of the
Spanish Treaty. He was regent of the Smithsonian Institution in
1880-1881, and long served as an overseer of Harvard University
(1896-1904) and as president of its alumni association. He was
also president of the American Historical Association (1894-1895)
and of the American Antiquarian Society (1884-1887).
Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was president
of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at
Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 30th of September 1904. A
memorial statue has been erected there.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See his <i>Recollections of Seventy Years</i> (New York, 1903).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1758-1838), English
antiquary, was the eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created
a baronet in 1786, and was born on the 9th of December 1758.
He was descended from Sir Richard Hoare (1648-1718), lord
mayor of London, the founder of the family banking business.
An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare,
enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he
had already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester,
daughter of William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death
in 1785 he paid a prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzerland.
He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made
a second continental tour, the record of his travels appearing in
1819 under the title <i>A Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily</i>.
A journey through Wales was followed by a translation of the
<i>Itinerarium Cambriae</i> and of the <i>Descriptio Cambriae of</i> Giraldus
Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of Giraldus to the
translation. This was first published in 1804, and has been
revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at
Stourhead, Wiltshire, on the 19th of May 1838, being succeeded
in the baronetcy by his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare.
Hoare&rsquo;s most important work was his <i>Ancient History of North
and South Wiltshire</i> (1812-1819); he also did some work on the
large <i>History of Modern Wiltshire</i> (1822-1844).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were
printed privately, see the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> for July 1838, and
the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, <i>History
of the Hoare Family</i> (1883).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1844-1899), Vice-President
of the United States 1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J.,
on the 3rd of June 1844. He graduated at Rutgers College in
1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869, practised law at Paterson,
N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He was long conspicuous
in the State Republican organization, was chairman of
the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to
1890, became a member in 1884 of the Republican National
Committee, and was the delegate-at-large from New Jersey to
five successive Republican national nominating conventions.
He served in the New Jersey Assembly in 1873-1874, and in the
New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of the Assembly
in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He was
also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a
large fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President
in 1896, on the ticket with President McKinley, and was elected;
but while still in office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 21st of
November 1899.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the <i>Life</i> (New York, 1910) by David Magie.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBART, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1775-1830), American Protestant
Episcopal bishop, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
14th of September 1775, being fifth in direct descent from
Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham, Massachusetts. He
was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the College of
Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and Princeton,
where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under
Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in
1798, and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop
of New York, with the right of succession, in 1811, and was acting
diocesan from that date because of the ill-health of Bishop Benjamin
Moore, whom he formally succeeded on the latter&rsquo;s death
in February 1816. He was one of the founders of the General
Theological Seminary, became its professor of pastoral theology
in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his zeal for the historic
episcopacy he published in 1807 <i>An Apology for Apostolic
Order and its Advocates</i>, a series of letters to Rev. John M. Mason,
who, in <i>The Christian&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, of which he was editor, had
attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart&rsquo;s
<i>Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy</i> (1806). Hobart&rsquo;s
zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led
him to oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for
an Episcopal seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary
was made directly responsible to the House of Bishops, and
Hobart approved the plan. His strong opposition to &ldquo;dissenting
churches&rdquo; was nowhere so clearly shown as in a pamphlet
published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from joining the
American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant
Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength
to control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the
Bible Society and especially of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>, he began
to edit with selected notes the <i>Family Bible</i> of the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges
to the clergy of Connecticut and New York entitled <i>The Churchman</i>
(1819) and <i>The High Churchman Vindicated</i> (1826), in
which he accepted the name &ldquo;high churchman,&rdquo; and stated and
explained his principles &ldquo;in distinction from the corruptions of
the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant
Sects.&rdquo; He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese,
attempting to make an annual visit to every parish. His failing
health led him to visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he
preached a characteristic sermon entitled <i>The United States of
America compared with some European Countries, particularly
England</i> (published 1826), in which, although there was some
praise for the English church, he so boldly criticized the establishment,
state patronage, cabinet appointment of bishops, lax
discipline, and the low requirements of theological education, as
to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been highly
praised for two volumes of <i>Sermons on the Principal Events and
Truths of Redemption</i> (1824). He died at Auburn, New York, on
the 12th of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank,
perfectly fearless in controversy, a speaker and preacher of much
eloquence, a supporter of missions to the Oneida Indians in his
diocese, and the compiler of the following devotional works:
<i>A Companion for the Altar</i> (1804), <i>Festivals and Fasts</i> (1804),
<i>A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer</i> (1805), and <i>A
Clergyman&rsquo;s Companion</i> (1805).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Memorial of Bishop Hobart</i>, containing a <i>Memoir</i> (New York,
1831); John McVickar, <i>The Early Life and Professional Years of
Bishop Hobart</i> (New York, 1834), and <i>The Closing Years of Bishop
Hobart</i> (New York, 1836).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBART PASHA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden</span>
(1822-1886), English naval captain and Turkish admiral, was
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
born in Leicestershire on the 1st of April 1822, being the third
son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In 1835 he entered
the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast of
Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much
gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain
of the &ldquo;Driver,&rdquo; in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively
engaged at Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the
navy with the rank of post-captain; but his love of adventure
led him, during the American Civil War, to take the command
of a blockade-runner. He had the good fortune to run the
blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to Charleston
and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered
the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the
command of that fleet, with the rank of &ldquo;Bahrie Limassi&rdquo;
(rear-admiral). In this capacity he performed splendid service
in helping to suppress the insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded
by the Sultan with the title of Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart,
whose name had, on representations made by Greece, been
removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his
restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of
the Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In
command of the Turkish squadron he completely dominated
the Black Sea, blockading the ports of South Russia and the
mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the action of the Russian
fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still remained in the
Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or marshal,
being the first Christian to hold that high office. His achievements
as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his
handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts
of Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful
commander, worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of
British naval heroes. He died at Milan on the 19th of June
1886.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See his <i>Sketches of My Life</i> (1886), which must, however, be used
with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBART,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Buckingham,
on the southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of
great beauty, standing on a series of low hills at the foot of
Mount Wellington, a lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad
for many months in the year. The town fronts Sullivan&rsquo;s Cove,
a picturesque bay opening into the estuary of the river Derwent,
and is nearly square in form, laid out with wide streets intersecting
at right angles, the chief of which are served by electric tramways.
It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Tasmania, and of the
Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican cathedral
of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid
as early as 1817. St Mary&rsquo;s Roman Catholic cathedral is a
beautiful building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical
building in Hobart is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper
Elizabeth Street. The most prominent public buildings are the
Houses of Parliament, to which an excellent library is attached;
the town hall, a beautiful building of brown and white Tasmanian
freestone in Italian style; the museum and national art gallery,
and the general post office (1904) with its lofty clock-tower.
Government House, the residence of the governor of Tasmania,
a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the
banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical
gardens adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most
extensive is the Queen&rsquo;s Domain, covering an area of about
700 acres, while the most central is Franklin Square, adorned
with a statue of Sir John Franklin, the famous Arctic explorer,
who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to 1843. The university
of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in 1893,
has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its
invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent
attracts numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access,
well sheltered and deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels
of the largest tonnage. It is a regular port of call for several
intercolonial lines from Sydney and Melbourne, and for lines
from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an average
value of £850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops, grain,
timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling,
iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of
pottery and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large
fruit-growing district, the produce of which, for the most part,
is exported to London and Sydney. The city was founded in
1804 and takes its name from Lord Hobart (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buckinghamshire,
Earls of</a></span>), then secretary of state for the colonies.
It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and
in 1881 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present
form. The chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington,
Risdon, Glenorchy, Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the
city proper in 1901 was 24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1638-1709), the greatest landscape
painter of the Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at
Amsterdam in the second half of the 17th century. The facts
of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is more disappointing
than to find that in Hobbema&rsquo;s case chronology and signed
pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the
latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the
former his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709.
If the masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called
&ldquo;A Wooded Stream,&rdquo; honestly bears the date of 1650, or &ldquo;The
Cottages under Trees&rdquo; of the Ford collection the date of 1652,
the painter of these canvases cannot be Hobbema, whose birth
took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that Hobbema
painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or fourteen.
For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas
as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably
erased from several of his productions. When Hobbema&rsquo;s
talent was recognized, the contrary process was followed, and
in this way the name, and perhaps fictitious dates, reappeared
by fraud. An experienced eye will note the differences which
occur in Hobbema&rsquo;s signatures in such well-known examples as
adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the Grosvenor
and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content
to know that, if the question of dates could be brought into
accordance with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema&rsquo;s
life would be as follows.</p>

<p>Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to
Eeltije Vinck of Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at
Amsterdam, on the 2nd of November 1668. Witnesses to the
marriage were the bride&rsquo;s brother Cornelius Vinck and Jacob
Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that Hobbema and
Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at
this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the
former was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us,
since records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels,
cousins and contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of
the 17th century&mdash;one a framemaker, the son of Solomon, the
other a painter, the son of Isaac Ruysdael. Of Hobbema&rsquo;s
marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four children. In
1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of the
Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived
till December 1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month
in the pauper section of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam.
Husband and wife had lived during their lifetime in the Rozengracht,
at no great distance from Rembrandt, who also dwelt
there in his later and impoverished days. Rembrandt, Hals,
Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike. They
all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their
toil, imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from
their labours. Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and
Ruysdael together represent the final development of landscape
art in Holland. Their style is so related that we cannot suppose
the first to have been unconnected with the second. Still their
works differ in certain ways, and their character is generally
so marked that we shall find little difficulty in distinguishing
them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of Hobbema
from the feebler productions of his imitators and predecessors&mdash;Isaac
Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten, Verboom,
du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk.
In the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all
conception. It is doubtful whether any one ever so completely
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
mastered as he did the still life of woods and hedges, or mills
and pools. Nor can we believe that he obtained this mastery
otherwise than by constantly dwelling in the same neighbourhood,
say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian border, where day
after day he might study the branching and foliage of trees and
underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety
of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced
by the seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and moderately
toned, generally in an olive key, and often attuned
to a puritanical grey or russet, they surprise us, not only by
the variety of their leafage, but by the finish of their detail as
well as the boldness of their touch. With astonishing subtlety
light is shown penetrating cloud, and illuminating, sometimes
transiently, sometimes steadily, different portions of the ground,
shining through leaves upon other leaves, and multiplying in
an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the chance
be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a
cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream
that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with
several pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities
of charming our eye; and this wonderful artist, who is only
second to Ruysdael because he had not Ruysdael&rsquo;s versatility
and did not extend his study equally to downs and rocky
eminences, or torrents and estuaries&mdash;this is the man who lived
penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals
of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint
his own figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de
Velde, Lingelbach, Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to
this much is conjecture.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The best of Hobbema&rsquo;s dated pictures are those of the years 1663
to 1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St
Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated.
Of 1665 fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace
collection. Of seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the
&ldquo;Avenue at Middelharnis,&rdquo; which some assign to 1689, and the
&ldquo;Ruins of Breberode Castle,&rdquo; two are dated 1667. A sample of the
last of these years is also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge.
Amongst the masterpieces in private hands in England may be
noticed two landscapes in Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater
House, and one belonging to Mr Walter of Bearwood. On the
continent are a &ldquo;Wooded Landscape&rdquo; in the Berlin gallery, a
&ldquo;Forest&rdquo; belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris, and a &ldquo;Glade&rdquo;
in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the Antwerp
Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at
Vienna.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBBES, THOMAS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1588-1679), English philosopher, second
son of Thomas Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of
Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the 5th of April 1588. His father,
vicar of Charlton and Westport, an illiterate and choleric man,
quarrelled, it is said, with a brother clergyman at the church door,
and was forced to decamp, leaving his three children to the care
of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing glover at Malmesbury.
Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church at the age
of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was
taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a
young man named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and &ldquo;a
good Grecian.&rdquo; He had begun Latin and Greek early, and under
Latimer made such progress as to be able to translate the <i>Medea</i>
of Euripides into Latin iambic verse before he was fourteen.
About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford and entered at
Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal of
Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson,
who ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university.
Thus early was he brought into contact with the aggressive
Puritan spirit. Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his university
training, which was based on the scholastic logic then
prevalent. We have from himself a lively record of his student
life (<i>Vit. carm. exp.</i> p. lxxxv.), which, though penned in extreme
old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells how, when he had
slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and moods, he put
it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how he
then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as
throwing off species of themselves for perception, and as moved
by sympathies and antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all
beyond his comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his
old books again, fed his mind on maps and charts of earth and
sky, traced the sun in his path, followed Drake and Cavendish
girdling the main, and gazed with delight upon pictured haunts of
men and wonders of unknown lands. Very characteristic is the
interest in men and things, and the disposition to cut through
questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his own.
He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it
would be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious
insight into its weakness. The truth probably is that he took no
interest in studies which there was no risk in neglecting, and
thought as little of rejecting as of accepting the traditional
doctrines. He adds that he took his degree at the proper time;
but in fact, upon any computation and from whatever cause, he
remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of the required four,
years, not being admitted as bachelor till the 5th of February
1608.</p>

<p>In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as
tutor to the son of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (afterwards
2nd earl of Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong connexion
with a great and powerful family. Twice it was loosened&mdash;once,
for a short time, after twenty years, and again, for a
longer period, during the Civil War&mdash;but it never was broken.
Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as the happiest of
his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than Hobbes, and
had been married, a few months before, at the instance of the
king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of
Kinloss, though by reason of the bride&rsquo;s age, which was only
twelve years, the pair had no establishment for some time.
Hobbes was his companion rather than tutor (before becoming
secretary); and, growing greatly attached to each other, they
were sent abroad together on the grand tour in 1610. During
this journey, the duration of which cannot be precisely stated,
Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian, and
also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy
which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected
in favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler
and Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar
ideas, he determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was
engaged in a careful study of Greek and Latin authors, the outcome
of which was his great translation of Thucydides. But
<span class="sidenote">Translation of Thucydides.</span>
when he had finished his work he kept it lying by him
for years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative
readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was
fain to be content with &ldquo;the few and better sort.&rdquo;<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
That he was finally determined to publication by the political
troubles of the year 1628 may be regarded as certain, not only
from his own express declaration at a later time (<i>Vit. carm. exp.</i>),
but also from unmistakable hints in the account of the life and
work of his author prefixed to the translation on its appearance.
This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted from the king
in the third parliament he had tried within three years of his
accession; and, in view of Hobbes&rsquo;s later activity, it is significant
that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty, with
his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first
production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
before 1628, except that through his connexion with young
Cavendish he had relations with literary men of note like Ben
Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord Herbert of Cherbury. If
he never had any sympathy with Herbert&rsquo;s intuitionalist principles
in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he afterwards showed, than
Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious doctrine, so that he
may be called the second of the English deists, as Herbert has
been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate (Aubrey&rsquo;s
<i>Lives</i>, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as a
disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorhambury,
and would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager
thinker&rsquo;s sudden &ldquo;notions,&rdquo; and that he was employed to make
the Latin version of some of the <i>Essays</i>, prove nothing when
weighed against his own disregard of all Bacon&rsquo;s principles, and
the other evidence that the impulse to independent thinking
came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time after Bacon&rsquo;s
death in 1626.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>

<p>So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the
year 1629 that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Meanwhile
a great change had been wrought in his circumstances.
His friend and master, after about two years&rsquo;
<span class="sidenote">Philosophic Inquiry.</span>
tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague
in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so
disordered financially that the widowed countess was left with the
task of righting them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes
went on for a time living in the household; but his services were
no longer in demand, and, remaining inconsolable under his
personal bereavement, he sought distraction, in 1629, in another
engagement which took him abroad as tutor to the son of Sir
Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire family. This, his
second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent chiefly in
Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he then
first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end
in 1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devonshire,
now thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the
course of the next seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes
took his pupil over rhetoric,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> logic, astronomy, and the principles
of law, with other subjects. His mind was now full of the thought
of motion in nature, and on the continent he sought out the
philosophical speculators or scientific workers. In Florence in
1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever retained the warmest
admiration, and spent eight months in daily converse with the
members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together by Marin
Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he
too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629
(Aubrey&rsquo;s <i>Lives</i>, p. 604). Euclid&rsquo;s manner of proof became the
model for his own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less
easy to determine when he awoke to an interest in the physical
doctrine of motion. The story told by himself (<i>Vit.</i> p. xx.) is that,
hearing the question asked &ldquo;What is sense?&rdquo; he fell to thinking
often on the subject, till it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies
and their internal parts were at rest, or were always in the same
state of motion, there could be no distinction of anything, and
consequently no sense; the cause of all things must therefore be
sought in diversity of movements. Starting from this principle
he was driven to geometry for insight into the ground and modes
of motion. The biographies we possess do not tell us where or
when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing is said,
however, which contradicts a statement that on his third journey
in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more seriously,
being interested in it before; and as he claims more than once
(<i>L.W.</i> v. 303; <i>E.W.</i> vii. 468) to have explained light and sound by
a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration may
be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till
the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering
passion, and the &ldquo;philosopher&rdquo; was on his way home before he
had advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought
to the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted.</p>

<p>Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or
more from the time of its conception, but the execution was so
broken in upon by political events, and so complicated with other
labours, that its stages can hardly be followed without some previous
understanding of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there
is reason to believe they were sketched out from the beginning.
His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise <i>De corpore</i>,
a systematic doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena
were universally explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical
action was then (through Galileo and others) understood&mdash;the
theory of motion being applied in the light of mathematical science,
after quantity, the subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly
considered in its place among the fundamental conceptions of
philosophy, and a clear indication had been given, at first starting,
of the logical ground and method of all philosophical inquiry. He
would then single out Man from the realm of nature, and, in a
treatise <i>De homine</i>, show what specific bodily motions were involved
in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation
and knowledge, as also of the affections and passions thence resulting,
whereby man came into relation with man. Finally he would consider,
in a crowning treatise <i>De cive</i>, how men, being naturally
rivals or foes, were moved to enter into the better relation of Society,
and demonstrate how this grand product of human wit must be
regulated if men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery.
Thus he proposed to unite in one coherent whole the separate
phenomena of Body, Man and the State.</p>
</div>

<p>Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with discontent.
The reign of &ldquo;Thorough&rdquo; was collapsing, and the
forces pent up since 1629 were soon to rend the fabric of the
state. By these events Hobbes was distracted from the orderly
execution of his philosophic plan. The Short Parliament, as
he tells us at a later time (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 414), was not dissolved
before he had ready &ldquo;a little treatise in English,&rdquo; in which he
sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which
the members were determined to dispute before granting supplies
&ldquo;were inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did
not then deny to be in the king.&rdquo; Now it can be proved that
at this time he had written not only his <i>Human Nature</i> but also
his <i>De corpore politico</i>, the two treatises (though published
separately ten years later) having been composed as parts of
one work;<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and there cannot be the least question that together
they make &ldquo;the little treatise&rdquo; just mentioned. We are therefore
to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his
political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil
War, and, secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in
accordance with his philosophical conception, he had established
the grounds of polity in human nature. The first point is to
be noted, because it has often been supposed that Hobbes&rsquo;s
political doctrine took its peculiar complexion from his revulsion
against the state of anarchy before his eyes, as he wrote during
the progress of the Civil War. The second point must be maintained
against his own implied, if not express, statement some
years later, when publishing his <i>De cive</i> (<i>L.W.</i> ii. 151), that
he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able
to set down any finished representation of the fundamental
doctrines which it presupposed. In the beginning of 1640,
therefore, he had written out his doctrine of Man at least, with
almost as much elaboration as it ever received from him.</p>

<p>In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the
Short, and sent Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes,
who had become, or thought he had become, a marked
man by the circulation of his treatise (of which,
<span class="sidenote">In Paris.</span>
&ldquo;though not printed, many gentlemen had copies&rdquo;), hastened
to Paris, &ldquo;the first of all that fled.&rdquo; He was now for the fourth
and last time abroad, and did not return for eleven years.
Apparently he remained the greater part of the time in or about
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
Paris. He was welcomed back into the scientific coterie about
Mersenne, and forthwith had the task assigned him of criticizing
the <i>Meditations</i> of Descartes, which had been sent from Holland,
before publication, to Mersenne with the author&rsquo;s request for
criticism from the most different points of view. Hobbes was
soon ready with the remarks that were printed as &ldquo;Third&rdquo;
among the six (later seven) sets of &ldquo;Objections&rdquo; appended,
with &ldquo;Replies&rdquo; from Descartes, to the <i>Meditations</i>, when
published shortly afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in <i>L.W.</i> v.
249-274). About the same time also Mersenne sent to Descartes,
as if they came from a friend in England, another set of objections
which Hobbes had to offer on various points in the scientific
treatises, especially the <i>Dioptrics</i>, appended by Descartes to
his <i>Discourse on Method</i> in 1637; to which Descartes replied
without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets.
The result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring
them together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his
own philosophical and physical ideas than careful to enter into
the full meaning of another&rsquo;s thought; and Descartes was too
jealous, and too confident in his conclusions to bear with this
kind of criticism. He was very curt in his replies to Hobbes&rsquo;s
philosophical objections, and broke off all correspondence on
the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne that he
had grave doubts of the Englishman&rsquo;s good faith in drawing
him into controversy (<i>L.W.</i> v. 277-307).</p>

<p>Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political
theory which the events of the last years had ripened within
him to settle, even in Paris, to the orderly composition of his
works. Though connected in his own mind with his view of
human nature and of nature generally, the political theory,
as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also, while he
may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he
never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained
in the unpublished &ldquo;little treatise,&rdquo; he might extend, but could
hardly otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his
carefully articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed,
before that sketch was written early in 1640, he may, under
pressure of the political excitement, have advanced no small
way in the actual composition of the treatise <i>De Cive</i>, the third
section of his projected system. In any case, it was upon this
section, before the others, that he set to work in Paris; and
before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date
of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was
forthwith printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content
to circulate a limited number of copies privately<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a>; and when
he found his work received with applause (it was praised even
by Descartes), he seems to have taken this recognition of his
philosophical achievement as an additional reason for deferring
publication till the earlier works of the system were completed.
Accordingly, for the next three or four years, he remained
steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in public
except a short treatise on optics (<i>Tractatus opticus, L.W.</i> v.
217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published
by Mersenne under the title <i>Cogitata physico-mathematica</i>
in 1644, and a highly compressed statement of his psychological
application of the doctrine of motion (<i>L.W.</i> v. 309-318),
incorporated with Mersenne&rsquo;s <i>Ballistica</i>, published in the same
year. Thus or otherwise he had become sufficiently known by
1645 to be chosen as a referee, with Descartes, Roberval and
others, in the famous controversy between John Pell (q.v.) and
the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the squaring
of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal charm
for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all
or most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body,
not even now was he able to make way with its composition,
and when he returned to it after a number of years, he returned
a different man.</p>

<p>The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist
cause began to decline from the time of the defeat at Marston
Moor, in the middle of 1644. Then commenced an exodus of
the king&rsquo;s friends. Newcastle himself, who was a cousin of
Hobbes&rsquo;s late patron and to whom he dedicated the &ldquo;little
treatise&rdquo; of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed
by a stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes.
The sight of these exiles made the political interest once more
predominant in Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling
issued in the formation of a new and important design. It first
showed itself in the publication of the <i>De cive</i>, of which the
fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond the inner circle
of friends and critics who had copies of the original impression.
Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the
Frenchman Samuel de Sorbière, by whom it was seen through
the Elzevir press at Amsterdam in 1647&mdash;having previously
inserted a number of notes in reply to objections, and also a
striking preface, in the course of which he explained its relation
to the other parts of the system not yet forthcoming, and the
(political) occasion of its having been composed and being
now published before them.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> So hopeless, meanwhile, was he
growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year,
he was on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the
south with a French friend,<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> when he was engaged &ldquo;by the
month&rdquo; as mathematical instructor to the young prince of Wales,
who had come over from Jersey about the month of July. This
<span class="sidenote">Leviathan.</span>
engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to 1648 when
Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than
ever into the company of the exiled royalists, it was then,
if not earlier, that he conceived his new design of bringing
all his powers of thought and expression to bear upon the
production of an English book that should set forth his whole
theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis
resulting from the war. The <i>De cive</i>, presently to be published,
was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political
theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished
treatise of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell
concerning human nature, but was written before the terrible
events of the last years had disclosed how men might still be
urged by their anti-social passions back into the abyss of anarchy.
There was need of an exposition at once comprehensive, incisive
and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be
regarded as a great artificial man or monster (<i>Leviathan</i>), composed
of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation
through human reason under pressure of human needs to its
dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions.
This, we may suppose, was the presiding conception from the
first, but the design may have been variously modified in the
three or four years of its execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651,
it is plain that he wrote in direct reference to the greatly changed
aspect of affairs in England. The king being dead, and the
royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly lost, he did not scruple,
in closing the work with a general &ldquo;Review and Conclusion,&rdquo;
to raise the question of the subject&rsquo;s right to change allegiance
when a former sovereign&rsquo;s power to protect was irrecoverably
gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth
to indulge much more freely than he might have otherwise
dared in rationalistic criticism of religious doctrines; while,
amid the turmoil of sects, he could the more forcibly urge that
the preservation of social order, when again firmly restored,
must depend on the assumption by the civil power of the right
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural, against
the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or Presbyterian,
to the exercise of an <i>imperium in imperio</i>.</p>

<p>We know the <i>Leviathan</i> only as it finally emerged from Hobbes&rsquo;s
pen. During the years of its composition he remained in or near
Paris, at first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he
became a great favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by
a serious illness which disabled him for six months. Mersenne
begged him not to die outside the Roman Catholic Church, but
Hobbes said that he had already considered the matter sufficiently
and afterwards took the sacrament according to the rites of the
Church of England. On recovering from this illness, which nearly
proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily
forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the
same time translated into English, with characteristic force of
expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known
(from one or two letters) of his life in those years is that from
the year 1648 he had begun to think of returning home; he was
then sixty and might well be weary of exile. When 1650
came, as if to prepare the way for the reception of his <i>magnum
opus</i>, he allowed the publication of his earliest treatise, divided
into two separate small volumes (<i>Human Nature, or the Fundamental
Elements of Policy, E.W.</i> iv. 1-76, and <i>De Corpore
Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic</i>, pp. 77-228).<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
In 1651<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> he published his translation of the De Cive under the
title of <i>Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and
Society</i> (<i>E.W.</i> ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater
work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle
of the same year, 1651, under the title of <i>Leviathan, or the Matter,
Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil</i>
(<i>E.W.</i> iii.), with a quaint frontispiece in which, from behind
hills overlooking a fair landscape of town and country, there
towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned giant, made
up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier
in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more
lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the
first effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with
the exiled royalist party, and to throw him for protection on
the revolutionary Government. No sooner did copies of the
book reach Paris than he found himself shunned by his former
associates, and though he was himself so little conscious of
disloyalty that he was forward to present a manuscript copy
&ldquo;engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand&rdquo;<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> to the young
king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped
to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal
presence when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway,
then, he saw himself exposed to a double peril. The exiles had
among them desperadoes who could slay; and, besides exciting
the enmity of the Anglican clergy about the king, who bitterly
resented the secularist spirit of his book, he had compromised
himself with the French authorities by his elaborate attack on
the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left
him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in
the depths of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent
(second) illness, he managed to reach London, where, sending
in his submission to the council of state, he was allowed to subside
into private life.</p>

<p>Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years&rsquo; absence,
without having as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the
natural philosophers of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of
what he had been able to achieve in <i>Leviathan</i>; and it was
<span class="sidenote">Return to London.</span>
in no humble mood that he now, at the age of sixty-four, turned
to complete the fundamental treatise of his philosophical
system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon
roused to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to
indignation, were likely to be indifferent to anything
he should now write, whether it lay near to or far from
the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane,
London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake
of intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the
earl of Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
he worked so steadily as to be printing the <i>De corpore</i> in the year
1654. Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept
the book back till the following year, and meanwhile the readers
of <i>Leviathan</i> had a different excitement. In 1654 a small
treatise, &ldquo;Of Liberty and Necessity&rdquo; (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 229-278),
<span class="sidenote">Controversy with Bramhall.</span>
issued from the press, claiming to be an answer to
a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall
of Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh,
d. 1663), addressed by Hobbes to the marquis of
Newcastle.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It had grown out of an oral discussion between
Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis&rsquo;s presence at Paris in
1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down
his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this
form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication,
because he thought the subject a delicate one. But it happened
that Hobbes had allowed a French acquaintance to have a
private translation of his reply made by a young Englishman,
who secretly took a copy of the original for himself; and now it
was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had
become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion,
with an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its
front. Upon Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise,
but, after his plain speaking in <i>Leviathan</i>, there was nothing
in the piece that he need scruple to have made known, and he
seems to have condoned the act. On the other hand, Bramhall,
supposing Hobbes privy to the publication, resented the manner
of it, especially as no mention was made of his rejoinder. Accordingly,
in 1655, he printed everything that had passed between
them (under the title of <i>A Defence of the True Liberty of Human
Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity</i>), with loud
complaint against the treatment he had received, and the promise
added that, in default of others, he himself would stand forward
to expose the deadly principles of <i>Leviathan</i>. About this time
Hobbes had begun to be hard pressed by other foes, and, being
never more sure of himself than upon the question of the will,
he appears to have welcomed the opportunity thus given him
of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his <i>Questions
concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance</i> (<i>E.W.</i> v.), in which
he replied with astonishing force to the bishop&rsquo;s rejoinder point
by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances
of the whole debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done)
all the pieces from the beginning. As perhaps the first clear
exposition and defence of the <i>psychological</i> doctrine of determinism,
Hobbes&rsquo;s own two pieces must ever retain a classical
importance in the history of the free-will controversy; while
Bramhall&rsquo;s are still worth study as specimens of scholastic
fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge
in 1658 with ponderous <i>Castigations of Mr Hobbes&rsquo;s Animadversions</i>,
and also made good his previous threat in a bulky
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span>
appendix <i>entitled The Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale</i>.
Hobbes never took any notice of the <i>Castigations</i>, but ten years
later replied to the charges of atheism, &amp;c., made in the non-political
part of the appendix, of which he says he then heard
for the first time (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 279-384). This <i>Answer</i> was first
published after Hobbes&rsquo;s death.<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather
series of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the
time of publishing his <i>De corpore</i> in 1655, and which
checkered all his remaining years. In <i>Leviathan</i> he had
<span class="sidenote">Controversy with Wallis and Ward.</span>
vehemently assailed the system of the universities, as
originally founded for the support of the papal against
the civil authority, and as still working social mischief
by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly
noted at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of
scientific activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-1689),
the Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his <i>Vindiciae
academiarum</i> to some other assaults (especially against John
Webster&rsquo;s <i>Examen of Academies</i>) on the academic system, retorted
upon Hobbes that, so far from the universities being now what he
had known them in his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces,
when they appeared, better understood there than he should like.
This was said in reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to
have been freely indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished
other such feats; and, when a year later the <i>De corpore</i>
(<i>L.W.</i> i.) finally appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone
home. In the chapter (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with
the famous problem whose solution he thought he had found, there
were left expressions against Vindex (Ward) at a time when the
solutions still seemed to him good; but the solutions themselves,
as printed, were allowed to be all in different ways halting, as he
naively confessed he had discovered only when he had been driven
by the insults of malevolent men to examine them more closely
with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion this, and reached
by a path not less strange, as was now to be disclosed by a relentless
hand. Ward&rsquo;s colleague, the more famous John Wallis (q.v.), Savilian
professor of geometry from 1649, had been privy to the challenge
thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that they should critically
dispose of the <i>De corpore</i> between them. Ward was to occupy
himself with the philosophical and physical sections, which he did
in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the course of next
year (<i>In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio epistolica</i>). Wallis
was to confine himself to the mathematical chapters, and set to
work at once with characteristic energy. Obtaining an unbound
copy of the <i>De corpore</i>, he saw by the mutilated appearance of the
sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his demonstrations before
he issued them at last in their actual form, grotesque as it was,
rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also a copy of the
work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt of the
validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole course
from the time of Ward&rsquo;s provocation&mdash;his passage from exultation
to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still without
abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all his
turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most trenchant
pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis&rsquo;s <i>Elenchus
geometriae Hobbianae</i>, published in 1655 about three months after
the <i>De corpore</i>, contained also an elaborate criticism of Hobbes&rsquo;s
whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical science
in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge&mdash;a
criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the conception,
exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the result.
Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already formed
but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical system,
Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to work
up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more
anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever
insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending
himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have
always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an
interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion
of the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then
was (and not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development
which made it before the end of the century the potent
instrument of physical discovery which it became in the hands of
Newton. He was even unable, in dealing with the elementary
conceptions of geometry, to work out with any consistency the few
original thoughts he had, and thus became the easy sport of Wallis.
At his advanced age, however, and with the sense he had of his
powers, he was not likely to be brought to a better mind by so
insulting an opponent. He did indeed, before allowing an English
translation of the <i>De corpore</i> (<i>E.W.</i> i.) to appear in 1656, take
care to remove some of the worst mistakes exposed by Wallis, and,
while leaving out all the references to Vindex, now profess to make,
in altered form, a series of mere &ldquo;attempts&rdquo; at quadrature; but
he was far from yielding the ground to the enemy. With the
translation,<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> in the spring of 1656, he had ready <i>Six Lessons to the
Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry, the other of Astronomy,
in the University of Oxford</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vii. 181-356), in which, after
reasserting his view of the principles of geometry in opposition to
Euclid&rsquo;s, he proceeded to repel Wallis&rsquo;s objections with no lack of
dialectical skill, and with an unreserve equal to Wallis&rsquo;s own. He
did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict, even to maintain positions
that he had resigned in the translation, and he was not afraid to
assume the offensive by a counter criticism of three of Wallis&rsquo;s
works then published. When he had thus disposed of the
&ldquo;Paralogisms&rdquo; of his more formidable antagonist in the first five
lessons, he ended with a lesson on &ldquo;Manners&rdquo; to the two professors
together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that he too
could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must be
allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis&rsquo;s works,
especially the great treatise <i>Arithmetica infinitorum</i> (1655), only
showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the
modern analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep
up the game in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift
as before to strike, in three months&rsquo; time he had deftly turned his
own word against the would-be master by administering <i>Due
Correction for Mr Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his
Lessons right</i>, in a piece that differed from the <i>Elenchus</i> only in
being more biting and unrestrained. Having an easy task in
defending himself against Hobbes&rsquo;s trivial criticism, he seized the
opportunity given him by the English translation of the <i>De corpore</i>
to track Hobbes again step by step over the whole course, and now
to confront him with his incredible inconsistencies multiplied by
every new utterance. But it was no longer a fight over mathematical
questions only. Wallis having been betrayed originally by his
fatal cleverness into the pettiest carping at words, Hobbes had
retorted in kind, and then it became a high duty in the other to
defend his Latin with great parade of learning and give fresh
provocation. One of Wallis&rsquo;s rough sallies in this kind suggested to
Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with which, in 1657, he sought
to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in the <i>Lessons</i> that a
mathematical point must have quantity, though this were not
reckoned, he had explained the Greek word <span class="grk" title="stigmê">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#942;</span>, used for a
point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot iron; whereupon he
was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for confounding <span class="grk" title="stigmê">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#942;</span>
and <span class="grk" title="stigma">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#945;</span>. Hence the title of his new piece: <span class="grk" title="Stigmai ageômetrias,
agroikias, antipoliteias, amatheias">&#931;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#947;&#949;&#969;&#956;&#949;&#964;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7936;&#947;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7936;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7936;&#956;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, or <i>Marks of the Absurd Geometry,
Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John
Wallis, Professor of Geometry and Doctor of Divinity</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vii. 357-400).
He now attacked more in detail but not more happily than
before Wallis&rsquo;s great work, while hardly attempting any further
defence of his own positions; also he repelled with some force and
dignity the insults that had been heaped upon him, and fought
the verbal points, but could not leave the field without making
political insinuations against his adversary, quite irrelevant in
themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own resignation
to Cromwell&rsquo;s rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly parried by
Wallis in a reply (<i>Hobbiani puncti dispunctio</i>, 1657) occupied mainly
with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it did not avail to
shake Hobbes&rsquo;s determination to remain silent; and thus at last
there was peace for a time.</p>

<p>Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658,
the outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed,
after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty
years before. So far as the treatise <i>De homine</i> (<i>L.W.</i> ii. 11-32)
was concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact.
It consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which,
though very creditable to Hobbes&rsquo;s scientific insight, was out of
place, or at least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of
human nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing
cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the <i>Human
Nature</i> and the <i>Leviathan</i>, has all the appearance of having been
tagged in haste to the optical chapters (composed years before)<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
a makeshift for the proper transition required in the system from
questions of Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes
had in fact spent himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the
age of seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was
already in one form or another before the world, was content with
anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical
purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous
vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked
forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines.
Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest
production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy.
Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a
comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus (<i>Mathesis
universalis</i>, 1657), he might take this occasion of exposing afresh
the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and reasserting
his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of 1660, he had
managed to put his criticism and assertions into five dialogues under
the title <i>Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis
explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii</i>, with a sixth dialogue so called,
consisting almost entirely of seventy or more propositions on the
circle and cycloid.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Wallis, however, would not take the bait.
Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having solved, as he
thought, another ancient <i>crux</i>, the duplication of the cube, he had his
solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French, so as to put
Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a judgment that
might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was successful,
and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution than Hobbes
claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than ever
astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified
form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which
he had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical
doctrine. This was the <i>Dialogus physicus, sive De natura
aëris</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1661 against Boyle and
other friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that
malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming
themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in
1662) for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself personally,
and in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry
enjoined in the <i>De corpore</i>.<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> All the laborious manipulation recorded
in Boyle&rsquo;s <i>New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air</i> (1660),
which Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the
manifesto of the new &ldquo;academicians,&rdquo; seemed to him only to confirm
the conclusions he had reasoned out years before from speculative
principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to
begin where he had left off their work would come to nought. To
as much of this diatribe as concerned himself Boyle quickly replied
with force and dignity, but it was from Hobbes&rsquo;s old enemy that
retribution came, in the scathing satire <i>Hobbius heauton-timorumenos</i>
(1662). Wallis, who had deftly steered his course amid all the
political changes of the previous years, managing ever to be on the
side of the ruling power, was now apparently stung to fury by a
wanton allusion in Hobbes&rsquo;s latest dialogue to a passage of his former
life (his deciphering for the parliament the king&rsquo;s papers taken at
Naseby), whereof he had once boasted but after the Restoration
could not speak or hear too little. The revenge he took was crushing.
Professing to be roused by the attack on his friend Boyle, when he
had scorned to lift a finger in defence of himself against the earlier
dialogues, he tore them all to shreds with an art of which no general
description can give an idea. He got, however, upon more dangerous
ground when, passing wholly by the political insinuation against
himself, he roundly charged Hobbes with having written <i>Leviathan</i>
in support of Oliver&rsquo;s title, and deserted his royal master in distress.
Hobbes seems to have been fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl
of sarcasm with which Wallis drove him anew from every mathematical
position he had ever taken up, and did not venture forth
into the field of scientific controversy again for some years, when
he had once followed up the physical dialogue of 1661 by seven
shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix, entitled <i>Problemata
physica, una cum magnitudine circuli</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 297-384), in 1662.<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
But all the more eagerly did he take advantage of Wallis&rsquo;s loose
calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His answer to
the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself in the
third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of <i>Considerations
upon the Reputation, Loyalty,	 Manners and Religion of Thomas
Hobbes</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great biographical
value, he told his own and Wallis&rsquo;s &ldquo;little stories during
the time of the late rebellion&rdquo; with such effect that Wallis, like a
wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second bout.</p>

<p>After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period
of controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his
ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the
untiring old man&rsquo;s labours in this last stage of his life. The first
piece, published in 1666, <i>De principiis et ratiocinatione geometrarum</i>
(<i>L.W.</i> iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title declared,
to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that there
was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those of
physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the <i>Philosophical
Transactions</i> (August 1666). Three years later he brought
his three great achievements together in compendious form, <i>Quadratura
circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi</i>, and as soon as they
were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an answer to
the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany, who
paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 485-522).
Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward, refuted
him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his
propositions over again in <i>Rosetum geometricum</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 1-50), as a
fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism
(<i>Censura brevis</i>, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis&rsquo;s treatise <i>De
motu</i>, published in 1669; also he sent <i>Three Papers</i> to the Royal
Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis,
still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them separately
with triumphant <i>Considerations on Dr Wallis&rsquo;s Answer to them</i>
(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he believed,
established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to complete
the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society on all
the points at issue between them from the beginning, <i>Lux Mathematica
excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae Hobbesii</i>
(<i>L.W.</i> v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti Repertor)
added, being here &ldquo;increased by many very brilliant rays.&rdquo; Wallis
replied in the <i>Transactions</i>, and then finally held his hand. Hobbes&rsquo;s
energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of eighty-six, he
published his <i>Principia et problemata aliquot geometrica, ante
desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 150-214),
containing in the chapters dealing with questions of principle not a
few striking observations, which ought not to be overlooked in the
study of his philosophy. His last piece of all, <i>Decameron physiologicum</i>
(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set of dialogues on
physical questions, most of which he had treated in a similar fashion
before; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was able to fire a
parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of the equality
of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at the end, appropriately
closed the strangest warfare in which perverse thinker ever
engaged.<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>
</div>

<p>We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and
his other doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these
controversial writings on mathematics and physics
represent but one half of his activity after the age of
<span class="sidenote">Later Years.</span>
seventy; though, as regards the other half, it is not
possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely
in what order the works belonging to the period were produced.
From the time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence
in the public eye. No year had passed since the appearance of
<i>Leviathan</i> without some indignant protest against the influence
which its trenchant doctrine was calculated to produce upon
minds longing above everything for civil repose; but after the
Restoration &ldquo;Hobbism&rdquo; became a fashionable creed, which
it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to
denounce. Two or three days after Charles&rsquo;s arrival in London,
Hobbes drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and
was at once received into favour. The young king, if he
had ever himself resented the apparent disloyalty of the
&ldquo;Conclusion&rdquo; of <i>Leviathan</i>, had not retained the feeling long,
and could appreciate the principles of the great book when the
application of them happened, as now, to be turned in his own
favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes&rsquo;s wit (as he used
to say, &ldquo;Here comes the bear to be baited&rdquo;), and did not like
the old man the less because his presence at court scandalized
the bishops or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even
went the length of bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying)
a pension of £100, and had his portrait hung up in the royal
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span>
closet. These marks of favour, naturally, did not lessen Hobbes&rsquo;s
self-esteem, and perhaps they explain, in his later writings, a
certain slavishness toward the regal authority, which is wholly
absent from his rational demonstration of absolutism in the
earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with the rule
of a king who had appreciated the author of <i>Leviathan</i>, and
protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense
became necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against
Wallis&rsquo;s imputation of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication
of the <i>Problemata physica</i> to the king, are evidence of the
hostility with which he was being pressed as early as 1662;
but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself seriously in danger.
In that year the Great Fire of London, following on the Great
Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the
House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against
atheism and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered
that the committee to which the bill was referred &ldquo;should be
empowered to receive information touching such books as tend
to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness, or against the essence
and attributes of God, and in particular the book published
in the name of one White,<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> and the book of Mr Hobbes called
the <i>Leviathan</i>, and to report the matter with their opinion to
the House.&rdquo; Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified
at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to
burn such of his papers as he thought might compromise him.
At the same time he set himself, with a very characteristic
determination, to inquire into the actual state of the law of
heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced
in three short Dialogues added (in place of the old &ldquo;Review and
Conclusion,&rdquo; for which the day had passed) as an Appendix to
his Latin translation of <i>Leviathan</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iii.), included with the
general collection of his works published at Amsterdam in 1668.
In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in
1680, <i>An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punishment
thereof</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that,
since the High Court of Commission had been put down, there
remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable,
and that even when it stood nothing was to be declared heresy
but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as he maintained
the doctrine of <i>Leviathan</i> was not.</p>

<p>The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare
was that Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print
anything on subjects relating to human conduct. The collected
edition of his Latin works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at
Amsterdam in 1668, because he could not obtain the censor&rsquo;s
licence for its publication at London, Oxford or Cambridge.
Other writings which he had finished, or on which he must have
been engaged about this time, were not made public till after
his death&mdash;the king apparently having made it the price of his
protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the
popular sentiment. The most important of the works composed
towards 1670, and thus kept back, is the extremely spirited
dialogue to which he gave the title <i>Behemoth: the History of the
Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and
Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the
year 1660</i>.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> To the same period probably belongs the unfinished
<i>Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws
of England</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the constitutional
theory of English government as upheld by Coke.
Aubrey takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write
upon the subject in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon&rsquo;s
<i>Elements of the Laws of England</i>, and though the attempt was
then unsuccessful, Hobbes later on took to studying the statute-book,
with <i>Coke upon Littleton</i>. One other posthumous production
also (besides the tract on Heresy before mentioned) may
be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an earlier time&mdash;the
two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave his
view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the
quaint verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were
first published, nine years after his death, under the title <i>Historia
ecclesiastica</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas
Rymer.</p>

<p>For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word
of protest, whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took
to triumph over him. In 1669 an unworthy follower&mdash;Daniel
Scargil by name, a fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge&mdash;had
to recant publicly and confess that his evil life had been the
result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674 John Fell, the dean of
Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin translation of
Anthony Wood&rsquo;s <i>History and Antiquities of the University of
Oxford</i> (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the
account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this
time the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a
dignified letter (<i>Vit. Auct.</i> pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by
adding to the translation when it appeared a note full of the
grossest insults. And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not
without his consolations. No Englishman of that day stood in
the same repute abroad, and foreigners, noble or learned, who
came to England, never forgot to pay their respects to the old
man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no progress of the
years seemed able to quench. Among these was the grand-duke
of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a
portrait to adorn the Medicean library.</p>

<p>His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours.
The autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour,
occasional pathos and sublime self-complacency, was thrown
off at the age of eighty-four. At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he
sent forth a translation of four books of the <i>Odyssey</i> (ix.-xii.)
in rugged but not seldom happily turned English rhymes; and,
when he found this <i>Voyage of Ulysses</i> eagerly received, he had
ready by 1675 a complete translation of both <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>
(<i>E.W.</i> x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation &ldquo;Concerning the
Virtues of an Heroic Poem,&rdquo; showing his unabated interest in
questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time at his
patron&rsquo;s seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with intellectual
work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which it had
long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as
late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher &ldquo;somewhat
to print in English.&rdquo; The end came very soon afterwards. A
suppression of urine in October, in spite of which he insisted upon
being conveyed with the family from Chatsworth to Hardwick
Hall towards the end of November, was followed by a paralytic
stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of December, in his
ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring church
of Ault Hucknall.</p>

<p>He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a
temperate life, though he used to say that he had been drunk
about a hundred times. His favourite exercise was
tennis, which he played regularly even after the age of
<span class="sidenote">Personal characteristics.</span>
seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though
in argument he occasionally lost his temper. As a friend
he was generous and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he
was curiously timid in ordinary life, and is said to have had a
horror of ghosts. He read little, and often boasted that he
would have known as little as other men if he had read as much.
He appears to have had an illegitimate daughter for whom he
made generous provision. In the National Portrait Gallery
there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are in
the possession of the Royal Society.</p>

<p>As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls
into any regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said
that he handed on the torch to Locke. He was the
one English thinker of the first rank in the long period
<span class="sidenote">Place in English thought.</span>
of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but,
save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation
of succession among the three. It would be difficult even to
prove any ground of affinity among them beyond a desposition to
take sense as a prime factor in the account of subjective experience:
their common interest in physical science was shared
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
equally by rationalist thinkers of the Cartesian school, and was
indeed begotten of the time. Backwards, Hobbes&rsquo;s relations are
rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who, from the
beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the
physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished
by the name of science in opposition to philosophy.
But even more than in external nature, Hobbes was interested in
the phenomena of social life, presenting themselves so impressively
in an age of political revolution. So it came to pass that,
while he was unable, by reason of imperfect training and too
tardy development, with all his pains, to make any contribution
to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in physical
research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the
new &ldquo;mechanical philosophy&rdquo; conceived&mdash;nothing less than
such a universal construction of human knowledge as would
bring Society and Man (at once the matter and maker of Society)
within the same principles of scientific explanation as were
found applicable to the world of Nature. The construction was,
of course, utterly premature, even supposing it were inherently
possible; but it is Hobbes&rsquo;s distinction, in his century, to have
conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the scientific
workers with whom he associated to the rank of those philosophical
thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of
human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour
may be traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that
came within the sweep of his system, except mathematics and
physics, his thoughts have been productive of thought. When
the first storm of opposition from smaller men had begun to die
down, thinkers of real weight, beginning with Cumberland and
Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his analysis of the
moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the natural
springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it
may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of
that movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has
been carried on with such remarkable continuity in England.
In politics the revulsion from his <span class="correction" title="amended from particuar">particular</span> conclusions did not
prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing
the force of his supreme demonstration of the practical irresponsibility
of the sovereign power, wherever seated, in the state; and,
when in a later age the foundations of a positive theory of legislation
were laid in England, the school of Bentham&mdash;James Mill,
Grote, Molesworth&mdash;brought again into general notice the
writings of the great publicist of the 17th century, who, however
he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule of
one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to
the common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though
too undeveloped to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest
the attention of Locke, when essaying the scientific analysis of
knowledge, came in course of time (chiefly through James Mill)
to be connected with the theory of associationism developed
from within the school of Locke, in different ways, by Hartley
and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later associationists,
finding their principle more distinctly formulated in the earlier
thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into affiliating
themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical
theories see Ethics.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Sufficient information is given in the <i>Vitae Hobbianae auctarium</i>
(<i>L.W.</i> i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of Hobbes&rsquo;s
separate works, and also concerning the works of those who wrote
against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th century,
after Clarke&rsquo;s <i>Boyle Lectures</i> of 1704-1705, the opposition was less
express. In 1750 <i>The Moral and Political Works</i> were collected, with
life, &amp;c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition, including in order,
<i>Human Nature</i>, <i>De corpore politico</i>, <i>Leviathan</i>, <i>Answer to Bramhall&rsquo;s
Catching of the Leviathan</i>, <i>Narration concerning Heresy</i>, <i>Of Liberty
and Necessity</i>, <i>Behemoth</i>, <i>Dialogue of the Common Laws</i>, the Introduction
to the <i>Thucydides</i>, <i>Letter to Davenant and two others</i>, the Preface
to the <i>Homer</i>, <i>De mirabilibus Pecci</i> (with English translation), <i>Considerations
on the Reputation, &amp;., of T. H.</i> In 1812 the <i>Human
Nature</i> and the <i>Liberty and Necessity</i> (with supplementary extracts
from the <i>Questions</i> of 1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250
copies, with a meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedication
to Horne Tooke, by Philip Mallet. Molesworth&rsquo;s edition (1839-1845),
dedicated to Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of
translations may be mentioned <i>Les Élémens philosophiques du
citoyen</i> (1649) and <i>Le Corps politique</i> (1652), both by S. de Sorbière,
conjoined with <i>Le Traité de la nature humaine</i>, by d&rsquo;Holbach, in
1787, under the general title <i>Les &OElig;uvres philosophiques et politiques de
Thomas Hobbes</i>; a translation of the first section, &ldquo;Computatio sive
logica,&rdquo; of the <i>De corpore</i>, included by Destutt de Tracy with his
<i>Élémens d&rsquo;idéologie</i> (1804); a translation of <i>Leviathan</i> into Dutch in
1678, and another (anonymous) into German&mdash;<i>Des Engländers Thomas
Hobbes Leviathan oder der kirchliche und bürgerliche Staat</i> (Halle, 1794,
2 vols.); a translation of the <i>De cive</i> by J. H. v. Kirchmann&mdash;<i>T.
Hobbes: Abhandlung über den Bürger, &amp;c.</i> (Leipzig, 1873). Important
later editions are those of Ferdinand Tönnies, <i>Behemoth</i>
(1889), on which see Croom Robertson&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical Remains</i> (1894),
p. 451; <i>Elements of Law</i> (1889).</p>

<p><i>Biographical and Critical Works.</i>&mdash;There are three accounts of
Hobbes&rsquo;s life, first published together in 1681, two years after his
death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes&rsquo;s admirer,
John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley
and others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth&rsquo;s collection of the
<i>Latin Works</i>: (1) <i>T. H. Malmesb. vita</i> (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by
Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation;
(2) <i>Vitae Hobbianae auctarium</i> (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin from
Aubrey&rsquo;s English; (3) <i>T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa</i> (pp. lxxxi.-xcix.),
written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first published
by itself in 1680). The <i>Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie</i>, printed
among the <i>Lives of Eminent Men</i>, in 1813, from Aubrey&rsquo;s papers in
the Bodleian, &amp;c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains some interesting
particulars not found in the <i>Auctarium</i>. All that is of any
importance for Hobbes&rsquo;s life is contained in G. Croom Robertson&rsquo;s
<i>Hobbes</i> (1886) in Blackwood&rsquo;s Philosophical Classics, and Sir Leslie
Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Hobbes</i> (1904) in the &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series,
both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F.
Tönnies, <i>Hobbes Leben und Lehre</i> (1896), <i>Hobbes-Analekten</i> (1904
foll.); G. Zart, <i>Einfluss der englischen Philosophie seit Bacon auf
die deutsche Philosophie des 18ten Jahrh.</i> (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt,
<i>Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie</i> (1895); G. Lyon, <i>La
Philos. de Hobbes</i> (1893); J. M. Robertson, <i>Pioneer Humanists</i> (1907);
J. Rickaby, <i>Free Will and Four English Philosophers</i> (1906), pp. 1-72;
J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> (1895); W. Graham, <i>English
Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine</i> (1899); W. J. H. Campion,
<i>Outlines of Lectures on Political Science</i> (1895).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. C. R.; X.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The translation, under the title <i>Eight Books of the Peloponnesian
War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus, interpreted with faith
and diligence immediately out of the Greek by Thomas Hobbes, secretary
to the late Earl of Devonshire</i>, appeared in 1628 (or 1629), after
the death of the earl, to whom touching reference is made in the
dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the date of the dedication
altered, as if then newly written. Though Hobbes claims to have
performed his work &ldquo;with much more diligence than elegance,&rdquo;
his version is remarkable as a piece of English writing, but is by no
means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in Molesworth&rsquo;s collection
(11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes&rsquo;s <i>English Works</i> (London,
Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this collection will here be
cited as E. W. Molesworth&rsquo;s collection of the Latin <i>Opera philosophica</i>
(5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as <i>L.W.</i> The five hundred
and odd Latin hexameters under the title <i>De mirabilibus Pecci</i>
(<i>L.W.</i> v. 323-340), giving an account of a short excursion from
Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire Peak,
were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not published till
1636. It was a New Year&rsquo;s present to his patron, who gave him
£5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English version
by another hand.</p>

<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W.
iv. 316; <i>E.W.</i> vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon&rsquo;s
writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler,
Harvey, and others (<i>De corpore</i>, ep. ded.), among the lights of the
century. The word &ldquo;Induction,&rdquo; which occurs in only three or four
passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is
never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import
assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but
scorn for experimental work in physics.</p>

<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The free English abstract of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Rhetoric</i>, published in
1681, after Hobbes&rsquo;s death, as <i>The Whole Art of Rhetoric</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vi.
423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young
pupil. Among Hobbes&rsquo;s papers preserved at Hardwick, where he
died, there remains the boy&rsquo;s dictation-book, interspersed with
headings, examples, &amp;c. in Hobbes&rsquo;s hand.</p>

<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of
the work, under the title <i>Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique</i>,
with the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes&rsquo;s
own hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed
to the first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves,
under the title <i>Human Nature</i> in 1650.</p>

<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams&rsquo;s
library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto
size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards reproduced)
of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions, &ldquo;Libertas,&rdquo;
&ldquo;Imperium,&rdquo; &ldquo;Religio.&rdquo; The title <i>Elementorum philosophiae
sectio tertia, De Cive</i>, expresses its relation to the unwritten
sections, which also comes out in one or two back-references in
the text.</p>

<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>L.W.</i> ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the title
was changed to <i>Elementa philosophica de cive</i>, the references in the
text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the dedication
to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to
1646.</p>

<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Described as &ldquo;nobilis Languedocianus&rdquo; in <i>Vit.</i>; doubtless the
same with the &ldquo;Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus,&rdquo; to whom
was dedicated the <i>Exam. et emend. math. hod.</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv.) in 1660.
Du Verdus was one of Hobbes&rsquo;s profoundest admirers and most
frequent correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters
among Hobbes&rsquo;s papers at Hardwick.</p>

<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>The Human Nature</i> corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first part
of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part
stand now as Part I. of the <i>De Corpore Politico</i>. Part II. of the
<i>D.C.P.</i> corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.</p>

<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a
letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in answer
to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W.
Davenant&rsquo;s heroic poem, <i>Gondibert</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 441-458). The letter
is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).</p>

<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (<i>Survey of the
Leviathan</i>, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and finely
bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS.
1910).</p>

<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive
from his patron a yearly pension of £80, and they remained in steady,
correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was
declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by submission
to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were sequestered
later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes&rsquo;s friends at
this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William Harvey,
who left him a legacy of £10. According to Aubrey, Selden left him
an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey (not
Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory
epistle prefixed to the <i>De corpore</i>, among the founders, before
himself, of the new natural philosophy.</p>

<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The treatise bore the date, &ldquo;Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652,&rdquo; but it
should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself
(<i>E.W.</i> v. 25).</p>

<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> &ldquo;The <i>Vit. auct.</i> refers to 1676, a &lsquo;Letter to William duke of
Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with
Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.&rsquo; In that year there did appear
a (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes&rsquo;s concluding
statement of his own &lsquo;Opinion&rsquo; in the &lsquo;Liberty and Necessity&rsquo;
of 1654 (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by
Hobbes on the subject&rdquo; (G. Croom Robertson, <i>Hobbes</i>, p. 202).</p>

<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> This translation, <i>Concerning Body</i>, though not made by Hobbes,
was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at
critical places (<i>e.g.</i> c. vi. § 2), quite misleading. Philosophical
citations from the <i>De corpore</i> should always be made in the original
Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of
1655, but from the modified edition of 1668&mdash;modified, in the
mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the
English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the
<i>Six Lessons</i>, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth
to the original Latin edition of 1655.</p>

<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and
rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise
on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved
in Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication
to the marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (<i>E.W.</i>
vii. 467-471).</p>

<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>L.W.</i> iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in
number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when
he republished the <i>Dialogues</i> in 1668, in the collected edition of his
Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted,
at p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first introduction
to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey quoted in an
earlier paragraph.</p>

<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the
constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of the
originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued or
revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford after
the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received
appointments there.</p>

<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The <i>Problemata physica</i> was at the same time put into English
(with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical appendix),
and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated in a
remarkable letter apologizing for <i>Leviathan</i>. In its English form,
as <i>Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of Geometry</i>
(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682, after Hobbes&rsquo;s
death.</p>

<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Wallis&rsquo;s pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his
works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.</p>

<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox
Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul.
White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.</p>

<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>E.W.</i> vi. 161-418. Though <i>Behemoth</i> was kept back at the
king&rsquo;s express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes&rsquo;s leave, in
1679, before his death.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBBY,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a small horse, probably from early quotations, of
Irish breed, trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing.
The common use of the word is for a favourite pursuit or
occupation, with the idea either of excessive devotion or of
absence of ulterior motive or of profit, &amp;c., outside the occupation
itself. This use is probably not derived from the easy ambling
gait of the Irish &ldquo;hobby,&rdquo; but from the &ldquo;hobby-horse,&rdquo; the
mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a painted wooden
horse&rsquo;s head and tail, with a framework casing for an actor&rsquo;s
body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the
&ldquo;housings&rdquo; of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse
is thus a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. <i>hobin</i>, or <i>hobi</i>, Mod.
<i>aubin</i>, and Ital. <i>ubina</i> are probably adaptations of the English,
according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>. The O. Fr. hober, to
move, which is often taken to be the origin of all these words, is
the source of a use of &ldquo;hobby&rdquo; for a small kind of falcon, <i>falco
subbuteo</i>, used in hawking.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1819-1904),
English judge, fourth son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent
under-secretary of state in the Home Office, was born at Hadspen,
Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819. Educated at Eton
and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1845,
and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and
equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the
Rolls Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the
charity commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests
to educational and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five
years&rsquo; term of service as legal member of the council of the
governor-general of India, his services being acknowledged by
a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed a member of the
judicial committee of the privy council, on which he served for
twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently
supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on
the 6th of December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject
of property were collected in 1880 under the title of <i>The Dead Hand</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBOKEN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the
Scheldt about 4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on
account of the shipbuilding yard which the Cockerill firm of
Seraing has established at Hoboken. Many wealthy Antwerp
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span>
merchants have villas here, and it is the headquarters of several
of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904) 12,816.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBOKEN,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on
the Hudson river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and
opposite New York city, with which it is connected by ferries
and by two subway lines through tunnels under the river. Pop.
(1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of whom 21,380 were foreign-born,
10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910 census) 70,324.
Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one or both
parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element.
The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna
&amp; Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the
latter, and is connected by electric railway with the neighbouring
cities of north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of
the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands
American, the Scandinavian and the Phoenix steamship
lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1 sq. m. and lies
near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise both on the
W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface has
had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point, in
the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this
Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the
city, John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the
Stevens Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical
engineering endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of
John Stevens, opened in 1871, and having in 1909-1910 34
instructors and 390 students. The institute owes much to its
first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a distinguished
scientist, whose aim was &ldquo;to offer a course of instruction in
which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly
combined,&rdquo; and who gave to the institute sums aggregating
$175,000 (see <i>Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute</i>, ed.
by Furman, 1905). In connexion with the institute there is a
preparatory department, the Stevens School (1870). The city
maintains a teachers&rsquo; training school. Among the city&rsquo;s prominent
buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western
station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German
Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive
coal trade and numerous manufactures, among which are lead
pencils, leather goods, silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The
value of the manufactured product increased from $7,151,391 in
1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or 69.1%. The factory product
in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an increase of 34.3% over
that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally &ldquo;Hobocanhackingh,&rdquo;
the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about
1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings
except a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711
title to the place was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York
merchant, who built on Castle Point his summer residence.
During the War of Independence his descendant, William
Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and his estate
confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John Stevens,
the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next
thirty-five years its &ldquo;Elysian Fields&rdquo; were a famous pleasure
resort of New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in
1849 and as a city in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves
of the North German Lloyd Steamship Company and three
of its ocean liners were almost completely destroyed by a fire,
which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over $5,000,000.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBSON&rsquo;S CHOICE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;this or nothing,&rdquo; an expression that
arose from the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas
Hobson (1544-1630), refused, when letting his horses on hire, to
allow any animal to leave the stable out of its turn. Among
other bequests made by Hobson, and commemorated by Milton,
was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place, for which he
provided the perpetual maintenance. See <i>Spectator</i>, No. 509
(14th of October 1712).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOBY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1530-1566), English diplomatist and
translator, son of William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530.
He entered St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547
he went to Strassburg, where he was the guest of Martin Bucer,
whose <i>Gratulation ... unto the Church of Englande for the
restitution of Christes Religion</i> he translated into English. He
then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence and
Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was
summoned by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558),
then ambassador at the emperor&rsquo;s court, to Augsburg. The
brothers returned to England at the end of the year, and Thomas
attached himself to the service of the marquis of Northampton,
whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to arrange a
marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth.
Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for
Paris, and in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of <i>The
Courtyer of Count Baldessar Castilio</i>. His work was probably
completed in 1554, and the freedom of the allusions to the
Roman church probably accounts for the fact that it was withheld
from publication until 1561. The <i>Cortegiano</i> of Baldassare
Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called &ldquo;the best book that ever
was written upon good breeding,&rdquo; is a book as entirely typical of
the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli&rsquo;s <i>Prince</i> in another
direction. It exercised an immense influence on the standards
of chivalry throughout Europe, and was long the recognized
authority for the education of a nobleman. The accession of
Mary made it desirable for the Hobys to remain abroad, and they
were in Italy until the end of 1555. Thomas Hoby married in
1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, who
wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted in 1566
by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador.
He died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was
buried in Bisham Church.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Sir Edward Hoby</span> (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth&rsquo;s
favour, and he was employed on various confidential missions.
He was constable of Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died
on the 1st of March 1617. He took part in the religious controversies
of the time, publishing many pamphlets against Theophilus
Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He translated, from
the French of Mathieu Coignet, <i>Politique Discourses on Trueth and
Lying</i> (1586).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The authority for Thomas Hoby&rsquo;s biography is a MS. &ldquo;Booke of
the Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth
the noting.&rdquo; This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by
Edgar Powell in 1902. Hoby&rsquo;s translation of <i>The Courtyer</i> was edited
(1900) by Professor Walter Raleigh for the &ldquo;Tudor Translations&rdquo;
series.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOCHE, LAZARE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1768-1797), French general, was born
of poor parents near Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At
sixteen years of age he enlisted as a private soldier in the <i>Gardes
françaises</i>. He spent his entire leisure in earning extra pay by
civil work, his object being to provide himself with books, and
this love of study, which was combined with a strong sense of
duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion. When
the <i>Gardes françaises</i> were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal,
and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time
of his receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville
in that year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served
with credit in the operations of 1792-1793 on the northern
frontier of France. At the battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp
to General le Veneur, and when Dumouriez deserted
to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and others, fell
under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under arrest
and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence
of Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted
successively <i>chef de brigade</i>, general of brigade, and general of
division. In October 1793 he was provisionally appointed to
command the Army of the Moselle, and within a few weeks he
was in the field at the head of his army in Lorraine. His first
battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of November)
against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the
midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued
Hoche in his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their
eyes outweighed everything else, and Hoche soon showed that
he possessed these qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed
the lines of Fröschweiler, and the representatives of the Convention
with his army at once added the Army of the Rhine
to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December the French
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and Hoche
pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle
Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters.
Before the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaïde
Dechaux at Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later
he was suddenly arrested, charges of treason having been preferred
by Pichegru, the displaced commander of the Army
of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche escaped execution,
however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of Robespierre.
Shortly after his release he was appointed to command against
the Vendéans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work
of his predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye
(15th of February 1795), but soon afterwards the war was
renewed by the Royalists. Hoche showed himself equal to the
crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the Royalist cause by
defeating and capturing de Sombreuil&rsquo;s expedition at Quiberon
and Penthièvre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means
of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he
succeeded before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of
the west, which had for more than three years been the scene
of a pitiless civil war. After this he was appointed to organize
and command the troops destined for the invasion of Ireland,
and he started on this enterprise in December 1796. A tempest,
however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after various
adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having
effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the
Rhine frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied
(April), though operations were soon afterwards brought to an
end by the Preliminaries of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was
minister of war for a short period, but in this position he was
surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and, finding himself
the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating the
constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his
command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly
worse, and he died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797
of consumption. The belief was widely spread that he had been
poisoned, but the suspicion seems to have been without foundation.
He was buried by the side of his friend Marceau in a fort
on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army but of
all France.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Privat, <i>Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et
militaire du général Hoche</i> (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, <i>Éloge du
général Hoche</i> (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche&rsquo;s
funeral; Rousselin, <i>Vie de Lazare Hoche, général des armées de la
république française</i> (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the
public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, <i>Éloge
funèbre du général Hoche</i> (Paris, 1800); <i>Vie et pensées du général
Hoche</i> (Bern); Champrobert, <i>Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le
pacificateur de la Vendée</i> (Paris, 1840); Dourille, <i>Histoire de Lazare
Hoche</i> (Paris, 1844); Desprez, <i>Lazare Hoche d&rsquo;après sa correspondance</i>
(Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, <i>Essai sur la vie
de Lazare Hoche</i> (1852); É. de Bonnechose, <i>Lazare Hoche</i> (1867);
H. Martin, <i>Hoche et Bonaparte</i> (1875); Dutemple, <i>Vie politique et
militaire du général Hoche</i> (1879); Escaude, <i>Hoche en Irlande</i> (1888);
Cunéo d&rsquo;Ornano, <i>Hoche</i> (1892); A. Chuquet, <i>Hoche et la lutte pour
l&rsquo;Alsace</i> (a volume of this author&rsquo;s series on the campaigns of the
Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général Hoche</i> (1893); A.
Duruy, <i>Hoche et Marceau</i> (1885).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOCHHEIM,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau, situated on an elevation not far from the
right bank of the Main, 3 m. above its influx into the Rhine and
3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the
English word &ldquo;Hock,&rdquo; the generic term for Rhine wine, being
derived from its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles
as early as the 7th century. It is also memorable as the scene
of a victory gained here, on the 7th of November 1813 by the
Austrians over the French.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Schüler, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main</i> (Hochheim,
1888).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HÖCHST,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau on the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop. (1905) 14,121. It is a busy industrial town with large
dye-works and manufactures of machinery, snuff, tobacco,
waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits. Brewing is carried
on and there is a considerable river trade. The Roman Catholic
church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built in the
9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic
choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an
Evangelical church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck
by Alois Mayer. Höchst belonged formerly to the electors of
Mainz who had a palace here; this was destroyed in 1634 with
the exception of one fine tower which still remains. In 1622
Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by Count
Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over
the French.</p>

<p>Höchst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has
some manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine
monastery.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HÖCHSTÄDT,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of
Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by
rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It has three Roman Catholic churches,
a castle flanked by walls and towers and some small industries,
including malting and brewing. Höchstädt, which came into
the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of battles.
Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for
Henry IV., was defeated by Henry&rsquo;s rival, Hermann of Luxemburg,
in 1081; in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by
Marshal Villars in command of the French; in August 1704
Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French and
Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria
and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of
Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here
between the Austrians and the French.</p>

<p>There is another small town in Bavaria named Höchstadt.
Pop. 2000. This is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to
which bishopric it belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded
to Bavaria.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span>
(1829-1884), Austrian geologist, was born at Esslingen, Würtemberg,
on the 30th of April 1829. He was the son of Christian
Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a clergyman and professor
at Brünn, who was also a botanist and mineralogist. Having
received his early education at the evangelical seminary at
Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tübingen; there
under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology
became permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor&rsquo;s
degree and a travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff
of the Imperial Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged
until 1856 in parts of Bohemia, especially in the Böhmerwald, and
in the Fichtel and Karlsbad mountains. His excellent reports
established his reputation. Thus he came to be chosen as geologist
to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and made numerous
valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In 1859
he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a
rapid geological survey of the islands. On his return he was
appointed in 1860 professor of mineralogy and geology at the
Imperial Polytechnic Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was
made superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum.
In these later years he explored portions of Turkey and eastern
Russia, and he published papers on a variety of geological,
palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He died at Vienna
on the 18th of July 1884.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>&mdash;<i>Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhältnisse und
seine Quellen</i> (1858); <i>Neu-Seeland</i> (1863); <i>Geological and Topographical
Atlas of New Zealand</i> (1864); <i>Leitfaden der Mineralogie
und Geologie</i> (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOCKEY<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (possibly derived from the &ldquo;hooked&rdquo; stick with
which it is played; cf. O. Fr. <i>hoquet</i>, shepherd&rsquo;s crook), a game
played with a ball or some similar object by two opposing sides,
using hooked or bent sticks, with which each side attempts to
drive it into the other&rsquo;s goal. In one or more of its variations
Hockey was known to most northern peoples in both Europe and
Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of similar nature. It
was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or the ice in
winter. In Scotland it was called &ldquo;shinty,&rdquo; and in Ireland
&ldquo;hurley,&rdquo; and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
with numerous players on each side. The rules were simple
and the play very rough.</p>

<p>Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold
season on the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation
of &ldquo;The Men&rsquo;s Hockey Association&rdquo; in England in 1875.
The rules drawn up by the Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain
in all essentials. Since 1895 &ldquo;international&rdquo; matches at hockey
have been played annually between England, Scotland, Ireland
and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played between England
and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890 Divisional
Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and
inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated,
and have since been played annually. County
matches are also now regularly played in England, twenty-six
counties competing in 1907. Of other hockey clubs playing
regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in the London
district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:330px; height:536px" src="images/img555a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Diagram of Hockey Field.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>G, Goal.</p>
<p>RB, Right Back.</p>
<p>LB, Left Back.</p>
<p>RH, Right Half.</p>
<p>CH, Centre Half.</p>
<p>LH, Left Half.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>RW, Right Wing.</p>
<p>RI, Inside Right.</p>
<p>CF, Centre Forward.</p>
<p>LI, Inside Left.</p>
<p>LW, Left Wing.</p></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p class="pt2">The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100
yds. long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each
end-line, and consist of
two uprights 7 ft. high
surmounted by a horizontal
bar, enclosing a
space 12 ft. wide. In
front of each goal is
a space enclosed by a
curved line, its greatest
diameter from the goal-line
being 15 ft., called
the <i>striking-circle</i>. The
positions of the players
on each side may be
seen on the accompanying
diagram. Two
umpires, one on each
side of the centre-line,
officiate.</p>

<p>The ball is an ordinary
cricket-ball painted
white. The stick has a
hard-wood curved head,
and a handle of cork
or wrapped cane. It
must not exceed 2 in.
in diameter nor 28 oz.
in weight. At the start
of the game, which
consists of two thirty
or thirty-five minute
periods, the two centre-forwards
&ldquo;bully off&rdquo;
the ball in the middle
of the field. In &ldquo;bullying
off&rdquo; each centre
must strike the ground
on his own side of the
ball three times with
his stick and strike his
opponent&rsquo;s stick three
times alternately; after
which either may strike
the ball. Each side
then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling,
to drive the ball into its opponents&rsquo; goal. A player is &ldquo;off
side&rdquo; if he is nearer the enemy&rsquo;s goal than one of his own side
who strikes the ball, and he may not strike the ball himself
until it has been touched by one of the opposing side. The ball
may be caught (but not held) or stopped by any part of the body,
but may not be picked up, carried, kicked, thrown or knocked
except with the stick. An opponent&rsquo;s stick may be hooked, but not
an opponent&rsquo;s person, which may not be obstructed in any way.
No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for infringing rules are of
two classes; &ldquo;free hits&rdquo; and &ldquo;penalty bullies,&rdquo; to be taken where
the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls penalty goals may also be
awarded. A &ldquo;corner&rdquo; occurs when the ball goes behind the goal-line,
but not into goal. If it is hit by the attacking side, or unintentionally
by the defenders, it must be brought out 25 yds., in a
direction at right angles to the goal-line from the point where it
crossed the line, and there &ldquo;bullied.&rdquo; But if the ball is driven from
within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind the goal-line by the
defenders, a member of the attacking side is given a free hit from a
point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the members of the defending side
remaining behind their goal-line. If the ball is hit intentionally behind
the goal-line by the attacking side, the free hit is taken from the point
where the ball went over. No goal can be scored from a free hit directly.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Ice Hockey</i> (or <i>Bandy</i>, to give it its original name) is far more
popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much
ice; in fact in America &ldquo;Hockey&rdquo; means Ice Hockey, while
the land game is called Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest
form of driving a ball across a given limit with a stick or club
has been played for centuries in northern Europe, attaining
its greatest popularity in the Low Countries, and there are many
16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which represent games
of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much like
a golf club.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In England Bandy is controlled by the &ldquo;National Bandy Association.&rdquo;
A team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the
proper space for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of
solid india-rubber, between 2¼ and 2¾ in. in diameter. The bandies
are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the
centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and
12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee
throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must not
be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the
ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into
the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it
went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across
the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the defenders
from the point where it went over, the opponents not being allowed
to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the hit is
made.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:515px; height:146px" src="images/img555b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption">Hockey Stick.</td></tr></table>

<p>In America the development of the modern game is due to the
Victoria Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About
1881 the secretary of the former club made the first efforts towards
drawing up a recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards
playing rules were agreed upon from time to time whenever an
important match was played, the chief teams being, besides those
already mentioned, the Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal
Hockey Clubs, the first general tournament taking place in 1884.
Three years later the &ldquo;Amateur Hockey Association of Canada&rdquo;
was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn up. Soon afterwards,
in consequence of exhibitions given by the best Canadian teams in
some of the larger cities of the United States, the new game was
taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic clubs, and became
nearly as popular in the northern states as in the Dominion. The
rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The rink must be
at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players form a side.
The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided with goal-nets.
Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is used,
made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in.
thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard
wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game
is played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission
of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when
a goal has been made, the puck is <i>faced</i>, <i>i.e.</i> it is placed in the middle
of the rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee
calls &ldquo;play.&rdquo; Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by
means of passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from
which a goal may be <i>shot</i>. The puck may be stopped by any part of
the person but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No
stick may be raised above the shoulder except when actually striking
the puck. When the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal,
or a foul has been made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the
rink. The goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.</p>

<p>There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under
the jurisdiction of the &ldquo;American Amateur Hockey League&rdquo; in the
United States and the &ldquo;Canadian Amateur Athletic League&rdquo; in
Canada.</p>

<p><i>Ice Polo</i>, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost exclusively
played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is used and
the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The radical difference
between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there is no strict
off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come from any and
often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute a team:
a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The rushers must
be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and good goal shots.
The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to them or trying
for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence and the goal-tend
the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.</p>

<p><i>Ring Hockey</i> may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or
large room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high
and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck,
is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in. opening
through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick is
a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about
¾ in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower
end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the
hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the
field counts one point, a goal from a foul ½ point. When a foul is
called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free
shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.</p>

<p><i>Roller Polo</i>, played extensively during the winter months in the
United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of gymnasiums
and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing roller-skates.
The first professional league was organized in 1883.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOCK-TIDE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated
on the second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday
was an important term day, rents being then payable,
for with Michaelmas it divided the rural year into its winter and
summer halves. The derivation of the word is disputed: any
analogy with Ger. <i>hoch</i>, &ldquo;high,&rdquo; being generally denied. No
trace of the word is found in Old English, and &ldquo;hock-day,&rdquo; its
earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th century.
The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On
Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers
of the opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought
their release with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across
the highroads, and the passers were obliged to pay toll. The
money thus collected seems to have gone towards parish expenses.
Many entries are found in parish registers under &ldquo;Hocktyde
money.&rdquo; The hock-tide celebration became obsolete in the
beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a play
called &ldquo;The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday.&rdquo; This,
suppressed at the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder,
and revived as part of the festivities on Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s visit
to Kenilworth in July 1575, depicted the struggle between Saxons
and Danes, and has given colour to the suggestion that hock-tide
was originally a commemoration of the massacre of the Danes
on St Brice&rsquo;s Day, the 13th of November <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1002, or of the
rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042
and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries
do not bear this out.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOCUS,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a shortened form of &ldquo;hocus pocus,&rdquo; used in the 17th
century in the sense of &ldquo;to play a trick on any one,&rdquo; to &ldquo;hoax,&rdquo;
which is generally taken to be a derivative. &ldquo;Hocus pocus&rdquo;
appears to have been a mock Latin expression first used as the
name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus in Ady&rsquo;s <i>Candle in the Dark</i>
(1655), quoted in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, &ldquo;I will speak of
one man ... that went about in King James his time ...
who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent Hocus
Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every
Trick, he used to say, <i>Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter
jubeo</i>, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the
beholders, to make his Trick pass the more currantly without
discovery.&rdquo; Tillotson&rsquo;s guess (<i>Sermons</i>, xxvi.) that the phrase
was a corruption of <i>hoc est corpus</i> and alluded to the words of
the Eucharist, &ldquo;in ridiculous imitation of the priests of the
Church of Rome in their trick of Transubstantiation,&rdquo; has
frequently been accepted as a serious derivation, but has no
foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of Scandinavian
mythology, called &ldquo;Ochus Bochus,&rdquo; is equally unwarranted.
&ldquo;Hocus&rdquo; is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium,
&amp;c., for a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning
of the 19th century.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODDEN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth
made of undyed wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry
of Scotland. It was usually made on small hand-looms by the
peasants themselves. Grey hodden was made by mixing black
and white fleeces together in the proportion of one to twelve
when weaving.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODDESDON,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N.
from London by the Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and
Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge line). Pop. (1901), 4711.
This is the northernmost of a series of populous townships
extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea valley as
far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to Hoddesdon.
They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous
coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house
is mentioned in Matthew Prior&rsquo;s &ldquo;Down Hall.&rdquo; The Lea
has been a favourite resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish
in this part) from the time of Izaak Walton, in whose book
Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church of St Augustine,
Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work, and
contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with
enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the
site of a Romano-British village.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODEDA<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (<i>Hodeida</i>, <i>Hadeda</i>), a town in Arabia situated on the
Red Sea coast 14° 48&prime; N. and 42° 57&prime; E. It lies on a beach
of muddy sand exposed to the southerly and westerly winds.
Steamers anchor more than a mile from shore, and merchandize
has to be transhipped by means of <i>sambuks</i> or native boats.
But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the maritime trade
of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great port
of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of
stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except
on the sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated
at 33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and
the Turkish officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element,
Greeks, Indians and African traders from the opposite coast.
There are consulates of Great Britain, United States, France,
Germany, Italy and Greece. The steam tonnage entering and
clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700 tons, the highest
hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained with Aden,
and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large
dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers
from Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain.
The imports for 1904 amounted in value to £467,000, the chief
items being piece goods, food grains and sugar; the exports
amounted to £451,000, including coffee valued at £229,000.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODENING,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in
Wales, Kent, Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse&rsquo;s skull or
a wooden imitation on a pole is carried round by a party of
youths, one of whom conceals himself under a white cloth to
simulate the horse&rsquo;s body, holding a lighted candle in the skull.
They make a house-to-house visitation, begging gratuities.
The &ldquo;Penitential&rdquo; of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of
&ldquo;any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with
the skins of cattle and carry heads of animals.&rdquo; This, coupled
with the fact that among the primitive Scandinavians the horse
was often the sacrifice made at the winter solstice to Odin for
success in battle, has been thought to justify the theory that
hodening is a corruption of Odining.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODGE, CHARLES<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1797-1878), American theologian, was
born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December
1797. He graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton)
in 1815, and in 1819 at the Princeton Theological seminary,
where he became an instructor in 1820, and the first professor
of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822. Meanwhile, in 1821,
he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister. From 1826
to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and
Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and
Humboldt in Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of
exegetical and didactic theology, to which subjects that of
polemic theology was added in 1854, and this office he held until
his death. In 1825 he established the quarterly <i>Biblical Repertory</i>,
the title of which was changed to <i>Biblical Repertory and
Theological Review</i> in 1830 and to <i>Biblical Repertory and Princeton
Review</i> in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged the <i>Literary
and Theological Review</i> of New York, and in 1872 the American
Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming <i>Presbyterian
Quarterly and Princeton Review</i> in 1872 and <i>Princeton Review</i>
in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of the
Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued
its principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev.
Lyman H. Atwater became his colleague. His more important
essays were republished under the titles <i>Essays and Reviews</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
(1857), <i>Princeton Theological Essays, and Discussions in Church
Polity</i> (1878). He was moderator of the General Assembly
(O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise the <i>Book of
Discipline</i> of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and president of
the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870. The
24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his
professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between
400 and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was
raised for the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton
on the 19th of June 1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of
American theologians.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Besides his articles in the <i>Princeton Review</i>, he published a
<i>Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans</i> (1835, abridged 1836,
rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), <i>Constitutional History
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States</i> (2 vols., 1839-1840);
<i>The Way of Life</i> (1841); <i>Commentaries on Ephesians</i> (1856);
1 <i>Corinthians</i> (1857); 2 <i>Corinthians</i> (1859); <i>Systematic Theology</i> (3
vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern expositions
of Calvinistic dogmatic; and <i>What is Darwinism</i>? (1874),
in which he opposed &ldquo;Atheistic Evolutionism.&rdquo; After his death a
volume of <i>Conference Papers</i> (1879) was published. His life, by his
son, was published in 1880.</p>
</div>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Archibald Alexander Hodge</span> (1823-1886), also
famous as a Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on
the 18th of July 1823. He graduated at the College of New Jersey
in 1841, and at the Princeton Theological seminary in 1846,
and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was a missionary
at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of churches
successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855);
at Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barré,
Pennsylvania (1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor
of didactic and polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological
seminary at Allegheny, Pennsylvania, where he was also from
1866 to 1877 pastor of the North Church (Presbyterian). In
1878 he succeeded his father as professor of didactic theology
at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of November
1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the
author of <i>Outlines of Theology</i> (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged,
1879); <i>The Atonement</i> (1867); <i>Exposition of the Confession of
Faith</i> (1869); and <i>Popular Lectures on Theological Themes</i> (1887).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See C. A. Salmond&rsquo;s <i>Charles and A. A. Hodge</i> (New York, 1888).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODGKIN, THOMAS<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1831-&emsp;&emsp;), British historian, son of
John Hodgkin (1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on
the 29th of July 1831. Having been educated as a member of
the Society of Friends and taken the degree of B.A. at London
University, he became a partner in the banking house of Hodgkin,
Barnett &amp; Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards amalgamated
with Lloyds&rsquo; Bank. While continuing in business as
a banker, Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical
study, and soon became a leading authority on the history of
the early middle ages, his books being indispensable to all
students of this period. His chief works are, <i>Italy and her
Invaders</i> (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); <i>The Dynasty of Theodosius</i>
(Oxford, 1889); <i>Theodoric the Goth</i> (London, 1891); and an
introduction to the <i>Letters</i> of Cassiodorus (London, 1886).
He also wrote a <i>Life of Charles the Great</i> (London, 1897); <i>Life
of George Fox</i> (Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of
Longman&rsquo;s <i>Political History of England</i> (London, 1906).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODGKINSON, EATON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1789-1861), English engineer, the
son of a farmer, was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire,
on the 26th of February 1789. After attending school at Northwich,
he began to help his widowed mother on the farm, but to
escape from that uncongenial occupation he persuaded her in
1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking business.
There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those
inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work
of his life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an
important series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was
sought by Robert Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions
of the tubes for the Britannia bridge. A paper which he
communicated to the Royal Society on &ldquo;Experimental Researches
on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and other Materials,&rdquo; in
1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was also elected
a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the mechanical
principles of engineering in University College, London, and at
the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission
appointed to inquire into the application of iron to
railway structures. In 1848 he was chosen president of the
Manchester Philosophical Society, of which he had been a
member since 1826, and to which, both previously and subsequently,
he contributed many of the more important results of
his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the
discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was
elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield
House, near Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1800-1894), English administrator,
ethnologist and naturalist, was born at Lower
Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st of February 1800. His
father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country gentlemen,
and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of Manchester.
In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After
passing through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to
India in 1818, and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner
was in 1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at
Katmandu, the capital of Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship
in the foreign department at Calcutta, but his
health failed, and in 1824 he returned to Nepal, to which the
whole of his life, whether in or out of India, may be said to have
been thenceforth given. He devoted himself particularly to the
collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism, and hardly less
so to the natural history and antiquities of the country, and by
1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the <i>Transactions</i>
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of the
ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In
1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy
years in conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was
accredited. He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory
treaty in 1839; but in 1842 his policy, which involved an
imperious attitude towards the native government, was upset by
the interference of Lord Ellenborough, but just arrived in India
and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble in Nepal during the
conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself to disobey
his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own mind
by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the governor-general
could hardly be expected to overlook. He was, nevertheless,
continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843, and
resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at
Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite
pursuits, becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist
religion and on the flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early
suggested the recruiting of Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who
influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend his assistance to the British
during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he returned to England, and
lived successively in Cheshire and Gloucestershire, occupied with
his studies to the last. He died at his seat at Alderley Grange in
the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894. No man has done
so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in Nepal, and
his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the East
India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British
Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He
wrote altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127
scientific papers, as well as some valuable pamphlets on native
education, in which he took great interest. His principal work,
<i>Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of Buddhists</i> (1841),
was republished with the most important of his other writings
in 1872-1880.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Hungary, in the county
of Csongrád, 135 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
60,824 of which about two-thirds are Protestants. The town,
situated on Lake Hód, not far from the right bank of the Tisza,
has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding country, of
which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly
fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats,
millet, maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons.
Extensive vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a></span>
red grapes, skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of
Hódmezö-Vásárhely have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are
also extensively reared. The commune is protected from inundations
of the Tisza by an enormous dike, but the town, nevertheless,
sometimes suffers considerable damage during the spring
floods.</p>


<hr class="art" />

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:328px" src="images/img558.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
</table>

<p><span class="bold">HODOGRAPH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hodos">&#8001;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>, a way, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write), a curve
of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a
moving particle. It appears to have been used by James
Bradley, but for its practical development we are mainly indebted
to Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who published an account of it
in the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, 1846. If a point
be in motion in any orbit and with any velocity, and if, at each
instant, a line be drawn from a fixed point parallel and equal to
the velocity of the moving point at that instant, the extremities
of these lines will lie on a curve called the hodograph. Let PP<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">2</span>
be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT<span class="su">1</span>, OT<span class="su">2</span>, be drawn
from the fixed point O parallel
and equal to the velocities at
P, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> respectively, then the
locus of T is the hodograph of the
orbits described by P (see figure).
From this definition we have
the following important fundamental
property which belongs
to all hodographs, viz. that at
any point the tangent to the
hodograph is parallel to the
direction, and the velocity in
the hodograph equal to the
magnitude of the resultant
acceleration at the corresponding
point of the orbit. This
will be evident if we consider
that, since radii vectores of the
hodograph represent velocities in the orbit, the elementary
arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the hodograph
represents the velocity which must be compounded
with the velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any
short interval of time to get the velocity at the end of that
interval, that is to say, represents the change of velocity for
that interval. Hence the elementary arc divided by the element of
time is the rate of change of velocity of the moving-point, or in
other words, the velocity in the hodograph is the acceleration in
the orbit.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, <i>Nat. Phil.</i>):&mdash;Let x, y, z
be the coordinates of P in the orbit, &xi;, &eta;, &zeta; those of the corresponding
point T in the hodograph, then</p>

<table class="math0" summary="math">
<tr><td rowspan="2">&xi; =</td> <td>dx</td>
<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; &eta; =</td> <td>dy</td>
<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; &zeta; =</td> <td>dz</td>
<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">therefore</p>

<table class="math0" summary="math">
<tr><td>d&xi;</td>
<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d&eta;</td>
<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d&zeta;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td class="denom">d²x/dt²</td> <td class="denom">d²y/dt²</td>
<td class="denom">d²z/dt²</td></tr></table>
<div class="author">(1).</div>

<p class="noind">Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,</p>

<table class="math0" summary="math">
<tr><td>ds</td>
<td rowspan="2">= v = <span class="f150">&radic; [(</span></td> <td>d&xi;</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d&eta;</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d&zeta;</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>

<table class="math0" summary="math">
<tr><td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">&radic; [(</span></td> <td>d²x</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d²y</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d²z</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="denom">dt²</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt²</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt²</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
<div class="author">(2).</div>

<p>Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel
to the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in
the hodograph is equal to the acceleration.</p>

<p>Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every
hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is
possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other
circumstances of the motion.</p>

<p>For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical
problems see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1821-1858), known
as &ldquo;Hodson of Hodson&rsquo;s Horse,&rdquo; British leader of light cavalry
during the Indian Mutiny, third son of the Rev. George Hodson,
afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and canon of Lichfield,
was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore Court, near
Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age
for those days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal
Grenadiers he went through the first Sikh War, and was present
at the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one
of his letters home at this period he calls the campaign a &ldquo;tissue
of mismanagement, blunders, errors, ignorance and arrogance&rdquo;,
and outspoken criticism such as this brought him many bitter
enemies throughout his career, who made the most of undeniable
faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir Henry
Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides,
and in 1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with
the civil charge of Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty
demeanour to his equals made him many enemies. In 1855 two
separate charges were brought against him. The first was that
he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar
Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel
Mackeson. The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed
Hodson from his civil functions and remanded him to his regiment
on account of his lack of judgment. The second charge was
more serious, amounting to an accusation of malversation in
the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of inquiry,
who found that his conduct to natives had been &ldquo;unjustifiable
and oppressive,&rdquo; that he had used abusive language to his
native officers and personal violence to his men, and that his
system of accounts was &ldquo;calculated to screen peculation and
fraud.&rdquo; Subsequently another inquiry was carried out by
Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt simply with Hodson&rsquo;s accounts
and found them to be &ldquo;an honest and correct record ...
irregularly kept.&rdquo; At this time the Guides were split up into
numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances
which made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of
the two inquiries may be set against each other, and this particular
charge declared &ldquo;not proven.&rdquo; It is possible that Hodson was
careless and extravagant in money matters rather than actually
dishonest; but there were several similar charges against him.
During a tour through Kashmir with Sir Henry Lawrence he
kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an account
from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of
embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli;
while Sir Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the
third brother, Lord Lawrence, &ldquo;I am bound to say that Lord
Lawrence had no opinion of Hodson&rsquo;s integrity in money matters.
He has often discussed Hodson&rsquo;s character in talking to me,
and it was to him a regret that a man possessing so many fine
gifts should have been wanting in a moral quality which made
him untrustworthy.&rdquo; Finally, on one occasion Hodson spent
£500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of
exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker
through one of his officers named Bisharat Ali.</p>

<p>It was just at the time when Hodson&rsquo;s career seemed ruined
that the Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity
of rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the
campaign he made his name by riding with despatches from
General Anson at Karnal to Meerut and back again, a distance
of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours, through a country swarming
with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased the commander-in-chief
that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000
irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson&rsquo;s
Horse, and placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department.
In his double rôle of cavalry leader and intelligence
officer, Hodson played a large part in the reduction of Delhi
and consequently in saving India for the British empire. He
was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed that
daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership
against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he
never received the Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was
because he earned it every day of his life. But he also had
the defects of his qualities, and could display on occasion a
certain cruelty and callousness of disposition. Reference has
already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson money.
During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy
of Bisharat Ali&rsquo;s, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span>
and had just reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson
thereupon took out a body of his sowars, attacked the village,
and shot Bisharat Ali and several of his relatives. General
Crawford Chamberlain states that this was Hodson&rsquo;s way of
wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi, Hodson
obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty
horsemen to Humayun&rsquo;s tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring
in Bahadur Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with
safety in the face of a large and threatening crowd, and thus
dealt the mutineers a heavy blow. On the following day with
100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and obtained the
unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been
left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons
gathered, and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them
to disarm, which they proceeded to do. He sent the princes on
with an escort of ten men, while with the remaining ninety
he collected the arms of the crowd. On galloping after the
princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the escort
and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable
to bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own
hand. This is the most bitterly criticized action in his career,
but no one but the man on the spot can judge how it is necessary
to handle a crowd; and in addition one of the princes, Abu
Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had made himself notorious
for cutting off the arms and legs of English children and pouring
the blood into their mothers&rsquo; mouths. Considering the circumstances
of the moment, Hodson&rsquo;s act at the worst was one of
irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is
that he gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen
by Sir Donald Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably
for a bribe; and he took an armlet and rings from the bodies
of the princes. He was freely accused of looting at the time,
and though this charge, like that of peculation, is matter for
controversy, it is very strongly supported. General Pelham
Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson&rsquo;s boxes when he accompanied
him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow,
and Sir Henry Daly said that he found &ldquo;loads of loot&rdquo; in
Hodson&rsquo;s boxes after his death, and also a file of documents
relating to the Guides case, which had been stolen from him
and of which Hodson denied all knowledge. On the other hand
the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that he obtained the
inventory of his brother&rsquo;s possessions made by the Committee
of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir
Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this
evidence. This statement is totally incompatible with Sir
Henry Daly&rsquo;s and is only one of many contradictions in the
case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his personal knowledge
Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta which
could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand,
again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for £170,
his widow was dependent on charity for her passage home,
was given apartments by the queen at Hampton Court, and
left only £400 at her death.</p>

<p>Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on
the Begum Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot
and met a man going to fetch powder to blow in a door; instead
Hodson, with his usual recklessness, rushed into the doorway
and was shot. On the whole, it can hardly be doubted that he
was somewhat unscrupulous in his private character, but he was
a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable services to the
empire.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The controversy relating to Hodson&rsquo;s moral character is very
complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson&rsquo;s side see Rev. G.
Hodson, <i>Hodson of Hodson&rsquo;s Horse</i> (1883), and L. J. Trotter, <i>A
Leader of Light Horse</i> (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, <i>Life
of Lord Lawrence</i>, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E.
Holmes, <i>History of the Indian Mutiny</i>, appendix N to the 5th edition
of 1898, and <i>Four Famous Soldiers</i> by the same author, 1889; and
General Sir Crawford Chamberlain, <i>Remarks on Captain Trotter&rsquo;s
Biography of Major W. S. R. Hodson</i> (1901).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HODY, HUMPHREY<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1659-1707), English divine, was born
at Odcombe in Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered
Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became fellow in 1685.
In 1684 he published <i>Contra historiam Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus
dissertatio</i>, in which he showed that the so-called letter
of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of the
Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally
circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation
was generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius
published an angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix
to his edition of Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the
<i>Prolegomena</i> to the Greek chronicle of John Malalas, published
at Oxford in 1691. The following year he became chaplain
to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, and for his support
of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry Dodwell regarding
the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to Archbishop
Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under Tenison.
In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford,
and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he
published <i>A History of English Councils and Convocations</i>, and
in 1703 in four volumes <i>De Bibliorum textis originalibus</i>, in
which he included a revision of his work on the Septuagint, and
published a reply to Vossius. He died on the 20th of January
1707.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A work, <i>De Graecis Illustribus</i>, which he left in manuscript, was
published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of
the author.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOE, RICHARD MARCH<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1812-1886), American inventor,
was born in New York City on the 12th of September 1812. He
was the son of Robert Hoe (1784-1833), an English-born American
mechanic, who with his brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew
Smith, established in New York City a manufactory of printing
presses, and used steam to run his machinery. Richard entered
his father&rsquo;s manufactory at the age of fifteen and became head of
the firm (Robert Hoe &amp; Company) on his father&rsquo;s death. He had
considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater
speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model
and placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later
developed into the well-known Hoe rotary or &ldquo;lightning&rdquo;
press, patented in 1846, and further improved under the name
of the Hoe web perfecting press (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Printing</a></span>). He died in
Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>A Short History of the Printing Press</i> (New York, 1902) by his
nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further
improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support
of the New York Metropolitan Museum.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>houe</i> from O.H.G. <i>houwâ</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Haue</i>;
the root is seen in &ldquo;hew,&rdquo; to cut, cleave; the word must be
distinguished from &ldquo;hoe,&rdquo; promontory, tongue of land, seen in
place names, <i>e.g.</i> Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &amp;c.;
this is the same as Northern English &ldquo;heugh&rdquo; and is connected
with &ldquo;hang&rdquo;), an agricultural and gardening implement used
for extirpating weeds, for stirring the surface-soil in order to
break the capillary channels and so prevent the evaporation of
moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops and
similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary
garden-hoe (numbered <i>1</i> in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade
set transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe
(<i>2</i>), which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion
of a spade; and the swan-neck hoe (<i>3</i>), the best manual hoe
for agricultural purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach
the blade to the handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is
thus avoided and a longer stroke obtained. Several types of
horse-drawn hoe capable of working one or more rows at a time
are used among root and grain crops. The illustrations show
two forms of the implement, the blades of which differ in shape
from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use for hoeing
between two lines of beans or turnips or other &ldquo;roots.&rdquo; Fig. 3
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible
into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used
in grain crops, the blades may be raised and lowered by means
of a lever. The horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles
in the rear, but its successful working depends on accurate
drilling of the seed, because unless the rows are parallel the roots
of the plants are liable to be cut and the foliage injured. Thus
Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose name the beginning of
the practice of horse-hoeing is principally connected, used the
drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in the so-called
&ldquo;Horse-hoeing Husbandry&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>).</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:113px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Three Forms of Manual Hoe.</td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:245px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Martin&rsquo;s One-Row Horse Hoe.</td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:346px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Martin&rsquo;s General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.</td></tr></table>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOEFNAGEL, JORIS<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver,
the son of a diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He
travelled abroad, making drawings from archaeological subjects,
and was a pupil of Jan Bol at Mechlin. He was afterwards
patronized by the elector of Bavaria at Munich, where he stayed
eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at Prague. He died
at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work, especially
on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted
animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history;
and his engravings (especially for Braun&rsquo;s <i>Civitates orbis
terrarum</i>, 1572, and Ortelius&rsquo;s <i>Theatrum orbis terrarum</i>, 1570)
give him an interesting place among early topographical
draughtsmen.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOF,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper
Franconia, beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern
spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig
on the main line of railway to Regensburg and Munich. Pop.
(1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one Roman Catholic
and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of St
Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a
gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school
and a hospital founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing
industries, notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute
weaving, and the manufacture of cotton and half-woollen
fabrics. It has also dye-works, flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries,
iron-works, and manufactures of machinery, iron and tin wares,
chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood there are large
marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof, originally
called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some
time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves
of Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into
it in the 15th century, and the manufacture of veils begun
in the 16th century, greatly promoted its prosperity, but it
suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite wars as well
as in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. In 1792 it came into the possession
of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was incorporated
with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town
was destroyed by fire.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Ernst, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt
Hof</i> (1866); Tillmann, <i>Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung</i> (Hof,
1899), and C. Meyer, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof</i> (1894-1896).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFER, ANDREAS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born
on the 22nd of November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier
valley. There his father kept an inn known as &ldquo;am Sand,&rdquo;
which Hofer inherited, and on that account he was popularly
known as the &ldquo;Sandwirth.&rdquo; In addition to this he carried on
a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy, acquiring
a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars
against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a
sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the
treaty of Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria
to Bavaria, and Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to
the Austrian house, became conspicuous as a leader of the
agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808 he formed one of a
deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of the archduke
John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the
Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the
contingent from his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming
defeat on the Bavarians at Sterzing (April 11). This victory,
which resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck
by the Austrians, made Hofer the most conspicuous of the
insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon, indeed,
and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke
Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians,
who reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of
the troops, however, gave the Tirolese their chance again;
after two battles fought on the Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the
Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer
entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of the
emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be
concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the
Austrian monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished,
returned to his home. Then came the news of the armistice
of Znaim (July 12), by which Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered
by Austria unconditionally and given up to the vengeance
of the French. The country was now again invaded by
40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but
the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French
&ldquo;atheists and freemasons,&rdquo; and, after a temporary hesitation,
Hofer&mdash;on whose head a price had been placed&mdash;threw himself
into the movement. On the 13th of August, in another battle
on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal Lefebvre were routed
by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more entered Innsbruck,
which he had some difficulty in saving from sack. Hofer was
now elected <i>Oberkommandant</i> of Tirol, took up his quarters in
the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country
in the emperor&rsquo;s name. He preserved the habits of a simple
peasant, and his administration was characterized in part by
the peasant&rsquo;s shrewd common sense, but yet more by a pious
solicitude for the minutest details of faith and morals. On the
29th of September Hofer received from the emperor a chain and
medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief that Austria
did not intend again to desert him; the news of the conclusion
of the treaty of Schönbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was
again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming
surprise. The French in overpowering force at once pushed
into the country, and, an amnesty having been stipulated in
the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation,
gave in their submission. On the 12th of November, however,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant leaders and
deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again
issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The
summons met with little response; the enemy advanced in
irresistible force, and Hofer, a price once more set on his head,
had to take refuge in the mountains. His hiding-place was
betrayed by one of his neighbours, named Josef Raffl, and on
the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian troops
and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by court-martial,
and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four
hours after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed
to be due to Napoleon&rsquo;s direct orders, caused an immense
sensation throughout Germany and did much to inflame popular
sentiment against the French. At the court of Austria, too,
which was accused of having cynically sacrificed the hero, it
produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he visited
Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie
Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the
emperor. Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the
execution had been carried out against his wishes, having been
hurried on by the zeal of his generals. In 1823 Hofer&rsquo;s remains
were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were
interred in the Franciscan church, and in 1834 a marble statue
was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue of him
was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds
of heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually
in the open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon
him by the Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his
family.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs
Andr. Hofer</i> (Berlin, 1810); <i>Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection
im Jahre 1809</i> (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, <i>Geschichte Andr.
Hofer&rsquo;s Sandwirths auf Passeyr</i> (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, <i>Das Thal
Passeyr und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Andreas
Hofer und das Jahr 1809</i> (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, <i>Tirol im Jahr
1809</i> (Innsbruck, 1852); Weidinger, <i>Andreas Hofer und seine
Kampfgenossen</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, <i>Andreas Hofer</i>
(Munich, 1874); Stampfer, <i>Sandwirt Andreas Hofer</i> (Freiburg, 1874);
Schmölze, <i>Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen</i> (Innsbruck, 1900).
His history has supplied the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach
and Immermann, and for numerous ballads, of which some remain
very popular in Germany (see Franke, <i>Andreas Hofer im Liede</i>,
Innsbruck, 1884).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HÖFFDING, HARALD<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), Danish philosopher,
was born and educated in Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster,
and ultimately in 1883 professor in the university of
Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Sören Kierkegaard
in the early development of his thought, but later became a
positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit
and method of practical psychology and the critical school.
His best-known work is perhaps his <i>Den nyere Filosofis Historie</i>
(1894), translated into English from the German edition (1895)
by B. E. Meyer as <i>History of Modern Philosophy</i> (2 vols., 1900),
a work intended by him to supplement and correct that of
Hans Bröchner, to whom it is dedicated. His <i>Psychology, the
Problems of Philosophy</i> (1905) and <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> (1906)
also have appeared in English.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among Höffding&rsquo;s other writings, practically all of which have
been translated into German, are: <i>Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid</i>
(1874); <i>Etik</i> (1876; ed. 1879); <i>Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag
of Erfaring</i> (ed. 1892); <i>Psykologiske Undersogelser</i> (1889); <i>Charles
Darwin</i> (1889); <i>Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang</i>
(1893); <i>Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme</i> (1899);
<i>Rousseau und seine Philosophie</i> (1901); <i>Mindre Arbejder</i> (1899).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1798-1874), known as
<span class="sc">Hoffmann von Fallersleben</span>, German poet, philologist and
historian of literature, was born at Fallersleben in the duchy
of Lüneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of April 1798, the son of the
mayor of the town. He was educated at the classical schools
of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the universities
of Göttingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study
theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature.
In 1823 he was appointed custodian of the university library
at Breslau, a post which he held till 1838. He was also made
extraordinary professor of the German language and literature
at that university in 1830, and ordinary professor in 1835;
but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in consequence of his
<i>Unpolitische Lieder</i> (1840-1841), which gave much offence to
the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany,
Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in
Mecklenburg, of which he became a naturalized citizen. After
the revolution of 1848 he was enabled to return to Prussia, where
he was restored to his rights, and received the <i>Wartegeld</i>&mdash;the
salary attached to a promised office not yet vacant. He married
in 1849, and during the next ten years lived first in Bingerbrück,
afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar, where together
with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the <i>Weimarische
Jahrbuch</i> (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to
the Duke of Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near
Höxter on the Weser, where he died on the 19th of January
1874. Fallersleben was one of the best popular poets of modern
Germany. In politics he ardently sympathized with the progressive
tendencies of his time, and he was among the earliest
and most effective of the political poets who prepared the way
for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he acquired
distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with which
he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life.
Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he
composed melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable
number of them are sung by all classes in every part of Germany.
Among the best known is the patriotic <i>Deutschland, Deutschland
über Alles</i>, composed in 1841 on the island of Heligoland, where
a monument was erected in 1891 to his memory (subsequently
destroyed).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The best of his poetical writings is his <i>Gedichte</i> (1827; 9th ed.,
Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his <i>Alemannische
Lieder</i> (1826; 5th ed., 1843), <i>Soldatenlieder</i> (1851), <i>Soldatenleben</i>
(1852), <i>Rheinleben</i> (1865), and in his <i>Fünfzig Kinderlieder</i>, <i>Fünfzig
neue Kinderlieder</i>, and <i>Alte und neue Kinderlieder</i>. His <i>Unpolitische
Lieder</i>, <i>Deutsche Lieder aus der Schweiz</i> and <i>Streiflichter</i> are not
without poetical value, but they are mainly interesting in relation to
the movements of the age in which they were written. As a student
of ancient Teutonic literature Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks
among the most persevering and cultivated of German scholars,
some of the chief results of his labours being embodied in his <i>Horae
Belgicae</i>, <i>Fundgruben für Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur</i>,
<i>Altdeutsche Blätter</i>, <i>Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte</i> and
<i>Findlinge</i>. Among his editions of particular works may be named
<i>Reineke Vos</i>, <i>Monumenta Elnonensia</i> and <i>Theophilus</i>. <i>Die deutsche
Philologie im Grundriss</i> (1836) was at the time of its publication a
valuable contribution to philological research, and historians of
German literature still attach importance to his <i>Geschichte des
deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luther</i> (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), <i>Unsere
volkstümlichen Lieder</i> (3rd ed., 1869) and <i>Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder
des 16. und 17. Jahrh.</i> (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870
Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an autobiography, <i>Mein Leben:
Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen</i> (an abbreviated ed. in 2 vols.,
1894). His <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were edited by H. Gerstenberg in
8 vols. (1891-1894); his <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i> by H. Benzmann
(1905, 4 vols.). See also <i>Briefe von Hoffmann von Fallersleben und
Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf</i> (1874); J. M. Wagner, <i>Hoffmann
von Fallersleben, 1818-1868</i> (1869-1870), and R. von Gottschall,
<i>Porträts und Studien</i> (vol. v., 1876).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1776-1822),
German romance-writer, was born at Königsberg on the 24th
of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he himself substituted
Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived unhappily
together, and when the child was only three they separated.
His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding
nor sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament.
Hoffmann showed more talent for music and drawing than for
books. In 1792, when little over sixteen years old, he entered
the university of Königsberg, with a view to preparing himself
for a legal career. The chief features of interest in his student
years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb von
Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an
unhappy passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons;
the latter found its outlet, not merely in music, but also in two
novels, neither of which he was able to have published. In the
summer of 1795 he began his practical career as a jurist in
Königsberg, but his mother&rsquo;s death and the complications in
which his love-affair threatened to involve him made him decide
to leave his native town and continue his legal apprenticeship
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to Berlin,
where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in
the air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart,
and the Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.</p>

<p>In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he
gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately,
however, his brilliant powers of caricature brought him
into ill odour, and instead of receiving the hoped-for preferment
in Posen itself, he found himself virtually banished to the little
town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before leaving Posen he married,
and his domestic happiness alleviated to some extent the
monotony of the two years&rsquo; exile. His leisure was spent in
literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was
transferred to Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849),
he was introduced to Zacharias Werner, and began to take
an interest in the later Romantic literature; now, for the first
time, he discovered how writers like Novalis, Tieck, and especially
Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own heart. But in spite
of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was mainly
occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano&rsquo;s <i>Lustige
Musikanten</i> and Werner&rsquo;s <i>Kreuz an der Ostsee</i>, and also an opera
<i>Liebe und Eifersucht</i>, based on Calderón&rsquo;s drama <i>La Banda
y la Flor</i>.</p>

<p>The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent
political changes put an end to Hoffmann&rsquo;s congenial life there,
and a time of tribulation followed. A position which he obtained
in 1808 as musical director of a new theatre in Bamberg availed
him little, as within a very short time the theatre was bankrupt
and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But these misfortunes
induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out
the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving
music lessons. The editor of the <i>Allgemeine musikalische
Zeitung</i> expressed his willingness to accept contributions from
Hoffmann, and here appeared for the first time some of the
musical sketches which ultimately passed over into the <i>Phantasiestücke
in Callots Manier</i>. This work appeared in four volumes in
1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer. Meanwhile,
Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the capacity
of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose headquarters
were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity
that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin,
and two years later he was appointed councillor of the Court
of Appeal (<i>Kammergericht</i>). Hoffmann had the reputation of
being an excellent jurist and a conscientious official; he had
leisure for literary pursuits and was on the best of terms with
the circle of Romantic poets and novelists who gathered round
Fouqué, Chamisso and his old friend Hitzig. Unfortunately,
however, the habits of intemperance which, in earlier years,
had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his
health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the
wine-house, in company unworthy of him. He was struck down
by locomotor ataxy, and died on the 24th of July 1822.</p>

<p>The <i>Phantasiestücke</i>, which had been published with a
commendatory preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816
by the gruesome novel&mdash;to some extent inspired by Lewis&rsquo;s
<i>Monk&mdash;Die Elixiere des Teufels</i>, and the even more gruesome
and grotesque stories which make up the <i>Nachtstücke</i> (1817,
2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann&rsquo;s powers is first clearly
displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols., 1819-1821) <i>Die
Serapionsbrüder</i>, this being the name of a small club of Hoffmann&rsquo;s
more intimate literary friends. <i>Die Serapionsbrüder</i> includes not
merely stories in which Hoffmann&rsquo;s love for the mysterious
and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws
on his own early reminiscences (<i>Rat Krespel</i>, <i>Fermate</i>), finely
outlined pictures of old German life (<i>Der Artushof</i>, <i>Meister
Martin der Küfner und seine Gesellen</i>), and vivid and picturesque
incidents from Italian and French history (<i>Doge und Dogaressa</i>,
the story of Marino Faliero, and <i>Das Fräulein von Scuderi</i>).
The last-mentioned story is usually regarded as Hoffmann&rsquo;s
masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to Hoffmann&rsquo;s
later years and display to advantage his powers as a humorist;
these are <i>Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober</i> (1819), and <i>Lebensansichten
des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des
Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler</i> (1821-1822).</p>

<p>Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic
movement in Germany. He combined with a humour that
reminds us of Jean Paul the warm sympathy for the artist&rsquo;s
standpoint towards life, which was enunciated by early Romantic
leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was superior to
all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His
works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes&mdash;in this respect
they mark a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school;
but the gruesome was only one outlet for Hoffmann&rsquo;s genius,
and even here the secret of his power lay not in his choice of
subjects, but in the wonderfully vivid and realistic presentation
of them. Every line he wrote leaves the impression behind it
that it expresses something felt or experienced; every scene,
vision or character he described seems to have been real and
living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word,
that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary
a power over his contemporaries.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The first collected edition of Hoffmann&rsquo;s works appeared in ten
volumes (<i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i>, 1827-1828); to these his widow
added five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E.
Hitzig&rsquo;s <i>Aus Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass</i>, 1823). Other editions
of his works appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and,
most complete of all, <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15
vols. (1900). There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap
reprints of the more popular stories. All Hoffmann&rsquo;s important
works&mdash;except <i>Klein Zaches</i> and <i>Kater Murr</i>&mdash;have been translated
into English: <i>The Devil&rsquo;s Elixir</i> (1824), <i>The Golden Pot</i> by Carlyle
(in <i>German Romance</i>, 1827), <i>The Serapion Brethren</i> by A. Ewing
(1886-1892), &amp;c. In France Hoffmann was even more popular than
in England. Cp. G. Thurau, <i>Hoffmanns Erzählungen in Frankreich</i>
(1896). An edition of his <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> appeared in 12 vols. in
Paris in 1830. The best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger,
<i>E. T. A. Hoffmann</i> (1894); see also O. Klinke, <i>Hoffmanns Leben und
Werke vom Standpunkte eines Irrenarztes</i> (1903); and the exhaustive
bibliography in Goedeke&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung</i>, 2nd ed., vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1760-1828), French
dramatist and critic, was born at Nancy on the 11th of July
1760. He studied law at the university of Strassburg, but a
slight hesitation in his speech precluded success at the bar, and
he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served, however,
for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some
poems which brought him into notice at the little court of
Lunéville over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided.
In 1784 he went to Paris, and two years later produced the opera
<i>Phèdre</i>. His opera <i>Adrien</i> (1792) was objected to by the government
on political grounds, and Hoffmann, who refused to
make the changes proposed to him, ran considerable risk under
the revolutionary government. His later operas, which were
numerous, were produced at the Opéra Comique. In 1807 he
was invited by Étienne to contribute to the <i>Journal de l&rsquo;Empire</i>
(afterwards the <i>Journal des débats</i>). Hoffmann&rsquo;s wide reading
qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned,
apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine
to violent attacks on the Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand&rsquo;s
<i>Martyrs</i> led the author to make some changes in a later
edition. He had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious
and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide
influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April 1828.
Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent
one-act comedy, <i>Le Roman d&rsquo;une heure</i> (1803), and an amusing
one-act opera <i>Les Rendez-vous bourgeois</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Sainte-Beuve, &ldquo;M. de Feletz et la critique littéraire sous
l&rsquo;Empire&rdquo; in <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. i.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1660-1742), German physician,
a member of a family that had been connected with medicine
for 200 years before him, was born at Halle on the 19th of
February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native town he
acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he
attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen
he went to study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed
to Erfurt, in order to attend Kasper Cramer&rsquo;s lectures on
chemistry. Next year, returning to Jena, he received his
doctor&rsquo;s diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, was permitted to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span>
teach. Constant study then began to tell on his health, and in
1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded to
Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a
relative who held a high position in that town. After practising
at Minden for two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland
and England, where he formed the acquaintance of many
illustrious chemists and physicians. Towards the end of 1684
he returned to Minden, and during the next three years he
received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed
to the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title
of physician to the principality of Halberstadt; and on the
founding of Halle university in 1693, his reputation, which had
been steadily increasing, procured for him the primarius chair
of medicine, while at the same time he was charged with the
responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new medical
faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With
the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at
Berlin in the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the
rest of his life at Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted
now and again by visits to different courts of Germany,
where his services procured him honours and rewards. His
fame became European. He was enrolled a member of many
learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his own
he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of
November 1742.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller&rsquo;s
<i>Bibliotheca medicinae practicae</i>. The chief is <i>Medicina rationalis
systematica</i>, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in
1730. It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of
<i>Médecine raisonnée d&rsquo;Hoffmann</i>. A complete edition of Hoffmann&rsquo;s
works, with a life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740,
to which supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared
also at Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See
also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medicine</a></span>.)</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1805-1878), German
scholar, was born at Würzburg on the 16th of February 1805.
After studying at Würzburg he went on the stage in 1825; but
owing to an accidental meeting with the German traveller,
Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July 1830, his
interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold
he acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take
advantage of the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese
teacher whom Siebold had brought home with him, he made
himself acquainted with Malay, the only language except
Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few years
he was able to supply the translations for Siebold&rsquo;s <i>Nippon</i>;
and the high character of his work soon attracted the attention
of older scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and
he would probably have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement
had broken out between him and Siebold, had not M.
Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed him Japanese
translator with a salary of 1800 florins (£150). The Dutch
authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and
he was too modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It
was not till after he had received the offer of the professorship
of Chinese in King&rsquo;s College, London, that the authorities made
him professor at Leiden and the king allowed him a yearly
pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the order of the
Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding
member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the
23rd of January 1878.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Hoffmann&rsquo;s chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary,
begun in 1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at
first to procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of
punches, and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to
act as his own compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned.
His Japanese grammar (<i>Japanische <span class="correction" title="amended from Sprechlehre">Sprachlehre</span></i>) was
published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in English and German
in 1876. Of his miscellaneous productions it is enough to mention
&ldquo;Japans Bezüge mit der koraischen Halbinsel und mit Schina&rdquo; in
<i>Nippon</i>, vii.; <i>Yo-San-fi-Rok</i>, <i>L&rsquo;Art d&rsquo;élever les vers à soie au Japon,
par Ouckaki Mourikouni</i> (Paris, 1848); &ldquo;Die Heilkunde in Japan&rdquo;
in <i>Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. für Natur- und Völkerk. Ost-Asiens</i>
(1873-1874); and <i>Japanische Studien</i> (1878).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1818-1892), German
chemist, was born at Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not
intending originally to devote himself to physical science, he
first took up the study of law and philology at Göttingen, and
the general culture he thus gained stood him in good stead
when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began under
Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was
started in London, under the style of the Royal College of
Chemistry, Hofmann, largely through the influence of the Prince
Consort, was appointed its first director. It was with some
natural hesitation that he, then a <i>Privatdozent</i> at Bonn, accepted
the position, which may well have seemed rather a precarious
one; but the difficulty was removed by his appointment as
extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence for two
years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his
English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college
was more or less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm
and energy, and many of the men who were trained there subsequently
made their mark in chemical history. But in 1864
he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he was selected
to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and director
of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England,
of which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann
was probably influenced by a combination of causes. The public
support extended to the college of chemistry had been dwindling
for some years, and before he left it had ceased to have an
independent existence and had been absorbed into the School
of Mines. This event he must have looked upon as a curtailment
of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition, there is only
too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the
general apathy with which his science was regarded in England.
No man ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent
on the advance of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a
country&rsquo;s material prosperity, and no single chemist ever
exercised a greater or more direct influence upon industrial
development. In England, however, people cared for none
of these things, and were blind to the commercial potentialities
of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann devoted
nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the coal-tar
industry, which was really brought into existence by his
work and that of his pupils under his direction at that college,
and which with a little intelligent forethought might have been
retained in England, was allowed to slip into the hands of
Germany, where it is now worth millions of pounds annually;
and Hofmann himself was compelled to return to his native
land to find due appreciation as one of the foremost chemists
of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin, and there
he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a permanent
memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the
German Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which
was formally opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an
account of that great triumph of German chemical enterprise,
the industrial manufacture of synthetical indigo.</p>

<p>Hofmann&rsquo;s work covered a wide range of organic chemistry,
though with inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research,
carried out in Liebig&rsquo;s laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar,
and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha
established the nature of aniline. This substance he used to
refer to as his first love, and it was a love to which he remained
faithful throughout his life. His perception of the analogy between
it and ammonia led to his famous work on the amines and
ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus compounds,
while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared in 1858,
formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring matters
which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition
to these and numberless other investigations for which he was
responsible the influence he exercised through his pupils must
also be taken into account. As a teacher, besides the power of
accurately gauging the character and capabilities of those who
studied under him, he had the faculty of infecting them with
his own enthusiasm, and thus of stimulating them to put forward
their best efforts. In the lecture-room he laid great stress on
the importance of experimental demonstrations, paying particular
attention to their selection and arrangement, though, since he
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual
exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was
the possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style,
which showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary
notices or encomiums (collected and published in three volumes
<i>Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde</i>, 1888). He also
excelled as a speaker, particularly at gatherings of an international
character, for in addition to his native German he could speak
English, French and Italian with fluency.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society, 1893-1900</i>
(London, 1901).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1810-1877),
Lutheran theologian and historian, was born on the 21st
of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and studied theology and
history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he went to
Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke
and Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an
appointment to teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of
Erlangen. In 1835 he became <i>Repetent</i>, in 1838 <i>Privatdozent</i>
and in 1841 <i>professor extraordinarius</i> in the theological faculty
at Erlangen. In 1842 he became <i>professor ordinarius</i> at Rostock,
but in 1845 returned once more to Erlangen as the successor of
Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless (1806-1879), founder of
the <i>Zeitschrift für Protestantismus und Kirche</i>, of which Hofmann
became one of the editors in 1846, J. F. Höfling (1802-1853) and
Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his collaborators. He
was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic adherent of
the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for Erlangen
and Fürth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868.
He died on the 20th of December 1877.</p>

<p>He wrote <i>Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen
des Daniel</i> (1836); <i>Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen</i>
(1837); <i>Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte für Gymnasien</i> (1839), which
became a text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria;
<i>Weissagung u. Erfüllung im alten u. neuen Testamente</i> (1841-1844;
2nd ed., 1857-1860); <i>Der Schriftbeweis</i> (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860);
<i>Die heilige Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhängend
untersucht</i> (1862-1875); <i>Schutzschriften</i> (1856-1859), in which he
defends himself against the charge of denying the Atonement;
and <i>Theologische Ethik</i> (1878). His most important works are
the five last named. In theology, as in ecclesiastical polity,
Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type, although the
strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him
open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head
of what has been called the Erlangen School, and &ldquo;in his day
he was unquestionably the chief glory of the University of
Erlangen&rdquo; (Lichtenberger).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> and the
<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, <i>History
of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889) pp. 446-458.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, MELCHIOR<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was
born at Hall, in Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498).
His biographers usually give his surname as above; in his printed
works it is Hoffman, in his manuscripts Hoffmann. He was
without scholarly training, and first appears as a furrier at
Livland. Attracted by Luther&rsquo;s doctrine, he came forward
as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious
mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or
furrier, and a religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden.
Joined by Bernard Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm
in the autumn of 1524. Their fervid attacks on image worship
led to their expulsion. By way of Livonia, Hofmann arrived
at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven thence in the
following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to
Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the
22nd of June 1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year.
He was again at Dorpat in May 1526; later at Magdeburg.
Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly received; he wrote
there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing to Holstein,
he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and
was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel.
He was extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian
view of the Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of
preachers in Flensburg (8th April 1529) Hofmann, John
Campanus and others were put on their defence. Hofmann
maintained (against the &ldquo;magic&rdquo; of the Lutherans) that the
function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal
for spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was
banished. At Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well
received (1529) till his anabaptist development became apparent.
He was in relations with Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but
assumed a prophetic rôle of his own. Journeying to East
Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden (1532),
securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of
John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him &ldquo;six months&rdquo; in
prison, he returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where
we hear of his wife and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse
a vision of &ldquo;resurrections&rdquo; of apostolic Christianity, first
under John Hus, and now under himself. The year 1533 was
to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the seat of
the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested.
Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause
with the anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness
of the Most High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to
him by the provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an
anabaptist, were detained in prison, a measure due to the terror
excited by the Münster episode of 1533-1534. The synod, in
1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The last notice of his
imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he probably
died soon after.</p>

<p>Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy
as having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris
(<i>Weissagung vsz heiliger götlicher geschrifft</i>, and <i>Prophecey oder
Weissagung vsz warer heiliger götlicher schrifft</i>). Bock treats
him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds which Wallace rightly
deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel includes him
among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His
Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation,
only the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin
after regeneration sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot
be saved. His followers were known as Hofmannites or
Melchiorites.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See G. Herrmann, <i>Essai sur la vie et les écrits de M. Hofmann</i>
(1852); F. O. zur Linden, <i>M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertäufer</i>
(1885); H. Holtzmann, in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (1880);
Hegler in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1900); Bock, <i>Hist. Antitrin.</i>
(1776), ii.; Wallace, <i>Antitrin. Biography</i> (1850) iii., app. iii.;
Trechsel, <i>Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin</i> (1839) i.; Barclay, <i>Inner
Life of Rel. Societies</i> (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving
of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, <i>Pansebeia</i>
(1655).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1824-1877),
German botanist, was born at Leipzig on the 18th of
May 1824. He came of a family engaged in trade, and after
being educated at the <i>Realschule</i> of Leipzig he entered business
as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done while
he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without
intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence
he was transferred in 1872 to Tübingen, in succession to H. von
Mohl. His first work was on the distribution of the Coniferae
in the Himalaya, but his attention was very soon devoted to
studying the sexuality and origin of the embryo of Phanerogams.
His contributions on this subject extended from 1847 till 1860,
and they finally settled the question of the origin of the embryo
from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory of
M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not
itself produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already
present in the ovule. He soon turned his attention to the
embryology of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, and gave continuous
accounts of the germination of the spores and fertilization
in <i>Pilularia</i>, <i>Salvinia</i>, <i>Selaginella</i>. Some of the main facts of the
life of ferns and mosses were already known; these, together with
his own wider observations, were worked into that great general
pronouncement published in 1851 under the title, <i>Vergleichende
Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung
köherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen</i>.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
This work will always stand in the first rank of botanical books.
It antedated the <i>Origin of Species</i> by eight years, but contained
facts and comparisons which could only become intelligible on
some theory of descent. The plan of life-story common to them
all, involving two alternating generations, was demonstrated
for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps, Lycopodiaceae,
and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty
which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature
of the author&rsquo;s time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in
their broad outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired
details. In the light of the theory of descent the
common plan of life-history in plants apparently so diverse as
those named acquires a special significance; but it is one of the
remarkable features of this great work that the writer himself
does not theorize&mdash;with an unerring insight he points out his
comparisons and states his homologies, but does not indulge in
explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age
of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote
occasionally on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap,
and curvatures of growing parts, but it was in morphology that
he found his natural sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with
other botanists, a plan was drawn up of a handbook of physiological
botany, of which Hofmeister was to be editor. Though
the original scheme was never completed, the editor himself
contributed two notable parts, <i>Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle</i>
(1867) and <i>Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewächse</i> (1868). The
former gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations
of the vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify
current views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the
spiral theory of leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F.
Schimper and A. Braun. Hofmeister transferred the discussion
from the mere study of mature form to the observation of the
development of the parts, and substituted for the &ldquo;spiral
tendency&rdquo; a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact
that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist
between next older branchings of like nature. With this important
work Hofmeister&rsquo;s period of active production closed;
he fell into ill-health, and retired from his academic duties some
time before his death at Lindenau, near Leipzig, on the 12th of
January 1877.</p>
<div class="author">(F. O. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1845-1909), South African
politician, was born at Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845.
He was educated at the South African College, and at an early
age turned his attention to politics, first as a journalist. He
was editor of the <i>Zuid Afrikaan</i> till its incorporation with <i>Ons
Land</i>, and of the <i>Zuid Afrikaansche <span class="correction" title="amended from Tidjschrift">Tijdschrift</span></i>. By birth,
education and sympathies a typical Dutch Afrikander, he set
himself to organize the political power of his fellow-countrymen.
This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he entered the
Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the
real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six
months&mdash;as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry
from May to November 1881. He held no subsequent official
post in the colony, though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington
and Sir Charles Mills the honour of representing the Cape at
the intercolonial conference of 1887. Here he supported the
proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon&rsquo;s Town to Cape
Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the
imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage,
and moved a resolution in favour of an imperial customs union.
At the colonial conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one
of the Cape representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a
member of the South African customs conference.</p>

<p>His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived
from his power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control
of the Afrikander Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the
&ldquo;Farmers&rsquo; Association,&rdquo; and as the Cape farmers were almost
entirely Dutch the Association became a centre of Dutch influence.
When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely
political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it,
and in 1883 amalgamated the Farmers&rsquo; Association with it.
Under his direction the constitution of the Bond was modified
by the elimination of the provisions inconsistent with loyalty
to the British crown. But it remained an organization for
obtaining the political supremacy of the Cape Dutch. (See
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) His control over the Bond enabled
him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of office,
to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him
the name of &ldquo;Cabinet-maker of South Africa.&rdquo; Although
officially the term &ldquo;Afrikander&rdquo; was explained by Hofmeyr
to include white men of whatever race, yet in practice the
influence of the Bond was always exerted in favour of the Dutch,
and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of Cape Colony.
The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with
the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South
Africa; and Hofmeyr&rsquo;s position might in many respects be
compared with that of Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist
party in Great Britain. In the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884
Hofmeyr threw all the influence of the Bond into the scale in
favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of the next few years
he began to drift away from President Kruger. He resented
the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger&rsquo;s
fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden
leap into prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might
overshadow all other Dutch influences in South Africa; above
all he was convinced, as he showed by his action at the London
conference, that the protection of the British navy was indispensable
to South Africa, and he set his face against Kruger&rsquo;s
intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of acquiring
an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign
powers.</p>

<p>In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became
premier of Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr&rsquo;s
influence was a powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland
convention of 1890, as well as in stopping the &ldquo;trek&rdquo; to Banyailand
(Rhodesia) in 1891&mdash;a notable reversal of the policy he
had pursued seven years before. But the reactionary elements
in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes&rsquo;s imperialism, and in 1895
Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the presidency
of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake
there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British
feeling such as had not been known since the days of Majuba.
(The proclamation issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing
Jameson was suggested by Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up
its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became president of the Bond.
By an alteration of the provincial constitution, all power in the
Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a vigilance
committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were
two. As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested
against such abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal,
and urged Kruger even at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable
concessions rather than plunge into a war that might involve
Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a common ruin. In
July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported the
proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited
representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in
September urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed
joint inquiry. During the negotiations of 1899, and after the
outbreak of war, the official organ of the Bond, <i>Ons Land</i>, was
conspicuous for its anti-British attitude, and its violence forced
Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony district under
martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly with
the opinions expressed by <i>Ons Land</i>, but neither did he repudiate
them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters
made his position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the
outbreak of war he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as
a member of the &ldquo;Conciliation Committee&rdquo; which came to
England in 1901 in the interests of the Boer republics.</p>

<p>Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa
and organized the Bond forces for the general election held in
Cape Colony at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the
defeat of the Bond party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy
over the Cape Dutch, but now began to find himself somewhat
out of sympathy with the larger outlook on South African
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in the Transvaal.
During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the Bond
by some criticisms of the <i>taal</i> and his use of English in public
speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still
largely under his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but
Hofmeyr himself was not a candidate. In the renewed movement
for the closer union of the South African colonies he
advocated federation as opposed to unification. When, however,
the unification proposals were ratified by the Cape parliament,
Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape delegates
to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of
union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences
with the officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of
the draft act, and after the bill had become law went to Germany
for a &ldquo;cure.&rdquo; He returned to London in October 1909, where
he died on the 16th of that month. His body was taken to
Cape Town for burial.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1802-1886), Dutch
theologian, was born at Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the
8th of October 1802, and was educated at the Gymnasium and
university of Groningen. For three years (1826-1829) he was
pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then entered upon
his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen. With
his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling
he edited from 1837 to 1872 the <i>Waarheid in Liefde</i>. In this
review and in his numerous books he vigorously upheld the
orthodox faith against the Dutch &ldquo;modern theology&rdquo; movement.
Many of his works were written in Latin, including
<i>Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis comparatur</i>
(1826), <i>Institutiones historiae ecclesiae</i> (1835), <i>Institutio theologiae
naturalis</i> (1842), <i>Encyclopaedia theologi christiani</i> (1844). Others,
in Dutch, were: <i>The Divine Education of Humanity up to the
Coming of Jesus Christ</i> (3 vols., 1846), <i>The Nature of the Gospel
Ministry</i> (1858), <i>The &ldquo;Modern Theology&rdquo; of the Netherlands</i>
(1869), <i>The Old Catholic Movement</i> (1877). He became professor
emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December
1886.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOGARTH, WILLIAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1697-1764), the great English
painter and pictorial satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close
in London on the 10th of November 1697, and baptized on the
28th in the church of St Bartholomew the Great. He had two
younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born in 1701.
His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a schoolmaster
and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to
seek that fortune which had been denied to him in his native
Westmorland. The son seems to have been early distinguished
by a talent for drawing and an active perceptive faculty rather
than by any close attention to the learning which he was soon
shrewd enough to see had not made his parent prosper. &ldquo;Shows
of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant,&rdquo; he
says, &ldquo;and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in
me.... My exercises when at school were more remarkable for
the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself.&rdquo;
This being the case, it is no wonder that, by his own desire,
he was apprenticed to a silver-plate engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble,
at the sign of the &ldquo;Golden Angel&rdquo; in Cranbourne Street or
Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he engraved a shop-card
which is still extant. When his apprenticeship began is
not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the
beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have
set up as engraver on his own account. His desires, however,
were not limited to silver-plate engraving. &ldquo;Engraving on
copper was, at twenty years of age, my utmost ambition.&rdquo;
For this he lacked the needful skill as a draughtsman; and his
account of the means which he took to supply this want, without
too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly characteristic,
though it can scarcely be recommended as an example.
&ldquo;Laying it down,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;first as an axiom, that he who
could by any means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect
ideas of the subjects he meant to draw, would have as clear a
knowledge of the figure as a man who can write freely hath
of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and their infinite
combinations (each of these being composed of lines), and would
consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore endeavoured
to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical
memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which
objects were composed, I could by degrees combine and put
them down with my pencil.&rdquo; This account, it is possible, has
something of the complacency of the old age in which it was
written; but there is little doubt that his marvellous power
of seizing expression owed less to patient academical study
than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor
detail. But he was not entirely without technical training,
since, by his own showing, he occasionally &ldquo;took the life&rdquo; to
correct his memories, and is known to have studied at Sir James
Thornhill&rsquo;s then recently opened art school.</p>

<p>&ldquo;His first employment&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> after he set up for himself)
&ldquo;seems,&rdquo; says John Nichols, in his <i>Anecdotes</i>, &ldquo;to have been
the engraving of arms and shop bills.&rdquo; After this he was
employed in designing &ldquo;plates for booksellers.&rdquo; Of these early
and mostly insignificant works we may pass over &ldquo;The Lottery,
an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme,&rdquo; and some book
illustrations, to pause at &ldquo;Masquerades and Operas&rdquo; (1724),
the first plate he published on his own account. This is a
clever little satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades
of the Swiss adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian
opera-singers, Rich&rsquo;s pantomimes at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, and
last, but by no means least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord
Burlington&rsquo;s protégé, the architect painter William Kent, who
is here represented on the summit of Burlington Gate, with
Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This worthy,
Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school
of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of
Hogarth&rsquo;s important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being
that memorable burlesque of the unfortunate altarpiece designed
by the latter for St Clement Danes, which, in deference to the
ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop Gibson took down in 1725.
Hogarth&rsquo;s squib, which appeared subsequently, exhibits it as
a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726 he
prepared twelve large engravings for Butler&rsquo;s <i>Hudibras</i>. These
he himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book
illustrations. But he was far too individual to be the patient
interpreter of other men&rsquo;s thoughts, and it is not in this direction
that his successes are to be sought.</p>

<p>To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which
have survived as contributions to his biography. He was
engaged by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a
design for the &ldquo;Element of Earth.&rdquo; Morris, however, having
heard that he was &ldquo;an engraver, and no painter,&rdquo; declined
the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him
for the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of
May 1728, the case was decided in his (Hogarth&rsquo;s) favour. It
may have been the aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a
painter (coupled perhaps with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling,
owing to the uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies)
that induced him about this time to turn his attention to the
production of &ldquo;small conversation pieces&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> groups in oil
of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high), many of which
are still preserved in different collections. &ldquo;This,&rdquo; he says,
&ldquo;having novelty, succeeded for a few years.&rdquo; Among his
other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were &ldquo;The Wanstead
Conversation,&rdquo; &ldquo;The House of Commons examining Bambridge,&rdquo;
an infamous warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the
chief actors in Gay&rsquo;s popular <i>Beggar&rsquo;s Opera</i>.</p>

<p>On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington
church to Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent&rsquo;s rival
above mentioned. The match was a clandestine one, although
Lady Thornhill appears to have favoured it. We next hear of
him in &ldquo;lodgings at South Lambeth,&rdquo; where he rendered some
assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who opened
Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a <i>ridotto al
fresco</i>. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman
to make copies of the later series of the &ldquo;Four Times of the Day.&rdquo;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
In return, the grateful Tyers presented him with a gold pass
ticket &ldquo;<i>In perpetuam Beneficii Memoriam</i>.&rdquo; It was long thought
that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr Warwick Wroth (<i>Numismatic
Chronicle</i>, vol. xviii.) doubts this, although he thinks it
probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver Vauxhall
passes which are figured in Wilkinson&rsquo;s <i>Londina illustrata</i>. The
only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred
to are the &ldquo;Large Masquerade Ticket&rdquo; (1727), another satire
on masquerades, and the print of &ldquo;Burlington Gate&rdquo; (1731),
evoked by Pope&rsquo;s <i>Epistle to Lord Burlington</i>, and defending
Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great
offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.</p>

<p>By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the
series of moral works which first gave him his position as a great
and original genius. This was &ldquo;A Harlot&rsquo;s Progress,&rdquo; the
paintings for which, if we may trust the date in the last of the
pictures, were finished in that year. Almost immediately afterwards
he must have begun to engrave them&mdash;a task he had at
first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in
the <i>Country Journal; or, the Craftsman</i>, 29th of January 1732,
the pictures were then being engraved, and from later announcements
it seems clear that they were delivered to the subscribers
early in the following April, on the 21st of which month an
unauthorized prose description of them was published. We have
no record of the particular train of thought which prompted
these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly assumed
that the necessity for creating some link of interest between
the personages of the little &ldquo;conversation pieces&rdquo; above referred
to, led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes
so as to form a sequent narrative. &ldquo;I wished,&rdquo; says Hogarth,
&ldquo;to compose pictures on canvas, similar to representations on
the stage.&rdquo; &ldquo;I have endeavoured,&rdquo; he says again, &ldquo;to treat
my subject as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, and
men and women my players, who by means of certain actions
and gestures are to exhibit <i>a dumb show</i>.&rdquo; There was never a
more eloquent dumb show than this of the &ldquo;Harlot&rsquo;s Progress.&rdquo;
In six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is
traced out remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its
shameful and degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened
or abated; the whole is acted out <i>coram populo</i>, with the hard,
uncompassionate morality of the age the painter lived in, while
the introduction here and there of one or two well-known
characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice Gonson give a
vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success. To
say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely
reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto
refused to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of
subscribers to the engravings were entered in the artist&rsquo;s book.
On the appearance of plate iii. the lords of the treasury trooped
to the print shop for Sir John Gonson&rsquo;s portrait which it contained.
The story was made into a pantomime by Theophilus Cibber,
and by some one else into a ballad opera; and it gave rise to
numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted on fan-mounts
and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely
pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.</p>

<p>From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum
(Add. MSS. 23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the
plates, Hogarth was domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James
Thornhill, in the Middle Piazza, Covent Garden (the &ldquo;second
house eastward from James Street&rdquo;), and it must have been
thence that set out the historical expedition from London to
Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the British
Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled <i>An Account
of what seem&rsquo;d most Remarkable in the Five Days&rsquo; Peregrination
of the Five Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott,
Hogarth, Thornhill and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th
1732 and Finish&rsquo;d On the 31st of the Same Month. Abi tu et
fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College Porch</i>. The journal,
which is written by Ebenezer, the father of Garrick&rsquo;s friend
Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a &ldquo;frisk&rdquo;&mdash;as
Johnson called it&mdash;was in those days, while the illustrations
were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter.
John Thornhill, Sir James&rsquo;s son, made the map. This version
(in prose) was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth&rsquo;s
friends, the Rev. Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the
artist&rsquo;s death both versions were published. In the absence
of other biographical detail, they are of considerable interest
to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved into the
&ldquo;Golden Head&rdquo; in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional
absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death.
By December of this year he was already engaged upon the
engravings of a second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as
successful as its predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of
six. The story is unequal; but there is nothing finer than the
figure of the desperate hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house,
or the admirable scenes in the Fleet prison and Bedlam, where
at last his headlong career comes to its tragic termination. The
plates abound with allusive suggestion and covert humour;
but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description of them
here.</p>

<p>&ldquo;A Rake&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; was dated June 25, 1735, and the
engravings bear the words &ldquo;according to Act of Parliament.&rdquo;
This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap. 13) which Hogarth had been
instrumental in obtaining from the legislature, being stirred
thereto by the shameless piracies of rival printsellers. Although
loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the painter commemorated
his success by a long inscription on the plate entitled
&ldquo;Crowns, Mitres, &amp;c.,&rdquo; afterwards used as a subscription ticket to
the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings,
let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the
artist&rsquo;s productions. That to the &ldquo;Harlot&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; was
entitled &ldquo;Boys peeping at Nature,&rdquo; while the Rake&rsquo;s Progress
was heralded by the delightful etching known as &ldquo;A Pleased
Audience at a Play, or The Laughing Audience.&rdquo;</p>

<p>We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the
two Progresses, noting first &ldquo;A Modern Midnight Conversation,&rdquo;
an admirable drinking scene which comes between them in 1733,
and the bright little plate of &ldquo;Southwark Fair,&rdquo; which, although
dated 1733, was published with &ldquo;A Rake&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; in 1735.
Between these and &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>,&rdquo; upon the pictures of
which the painter must have been not long after at work, come the
small prints of the &ldquo;Consultation of Physicians&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sleeping
Congregation&rdquo; (1736), the &ldquo;Scholars at a Lecture&rdquo; (1737); the
&ldquo;Four Times of the Day&rdquo; (1738), a series of pictures of 18th
century life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred
to; the &ldquo;Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn&rdquo; (1738), which
Walpole held to be, &ldquo;for wit and imagination, without any
other end, the best of all the painter&rsquo;s works&rdquo;; and finally the
admirable plates of the Distrest Poet painfully composing a
poem on &ldquo;Riches&rdquo; in a garret, and the Enraged Musician
fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra
of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the
pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741.
To this period also (<i>i.e.</i> the period preceding the production
of the plates of &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>&rdquo;) belong two of those
history pictures to which, in emulation of the Haymans and
Thornhills, the artist was continually attracted. &ldquo;The Pool of
Bethesda&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Good Samaritan,&rdquo; &ldquo;with figures seven feet
high,&rdquo; were painted <i>circa</i> 1736, and presented by the artist to
St Bartholomew&rsquo;s Hospital, where they remain. They were not
masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion
with Captain Coram&rsquo;s recently established Foundling Hospital
(1739), which he aided with his money, his graver and his brush,
and for which he painted that admirable portrait of the good
old philanthropist which is still, and deservedly, one of its chief
ornaments.</p>

<p>In &ldquo;A Harlot&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; Hogarth had not strayed much
beyond the lower walks of society, and although, in &ldquo;A Rake&rsquo;s
Progress,&rdquo; his hero was taken from the middle classes, he can
scarcely be said to have quitted those fields of observation which
are common to every spectator. It is therefore more remarkable,
looking to his education and antecedents, that his masterpiece,
&ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>,&rdquo; should successfully depict, as the advertisement
has it, &ldquo;a variety of modern occurrences in high life.&rdquo;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century
society, his &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>&rdquo; has never, we believe, been
seriously assailed. The countess&rsquo;s bedroom, the earl&rsquo;s apartment
with its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with
its marble pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to
nature as the frowsy chamber in the &ldquo;Turk&rsquo;s Head Bagnio,&rdquo;
the quack-doctor&rsquo;s museum in St Martin&rsquo;s Lane, or the mean
opulence of the merchant&rsquo;s house in the city. And what story
could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more powerfully told
than this godless alliance of <i>sacs et parchemins</i>&mdash;this miserable
tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of invention,
no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has
the merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional
advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the
narrative; and it is matter for congratulation that it is still to
be seen by all the world in the National Gallery in London,
where it can tell its own tale better than pages of commentary.
The engravings of &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>&rdquo; were dated April 1745.
Although by this time the painter found a ready market for his
engravings, he does not appear to have been equally successful
in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but the
richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures
were wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers
of &ldquo;old masters.&rdquo; In February 1745 the original oil paintings
of the two Progresses, the &ldquo;Four Times of the Day&rdquo; and the
&ldquo;Strolling Actresses&rdquo; were still unsold. On the last day of
that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised kind of
auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols&rsquo;s <i>Anecdotes</i>,
for the paltry sum of £427, 7s. No better fate attended &ldquo;Marriage
<i>à la mode</i>,&rdquo; which six years later became the property of Mr Lane
of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames
which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this
was no doubt due to Hogarth&rsquo;s impracticable arrangements,
but the fact shows conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries
were to his merits as a painter, and how hopelessly
in bondage to the all-powerful picture-dealers. Of these latter
the painter himself gave a graphic picture in a letter addressed
by him under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Britophil&rdquo; to the <i>St James&rsquo;s
Evening Post</i>, in June 1737.</p>

<p>But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas,
he occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity
of portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick
as Richard III. he was paid £200, &ldquo;which was more,&rdquo; says he,
&ldquo;than any English artist ever received for a single portrait.&rdquo;
In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards
beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success.</p>

<p>We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the
most important of his remaining works. These are &ldquo;The Stage
Coach or Country Inn Yard&rdquo; (1747); the series of twelve plates
entitled &ldquo;Industry and Idleness&rdquo; (1747), depicting the career
of two London apprentices; the &ldquo;Gate of Calais&rdquo; (1749),
which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid to France
by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the &ldquo;March
to Finchley&rdquo; (1750); &ldquo;Beer Street,&rdquo; &ldquo;Gin Lane&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Four
Stages of Cruelty&rdquo; (1751); the admirable representations of
election humours in the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled
&ldquo;Four Prints of an Election&rdquo; (1755-1758); and the plate of
&ldquo;Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a Medley&rdquo; (1762),
adapted from an earlier unpublished design called &ldquo;Enthusiasm
Delineated.&rdquo; Besides these must be chronicled three more
essays in the &ldquo;great style of history painting,&rdquo; viz. &ldquo;Paul
before Felix,&rdquo; &ldquo;Moses brought to Pharaoh&rsquo;s Daughter&rdquo; and the
Altarpiece for St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were
engraved in 1751-1752, the last in 1794. A subscription ticket to
the earlier pictures, entitled &ldquo;Paul before Felix Burlesqued,&rdquo; had
a popularity far greater than that of the prints themselves.</p>

<p>In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself
with his dog Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In
a corner of this he had drawn on a palette a serpentine curve
with the words &ldquo;The Line of Beauty.&rdquo; Much inquiry ensued
as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and in an unpropitious
hour the painter resolved to explain himself in writing. The
result was the well-known <i>Analysis of Beauty</i> (1753), a treatise
to fix &ldquo;the fluctuating ideas of Taste,&rdquo; otherwise a desultory
essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo
that a figure should be always &ldquo;Pyramidall, Serpent like and
multiplied by one two and three.&rdquo; The fate of the book was
what might have been expected. By the painter&rsquo;s adherents
it was praised as a final deliverance upon aesthetics; by his
enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and the minor
errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of literary
friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of
endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author&rsquo;s
fame, and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook
it. Moreover, there were further humiliations in store for him.
In 1759 the success of a little picture called &ldquo;The Lady&rsquo;s Last
Stake,&rdquo; painted for Lord Charlemont, procured him a commission
from Sir Richard Grosvenor to paint another picture &ldquo;upon
the same terms.&rdquo; Unhappily on this occasion he deserted his
own field of genre and social satire, to select the story from
Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the
heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a
picture in Sir Luke Schaub&rsquo;s collection by Furini which had
recently been sold for £400. The picture, over which he spent
much time and patience, was not regarded as a success; and
Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his bargain upon the
plea that &ldquo;the constantly having it before one&rsquo;s eyes, would be
too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one&rsquo;s mind.&rdquo;
Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist&rsquo;s mortification, and
the delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by
her husband&rsquo;s desire, his widow valued it at £500, it found no
purchaser until after her death, when the Boydells bought it
for 56 guineas. It was exhibited, with others of Hogarth&rsquo;s
pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of 1761, for the
catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a Tail-piece
which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by
the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the
National Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and
a repulsive theme, it still commands admiration for its colour,
drawing and expression.</p>

<p>In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but
three years more to live. These three years were embittered
by an unhappy quarrel with his quondam friends, John Wilkes
and Churchill the poet, over which most of his biographers are
contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded John Thornhill
in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was reappointed
at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted him
in 1762 to do some &ldquo;timed&rdquo; thing in the ministerial interest, and
he accordingly published the indifferent satire of &ldquo;The Times,
plate i.&rdquo; This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes
and Churchill, and the immediate result was a violent attack
upon him, both as a man and an artist, in the opposition <i>North
Briton</i>, No. 17. The alleged decay of his powers, the miscarriage
of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of the <i>Analysis</i>, were
all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those who had known
his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old artist
was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the
next year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which
will for ever carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill
retaliated in July by a savage <i>Epistle to William Hogarth</i>, to which
the artist rejoined by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands
and ruffles, not the most successful of his works. &ldquo;The pleasure,
and pecuniary advantage,&rdquo; writes Hogarth manfully, &ldquo;which
I derived from these two engravings&rdquo; (of Wilkes and Churchill),
&ldquo;together with occasionally riding on horseback, restored me
to as much health as can be expected at my time of life.&rdquo; He
produced but one more print, that of &ldquo;Finis, or The Bathos,&rdquo;
March 1764, a strange jumble of &ldquo;fag ends,&rdquo; intended as a
tail-piece to his collected prints; and on the 26th October of
the same year he died of an aneurism at his house in Leicester
Square. His wife, to whom he left his plates as a chief source
of income, survived him until 1789. He was buried in Chiswick
churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his friends
in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian
villa in which from September 1749 until his death he spent
the summer seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of
ownership it was purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway
of Chiswick, who turned it into a Hogarth museum and preserved
it to the nation.</p>

<p>From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have
been much what from his portrait one might suppose him to
have been&mdash;a blue-eyed, honest, combative little man, thoroughly
insular in his prejudices and antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive
like most satirists, a good friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious,
as he somewhere says, in all things to be singular, and not always
accurately estimating the extent of his powers. With the art
connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at war, because, as he
believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the expense of native
talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably, as he
admits, often come &ldquo;to utter blasphemous expressions against
the divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo.&rdquo;
But it was rather against the third-rate copies of
third-rate artists&mdash;the &ldquo;ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy
Families and Madonnas&rdquo;&mdash;that his indignation was directed;
and in speaking of his attitude with regard to the great masters
of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs Piozzi:&mdash;&ldquo;The
connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I hate
<i>them</i>, they think I hate <i>Titian</i>&mdash;and let them!&rdquo;</p>

<p>But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude
of his towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries
failed to recognize adequately his merits as a painter,
and persisted in regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone.
Time has reversed that unjust sentence. He is now held to have
been a splendid painter, pure and harmonious in his colouring,
wonderfully dexterous and direct in his handling, and in his
composition leaving little or nothing to be desired. As an engraver
his work is more conspicuous for its vigour, spirit and
intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He desired that
it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct impress of
his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a
draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work
at times undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness.
If, however, he is judged by his best instead of his worst, he
will not be found wanting in this respect. But it is not after
all as a draughtsman, an engraver or a painter that he claims
his unique position among English artists&mdash;it is as a humorist
and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in this light he has never
been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism and dramatic
power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his story,
or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness.
If we regard him&mdash;as he loved to regard himself&mdash;as &ldquo;author&rdquo;
rather than &ldquo;artist,&rdquo; his place is with the great masters of
literature&mdash;with the Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes
and Molières.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found
in the autobiographical <i>Memoranda</i> published by John Ireland in
1798, and in the successive <i>Anecdotes</i> of the antiquary John Nichols.
Much minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens&rsquo;s
<i>Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British Museum</i>.
But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &amp;c., relating to
Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and
prints, will be found in the <i>Memoir</i> of Hogarth by Austin Dobson.
First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897,
1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections
are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old
Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works
have permanent homes in public galleries. &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>.&rdquo;
&ldquo;Sigismunda,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lavinia Fenton,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Shrimp Girl,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Gate
of Calais,&rdquo; the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are
all in the National Gallery; the &ldquo;Rake&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; and the Election
Series, in the Soane Museum; and the &ldquo;March to Finchley&rdquo; and
&ldquo;Captain Coram&rdquo; in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in
the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait
Gallery. At the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a
very interesting set of sixteen designs for the series called &ldquo;Industry
and Idleness,&rdquo; the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace
Walpole.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. D.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOGG, JAMES<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the
&ldquo;Ettrick Shepherd,&rdquo; was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire
on the 9th of December 1770. His ancestors had been shepherds
for centuries. He received hardly any school training, and
seems to have had difficulty in getting books to read. After
spending his early years herding sheep for different masters, he
was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse,
in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated
with great kindness, and had access to a large collection of
books. When this was exhausted he subscribed to a circulating
library in Peebles. While attending to his flock, he spent a
great deal of time in reading. He profited by the company of
his master&rsquo;s sons, of whom William Laidlaw is known as the
friend of Scott and the author of <i>Lucy&rsquo;s Flittin&rsquo;</i>. Hogg&rsquo;s first
printed piece was &ldquo;The Mistakes of a Night&rdquo; in the <i>Scots
Magazine</i> for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his <i>Scottish
Pastorals</i>. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter
Scott, who was then collecting materials for his <i>Border Minstrelsy</i>.
On Scott&rsquo;s recommendation Constable published Hogg&rsquo;s miscellaneous
poems (<i>The Mountain Bard</i>) in 1807. By this work,
and by <i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s Guide, being a Practical Treatise on the
Diseases of Sheep</i>, Hogg realized about £300. With this money
he unfortunately embarked in farming in Dumfriesshire, and
in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon all his
effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find
that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so
he set off in February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh
as a literary adventurer. In the same year he published a collection
of songs, <i>The Forest Minstrel</i>, to which he was the largest
contributor. This book, being dedicated to the countess of
Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch), and recommended
to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of 100
guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, <i>The Spy</i>, which
he continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The
appearance of <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Wake</i> in 1813 established Hogg&rsquo;s
reputation as a poet; Byron recommended it to John Murray,
who brought out an English edition. The scene of the poem
is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the &ldquo;wake&rdquo;
provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival
bards. It was followed by the <i>Pilgrims of the Sun</i> (1815), and
<i>Mador of the Moor</i> (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her
death-bed (1814), had asked her husband to do something for
the Ettrick bard; and the duke gave him a lease for life of the
farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting of about 70 acres of moorland,
on which the poet built a house and spent the last years
of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm Hogg
asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which
should be a kind of poetic &ldquo;benefit&rdquo; for himself. Failing in
his applications he wrote a volume of parodies, published in
1816, as <i>The Poetic Mirror, or the Living Bards of Great Britain</i>.
He took possession of his farm in 1817; but his literary exertions
were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had written the prose tales
of <i>The Brownie of Bodsbeck</i> (1818) and two volumes of <i>Winter
Evening Tales</i> (1820), besides collecting, editing and writing
part of two volumes of <i>The Jacobite Relics of Scotland</i> (1819-1821),
and contributing largely to <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. &ldquo;The
Chaldee MS.,&rdquo; which appeared in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (October
1817), and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn,
was largely Hogg&rsquo;s work.</p>

<p>In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale
family, and found himself possessed of about £1000, a
good house and a well-stocked farm. Hogg&rsquo;s connexion with
<i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i> kept him continually before the public;
his contributions, which include the best of his prose works,
were collected in the <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Calendar</i> (1829). The wit and
mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his name
as the &ldquo;Shepherd&rdquo; of the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>, and represented
him in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the
whole was favourable to his popularity. &ldquo;Whatever may be
the merits of the picture of the Shepherd [in the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>]&mdash;and
no one will deny its power and genius,&rdquo; writes
Professor Veitch&mdash;&ldquo;it is true, all the same, that this Shepherd
was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James Hogg. He
was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the
characteristic humour and coarseness of the other.&rdquo; <i>The Three
Perils of Woman</i> (1820), and <i>The Three Perils of Man</i> (1822),
were followed in 1825 by an epic poem, <i>Queen Hynde</i>, which
was unfavourably received. He visited London in 1832, and was
much lionized. On his return a public dinner was given to him
in Peebles,&mdash;Professor Wilson in the chair,&mdash;and he acknowledged
that he had at last &ldquo;found fame.&rdquo; His health, however,
was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last,
Hogg in 1834 published a volume of <i>Lay Sermons</i>, and <i>The
Domestic Manners and Private Life of Sir Walter Scott</i>, a book
which Lockhart regarded as an infringement on his rights.
In 1835 appeared three volumes of <i>Tales of the Wars of Montrose</i>.
Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was buried in
the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had
seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close;
his presence was associated with all the border sports and
festivities; and as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous
and charitable. It is mainly as a great peasant poet that he
lives in literature. Some of his lyrics and minor poems&mdash;his
&ldquo;Skylark,&rdquo; &ldquo;When the Kye comes Hame,&rdquo; his verses on the
&ldquo;Comet&rdquo; and &ldquo;Evening Star,&rdquo; and his &ldquo;Address to Lady
Ann Scott&rdquo;&mdash;are exquisite. <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Wake</i> unites his
characteristic excellences&mdash;his command of the old romantic
ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology and his aerial flights
of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in this work
Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the
ideal and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate
inspiration.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Hogg&rsquo;s &ldquo;Memoir of the Author&rsquo;s Life, written by himself,&rdquo;
prefixed to the 3rd edition (1821) of <i>The Mountain Bard</i>, also
<i>Memorials of James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd</i>, edited by his daughter,
Mrs M. G. Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch,
1903), and Sir G. B. S. Douglas, <i>James Hogg</i> (1899) in the &ldquo;Famous
Scots&rdquo; series; also <i>The Poems of James Hogg</i>, selected by William
Wallace (1903). John Wilson (&ldquo;Christopher North&rdquo;) had a real
affection for Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the
materials placed in his hands for a biography of the poet. The
memoir mentioned on the title-page of the <i>Works</i> (1838-1840) never
appeared, and the memoir prefixed to the edition of Hogg&rsquo;s works
published by Blackie &amp; Co. (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas
Thompson. See also Wilson&rsquo;s <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>; Mrs Oliphant&rsquo;s
<i>Annals of a Publishing House</i>, vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan&rsquo;s <i>First
Gallery of Literary Portraits</i>; Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Biog. and Crit. Hist. of
Lit.</i>; and the general index to <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. A collected
edition of Hogg&rsquo;s Tales appeared in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in
1851; his <i>Poetical Works</i> were published in 1822, 1838-1840 and
1865-1866. For an admirable account of the social entertainments
Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see <i>Memoir of Robert Chambers</i>
(1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp. 263-270.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1792-1862), English man of
letters, was born at Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792.
He was educated at Durham grammar school and at University
College, Oxford. Here he became the intimate friend of the
poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled from the
university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the authorship
of the pamphlet <i>The Necessity for Atheism</i>. He was then
sent to study law at York, where he remained for six months.
Hogg&rsquo;s behaviour to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations
with her husband for some time, but in 1813 the friendship
was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was called to the bar,
and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he inherited
£2000 under Shelley&rsquo;s will, and in 1855, in accordance with
the wishes of the poet&rsquo;s family, began to write Shelley&rsquo;s
biography. The first two volumes of it were published in 1858,
but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a
biography, and Shelley&rsquo;s representatives refused Hogg further
access to the materials necessary for its completion. Hogg died
on the 27th of August 1862.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOGMANAY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the name in Scotland and some parts of the
north of England for New Year&rsquo;s Eve, as also for the cake then
given to the children. On the morning of the 31st of December
the children in small bands go from door to door singing:</p>

<p class="center f90">
                    &ldquo;Hogmanay<br />
                    Trollolay<br />
Gie&rsquo;s o&rsquo; your white bread and nane o&rsquo; your grey&rdquo;;</p>

<p class="noind">and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the
form of an oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been
much disputed. Cotgrave (1611) says: &ldquo;It is the voice of
the country folks begging small presents or New Year&rsquo;s gifts
... an ancient term of rejoicing derived from the Druids,
who were wont the first of each January to go into the woods,
where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered
mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and
most soverayne against all poyson.&rdquo; And he connects the word,
through such Norman French forms as <i>hoguinané</i>, with the old
French <i>aguilanneuf</i>, which he explains as <i>au gui-l&rsquo;an-neuf</i>, &ldquo;to
the mistletoe! the New Year!&rdquo;&mdash;this being (on his interpretation)
the Druidical salutation to the coming year as the revellers
issued from the woods armed with boughs of mistletoe. But
though this explanation may be accepted as containing the
truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave&rsquo;s
detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists,
and the identical French <i>aguilanneuf</i> remains, like it, in
obscurity.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOGSHEAD,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a cask for holding liquor or other commodities,
such as tobacco, sugar, molasses, &amp;c.; also a liquid measure
of capacity, varying with the contents. As a measure for beer,
cider, &amp;c., it equals 54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483)
fixed the hogshead of wine at 63 wine-gallons, <i>i.e.</i> 52½ imperial
gallons. The etymology of the word has been much discussed.
According to Skeat, the origin is to be found in the name for a
cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several
Teutonic languages, in Dutch <i>oxhooft</i> (modern <i>okshoofd</i>), Dan.
<i>oxehoved</i>, O. Swed. <i>oxhufvod</i>, &amp;c. The word should therefore
be &ldquo;oxhead,&rdquo; and &ldquo;hogshead&rdquo; is a mere corruption. It has
been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such
a measure with the head of an ox (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series
iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman). The <i>New English Dictionary</i>
does not attempt any explanation of the term, and takes
&ldquo;hogshead&rdquo; as the original form, from which the forms in other
languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms
<i>hukeshovet</i> and <i>hoekshoot</i> are nearer to the English form, and,
further, the Dutch for &ldquo;ox&rdquo; is os.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENASPERG,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> an ancient fortress of Germany, in the
kingdom of Württemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated
on a conical hill, 1100 ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg.
It was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison
of the kingdom of Württemberg. Among the many who have
been interned here may be mentioned the notorious Jew financier,
Joseph Süss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the poet C. F. D.
Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg
originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to
the counts palatine of Tübingen and from them was acquired
in 1308 by Württemberg. In 1535 the fortifications were
extended and strengthened, and in 1635 the town was taken
by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Schön, <i>Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg</i> (Stuttgart, 1899);
and Biffart, <i>Geschichte der Württembergischen Feste Hohenasperg</i>
(Stuttgart, 1858).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENFRIEDBERG,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hohenfriedeberg</span>, a village of
Silesia, about 6 m. from the small town of Striegau. It gives
its name to a battle (also called the battle of Striegau) in the
War of the Austrian Succession, fought on the 3rd of June 1745
between the Prussians under Frederick the Great and the
Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine.
In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter
quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about
Neisse whence he could man&oelig;uvre against the Austrians,
whether they invaded Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined
their allies (who, under the duke of Weissenfels, were on the
upper Elbe), and made their advance on Schweidnitz, Breslau
or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards the Elbe,
Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the
edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was
near Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing
(very slowly owing to the poorness of the roads and
the dilatoriness of the Saxon artillery train) from Waldenburg
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
and Landshut through the mountains, heading for Striegau.
After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May, Frederick had
made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of the
Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian
army was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only
selected officers and patrols watched the debouches of the
mountains. On the other hand the Allies had no intention of
delivering battle, but meant only, on emerging from the
mountains, to take up a suitable camping position and thence
to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing that &ldquo;the
king was at his wits&rsquo; end, and, once the army really began its
retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in
its ranks.&rdquo; But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed,
the Prussian army was in excellent spirits and eager for the
&ldquo;decisive affair&rdquo; promised by the king. On the 3rd of June,
watched by the invisible patrols, the Austrians and Saxons
emerged from the hills at Hohenfriedberg with bands playing
and colours flying. Their advanced guard of infantry and
cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a line of hills
spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to
encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince
Charles and Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of
the line of hills till the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore
in two separate wings, the Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments)
between Günthersdorf and Pilgramshain, the Austrians near
Hausdorf. They were about 70,000 strong, Frederick 65,000.</p>

<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:573px; height:477px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img571.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p>The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by
the enemy&rsquo;s slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders
to move. About 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk
towards Striegau, the guns on the road, the infantry
and cavalry, in long open columns of companies and squadrons,
over the fields on either side&mdash;a night march well remembered
by contrast with others as having been executed in perfect
order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an
advanced detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke
camp silently and moved into position below the hill north-west
of Striegau, which was found to be occupied by Saxon light
infantry outposts. The king&rsquo;s orders were for Dumoulin and
the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance towards
Häslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to
prolong the line from the marsh to Günthersdorf, covered by
the left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On
the side of the Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have
noticed and reported the king&rsquo;s movement, for the night was
clear and starlit, but their report, if made, was ignored.</p>

<p>At 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting
the fire of the Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon
this promptly retired in order to avoid being surrounded.
Dumoulin then posted artillery on the slope of the hill and
deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the village. The
leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on
Dumoulin&rsquo;s left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the
duke of Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting
his infantry in the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain,
and his cavalry, partly in front of Pilgramshain and partly on
the intervening space, opposite that of the Prussians. But
before the marshy ground was effectively occupied by the duke&rsquo;s
infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of
Dumoulin&rsquo;s guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that
was brought up on to the Gräbener Fuchsberg, and then charged
by the Prussian right-wing cavalry, and in the mêlée the Allies
were gradually driven in confusion off the battlefield. The
cavalry battle was ended by 6.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by which time Dumoulin&rsquo;s
grenadiers, stiffened by the line regiment Anhalt (the &ldquo;Old
Dessauer&rsquo;s&rdquo; own), were vigorously attacking the garden hedges
and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian infantry
in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau
with the right wing of the king&rsquo;s infantry. The line infantry
of those days, however, did not work easily in bad ground,
and the Saxons were steady and well drilled. After an
hour&rsquo;s fight, well supported by the guns and continually
reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the prince
expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin
drove the light troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the
Saxons, forming the left wing of the allied army, were in
full retreat.</p>

<p>While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of
Lorraine had done nothing, believing that the cannonade
was merely an outpost affair for the possession of the
Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out their
respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south
of Günthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but
they had no authority to advance without orders, and
stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the Prussian columns
were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of
the king&rsquo;s advance was the most delicate of all, and the
moment that he heard from Prince Dietrich that the
marsh was captured he stopped the northward flow of his
battalions and swung them westward, the left wing cavalry
having to cover their deployment. But when one-third
of this cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge
broke. For a time the advanced squadrons were in great
danger. But they charged boldly, and a disjointed cavalry
battle began, during which (Ziethen&rsquo;s hussars having discovered
a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to
cross. At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von
Nassau charged and drove the Austrians in disorder towards
Hohenfriedberg. This action was the more creditable to the
victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate fractions defeated a
mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to meet them.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and
left had crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and
by 8.30 they were advancing on Günthersdorf and the Austrian
infantry south of that place. Frederick&rsquo;s purpose was to roll
up the enemy from their inner flank, and while Prince Dietrich,
with most of the troops that had forced the Saxons out of the
marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and one of
Dumoulin&rsquo;s were brought over to the left wing and sent against
the north side of Günthersdorf. In the course of the general
forward movement, which was made in what was for those
days a very irregular line, a wide gap opened up between the
centre and left, behind which 10 squadrons of the Bayreuth
dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von Gessler, took up
their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers on the
extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the
Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south.
Then Günthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated
by the enemy. But although Frederick rode back from the
front saying &ldquo;the battle is won,&rdquo; the Prussian infantry, in spite
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span>
of its superior fire discipline, failed for some time to master the
defence, and suffered heavily from the eight close-range volleys
they received, one or two regiments losing 40 and 50% of their
strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still more; feeling
themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy, they
began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and
the Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and &ldquo;broke
the equilibrium.&rdquo; These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions
of the enemy and brought in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian
colours, and in this astounding charge they themselves lost no
more than 94 men. By nine o&rsquo;clock the battle was over, and
the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the
mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night,
were too far spent to pursue.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded,
and 7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours.
The Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENHEIM,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the kingdom of
Württemberg, 7 m. S. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came
in 1768 from the counts of Hohenheim to the dukes of Württemberg,
and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built a country house here.
This house with grounds is now the seat of the most important
agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817, was
raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks
as a technical high school with university status.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Fröhlich, <i>Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim</i> (Stuttgart,
1870).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENLIMBURG,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in
the Prussian prov. of Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund.
Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has two Evangelical churches, a Roman
Catholic church and a synagogue. The town is the seat of various
iron and metal industries, while dyeing, cloth-making and linen-weaving
are also carried on here. It is the chief town of the
county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of
Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it
passed to the counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of
Hohenlimburg, which overlooks the town, is now the residence
of Prince Adolf of Bentheim-Tecklenburg.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENLOHE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a German princely family which took its name
from the district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship,
its two branches were raised to the rank of principalities
of the Empire in 1744 and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they
lost their independence and their lands now form part of the
kingdoms of Bavaria and of Württemberg. At the time of
the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and its
estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned
in the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or
Hohenlohe, near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible
in several of the Franconian valleys, including those of the
Kocher, the Jagst and the Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the
first to take the title of count of Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his
grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters of the emperor
Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe and
Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles.
The latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to
Brandenburg, while the former was divided into several branches,
only two of which, however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and
Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need be mentioned here.
Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I.
(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took
place after the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551
being specially important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein
and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the
sons of Count George. Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of
Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had become extinct, and its
lands had passed through the marriages of its heiresses into
other families.</p>

<p>The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended
from the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg,
established in 1551. The former of these became Protestant,
while the latter remained Catholic. Of the family
of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several partitions
and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became extinct
in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into three
branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg.
Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of
Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still
alive, the latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
and Hohenlohe-Öhringen. The Roman Catholic
family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg was soon divided into three
branches, but two of these had died out by 1729. The surviving
branch, that of Schillingsfürst, was divided into the lines of
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other
divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of
the family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfürst, Jagstberg
and Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst possesses
the duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.</p>

<p>The principal members of the family are dealt with below.</p>

<p><span class="sc">I. Friedrich Ludwig</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
(1746-1818), Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince
Johann Friedrich (d. 1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began
his military career as a boy, serving against the Prussians in the
last years of the Seven Years&rsquo; War. Entering the Prussian army
after the peace (1768), he was on account of his rank at once
made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel; in 1778
he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about
the same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death
of Frederick the Great he was promoted to the rank of major-general
and appointed chief of a regiment. For some years the
prince did garrison duty at Breslau, until in 1791 he was made
governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a corps in the
Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself greatly
in many engagements, particularly in the battle of Kaiserslautern
on the 20th of September. He was at this time the
most popular soldier in the Prussian army. Blücher wrote of
him that &ldquo;he was a leader of whom the Prussian army might
well be proud.&rdquo; He succeeded his father in the principality,
and acquired additional lands by his marriage with a daughter
of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a general of
infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the
Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince
Louis Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had
been that of a prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he
allowed his quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence
him unduly. Disputes soon broke out between Hohenlohe and
the commander-in-chief, the duke of Brunswick, the armies
marched hither and thither without effective results, and finally
Hohenlohe&rsquo;s army was almost destroyed by Napoleon at Jena
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). The prince displayed his usual
personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion
of his corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But
the pursuers followed him up closely, and, still acting under
Massenbach&rsquo;s advice, he surrendered the remnant of his army
at Prenzlau on the 28th of October, a fortnight after Jena and
three weeks after the beginning of hostilities. Hohenlohe&rsquo;s
former popularity and influence in the army had now the worst
possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons everywhere
lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as
a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates,
living in self-imposed obscurity until his death on the 15th of
February 1818. He had, in August 1806, just before the outbreak
of the French War, resigned the principality to his eldest
son, not being willing to become a &ldquo;mediatized&rdquo; ruler under
Württemberg suzerainty.</p>

<p><span class="sc">II. Ludwig Aloysius</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein
(1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born
on the 18th of August 1765. In 1784 he entered the service of
the Palatinate, which he quitted in 1792 in order to take the
command of a regiment raised by his father for the service
of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly distinguished
himself under Condé in the campaigns of 1792-1793, especially
at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he
entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded
by the army of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat
from the island of Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
colonel in the Austrian campaigns; in 1799 he was named
major-general by the archduke Charles; and after obtaining the
rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by the emperor
governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to
him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation
of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to
Württemberg. After Napoleon&rsquo;s fall in 1814 he entered the
French service, and in 1815 he held the command of a regiment
raised by himself, with which he took part in the Spanish
campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and peer
of France. He died at Lunéville on the 30th of May 1829.</p>

<p><span class="sc">III. Alexander Leopold Franz Emmerich</span>, prince of
Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (1794-1849), priest
and reputed miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near
Waldenburg, on the 17th of August 1794. By his mother, the
daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he was from infancy
destined for the church; and she entrusted his early education
to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the &ldquo;Theresianum&rdquo;
at Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archiepiscopal
seminary at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at
Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was ordained priest in 1815, and
in the following year he went to Rome, where he entered the
society of the &ldquo;Fathers of the Sacred Heart.&rdquo; Subsequently,
at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and obscurantist
tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation
as a preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected,
in conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of
Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Immediately
he acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous
cures that multitudes from various countries flocked to partake
of the beneficial influence of his supposed supernatural gifts.
Ultimately, on account of the interference of the authorities
with his operations, he went in 1821 to Vienna and then to
Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in 1844
titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Vöslau near Vienna on
the 17th of November 1849. He was the author of a number
of ascetic and controversial writings, which were collected and
published in one edition by S. Brunner in 1851.</p>

<p><span class="sc">IV. Kraft</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892),
soldier and military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
(1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper
Silesia. He was a nephew of the Prince Hohenlohe noticed
above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena. Educated with
great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family estates
during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian
army, and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive
arm of the service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in
1845, and it was soon discovered that he had unusual aptitudes
as an artillery officer. For a time his brother officers resented
the presence of a prince, until it was found that he made no
attempt to use his social position to secure advancement. After
serving as a military attaché in Vienna and on the Transylvanian
frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on the
general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king,
remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864,
having become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-colonel,
he resigned the staff appointments to become commander
of the new Guard Field Artillery regiment and in the following
year he became colonel. In 1866 he saw his first real active
service. In the bold advance of the Guard corps on the Austrian
right wing at Königgratz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Weeks&rsquo; War</a></span>), he led the
Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and success, and
after the short war ended he turned his energies, now fortified
by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian
artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned
to command the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he
gained great distinction during the Franco-German war and
especially at Gravelotte and Sedan; he was in control of the
artillery attack on the fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was
placed in command of an infantry division, and three years
later was promoted lieutenant-general. He retired in 1879,
was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of artillery
in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst
them several have become classics. These are <i>Briefe über
Artillerie</i> (Eng. trans. <i>Letters on Artillery</i>, 1887); <i>Briefe über
Strategie</i> (1877; Eng. trans. <i>Letters on Strategy</i>, 1898); and
<i>Gespräche über Reiterei</i> (1887; Eng. trans. <i>Conversations on
Cavalry</i>). The <i>Briefe über Infanterie</i> and <i>Briefe über Kavallerie</i>
(translated into English, <i>Letters on Infantry</i>, <i>Letters on Cavalry</i>,
1889) are of less importance, though interesting as a reflection
of prevailing German ideas. His memoirs (<i>Aus meinem Leben</i>)
were prepared in retirement near Dresden, and the first volume
(1897) created such a sensation that eight years were allowed
to elapse before the publication was continued. Prince Kraft
died near Dresden on the 16th of January 1892.</p>
<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div>

<p><span class="sc">V. Chlodwig Karl Victor</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
(1819-1901), statesman, was born on the 31st of March
1819 at Schillingsfürst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz
Joseph (1787-1841), was a Catholic, his mother, Princess
Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, a Protestant. In accordance
with the compromise customary at the time, Prince Chlodwig
and his brothers were brought up in the religion of their father,
while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite of the
difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to
the spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his
liberal and tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an
important influence on his <span class="correction" title="amended from politcal">political</span> activity. As the younger
son of a cadet line of his house it was necessary for Prince
Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while he thought of
obtaining a commission in the British army through the influence
of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg
(<i>née</i> princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria&rsquo;s half-sister. He
decided, however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service.
His application to be excused the preliminary steps, which
involved several years&rsquo; work in subordinate positions in the
Prussian civil service, was refused by Frederick William IV.,
and the prince, with great good sense, decided to sacrifice his
pride of rank and to accept the king&rsquo;s conditions. As auscultator
in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for jurisprudence,
became a <i>Referendar</i> in September 1843, and after some months
of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam
as a civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were
invaluable, not only as giving him experience of practical affairs
but as affording him an insight into the strength and weakness
of the Prussian system. The immediate result was to confirm
his Liberalism. The Prussian principle of &ldquo;propagating enlightenment
with a stick&rdquo; did not appeal to him; he &ldquo;recognized
the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest circles,&rdquo;
the tendency to make agreement with the views of the government
the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his
journal (June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of &rsquo;48,
&ldquo;a slight cause and we shall have a rising.&rdquo; &ldquo;The free press,&rdquo;
he notes on another occasion, &ldquo;is a necessity, progress the
condition of the existence of a state.&rdquo; If he was an ardent
advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia the instrument
for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the &ldquo;Prussification&rdquo;
of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the
unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the
principle of union with the North German states and at the
same time on the preservation of the individuality of the states
of the South.</p>

<p>On the 12th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus
of Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes
Viktor and Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy
of Ratibor in Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia,
and the lordship of Treffurt in the Prussian governmental
district of Erfurt. On the death of Prince Franz Joseph on the
14th of January 1841 it was decided that the principality of
Schillingsfürst should pass to the third brother, Philipp Ernst,
as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided for
already under their uncle&rsquo;s will, the one with the duchy of
Ratibor, the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest
son, Gustav (b. February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was
destined for the Church. On the death of Prince Philipp Ernst
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
(May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was made: Prince Chlodwig
became prince of Schillingsfürst, while Corvey was assigned to
the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by Prince
Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen.
This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig&rsquo;s career.
His new position as a &ldquo;reigning&rdquo; prince and hereditary member
of the Bavarian Upper House was incompatible with that of a
Prussian official. On the 18th of April 1846 he took his seat
as a member of the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i>, and on the 26th of
June received his formal discharge from the Prussian service.</p>

<p>Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince
Hohenlohe was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During
the revolutionary years his sympathies were with the Liberal
idea of a united Germany, and he compromised his chances of
favour from the king of Bavaria by accepting the task (November
1, 1848) of announcing to the courts of Rome, Florence and
Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John of Austria
as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to
hope much from a national parliament which &ldquo;wasted time in
idle babble,&rdquo; or from a democratic victory which had stunned
but not destroyed the German military powers. On the 16th of
February 1847 he had married the Princess Marie of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg,
the heiress to vast estates in Russia.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in Lithuania (1851-1853)
in connexion with the management of the property, a visit
repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe&rsquo;s life
was occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions
of the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i> and in travels. In 1856 he visited
Rome, during which he noted the baneful influence of the
Jesuits. In 1859 he was studying the political situation at
Berlin, and in the same year he paid a visit to England. The
marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to another princess
of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent visits to
Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch
with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time,
during this period (1850-1866) he was endeavouring to get
into relations with the Bavarian government, with a view to
taking a more active part in affairs. Towards the German
question his attitude at this time was tentative. He had little
hope of a practical realization of a united Germany, and
inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria, Prussia
and Bavaria&mdash;the so-called &ldquo;Trias.&rdquo; He attended the <i>Fürstentag</i>
at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question
was a supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this
time that, at the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her
regular reports on the political condition of Germany.</p>

<p>Prince Hohenlohe&rsquo;s importance in history, however, begins
with the year 1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It
had demonstrated the insignificance of the small and middle
states, &ldquo;a misfortune for the dynasties&rdquo;&mdash;with whose feelings
a mediatized prince could scarcely be expected to be over-sympathetic&mdash;but
the best possible good fortune for the German
nation. In the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i> Hohenlohe now began to
make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia;
clearly, if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every
way best fitted to prepare the way for it. One of the main
obstacles in the way was the temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria,
whose ideas of kingship were very remote from those of the
Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any concession to
Prussian superiority, and who&mdash;even during the crisis of 1866&mdash;was
more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately
Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and
equally fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of
appreciating &ldquo;the master&rsquo;s&rdquo; genius. It was Wagner, apparently,
who persuaded the king to place Hohenlohe at the head of his
government (<i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>, i. 178, 211), and on the
31st of December 1866 the prince was duly appointed minister
of the royal house and of foreign affairs and president of the
council of ministers.</p>

<p>As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe&rsquo;s principal
task was to discover some basis for an effective union of the
South German states with the North German Confederation,
and during the three critical years of his tenure of office he was,
next to Bismarck, the most important statesman in Germany.
He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian army on
the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the
southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of
the customs parliament (<i>Zollparlament</i>), of which on the 28th
of April 1868 he was elected a vice-president. During the
agitation that arose in connexion with the summoning of the
Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude of strong opposition
to the ultramontane position. In common with his brothers,
the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the
policy of Pius IX.&mdash;inspired by the Jesuits (that &ldquo;devil&rsquo;s
society,&rdquo; as he once called it)&mdash;of setting the Church in opposition
to the modern State would prove ruinous to both, and that the
definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, by raising the
pronouncements of the Syllabus of 1864 into articles of faith,
would commit the Church to this policy irrevocably. This
view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic powers
(April 9, 1869), drawn up by Döllinger, inviting them to exercise
the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine
to prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers,
however, were for one reason or another unwilling to intervene,
and the only practical outcome of Hohenlohe&rsquo;s action was that
in Bavaria the powerful ultramontane party combined against
him with the Bavarian &ldquo;patriots&rdquo; who accused him of bartering
away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The combination
was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for curbing
the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the
elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued
support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870).</p>

<p>Though out of office, his personal influence continued very
great both at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with
favourable terms of the treaty of the North German Confederation
with Bavaria, which embodied his views, and with its
acceptance by the Bavarian parliament.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Elected a member
of the German Reichstag, he was on the 23rd of March 1871
chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was instrumental in founding
the new groups which took the name of the Liberal Imperial
party (<i>Liberale Reichspartei</i>), the objects of which were to support
the new empire, to secure its internal development on Liberal
lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the
Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was
from the first a strenuous supporter of Bismarck&rsquo;s anti-papal
policy, the main lines of which (prohibition of the Society of
Jesus, &amp;c.) he himself suggested. Though sympathizing with
the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he realized that they
were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did not join
them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church
lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In
1872 Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe
Prussian envoy at the Vatican, but his views were too much
in harmony with those of his family, and the pope refused to
receive him in this capacity.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>

<p>In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count
Harry Arnim as ambassador in Paris, where he remained for
seven years. In 1878 he attended the congress of Berlin as
third German representative, and in 1880, on the death of
Bernhardt Ernst von Bülow (October 20), secretary of state for
foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head of
the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
absence through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed
Manteuffel as governor of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity
he had to carry out the coercive measures introduced by the
chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely disapproved of them;<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
his conciliatory disposition, however, did much to reconcile
the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at Strassburg
till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the emperor,
he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the
chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his
chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.);
as regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs
has very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed
comments which the prince left behind him. In general, during
his term of office, the personality of the chancellor was less
conspicuous in public affairs than in the ease of either of his
predecessors. His appearances in the Prussian and German
parliaments were rare, and great independence was left to the
secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience
of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful
will and impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be
generally known.</p>

<p>Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the 17th of
October 1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901.
On the 16th of February 1897 he had celebrated his golden
wedding; on the 21st of December of the same year the princess
died. There were six children of the marriage: Elizabeth
(b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst, reigning prince
of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (b. 1853), who married Princess
Charielée Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander,
twins (b. 1862).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been
superseded by the <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig,
1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full
and outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany
and bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for
their publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only
the record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to
the historian for the wealth of material they contain and for appreciations
of men and events by an observer who had the best opportunities
for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal not only as
a capable man of affairs, though falling short of greatness, but as a
personality of singular charm, tenacious of his principles, tolerant,
broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure of the saving grace
of humour.</p>

<p>See generally A. F. Fischer, <i>Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe</i> (1866-1871);
K. Weller, <i>Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch</i>, 1153-1350 (Stuttgart,
1899-1901), and <i>Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe</i> (Stuttgart,
1904).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. A. P.; C. F. A.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Through her mother, <i>née</i> Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832).
Before Prince Wittgenstein&rsquo;s death (1887) a new law had forbidden
foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears,
however, to have sold one of his wife&rsquo;s estates and to have secured
certain privileges from the Russian court for the rest.</p>

<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Speech of December 30, 1870, in the <i>Reichsrath</i>. <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>,
ii. 36.</p>

<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous
occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede
while studying Church history,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 92.</p>

<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic
leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and
supplied historical and theological material to the opposition bishops.</p>

<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a
war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter
to Wilmowski, <i>Denkw.</i> ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full
responsibility consented to retain office.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENSTAUFEN,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the name of a village and ruined castle
near Lorsch in Swabia, now in the kingdom of Württemberg,
which gave its name to a celebrated Swabian family, members
of which were emperors or German kings from 1138 to 1208,
and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known ancestor
was Frederick, count of Büren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick
built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself
by this name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry
IV., who rewarded his fidelity by granting him the dukedom
of Swabia in 1079, and giving him his daughter Agnes in
marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as Henry&rsquo;s representative,
but only secured possession of Swabia after a struggle
lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his
son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his
brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III.,
held south-west Germany for their uncle the emperor Henry V.
Frederick inherited the estates of Henry V. in 1125, but failed
to secure the throne, and took up an attitude of hostility towards
the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who claimed some of the
estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war broke
out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at
Bamberg. He retained, however, his dukedom and estates.
In 1138 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was elected German king,
and was succeeded in 1152, not by his son but by his nephew
Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother Frederick (d. 1147).
Conrad&rsquo;s son Frederick inherited the duchy of Franconia which
his father had received in 1115, and this was retained by the
Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1196. In
1152 Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin
the German king Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed
successively to Frederick&rsquo;s three sons Frederick, Conrad and
Philip. The second Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick
Barbarossa&rsquo;s son, Henry VI., after whose death a struggle for
the throne took place between Henry&rsquo;s brother Philip, duke
of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor
Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry&rsquo;s son,
Frederick II., in 1214, the German kingdom passed to his son,
Conrad IV., and when Conrad&rsquo;s son Conradin was beheaded in
Italy in 1268, the male line of the Hohenstaufen became extinct.
Daughters of Philip of Swabia married Ferdinand III., king of
Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of Brabant, and a daughter
of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I., married into the
family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was destroyed
in the 16th century during the Peasants&rsquo; War, and only a few
fragments now remain.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F. von Raumer, <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit</i>
(Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen</i>
(Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, <i>Die
letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, 1871).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENSTEIN<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany,
in the kingdom of Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and
on the railway Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau.
Pop. (1905) 13,903. Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical
churches, a town hall, restored in 1876, and several monuments
to famous men. The principal industries are the
spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of machines,
stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton
printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also
employed in the neighbouring copper and arsenic mines.
Not far from Hohenstein there is a mineral spring, connected
with which there are various kinds of baths. Hohenstein
is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert
and of C. G. Schröter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the
pianoforte. Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein
and Ernstthal, which were united in 1898.</p>

<p>Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia.
Pop. (1900) 2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the
Teutonic Order in 1359, has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical
church, a synagogue and several educational establishments.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOHENZOLLERN,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> the name of a castle which stood on the
hill of Zollern about 1½ m. south of Hechingen, and gave its
name to the family to which the present German emperor
belongs. A vague tradition connects the house with the Colonna
family of Rome, or the Colalto family of Lombardy; but one
more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the Burkhardingers,
who were counts in Raetia during the early part of the 10th
century, and two of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo,
a member of this family, is said to have built a castle at Zollern
early in the 9th century; but the first historical mention of
the name is in the <i>Chronicon</i> of a certain Berthold (d. 1088),
who refers to Burkhard and Wezil, or Werner, of Zollern, or
Zolorin. These men appear to have been counts of Zollern, and
to have met their death in 1061. The family of Wezil died out
in 1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns are
descended from Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest
son, Frederick II., was in great favour with the German kings,
Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. Frederick II. died about
1145, and his son and successor, Frederick III., was a constant
supporter of the Hohenstaufen. This count married Sophia,
daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, and
about 1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave, obtaining
also some lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1200,
and his sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled their lands in common
until 1227, when an important division took place. Conrad
became burgrave of Nuremberg, and, receiving the lands which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
had come into the family through his mother, founded the
Franconian branch of the family, which became the more important
of the two; while Frederick, receiving the county of
Zollern and the older possessions of the family, was the ancestor
of the Swabian branch.</p>

<p>Early in the 12th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick
I., secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained
in the possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count
Sigismund in 1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of
Count Albert II. (d. 1298), played an unimportant part in German
history. Albert, who was a Minnesinger, was loyal to the
declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen, and afterwards supported
his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his efforts to obtain
the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of Rudolph
and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph
of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.).
When this family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to
the Habsburgs.</p>

<p>The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented
in 1227 by Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor
Frederick II. appointed guardian of his son Henry, and administrator
of Austria. After a short apostasy, during which
he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, Conrad
returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV.
He died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave
Frederick III., had already obtained Bayreuth through his
marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234).
Frederick took a leading part in German affairs, and it is interesting
to note that he had a considerable share in securing the
election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as German king
in 1273. He died in 1297 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick
IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia,
and supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for
his son John; but in 1314, forsaking his father&rsquo;s policy, he
favoured Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his
struggle with Frederick, duke of Austria, and by his conduct
at the battle of Mühldorf in 1322 and elsewhere earned the
designation of &ldquo;saviour of the empire.&rdquo; Frederick, however,
did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the
maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate
privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection.
His services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using
part of his wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought
the town and district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332,
Frederick was succeeded by his son, John II., who, after one of
his brothers had died and two others had entered the church,
ruled his lands in common with his brother Albert. About
1338 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on the strength
of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many robber-fortresses
and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In
general he continued his father&rsquo;s policy, and when he died in
1357 was succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death
of his uncle Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg,
Ansbach and Bayreuth. Frederick lived in close friendship
with the emperor Charles IV., who formally invested him with
Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of the empire
in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived,
Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system
of public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories
between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following
year. His elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a
daughter of the emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the
company of his brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus
and Sigismund. He died without sons in 1420.</p>

<p>Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held
by John&rsquo;s brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg
from King Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg
as Frederick I. (q.v.). On his brother&rsquo;s death in 1420 he reunited
the lands of his branch of the family, but in 1427 he sold his
rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg. The subsequent
history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is identified with
that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of Prussia
since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick III.
became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king,
took the title of German emperor. While the electorate of
Brandenburg passed according to the rule of primogeniture,
the Franconian possessions of the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and
Bayreuth, were given as appanages to younger sons, an arrangement
which was confirmed by the <i>dispositio Achillea</i> of 1473.
These principalities were ruled by the sons and descendants of
the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after
reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants
of the elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince
Charles Alexander (d. 1806), who had inherited both districts,
sold his lands to Prussia.</p>

<p>The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns
was weakened by several partitions of its lands; but early in
the 16th century it rose to some eminence through Count Eitel
Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend and adviser of the emperor
Maximilian I. Eitel received from this emperor the district of
Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d. 1576) was
granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vöhringen by the
emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their
lands, and founded three branches of the family, one of which
is still flourishing. Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with
the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen
and Vöhringen and the title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen;
and Christopher took Haigerloch. Christopher&rsquo;s family died
out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of some importance.
Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a
prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon
received the same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the
family entered conjointly into an agreement with Brandenburg,
which provided that, in case of the extinction of either of the
Swabian branches, the remaining branch should inherit its
lands; and if both branches became extinct the principalities
should revert to Brandenburg. During the 17th and 18th
centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the
history of these lands was very similar to that of the other
small estates of Germany. In consequence of the political
troubles of 1848 Princes Frederick William of Hohenzollern-Hechingen
and Charles Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen
resigned their principalities, and accordingly these fell to the
king of Prussia, who took possession on the 12th of March 1850.
By a royal decree of the 20th of May following the title of &ldquo;highness,&rdquo;
with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house,
was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince
Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish
throne in 1870 was the immediate cause of the war between
France and Germany. In 1908 the head of this branch of the
Hohenzollerns, the only one existing besides the imperial house,
was Leopold&rsquo;s son William (b. 1864), who, owing to the extinction
of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869, was called
simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania,
becoming king in 1881.</p>

<p>The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long,
narrow strip of territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and
in other directions by Württemberg. It was divided into two
principalities, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen,
until 1850, when these were united. They now
form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.).</p>

<p>The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has
been restored several times. Some remains of the old building
may still be seen adjoining the present castle, which was built
by King Frederick William IV.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Monumenta Zollerana</i>, edited by R. von Stillfried and T.
Märker (Berlin, 1852-1890); <i>Quellen und Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern</i>, edited by E. Berner (Berlin,
1901 fol.); R. von Stillfried, <i>Altertümer und Kunstdenkmale des
erlauchten Hauses von Hohenzollern</i> (Berlin, 1852-1867) and
<i>Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses Hohenzollern</i> (Berlin, 1869); L.
Schmid, <i>Die älteste Geschichte des erlauchten Gesamthauses der
königlichen und fürstlichen Hohenzollern</i> (Tübingen, 1884-1888);
E. Schwartz, <i>Stammtafel des preussischen Königshauses</i> (Breslau
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
1898); <i>Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch für die Geschichte der
Hohenzollern</i>, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin, 1891-1902); <i>Hohenzollern
Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur Geschichte der Hohenzollern
in Brandenburg-Freussen</i>, edited by Seidel (Leipzig, 1897-1903),
and T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i> (London, 1872-1873).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOKKAIDO,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> the Japanese name for the northern division
of the empire (<i>Hoku</i> = north, <i>kai</i> = sea, and <i>do</i> = road), including
Yezo, the Kuriles and their adjacent islets.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOKUSAI<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters
of the Popular School (<i>Ukiyo-ye</i>), was born at Yedo (T&#333;ky&#333;)
in the 9th month of the 10th year of the period Horeki, <i>i.e.</i>
October-November 1760. He came of an artisan family, his
father having been a mirror-maker, Nakajima Issai. After
some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of eighteen,
entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunsh&#333;, a painter and
designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His disregard
for the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion
in 1785; and thereafter&mdash;although from time to time
Hokusai studied various styles, including especially that of
Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some fragmentary knowledge
of European methods&mdash;he kept his personal independence.
For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he must
have gained sums for his work which might have secured him
comfort, he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly
described himself as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers
of books, of which the world-famous <i>Mangwa</i>, a pictorial encyclopaedia
of Japanese life, appeared in fifteen volumes from
1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the &ldquo;Thirty-six Views of
Mount Fuji&rdquo; (the whole set consisting of forty-six prints) were
made between 1823 and 1829; &ldquo;Views of Famous Bridges&rdquo;
(11), &ldquo;Waterfalls&rdquo; (8), and &ldquo;Views of the Lu-chu Islands&rdquo;
(8), are the best known of those issued in series; but Hokusai
also designed some superb broadsheets published separately,
and his <i>surimono</i> (small prints made for special occasions and
ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and beauty. The
&ldquo;Hundred Views of Mount Fuji&rdquo; (1834-1835), 3 vols., in
monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety.
As a painter and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese
critics to be of the first rank, but this verdict has never been
accepted by Europeans, who place him among the greatest
artists of the world. He possessed great powers of observation
and characterization, a singular technical skill, an unfailing
gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager
student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said,
&ldquo;If Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have
become a great painter.&rdquo; He died on the 10th of May 1849.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E. de Goncourt, <i>Hokousaï</i> (1896); M. Revon, <i>Étude sur
Hokusaï</i> (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, <i>Catalogue of the Exhibition of
Paintings by Hokusai at T&#333;ky&#333;</i> (1901); E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron d&rsquo;</span> (1723-1789),
French philosopher and man of letters, of German origin,
was born at Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family
little is known; according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a
rich parvenu, who brought his son at an early age to Paris,
where the latter spent most of his life. Much of Holbach&rsquo;s fame
is due to his intimate connexion with the brilliant coterie of
bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the new philosophy,
is concentrated in the famous <i>Encyclopédie</i>. Possessed of easy
means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house
for Helvétius, D&rsquo;Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon,
Grimm, Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J.
Rousseau, guests who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure
of their host&rsquo;s conversation, were not insensible to his excellent
cuisine and costly wines. For the <i>Encyclopédie</i> he compiled
and translated a large number of articles on chemistry and
mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He attracted more
attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In 1767
<i>Christianisme dévoilé</i> appeared, in which he attacked Christianity
and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed
up by other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in
his most famous book, <i>Le Système de la nature</i>, in which it
is probable he was assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence
of a deity, and refusing to admit as evidence all a priori arguments,
Holbach saw in the universe nothing save matter in spontaneous
movement. What men call their souls become extinct when
the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. &ldquo;It would
be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man&rsquo;s being virtuous
if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice
renders him happy, he should love vice.&rdquo; The restraints of
religion were to be replaced by an education developing an
enlightened self-interest. The study of science was to bring
human desires into line with their natural surroundings. Not
less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political government,
which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like the
first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the
logical consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists.
Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the
Système in the article &ldquo;Dieu&rdquo; in his <i>Dictionnaire philosophique</i>,
while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it. Though
vigorous in thought and in some passages clear and eloquent,
the style of the Système is diffuse and declamatory, and asserts
rather than proves its statements. Its principles are summed
up in a more popular form in <i>Bon Sens, ou idées naturelles
opposées aux idées surnaturelles</i> (Amsterdam, 1772). In the
Système social (1773), the <i>Politique naturelle</i> (1773-1774) and
the <i>Morale universelle</i> (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system
of morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but
these later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence
of his earlier work. He published his books either anonymously
or under borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed
out of France. The uprightness and sincerity of his character
won the friendship of many to whom his philosophy was repugnant.
J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have drawn his portrait
in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the <i>Nouvelle Héloïse</i>. He
died on the 21st of January 1789.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Holbach is also the author of the following and other works:
<i>Esprit du clergé</i> (1767); <i>De l&rsquo;imposture sacerdotale</i> (1767); <i>Prêtres
démasqués</i> (1768); <i>Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St
Paul</i> (1770); <i>Histoire critique de Jésus-Christ</i> (1770), and <i>Ethocratie</i>
(1776). For further particulars as to his life and doctrines
see Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Correspondance littéraire</i>, &amp;c. (1813); Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Confessions</i>;
Morellet&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> (1821); Madame de Genlis, <i>Les Dîners
du Baron Holbach</i>; Madame d&rsquo;Épinay&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i>; Avezac-Lavigne,
<i>Diderot et la société du Baron d&rsquo;Holbach</i> (1875), and Morley&rsquo;s <i>Diderot</i>
(1878).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLBEACH,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a market town in the Holland or Spalding
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the
Midland and Great Northern joint railway, 23½ m. N.E. of
Peterborough. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4755. All Saints&rsquo;
Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen of late Decorated
work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a building
erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly
rooms and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have
been found, and the market dates from the 13th century.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLBEIN, HANS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> the elder (<i>c.</i> 1460-1524), belonged to a
celebrated family of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel
from the close of the 15th to the middle of the 16th century.
Though closely connected with Venice by her commercial
relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to Flanders,
Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the
fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools
of Bruges and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in
many cities about the headwaters of the Rhine. It was not
till after the opening of the 16th century, and between that
and the era of the Reformation, that Italian example mitigated
to some extent the asperity of South German painting. Flemish
and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at
Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at
Augsburg as partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived
him and died in 1540 at Berne. Sigismund is described as a
painter, but his works have not come down to us. Hans had
the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed all the
pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schöngauer,
and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
akin to that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of
Brussels and Bruges, but he probably modified the systems
of those schools by studying the works of the masters of Cologne.
As these early impressions waned, they were replaced by others
less favourable to the expansion of the master&rsquo;s fame; and as
his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we find him relying
less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere observation
and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays.
Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and
in these he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow
stage effect of the plays, copying their artificial system of grouping,
careless to some extent of proportion in the human shape,
heedless of any but the coarser forms of expression, and technically
satisfied with the simplest methods of execution. If in any
branch of his art he can be said to have had a conscience at this
period, we should say that he showed it in his portrait drawings.
It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy of the name.
The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the galleries
of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness
and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing
character; and this happily is one of the features which Holbein
bequeathed to his more famous son, Hans the younger. It is
between 1512 and 1522 that Holbein tempered the German
quality of his style with some North Italian elements. A purer
taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which in drapery,
dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in
respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully
rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are
applied with some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here,
too, advantage accrued to Hans the younger, whose independent
career about this time began.</p>

<p>The date of the elder Holbein&rsquo;s birth is unknown. But his
name appears in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg
in 1494, superseding that of Michael Holbein, who is supposed
to have been his father. Previous to that date, and as early as
1493, he was a painter of name, and he executed in that year,
it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the wings of an altarpiece
representing Joachim&rsquo;s Offering, the Nativity of the Virgin,
Mary&rsquo;s Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of
Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of
Augsburg. In these pieces and others of the same period,
for instance in two Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle
of Nuremberg, we mark the clear impress of the schools of Van
der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later works, such as the
Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of Augsburg, the wane of
Flemish influence is apparent. But this altarpiece, with its
quaint illustrations of St Paul&rsquo;s life and martyrdom, is not alone
of interest because its execution is characteristic of old Holbein.
It is equally so because it contains portraits of the master himself,
accompanied by his two sons, the painters Ambrose (<i>c.</i> 1494-<i>c.</i> 1519)
and Hans the younger. Later pictures, such as the
Passion series in the Fürstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen, or
the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek,
contain similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found
in old Holbein&rsquo;s sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like
those possessed by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of
these fails to give us an insight into the character, or a reflex
of the features, of the members of this celebrated family. Old
Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing his hair and beard
to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the younger
is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his
finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy.</p>

<p>After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter
in the registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he
willingly accepts commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace,
where Grünewald was employed in 1516, old Holbein also finds
patrons, and contracts to complete an altarpiece. But misfortune
or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves Issenheim, abandoning
his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he wanders to
Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother Sigismund
and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of
Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece,
of which two wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of
Carlsruhe, is uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown.
He slinks from ken at the close of a long life, and disappears
at last heeded by none but his own son, who claims his brushes
and paints from the monks of Issenheim without much chance
of obtaining them. His name is struck off the books of the
Augsburg gild in 1524.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures
behind him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned,
is the Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces,
in the Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion,
with the root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved
in the Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It
was executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished
after 1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a
conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the
galleries of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An
altarpiece of the same class, commissioned for the monastery of
St Moritz at Augsburg in 1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost.
1512 is the date of a Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long
assigned, in consequence of a forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the
younger. A diptych, with a Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an
old man, dated 1513, came in separate parts into the collections of
Mr Posonyi and Count Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books
of Berlin, Copenhagen and Augsburg give a lively picture of the
forms and dress of Augsburg residents at the beginning of the 16th
century. They comprise portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the
future Charles V., Kunz von der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the
Fuggers, friars, merchants, and at rare intervals ladies.</p>

<p>See also the biography by Stödtner (Berlin, 1896).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLBEIN, HANS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the younger (1497-1543), German painter,
favourite son of Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at
Augsburg about the year 1497. Though Sandrart and Van
Mander declare that they do not know who gave him the first
lessons, he doubtless received an artist&rsquo;s education from his
father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder
brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel.
His first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly
after his arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an
edition of the <i>Encomium Moriae</i>, now in the museum of Basel.
But his chief occupation was that of drawing titlepage-blocks
and initials for new editions of the Bible and classics issued
from the presses of Froben and other publishers. His leisure
hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the production of rough
painter&rsquo;s work, a schoolmaster&rsquo;s sign in the Basel collection,
a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the university
at Zürich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the portraits
of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which
purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workmanship.
It has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such
excellent creations to Holbein&rsquo;s nineteenth year; and it is
hardly credible that he should have been asked to do things
of this kind so early, especially when it is remembered that
neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed to matriculate
in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose
life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans,
not overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland,
where (1517) he was employed to paint in the house of Jacob
Hertenstein at Lucerne. In 1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel,
where he matriculated and, there is every reason to think,
married. Whether, previous to this time, he took advantage of
his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is uncertain.
Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large
wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the
series of his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might
lead to the belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The
spirit of Holbein&rsquo;s compositions for the Basel town hall, the
scenery and architecture of his numerous drawings, and the cast
of form in some of his imaginative portraits, make it more
likely that he should have felt the direct influence of North
Italian painting than that he should have taken Italian elements
from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period
wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or
imperial armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took
may have been followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission.
He shows himself at all events familiar with Italian examples
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
at various periods of his career; and if we accept as early works the
&ldquo;Flagellation,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; at Basel, coarse as they
are, they show some acquaintance with Lombard methods of
painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series of the Passion in
oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein the elder are
agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said Italian,
polish. Again, looking at the &ldquo;Virgin&rdquo; and &ldquo;Man of Sorrows&rdquo;
in the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic
style akin to that of the Ferrarese; and the &ldquo;Lais&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Venus
and Amor&rdquo; of the same collection reminds us of the Leonardesques
of the school of Milan. When Holbein settled down to an
extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he decorated the walls of
the house &ldquo;Zum Tanz&rdquo; with simulated architectural features
of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and his
wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them
by copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian
composition, distribution, action, gesture and expression. In
his drawings too, particularly in a set representing the Passion
at Basel, the arrangement, and also the perspective, form and
decorative ornament, are in the spirit of the school of Mantegna.
Contemporary with these, however, and almost inexplicably
in contrast with them as regards handling, are portrait-drawings
such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer, and his wife, which are
finished with German delicacy, and with a power and subtlety
of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough, the
same contrast may be observed between painted compositions
and painted portraits. The &ldquo;Bonifacius Amerbach&rdquo; of 1519 at
Basel is acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples
of smooth and transparent handling that Holbein ever executed.
His versatility at this period is shown by a dead Christ (1521),
a corpse in profile on a dissecting table, and a set of figures in
couples; the &ldquo;Madonna and St Pantalus,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Kaiser Henry
with the Empress Kunigunde&rdquo; (1522), originally composed for
the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in the Basel museum.
Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though injured, is
the &ldquo;Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas&rdquo; (not
St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn.
This remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been
ordered for an altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by
Nicholas Conrad, a captain and statesman of the 16th century,
whose family allowed the precious heirloom to fall into decay
in a chapel of the neighbouring village of Grenchen. Numerous
drawings in the spirit of this picture, and probably of the same
period in his career, might have led Holbein&rsquo;s contemporaries
to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of Basel
as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for
pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave
at this time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship
that gave him facility to deal with any subject. Though
a realist, he was sensible of the dignity and severity of religious
painting. His colour had almost all the richness and sweetness
of the Venetians. But he had fallen on evil times, as the next
few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the portraits which
he executed in these years are those of Froben, the publisher,
known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus,
who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions,
showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin,
Parma, the Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre
or at Hampton Court. Besides these, Holbein made designs
for glass windows, and for woodcuts, including subjects of every
sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints of the old time to
the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted from
Luther&rsquo;s Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of indulgences
and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this
way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation,
in which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious
painting were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial
elements which Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial
purposes.</p>

<p>Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the &ldquo;Lais&rdquo;
and &ldquo;Venus and Amor,&rdquo; did Holbein with impartial spirit give
his services and pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgomaster
Meyer, whose patronage he had already enjoyed, now
asked him to represent himself and his wives and children in
prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced the celebrated
altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse at
Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to
all the world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings
for this masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the
museum of Basel. The time now came when art began to suffer
from unavoidable depression in all countries north of the Alps.
Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to accept the smallest commissions&mdash;even
for scutcheons. Then he saw that his chances were
dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution, armed with
letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the
Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait
painting he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven
drawings by Holbein in Windsor Castle, containing an equal
number of portraits, of persons chiefly of high quality, testify
to his industry in the years which divide 1528 from 1543. They
are all originals of pictures that are still extant, or sketches
for pictures that were lost or never carried out. Sir Thomas
More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly connexion,
sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of his
head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see
More surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in
the gallery of Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it
prove how popular the lost original must once have been. At
the same period were executed the portraits of Warham (Lambeth
and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry Guildford and his
wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer Nicholas
Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan
Tuke (Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned
to Basel, taking to Erasmus the sketch of More&rsquo;s family. With
money which he brought from London he purchased a house
at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and children, whose portraits
he now painted with all the care of a husband and father (1528).
He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury of the
iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious
pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should
suffer again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him
to finish the frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these
lost pictures are still before us to show that he had not lost the
spirit of his earlier days, and was still capable as a composer. His
&ldquo;Rehoboam receiving the Israelite Envoys,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Saul at the
Head of his Array meeting Samuel,&rdquo; testify to Holbein&rsquo;s power
and his will, also proved at a later period by the &ldquo;Triumphs of
Riches and Poverty,&rdquo; executed for the Steelyard in London
(but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to that
of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained
unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of
Melanchthon (Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein
found little to do at Basel. The year 1530, therefore, saw him
again on the move, and he landed in England for the second
time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes. Here indeed
political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The
circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants
of the Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the
long and important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout
the galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and
bear date after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice
in more fashionable circles. In 1533 the &ldquo;Ambassadors&rdquo;
(National Gallery), and the &ldquo;Triumphs of Wealth and Poverty&rdquo;
were executed, then the portraits of Leland and Wyatt (Longford),
and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. Through Cromwell
Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of
which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time
onwards he was connected with all that was highest in the
society of London. Henry VIII. invited him to make a family
picture of himself, his father and family, which obtained a
post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful cartoon of a part
of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to gauge its
beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the 17th century.
Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
some English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague,
Sion House and Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the
Uffizi (copy at the Louvre), the jeweller Morett at Dresden,
and last, not least, Christine of Denmark, who gave sittings at
Brussels in 1538. During the journey which this work involved
Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel, where he made
his appearance in silk and satin, and <i>pro forma</i> only accepted
the office of town painter. He had been living long and continuously
away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity
to his wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the
duties of keeping her in comfort. His return to London in
autumn enabled him to do homage to the king in the way
familiar to artists. He presented to Henry at Christmas a
portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of
1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves,
at Düren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the
great picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features
of his sitter without flattery is plain from this one example.
Indeed, habitual flattery was contrary to his habits. His
portraits up to this time all display that uncommon facility for
seizing character which his father enjoyed before him, and
which he had inherited in an expanded form. No amount of
labour, no laboriousness of finish&mdash;and of both he was ever
prodigal&mdash;betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression.
No painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy,
and it may be observed that in none of his faces, as
indeed in none of the faces one sees in nature, are the two sides
alike. Yet he was not a child of the 16th century, as the
Venetians were, in substituting touch for line. We must not
look in his works for modulations of surface or subtle contrasts
of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very last
delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old
school.</p>

<p>Amongst the more important creations of Holbein&rsquo;s later time
we should note his &ldquo;Duke of Norfolk&rdquo; at Windsor, the hands
of which are so perfectly preserved as to compensate for the
shrivel that now disfigures the head. Two other portraits of
1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer at the Hague, and John
Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of portrait
art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses
of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant&mdash;one
particularly good at Fähna, the seat of the Stackelberg family
near Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein
appears to us as a man of regular features, with hair just turning
grey, but healthy in colour and shape, and evidently well to
do in the world. Yet a few months only separated him then
from his death-bed. He was busy painting a picture of Henry
the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber Surgeons
(Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died
after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have
been seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in
Germany, he would not have changed the current which decided
the fate of painting in that country; he would but have shared
the fate of Dürer and others who merely prolonged the agony
of art amidst the troubles of the Reformation.</p>
<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The early authorities are Karel Van Mander&rsquo;s <i>Het Schilder Boek</i>
(1604), and J. von Sandrart, <i>Accademia Todesca</i> (1675). See also
R. N. Wornum, <i>Life and Work of Holbein</i> (1867); H. Knackfuss,
<i>Holbein</i> (1899); G. S. Davies, <i>Holbein</i> (1903); A. F. G. A. Woltmann,
<i>Holbein und seine Zeit</i> (1876).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1684-1754), the
great Scandinavian writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on
the 3rd of December 1684. Both Holberg&rsquo;s parents died in
his childhood, his father first, leaving a considerable property;
and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also. Before the
latter event, however, the family had been seriously impoverished
by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable
buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of
her six children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg
was taken into the house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him
to the Latin school, and prepared him for the profession of a
soldier; but soon after this he was adopted by his cousin Otto
Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains. His great
desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family to
send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained,
eagerly studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in
1702, when he was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But
he soon exhausted his resources, and, having nothing to live
upon, was glad to hurry back to Norway, where he accepted
the position of tutor in the house of a rural dean at Voss. He
soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1704 he took his degree,
and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had
to gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor
once more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of
Bergen. The good doctor had travelled much, and the reading
of his itineraries and note-books awakened such a longing for
travel in the young Holberg that at last, at the close of 1704,
having scraped together 60 dollars, he went on board a ship
bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as Aix-la-Chapelle,
where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much from weakness
and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam, and
came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen,
he stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter,
supporting himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring
of 1706 he travelled, in company with a student named Brix,
through London to Oxford, where he studied for two years,
gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the violin and the flute.
He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable libraries of Oxford,
and it is pleasant to record that it was while he was there that
it first occurred to him, as he says, &ldquo;how splendid and glorious a
thing it would be to take a place among the authors.&rdquo; Through
London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and
began to lecture at the university; his lectures were attended,
but he got no money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich
young gentleman to Dresden, and on his return journey he
lectured at Leipzig, Halle and Hamburg. Once more in Copenhagen,
he undertook to teach the children of Admiral Gedde.
Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in 1710,
where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, <i>An Introduction
to the History of the Nations of Europe</i>, and was permitted
to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on
Christian IV. and Frederick III. The king soon after presented
him with the title of Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant
of 100 dollars for four years, the holder of which was expected
to travel. Holberg accordingly started in 1714, and visited, chiefly
on foot, a great portion of Europe. From Amsterdam he walked
through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to Brussels, and on
foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he proceeded
in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa.
On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly
died in that city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia
and Rome. When the spring had come, being still very poor
and in feeble health, he started homewards on foot by Florence,
across the Apennines, through Bologna, Parma, Piacenza, Turin,
over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphiné to Lyons, and
finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After
spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took
sail to Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He
spent the next two years in extreme poverty, and published his
<i>Introduction to Natural and Popular Law</i>. But at last, in 1718,
his talents were recognized by his appointment as professor
of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen; and in 1720
he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence,
which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles
were now at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law,
history and philology, although in a Latin controversy with
the jurist Andreas Hojer of Flensborg his satirical genius had
flashed out. But now, and until 1728, he created an entirely
new class of humorous literature under the pseudonym of Hans
Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of <i>Peder Paars</i>, the earliest
of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared In 1719.
This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and
enjoyed an extraordinary success. But the author had offended
in it several powerful persons who threatened his life, and if
Count Danneskjold had not personally interested the king in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
him, Holberg&rsquo;s career might have had an untimely close. During
the next two years he published five shorter satires, all of which
were well received by the public. The great event of 1721 was
the erection of the first Danish theatre in Grönnegade, Copenhagen;
Holberg took the direction of this house, in which was
played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L&rsquo;Avare.
Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in
French and German, but Holberg now determined to use his
talent in the construction of Danish comedy. The first of his
original pieces performed was <i>Den politiske Kandestöber</i> (The
Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other comedies with
miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had been
performed in succession, and with immense success, <i>Den Vaegelsindede</i>
(The Waverer), <i>Jean de France</i>, <i>Jeppe paa Bjerget</i>, and
<i>Gert the Westphalian</i>. Of these five plays, four at least are
masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by
others. Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723
the comedies of <i>Barselstuen</i> (The Lying-in Room), <i>The Eleventh
of July</i>, <i>Jakob von Thyboe</i>, <i>Den Bundeslöse</i> (The Fidget), <i>Erasmus
Montanus</i>, <i>Don Ranudo</i>, <i>Ulysses of Ithaca</i>, <i>Without Head or Tail</i>,
<i>Witchcraft</i> and <i>Melampe</i> had all been written, and some of them
acted. In 1724 the most famous comedy that Holberg produced
was <i>Henrik and Pernille</i>. But in spite of this unprecedented
blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell into pecuniary difficulties,
and had to be closed, Holberg composing for the last night&rsquo;s
performance, in February 1727, a <i>Funeral of Danish Comedy</i>.
All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the great
poet&rsquo;s health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths
at Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered
through Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the
spring he returned to Copenhagen with recovered health and
spirits, and worked quietly at his protean literary labours until
the great fire of 1728. In the period of national poverty and
depression that followed this event, a puritanical spirit came
into vogue which was little in sympathy with Holberg&rsquo;s dramatic
or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as a dramatic
poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the addition
of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage.
With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of
the new age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with
historical, philosophical and statistical writings. During this
period he published his poetical satire called <i>Metamorphosis</i>
(1726), his <i>Epistolae ad virum perillustrem</i> (1727), his <i>Description
of Denmark and Norway</i> (1729), <i>History of Denmark</i>, <i>Universal
Church History</i>, <i>Biographies of Famous Men</i>, <i>Moral Reflections</i>,
<i>Description of Bergen</i> (1737), <i>A History of the Jews</i>, and other
learned and laborious compilations. The only poem he published
at this time was the famous <i>Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum</i>
(1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen. When
Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre
was reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon
resigned this arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his
old age did not add to his reputation. His last published work
was his <i>Epistles</i>, in 5 vols. the last of them posthumous (1754).
In 1747 he was created by the new king Baron of Holberg. In
August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at Copenhagen
on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his age.
He was buried at Sorö, in Zealand. He had never married, and
he bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Sorö
College.</p>

<p>Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the
greatest of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of
Voltaire, the first writer in Europe during his own generation.
Neither Pope nor Swift, who perhaps excelled him in particular
branches of literary production, approached him in range of
genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility. Holberg found Denmark
provided with no books, and he wrote a library for her. When
he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard
in a gentleman&rsquo;s house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a
man wrote Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies,
called his dogs in German, and only used Danish to swear at
his servants. The single genius of Holberg revolutionized this
system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a language hitherto
employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a theatre,
and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled the
shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history,
law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in
a true and manly style, and representing the extreme attainment
of European culture at the moment. Perhaps no author
who ever lived has had so vast an influence over his countrymen,
an influence that is still at work after 200 years.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The editions of Holberg&rsquo;s works are legion. Complete editions of
the <i>Comedies</i> are too numerous to be quoted; the best is that brought
out in 3 vols. by F. I. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of <i>Peder Paars</i> there
exist at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch,
German and Swedish. The <i>Iter subterraneum</i> has been three several
times translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice into
Swedish, thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French,
twice into Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg
was written by Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884.
Among works on his genius by foreigners may be mentioned an
exhaustive study by Robert Prutz (1857), and <i>Holberg considéré
comme imitateur de Molière</i>, by A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLBORN,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a central metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.W. by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury,
S.E. by the City of London, S. and W. by the City of Westminster
and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area 405.1 acres.
Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the
names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford
Street.</p>

<p>The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne,
a tributary of the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where
Holborn Viaduct crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence
of this tributary, however, there is no evidence, and the origin
of the name is found in <i>Hole-bourne</i>, the stream in the hollow,
in allusion to the Fleet itself. The fall and rise of the road across
the valley before the construction of the viaduct (1869) was
abrupt and inconvenient. In earlier times a bridge here crossed
the Fleet, leading from Newgate, while a quarter of a mile west
of the viaduct is the site of Holborn Bars, at the entrance to
the City, where tolls were levied. The better residential district
of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road in the
borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George,
Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived
from William Blemund, a lord of the manor in the 15th century.
A dyke called Blemund&rsquo;s Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded
it on the south, where the land was marshy. During the 18th
century Bloomsbury was a fashionable and wealthy residential
quarter. The reputation of the district immediately to the
south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, was far
different. From the 17th century until modern times this was
notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some
of the earliest cases of the plague which spread over London
in 1664-1665. The opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford
Street (1840) and Shaftesbury Avenue (1855) by no means
wholly destroyed the character of the district. The circus
of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords a typical
name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London.
A similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern
confines of the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbouring
thoroughfare of Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn
Circus, is a centre of the diamond trade.</p>

<p>Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first
interest is the chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening
from Holborn Circus. Ely Place takes its name from a palace
of the bishops of Ely, who held land here as early as the 13th
century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The property was
acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under
Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though
the bishopric kept some hold upon it until the 18th century.
The chapel, the only remnant of the palace, is a beautiful
Decorated structure with a vaulted crypt, itself above ground-level.
Both are used for worship by Roman Catholics, by whom
the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years later
after careful restoration. The present parish church of St
Giles in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span>
Oxford Street, dates from 1734, but here was situated a leper&rsquo;s
hospital founded by Matilda, wife of Henry I., in 1101. Its
chapel became the parish church on the suppression of the
monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of which
extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by
Wren, but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the
tower. Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and
Thomas Chatterton (1770) was interred in the adjacent burial
ground, no longer extant, of Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register
recording his Christian name as William. Close to this church
Is the City Temple (Congregational).</p>

<p>Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn and Gray&rsquo;s
Inn, lie within the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway
opens upon Chancery Lane. The chapel, hall and residential
buildings surrounding the squares within, are picturesque, but
of later date. To the west lie the fine square, with public gardens,
still called, from its original character, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields.
Gray&rsquo;s Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald&rsquo;s Road, and
west of Gray&rsquo;s Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric
of the small chapel is apparently of the 14th century, and may
have been attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at
that period by the Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns
of Chancery attached to these Inns of Court the most noteworthy
buildings remaining are those of Staple Inn, of which
the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High Holborn
is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare;
and of Barnard&rsquo;s Inn, occupied by the Mercer&rsquo;s School. Both
these were attached to Gray&rsquo;s Inn. Of Furnival&rsquo;s and Thavies
Inns, attached to Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, only the names remain. The
site of the first is covered by the fine red brick buildings of the
Prudential Assurance Company, Holborn Viaduct. Among
other institutions in Holborn, the British Museum, north of
New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied collections
of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also
be mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
Fields, with museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of
Veterinary Surgeons, the College of Preceptors, the Jews&rsquo;
College, and the Metropolitan School of Shorthand. Among
hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the National for
the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children with
hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling
Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in
1739.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLCROFT, THOMAS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1745-1809), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born on the 10th of December 1745
(old style) in Orange Court, Leicester Fields, London. His
father, besides having a shoemaker&rsquo;s shop, kept riding horses for
hire; but having fallen into difficulties was reduced ultimately
to the necessity of hawking pedlary. The son accompanied
his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in procuring the
situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his evenings
chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music.
Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and
Italian. At the end of his term of engagement as stable boy he
returned to assist his father, who had again resumed his trade
of shoemaker in London; but after marrying in 1765, he became
a teacher in a small school in Liverpool. He failed in an attempt
to set up a private school, and became prompter in a Dublin
theatre. He acted in various strolling companies until 1778,
when he produced <i>The Crisis; or, Love and Famine</i>, at Drury
Lane. <i>Duplicity</i> followed in 1781. Two years later he went
to Paris as correspondent of the <i>Morning Herald</i>. Here he
attended the performances of Beaumarchais&rsquo;s <i>Mariage de Figaro</i>
until he had memorized the whole. The translation of it, with
the title <i>The Follies of the Day</i>, was produced at Drury Lane
in 1784. <i>The Road to Ruin</i>, his most successful melodrama,
was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran for 118 nights.
Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member
of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that
account was, in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged
without a trial. Among his novels may be mentioned <i>Alwyn</i>
(1780), an account, largely autobiographical, of a strolling
comedian, and <i>Hugh Trevor</i> (1794-1797). He also was the author
of <i>Travels from Hamburg through Westphalia, Holland and the
Netherlands to Paris</i>, of some volumes of verse and of translations
from the French and German.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of
his Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers</i>, by William Hazlitt,
appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in
1852.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1822-1896), English classical
scholar, came of an old Staffordshire family. He was educated
at King Edward&rsquo;s school, Birmingham, and Trinity College,
Cambridge (senior classic, 1845; fellow, 1847). He was vice-principal
of Cheltenham College (1853-1858), and headmaster
of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died
in London on the 1st of December 1896. In addition to several
school editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon
and Plutarch, he published an expurgated text of Aristophanes
with a useful onomasticon (re-issued separately, 1902) and larger
editions of Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De officiis</i> (revised ed., 1898) and of the
<i>Octavius</i> of Minucius Felix (1853). His chief works, however,
were his <i>Foliorum silvula</i> (1852), a collection of English extracts
for translation into Greek and Latin verse; <i>Folia silvulae</i>
(translations of the same); and <i>Foliorum centuriae</i>, a companion
volume of extracts for Latin prose translation. In English
schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of
Latin and Greek composition.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1807-1897), English inventor
and manufacturer, was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of
Cumberland, and was born at Hurlet, a village between Paisley
and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807. His early life was passed
in very straitened circumstances, but his father spared no pains
to give him as much elementary education as possible. At the
age of ten he began to work as weaver&rsquo;s draw-boy, and afterwards
was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education
was continued at the night schools, and from time to time,
as funds allowed, he was taken from work and sent to the
grammar-school, to which he at last went regularly for a year
or two until he was fifteen, when his father removed to Paisley
and apprenticed him to an uncle, a shawl-weaver there. This
proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he became assistant
teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was appointed
mathematical teacher in the Queen&rsquo;s Square Academy, Leeds.
At the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard&rsquo;s grammar
school, near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became
classical master at Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here
that in 1829 he invented a lucifer match by adopting sulphur
as the medium between the explosive material and the wood,
but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830 his health
again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow
friend set up a school for him. After six months, however,
he was recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs.
Townend Brothers, worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth,
where his interest in machinery soon led to his transfer from
the counting-house to the mill. There his experiments led him
to the invention of his square motion wool-comber and of a
process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken
out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham)
in 1847. The firm of Lister &amp; Holden, which established a
factory near Paris in 1848, carried on a successful business, and
in 1859, when Lister retired, was succeeded by Isaac Holden
and Sons, which became the largest wool-combing business in
the world, employing upwards of 4000 workpeople. In 1865
Holden&rsquo;s medical advisers insisted on complete change of
occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for
Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat,
but in the latter year he was elected for the northern division
of the West Riding, and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created
a baronet in 1893, and died suddenly at Oakworth House,
near Keighley, on the 13th of August 1897.</p>

<p>His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a
peer with the title of Baron Holden of Alston.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1770-1843),
German poet, was born on the 20th of March 1770, at
Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother removing, after a second
marriage, to Nürtingen, he began his education at the classical
school there. He was destined by his relations for the church,
and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at
Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered
as a student of theology the university of Tübingen, where he
remained till 1793. He was already the writer of occasional
verses, and had begun to sketch his novel <i>Hyperion</i>, when he
was introduced in this year to Schiller, and obtained through
him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von Kalb.
A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte&rsquo;s lectures,
and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the
young poet something of his own genius, and encouraged him
by publishing some of his early writings in his periodicals <i>Die
neue Thalia</i> and <i>Die Horen</i>. In 1796 Hölderlin obtained the
post of tutor in the family of the banker J. F. Gontard in Frankfort-on-Main.
For Gontard&rsquo;s beautiful and gifted wife, Susette,
the &ldquo;Diotima&rdquo; of his <i>Hyperion</i>, he conceived a violent passion;
and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the
end of two years, during which time the first volume of <i>Hyperion</i>
was published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their
relations, for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite
of ill-health, he now completed <i>Hyperion</i>, the second volume of
which appeared in 1799, and began a tragedy, <i>Der Tod des
Empedokles</i>, a fragment of which is published among his works.
His friends became alarmed at the alternate depression and
nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was induced
to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There
his health improved; and several of his poems, among which
are <i>Der blinde Sänger</i>, <i>An die Hoffnung</i> and <i>Dichtermut</i>, were
written at this time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for
the publication of a volume of his poems; but, on the failure
of this enterprise, he was obliged to accept a tutorship at
Bordeaux. &ldquo;Diotima&rdquo; died a year later, in June 1802, and the
news is supposed to have reached Hölderlin shortly afterwards,
for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and
travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at
Nürtingen destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually
alleviated his condition, and in lucid intervals he occupied himself
by writing verses and translating Greek plays. Two of these
translations&mdash;the <i>Antigone</i> and <i>Oedipus rex</i> of Sophocles&mdash;appeared
in 1804, and several of his short poems were published
by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his <i>Musenalmanach</i>, 1807
and 1808. In 1804 Hölderlin obtained the sinecure post of
librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg,
and went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends;
but two years later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane,
he was taken in the summer of 1807 to Tübingen, where he
remained till his death on the 7th of June 1843.</p>

<p>Hölderlin&rsquo;s writings are the production of a beautiful and
sensitive mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, subjective,
and they lack real human strength. Perhaps his strongest
characteristic was his passion for Greece, the result of which
was that he almost entirely discarded rhyme in favour of the
ancient verse measures. His poems are all short pieces; of
his tragedy only a fragment was written. <i>Hyperion, oder der
Eremit in Griechenland</i> (1797-1799), is a romance in letters, in
which the stormy fervour of the &ldquo;Sturm und Drang&rdquo; is combined
with a romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest
centres not in the story, for the novel has little or none&mdash;Hyperion
is a young Greek who takes part in the rising of his
people against the Turks in 1770&mdash;but in its lyric subjectivity
and the dithyrambic beauty of its language.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Hölderlin&rsquo;s lyrics, <i>Lyrische Gedichte</i>, were edited by L. Uhland and
G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, <i>Sämtliche
Werke</i>, with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also
<i>Dichtungen</i> by K. Köstlin (Tübingen, 1884), and (the best edition)
<i>Gesammelte Dichtungen</i> by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897).
For biography and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, <i>F. Hölderlins
Leben</i> (Berlin, 1890), A. Wilbrandt, <i>Hölderlin</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891),
and C. Müller, <i>Friedrich Hölderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten</i>
(Bremen, 1894).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> an English title borne by Sir
John Ramsay and later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay
(<i>c.</i> 1580-1626), a member of the Scottish family of Ramsay of
Dalhousie, was knighted for his share in rescuing James VI.
from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in August
1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and
Lord Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer
as earl of Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue
in February 1626, when his titles became extinct. In 1644
Charles I. created his nephew, Prince Rupert, earl of Holdernesse,
but when the prince died unmarried in November 1682 the
earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy (1599-1689),
who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days after
the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy,
Lord Darcy and Conyers (<i>c.</i> 1571-1654), and succeeded his
father in these baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd
earl by his only son Conyers (<i>c.</i> 1620-1692), who was member
of parliament for Yorkshire during the reign of Charles II. In
his turn he was succeeded by his grandson Robert (1681-1722).
Robert&rsquo;s only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl of Holdernesse (1718-1778),
was a diplomatist and a politician. From 1744 to 1746 he
was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he represented
his country at the Hague. In 1751 he became one of the secretaries
of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when he
was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as
governor to two of the king&rsquo;s sons, a &ldquo;solemn phantom&rdquo; as
Horace Walpole calls him. He left no sons, and all his titles
became extinct except the barony of Conyers, which had been
created by writ in 1509 in favour of his ancestor Sir William
Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only daughter Amelia
(1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th duke of
Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to
his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling
into abeyance on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now
the principal seat of the dukes of Leeds, came to them through
marriage of the 5th duke with the heiress of the families of
Conyers and of Darcy.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader
of reform in the German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806
and died in Berlin in 1860. In 1836 he was appointed rabbi
at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was transferred to the
rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became prominent
as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much
trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the
other of reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical
conferences were held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main
(1845) and Breslau (1846). At all of these Holdheim was
a strong supporter of the policy of modifying ritual (especially
with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage laws and liturgical
customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new Berlin
congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the
course of Jewish reform.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See I. H. Ritter in the <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, i. 202. The
same authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his
<i>Geschichte der jüdischen Reformation</i> (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in
his <i>History</i> passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and
there were admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim&rsquo;s
attitude. A moderate criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson&rsquo;s
<i>History of the Reform Movement</i> in Judaism (London, 1906).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLGUÍN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a town of the high plateau country in the interior
of Oriente province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de
Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592. The town is near the Marañon and
Jigüé rivers, on a plain from which hills rise on all sides except
the E., on which side it is open to the winds of the plateau.
Holguín was long the principal acclimatization station for
Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches
built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holguín has trade in
cabinet woods, tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which
it exports through its port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with
which it is connected by railway. Holguín was settled about
1720 and became a <i>ciudad</i> (city) in 1751. In the Ten Years&rsquo;
War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguín was
an insurgent centre.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLIDAY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> originally the &ldquo;holy day,&rdquo; a festival set apart
for religious observances as a memorial of some sacred event
or sacred person; hence a day on which the ordinary work or
business ceases. For the religious sense see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feasts and
Festivals</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sunday</a></span>. Apart from the use of the term for
a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the
plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, &amp;c.) of
absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what
may be regarded as private holidays, which are matters of
agreement between employer and employed or between the
authorities of this or that institution and those who attend it.
In recent years there has been a notable tendency in most
occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and make holidays
more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public holidays,
the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one
respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints&rsquo; days are
no longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government
offices in England, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th
century. But while the influence of religion in determining
such holidays has waned, the importance of making some compulsory
provision for social recreation has made itself felt. In
England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.), are set apart
by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the sovereign
may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed.
Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional
days recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day
(May 24th), Arbor Day, &amp;c. In the British colonies there is
no uniform practice. In Canada eight days are generally observed
as public holidays: New Year&rsquo;s Day, Good Friday,
Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the sovereign,
Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the
provinces have followed the American example by adding an
Arbor Day. Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday.
In Quebec, where the majority of the population is Roman
Catholic, the holy days are also holidays, namely, the Festival
of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Easter Monday,
the Ascension, All Saint&rsquo;s Day, Conception Day, Christmas
Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales,
the 1st of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday,
the birthday of the sovereign, the 1st of August, the birthday
of the prince of Wales, Christmas Day and the 26th of December,
are observed as holidays. In Victoria there are thirteen public
holidays during the year, and in Queensland fourteen. In New
Zealand the public holidays are confined to four, Christmas
Day, New Year&rsquo;s Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most
of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays
is from six to eight.</p>

<p>In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of
the English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon
state and territorial legislation. It is usual for the president
to proclaim the last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving;
this makes it only a legal holiday in the District of
Columbia, and in the territories, but most states make it a
general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and Labour Day
(first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most states.
There are other days which, in connexion with particular events
or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal
holidays by particular states. For example, Lincoln&rsquo;s birthday,
Washington&rsquo;s birthday, Memorial Day (May 30th), Patriots&rsquo; Day
(April 19th, Maine and Mass.), R. E. Lee&rsquo;s birthday (Jan. 19th,
Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.), Pioneers&rsquo; Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado
Day (Aug. 1st), Battle of New Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Bennington
Battle Day (Aug. 16th, Vt.), Defender&rsquo;s Day (Sept, 12th, Md.),
Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska; second Friday in May R.I.,
&amp;c.), Admission Day (September 9th, Cal.; Oct. 31st, Nev.), Confederate
Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Miss., May
10th, N. &amp; S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &amp;c.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See M&lsquo;Curdy, <i>Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays</i> (Boston,
1905).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLINSHED<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Hollingshead</span>), <b>RAPHAEL</b> (d. <i>c.</i> 1580),
English chronicler, belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and
according to Anthony Wood was educated at one of the English
universities, afterwards becoming a &ldquo;minister of God&rsquo;s Word.&rdquo;
The authenticity of these facts is doubtful, although it is possible
that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated from Christ&rsquo;s
College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London
and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe,
to whom he says he was &ldquo;singularly beholden.&rdquo; Wolfe was
already engaged in the preparation of a universal history, and
Holinshed worked for some years on this undertaking; but
after Wolfe&rsquo;s death in 1573 the scope of the work was abridged,
and it appeared in 1578 as the <i>Chronicles of England, Scotland,
and Ireland</i>. The work was in two volumes, which were illustrated,
and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he
received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593)
and others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland
is mainly a translation of Hector Boece&rsquo;s <i>Scotorum historiae</i>.
Afterwards, as is shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to
Thomas Burdet of Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A second edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, enlarged and improved but
without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements
which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and immediately
after publication some of the pages were excised by order
of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in
1723. An edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, in accordance with the original
text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a
large amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men
of great industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was
largely used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists;
Shakespeare, who probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from
the <i>Chronicles</i> material for most of his historical plays, and also for
<i>Macbeth</i>, <i>King Lear</i> and part of <i>Cymbeline</i>. A single manuscript by
Holinshed is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence
of Worcester, and is in the British Museum. See W. G. Boswell-Stone,
<i>Shakspere&rsquo;s Holinshed</i>. <i>The Chronicle and the historical plays
compared</i> (London, 1896).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLKAR,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore
(q.v.), which has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termination -<i>kar</i>
implies that the founder of the family came from the
village of Hol near Poona.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLL, FRANK<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1845-1888), English painter, was born in
London on the 4th of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at
University College School. He was a grandson of William
Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of Francis Holl, A.R.A.,
another engraver, whose profession he originally intended to
follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer
in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and
gold medals, and making his début as an exhibitor in 1864 with
&ldquo;A Portrait,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Turned out of Church,&rdquo; a subject picture.
&ldquo;A Fern Gatherer&rdquo; (1865); &ldquo;The Ordeal&rdquo; (1866); &ldquo;Convalescent&rdquo;
(the somewhat grim pathos of which attracted
much attention), and &ldquo;Faces in the Fire&rdquo; (1867), succeeded.
Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful
work was characteristic of the young painter&rsquo;s mood, being
&ldquo;The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away.&rdquo; His insatiable
zeal for work of all kinds began early to undermine the artist&rsquo;s
health, but his position was assured by the studentship picture,
which created a sort of <i>furore</i>, although, as with most of his
works, the blackness of its coloration, probably due to his
training as an engraver, was even more decidedly against it
than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting exhibited
nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever
attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere
vein of pathos. Holl was much below Millais In portraiture,
and far inferior In all the higher ways of design; in technical
resources, relatively speaking, he was but scantily provided.
The range of his studies and the manner of his painting were
narrower than those of Josef Israels, with whom, except as a
portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with Millais.
In 1870 he painted &ldquo;Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is,
than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith&rdquo;; &ldquo;No Tidings from
the Sea,&rdquo; a scene in a fisherman&rsquo;s cottage, in 1871&mdash;a story told
with breath-catching pathos and power; &ldquo;I am the Resurrection
and the Life&rdquo; (1872); &ldquo;Leaving Home&rdquo; (1873), &ldquo;Deserted&rdquo;
(1874), both of which had great success; &ldquo;Her First-born,&rdquo;
girls carrying a baby to the grave (1876); and &ldquo;Going Home&rdquo;
(1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures &ldquo;Hush&rdquo; and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
&ldquo;Hushed.&rdquo; &ldquo;Newgate, Committed for Trial,&rdquo; a very sad and
telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter&rsquo;s
health in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited
&ldquo;The Gifts of the Fairies,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Daughter of the House,&rdquo;
&ldquo;Absconded,&rdquo; and a very fine portrait of Samuel Cousins, the
mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is a masterpiece, and
deserved the success which attended the print engraved from
it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would
not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution
which was never strong were more or less, though unequally,
manifest in &ldquo;Ordered to the Front,&rdquo; a soldier&rsquo;s departure
(1880); &ldquo;Home Again,&rdquo; its sequel, in 1883 (after which he
was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a portrait of Millais
as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined and he
died at Hampstead, on the 31st of July 1888. Holl&rsquo;s better
portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the commanding
position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly
followed. They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted
for queen Victoria (1882); the prince of Wales, Lord
Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland (1885); Lord Overstone,
Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J. Tenniel, Earl
Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other important
subjects.</p>
<div class="author">(F. G. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, CHARLES<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1733-1769), English actor, was born
in Chiswick, the son of a baker. He made his first appearance
on the stage in the title rôle of <i>Oroonoko</i> at Drury Lane in 1755,
John Palmer, Richard Yates and Mrs Cibber being in the cast.
He played under Garrick, and was the original Florizel in the
latter&rsquo;s adaptation of Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Winter&rsquo;s Tale</i>. Garrick
thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for his
monument in Chiswick church.</p>

<p>His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor,
who played with Mrs Siddons and Kean.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, SIR HENRY,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1788-1873), English
physician and author, was born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the
27th of October 1788. His maternal grandmother was the
sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was Charles Darwin;
and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell. After
spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was
sent to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years
he was transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin&rsquo;s school near Bristol.
There he at once took the position of head boy, in succession to
John Cam Hobhouse, afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour
which required to be maintained by physical prowess. On
leaving school he became articled clerk to a mercantile firm
in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him of passing
two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his second
session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the
study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he
graduated in 1811. After several years spent in foreign travel,
he began practice in 1816 as a physician in London&mdash;according
to his own statement, &ldquo;with a fair augury of success speedily
and completely fulfilled.&rdquo; This &ldquo;success,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;was
materially aided by visits for four successive years to Spa, at
the close of that which is called the London season.&rdquo; It must
also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy
temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist&mdash;qualities
the influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to
his class of practice, is often of more importance than direct
medical treatment. In 1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in
1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in ordinary to Prince
Albert in 1840, and was appointed in 1852 physician in ordinary
to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was
also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned
societies of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife
being a daughter of Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary
talent, who published a biography of her father. Sir Henry
Holland at an early period of his practice resolved to devote
to his professional duties no more of his time than was necessary
to secure an income of £5000 a year, and also to spend two
months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former
resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with
general literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation
of several branches of science; and the latter enabled him,
besides visiting, &ldquo;and most of them repeatedly, every country
of Europe,&rdquo; to make extensive tours in the other three continents,
journeying often to places little frequented by European
travellers. As, moreover, he procured an introduction to nearly
all the eminent personages in his line of travel, and knew many
of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance with
&ldquo;men and cities&rdquo; was of a species without a parallel. The
<i>London Medical Record</i>, in noticing his death, which took place
on his eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that
it &ldquo;had occurred under circumstances highly characteristic
of his remarkable career.&rdquo; On his return from a journey in
Russia he was present, on Friday, October 24th, at the trial of
Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the judges in
the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill
the following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Sir Henry Holland was the author of <i>General View of the Agriculture
of Cheshire</i> (1807); <i>Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania,
Thessaly and Greece</i> (1812-1813, 2nd ed., 1819); <i>Medical Notes and
Reflections</i> (1839); <i>Chapters on Mental Physiology</i> (1852); <i>Essays on
Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
Reviews</i> (1862); and <i>Recollections of Past Life</i> (1872).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY FOX,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1705-1774), English
statesman, second son of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the
28th of September 1705. Inheriting a large share of the riches
which his father had accumulated, he squandered it soon after
attaining his majority, and went to the Continent to escape from
his creditors. There he made the acquaintance of a countrywoman
of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish
with her purse that, after several years&rsquo; absence, he was in a
position to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as
member for Hindon in Wiltshire. He became the favourite
pupil and devoted supporter of Sir Robert Walpole, achieving
unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the worst political
arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent
and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in
exposition or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt
himself. Thus he made himself a power in the House of Commons
and an indispensable member of several administrations. He
was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to 1742, was member
for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in 1743,
secretary at war and member of the privy council in 1746, and
in 1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary
of state and a member of the cabinet under the duke of Newcastle.
In 1757, in the rearrangements of the government,
Fox was ultimately excluded from the cabinet, and given the
post of paymaster of the forces. During the war, which Pitt
conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation
was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to
accumulating a vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the
leadership of the House, with a seat in the cabinet, under the
earl of Bute, and exercised his skill in cajolery and corruption
to induce the House of Commons to approve of the treaty of
Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised to the House of
Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley, Wiltshire,
on the 16th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign the
paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the
livery of the city of London against the ministers referred to
him as &ldquo;the public defaulter of unaccounted millions.&rdquo; The
proceedings brought against him in the court of exchequer
were stayed by a royal warrant; and in a statement published
by him he proved that in the delays in making up the accounts
of his office he had transgressed neither the law nor the custom
of the time. From the interest on the outstanding balances
he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove,
but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a
dignity upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland
House, Kensington, on the 1st of July 1774, a sorely disappointed
man, with a reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness
which cannot easily be matched, and with an unpopularity
which justifies the conclusion that he was the most thoroughly
hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married in 1744
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of
Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland,
Lincolnshire, in 1762. There were four sons of the marriage:
Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland (d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant);
Charles James (the celebrated statesman); and Henry Edward
(1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Walpole&rsquo;s and other memoirs of the time, also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fox,
Charles James</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY RICH,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1590-1649), 2nd
son of Robert, 1st earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip
Sidney&rsquo;s &ldquo;Stella,&rdquo; daughter of Walter Devereux, 1st earl of
Essex, was baptized on the 19th of August 1590, educated at
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the 3rd of June
1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and 1614.
In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were
showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of
the bedchamber to Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the
yeomen of the guard; and on the 8th of March 1623 he was
raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington. In 1624 he was
sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between Charles
and Henrietta Maria. On the 15th of September he was created
earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions,
first to Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII. and the
Huguenots, and later to the Netherlands in company with
Buckingham. In October 1627 he was given command of the
troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhé, but through
delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return.
He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University;
was master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed
constable of Windsor and high steward to the queen in 1629.
He interested himself, like his elder brother, Lord Warwick,
in the plantations; and was the first governor of the Providence
company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of Newfoundland
in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of
the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular
revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against
Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the
greatest contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining
the great office of lord high admiral, but was made instead
groom of the stole. In 1639 he was appointed general of the
horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by the fiasco at Kelso.
In the second war against the Scots he was superseded in favour
of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short Parliament,
joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and
gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back
to the king&rsquo;s side by the queen, and on the 16th of April 1641
made captain general north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however,
with Charles&rsquo;s refusal to grant him the nomination of a new
baron, he again abandoned him, refused the summons to York,
and was deprived of his office as groom of the stole at the instance
of the queen, who greatly resented his ingratitude. He was
chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to communicate
its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his indignation,
with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the committee
of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the
parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex&rsquo;s
army at Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to
avoid a battle. In 1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after
failing to bring over Essex, he returned to the king. His reception,
however, was not a cordial one, and he was not reinstated
in his office of groom of the stole. After, therefore, accompanying
the king to Gloucester and taking part in the first battle of
Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament, declaring
that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities,
and the influence of the &ldquo;papists&rdquo; too strong for his patriotism.
He was restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the
Lords to exclude him from the upper house, and his petition
in 1645 for compensation for his losses and for a pension was
refused. His hopes being in this quarter also disappointed, he
once again renewed his allegiance to the king&rsquo;s cause; and
after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for peace in
1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received
a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men
at Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured
at St Neots shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick
Castle. He was tried before a &ldquo;high court of justice&rdquo; on the
3rd of February 1649, and in spite of his plea that he had received
quarter was sentenced to death. He was executed together with
Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March. Clarendon styles
him &ldquo;a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good times.&rdquo;<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of ability,
raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great
times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth,
daughter and heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and,
besides several daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest,
Robert, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Holland, and inherited
the earldom of Warwick in 1673.</p>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, xi. 263.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Baron</span>
(1773-1840), was the son of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland,
his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick, being the daughter of the
earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at Winterslow House in
Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his father died
in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ
Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of
Hookham Frere, and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland
did not take the same political side as his friends in the conflicts
of the revolutionary epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply
attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox, and remained steadily loyal
to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris and became acquainted
with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he again
went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he
met with Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart.,
who left her husband for him. She was by birth Elizabeth
Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of Richard Vassall, a planter
in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular union, a Charles
Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the navy
entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector
of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum
of Berlin when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence,
a daughter of William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey
Webster having obtained a divorce, Lord Holland was enabled
to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He had taken his seat in
the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796. During several
years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig party
in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the
Tory ministers were collected and published, as the <i>Opinions
of Lord Holland</i> (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1800
he was authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807
he signed himself Vassall Holland, though the name was no part
of his title. In 1800 Lord and Lady Holland went abroad and
remained in France and Spain till 1805, visiting Paris during
the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by Napoleon.
Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of
Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall,
and he left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord
Holland took a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities.
He was appointed to negotiate with the American envoys,
Monroe and W. Pinkney, was admitted to the privy council on the
27th of August 1806, and on the 15th of October entered the
cabinet &ldquo;of all the talents&rdquo; as lord privy seal, retiring with
the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the opposition
to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the &ldquo;orders in
council&rdquo; and other strong measures of the government taken
to counteract Napoleon&rsquo;s Berlin decrees. He was in fact in
politics a consistent Whig, and in that character he denounced
the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which bound England to consent
to the forcible union of Norway, and he resisted the bill of 1816
for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His loyalty as a Whig
secured recognition when his party triumphed in the struggle
for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord
Melbourne, and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd
of October 1840. Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
insignificant political career, but as a patron of literature, as
a writer on his own account, and because his house was the
centre and the headquarters of the Whig political and literary
world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on the 16th
of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in
London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century
by the society ladies who kept &ldquo;salons.&rdquo; Lord Holland&rsquo;s
<i>Foreign Reminiscences</i> (1850) contain much amusing gossip
from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. His <i>Memoirs of
the Whig Party</i> (1852) is an important contemporary authority.
His small work on <i>Lope de Vega</i> (1806) is still of some value.
Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800,
and Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this
peer died in December 1859 the title became extinct.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland</i>, edited by the earl of
Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, <i>The Holland House Circle</i>
(1908).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1819-1881), American author
and editor, was born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the
24th of July 1819. He graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire
Medical College (no longer in existence) at Pittsfield, Mass.,
and after practising medicine in 1844-1847, and making an
unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson (1818-1894),
later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a hospital
for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia,
and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi.
In 1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles,
and three years later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts)
<i>Republican</i>, with which he retained his connexion
until 1867. He then travelled for some time in Europe, and
in 1870 removed to New York, where he helped to establish
and became editor and one-third owner of <i>Scribner&rsquo;s Monthly</i> (the
title of which was changed in 1881 to <i>The Century</i>), which
absorbed the periodicals <i>Hours at Home</i>, <i>Putnam&rsquo;s Magazine</i>
and the <i>Riverside Magazine</i>. He remained editor of this
magazine until his death. Dr Holland&rsquo;s books long enjoyed
a wide popularity. The earlier ones were published over the
pseudonym &ldquo;Timothy Titcomb.&rdquo; His writings fall into four
classes: history and biography, represented by a <i>History of
Western Massachusetts</i> (1855), and a <i>Life of Abraham Lincoln</i>
(1865); fiction, of which <i>Miss Gilbert&rsquo;s Career</i> (1860) and <i>The
Story of Sevenoaks</i> (1875) remain faithful pictures of village
life in eastern United States; poetry, of which <i>Bitter-Sweet</i>
(1858) and <i>Kathrina, Her Life and Mine</i> (1867) were widely
read; and a series of homely essays on the art of living, of
which the most characteristic were <i>Letters to Young People,
Single and Married</i> (1858), <i>Gold Foil, hammered from Popular
Proverbs</i> (1859), <i>Letters to the Jonses</i> (1863), and <i>Every-Day
Topics</i> (2 series, 1876 and 1882). While a resident of New
York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881, he identified
himself with measures for good government and school reform,
and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was
president of the Board of Education.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Mrs H. M. Plunkett&rsquo;s <i>Josiah Gilbert Holland</i> (New York,
1894).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, PHILEMON<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1552-1637), English scholar, &ldquo;the
translator-general in his age,&rdquo; was born at Chelmsford in Essex.
He was the son of a clergyman, John Holland, who had been
obliged to take refuge in Germany and Denmark with Miles
Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having become a
fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of
M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having
subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a
doctor in Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations.
In 1628 he was appointed headmaster of the free school, but,
owing probably to advancing age, he held office for only eleven
months. His latter days were oppressed by poverty, partly
relieved by the generosity of the common council of Coventry,
which in 1632 assigned him £3, 6s. 8d. for three years, &ldquo;if he
should live so long.&rdquo; He died on the 9th of February, 1636-1637.
His fame is due solely to his translations, which included
Livy, Pliny&rsquo;s <i>Natural History</i>, Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Morals</i>, Suetonius,
Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon&rsquo;s <i>Cyropaedia</i>. He
published also an English version, with additions, of Camden&rsquo;s
<i>Britannia</i>. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon&rsquo;s <i>Pharmacopaea</i>
and his <i>Regimen sanitatis Salerni</i> were published after
his death by his son, <span class="sc">Henry Holland</span> (1583-?1650), who
became a London bookseller, and is known to bibliographers
for his <i>Bazili&omega;logia; a Booke of Kings, beeing the true and liuely
Effigies of all our English Kings from the Conquest</i> (1618), and
his <i>Her&omega;ologia Anglica</i> (1620).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, RICHARD,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Richard de Holande</span> (fl. 1450),
Scottish writer, author of the <i>Buke of the Howlat</i>, was secretary
or chaplain to the earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk,
near Thurso. He was afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch
Ness, and later held a chantry in the cathedral of Norway.
He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and on their overthrow
retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was employed
by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through
Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general
pardon granted by James III. to those who would renounce
their fealty to the Douglases.</p>

<p>The poem, entitled the <i>Buke of the Howlat</i>, written about
1450, shows his devotion to the house of Douglas:&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
<p>&ldquo;On ilk beugh till embrace</p>
<p class="i05">Writtin in a bill was</p>
<p class="i05">O Dowglass, O Dowglass</p>
<p class="i05">Tender and trewe!&rdquo;</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<div class="author1 f90">(ii. 400-403).</div>

<p class="noind">and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
<p>&ldquo;Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,</p>
<p class="i05">Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis.&rdquo;</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that
house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s judgment that the
<i>Buke</i> is &ldquo;a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever
to local or natural politics&rdquo; is certainly the most reasonable.
The poem, which extends to 1001 lines written in the irregular
alliterative rhymed stanza, is a bird-allegory, of the type familiar
in the <i>Parlement of Foules</i>. It has the incidental interest of
showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the antipathy of the
&ldquo;Inglis-speaking Scot&rdquo; to the &ldquo;Scots-speaking Gael&rdquo; of the
west, as is also shown in Dunbar&rsquo;s <i>Flyting with Kennedy</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne
MSS. Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition,
discovered by D. Laing, are reproduced in the <i>Adversaria</i> of the
Bannatyne Club. The poem has been frequently reprinted, by
Pinkerton, in his <i>Scottish Poems</i> (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne
Club 1823; reprinted in &ldquo;New Club&rdquo; series, Paisley, 1882); by the
Hunterian Club in their edition of the Bannatyne MS., and by A.
Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest edition is that by F. J. Amours
in <i>Scottish Alliterative Poems</i> (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81.
(See also Introduction pp. xx.-xxxiv.)</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> officially the kingdom of the Netherlands
(<i>Koningrijk der Nederlanden</i>), a maritime country in the north-west
of Europe. The name Holland is that of the former countship,
which forms part of the political, as well as the geographical
centre of the kingdom (see the next article).</p>

<p><i>Topography.</i>&mdash;Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany,
on the S. by Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and
at the N.E. corner by the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward
to the extreme corner of Limburg the boundary line is
formed by the river Maas or Meuse.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the east a natural
geographical boundary was formed by the long line of marshy
fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and
Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53° 32&prime; 21&Prime; (Groningen
Cape on Rottum Island) to 50° 45&prime; 49&Prime; N. (Mesch in the
province of Limburg), and from 3° 23&prime; 27&Prime; (Sluis in the province
of Zeeland) to 7° 12&prime; 20&Prime; E. (Langakkerschans in the province
of Groningen). The greatest length from north to south, viz.
that from Rottum Island to Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m.,
and the greatest breadth from south-west to north-east, or from
Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel, 144 m. The area is subject
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
to perpetual variation owing, on the one hand, to the erosion
of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of land by means
of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total area
was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee
and the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the
Dollart (23 sq. m.), 14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has
the character of the territory exercised so great an influence on
the inhabitants as in the Netherlands; and, on the other hand,
no people has so extensively modified the condition of its territory
as the Dutch. The greatest importance attaches therefore to
the physical conformation of the country.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to north-east,
and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length, fringed
by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into
the sea. In the north and south, however, this line is
<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
broken by the inlets of the sea which form the Frisian and the South
Holland and Zeeland islands respectively; but the dunes themselves
are found continued along the seaward side of these islands, thus
indicating the original continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of
the dunes naturally varies greatly, the maximum width of about
4375 yds. being found at Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The
average height of the individual dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but
attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the High Blinkert, near Haarlem.
The steepness of the dunes on the side towards the sea is caused by
the continual erosion, probably traceable, in part at least, to the
channel current (which at mean tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in.
per second), and to the strong west or north-west winds which carry
off large quantities of material. This alteration of coast-line appears
at Loosduinen, where the moor or fenland formerly developed
behind the dunes now crops out on the shore amid the sand, being
pressed to the compactness of lignite by the weight of the sand
drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman camp Brittenburg
or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the dunes and, after
being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were, in 1694, 1600
paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides Katwijk itself,
several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg, Scheveningen,
Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency of the
dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the planting
of bent-grass (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>), whose long roots serve to bind the
sand together. It must be further remarked that both the &ldquo;dune-pans,&rdquo;
or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their
defective drainage, and the <i>geest</i> grounds&mdash;that is, the grounds along
the foot of the downs&mdash;have been in various places either planted
with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the
numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to
the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set
by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having
been readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &amp;c.</p>

<p>As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a
series of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The
principal sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and
the Vlie, which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the
large inland sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or
&ldquo;shallows,&rdquo; which extend along the shores of Friesland and
Groningen as far as the Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The
inland sea-board thus formed consists of low coasts of sea-clay
protected by dikes, and of some high diluvial strata which rise far
enough above the level of the sea to make dikes unnecessary, as in
the case of the Gooi hills between Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe
hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland
between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren. The Dollart was formed
in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin, more than thirty villages
being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and the bay in the Frisian
coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually came into existence
in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms forming the South
Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West Scheldt, the
East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer
and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by
the Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were
formerly of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing
up owing to the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have
the same freedom of communication with one another. At the head
of the Hollandsch Diep is the celebrated railway bridge of the
Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds. in length; and above this bridge lies
the Biesbosch (&ldquo;reed forest&rdquo;), a group of marshy islands formed by
a disastrous inundation in 1421, when seventy-two villages and
upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.</p>

<p>Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern
half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen,
the hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe
region in Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and
<span class="sidenote">Relief and levels.</span>
east of Overysel and the Hondsrug range in Drente.
The remainder of the country is flat, and shows a regular
downward slope from south-east to north-west, in which direction
the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface of the country
ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near Vaals in the
farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the Amsterdam zero<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
in some of the drained lands in the western half of the country. In
fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of the provinces
of North and South Holland, the western portion of Utrecht as
far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part of Zeeland-Flanders,
and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies below the
Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all that
part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and
Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would
be submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes.
This difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland
has its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The
western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a
monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in
regular lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over
with windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and
poplar which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of
the eastern division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists
mainly of sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of
waste heaths and patches of wood, while here and there fertile
meadows extend along the banks of the streams, and the land is laid
out in the highly regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drente</a></span>).</p>

<p>The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three
principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt
(Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the
country, whilst the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland,
<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
giving its name to the two broad inlets of the sea which bound the
Zeeland islands. The Rhine in its course through Holland is merely
the parent stream of several important branches, splitting up into
Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel, Crooked Rhine and Lek (which
takes two-thirds of the waters), and at Utrecht into Old Rhine and
Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the sluices at Katwijk as
little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and the Vecht flow to
the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea. The Maas,
whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine, follows in a wide
curve the general slope of the country, receiving the Roer, the Mark
and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their way into all
the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago. The main
stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as the
Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the
North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the
junction of the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New
Merwede (constructed in the second half of the 19th century) extends
between dykes through the marshes of the Biesbosch to the
Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers render very important service
as waterways. The mean velocity of their flow seldom exceeds 4.9
ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is high. In the lower reaches of
the streams the velocity and slope are of course affected by the tides.
In the Waal ordinary high water is perceptible as far up as Zalt
Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the maximum limits or ordinary
and spring tides are at Vianen and Kuilenburg respectively, in the
Ysel above the Katerveer at the junction of the Willemsvaart and
past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and Deventer; and in the Maas
near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into the Zuider Zee there
also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its tributary the Vecht,
and the Eem. The total length of navigable channels is about
1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not infrequently impede the
shipping traffic at low water during the summer. The smaller
streams are often of great importance. Except where they rise in
the fens they call into life a strip of fertile grassland in the midst
of the barren sand, and are responsible for the existence of many
villages along their banks. Following the example of the great
Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is also
practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in
North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams,
canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the
same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers,
being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as
sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also
turned to account in connexion with the canal system&mdash;the Dommel,
Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne,
Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the
numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important
in this respect.</p>

<p>It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy
lakes which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are
connected with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland
are of note for the abundance of their fish and their beauty
<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span>
of situation, on which last account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is
also celebrated. The Rockanje Lake near Brielle is remarkable for
the strong salty solution which covers even the growing reeds with a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
hard crust. Many of the lakes are nothing more than deep pits or
marshes from which the peat has been extracted.</p>
</div>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:1136px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img588a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img588b.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>

<p class="pt2"><i>Dikes.</i>&mdash;The circumstance that so much of Holland is below
the sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence
on the drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the
country, as well as on its defence by means of inundation. The
endiking of low lands against the sea which had been quietly
proceeding during the first eleven centuries of the Christian era,
received a fresh impetus in the 12th and 13th centuries from the
fact that the level of the sea then became higher in relation to
that of the land. This fact is illustrated by the broadening of
river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the beginning of
the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking was
the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers,
sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated
on the spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin
of Amsterdam, and the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But
Holland&rsquo;s chief protection against inundation is its long line of
sand dunes, in which only two real breaches have been effected
during the centuries of erosion. These are represented by the
famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and the Hondsbossche
Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun respectively
in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The first
extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages
of Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the
second is about 4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin
to near Petten, whence it is continued for another 1100 yds.
by the Pettemer dike. These two sea dikes were reconstructed
by the state at great expense between the year 1860 and 1884,
having consisted before that time of little more than a protected
sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and
by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by <i>zinkstukken</i>
(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with
stones, and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of
which the current is to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle
dike, 12,468 ft. long, has a seaward slope of 300 ft., and
is protected by rows of piles and basalt blocks. On its ridge,
39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a service railway.
The cost of its upkeep is more than £6000 a year, and of the
Hondsbossche Zeewering £2000 a year. When it is remembered
that the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (<i>Teredo navalis</i>),
the ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and
expense incurred in the construction and maintenance of the
sea dikes now existing may be imagined. In other parts of the
coast the dunes, though not pierced through, have become so
wasted by erosion as to require artificial strengthening. This
is afforded, either by means of a so-called sleeping dike (<i>slaperdyk</i>)
behind the weak spot, as, for instance, between Kadzand
and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again between &rsquo;s Gravenzande
and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or breakwaters
(<i>hoofden</i>, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and composed
of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such breakwaters
was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island of
Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water.
Similar constructions are to be found on the seaward side of
the islands of Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between &rsquo;s
Gravenzande and Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk.
Owing to the obstruction which they offer to drifting sands,
artificial dunes are in course of time formed about them, and
in this way they become at once more effective and less costly
to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run from
Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards
to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617)
and Koegras (1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to
Nieuwediep the dunes are replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall.
The shores of the Zuider Zee and the Wadden, and the
Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially protected by
dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been repeatedly
extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the work
of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon
layer of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until
a new fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses
grasses begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (<i>kwelders</i>) horses,
cattle and sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in
course of time they are in turn endiked.</p>

<p>River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks
being found only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing
to the unsuitability of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually
marked by a great width, which at the crown varies between
13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike ranges to 40 in. above
high water-level. Between the dikes and the stream lie &ldquo;forelands&rdquo;
(<i>interwaarden</i>), which are usually submerged in winter,
and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country
within the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time
an opportunity for endiking and reclamation. In this way
the towns of Rotterdam, Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis
have all gradually extended over the Maas dike in order to
keep in touch with the river, and the small town of Delftshaven
is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Impoldering.</i>&mdash;The first step in the reclamation of land is to &ldquo;impolder&rdquo;
it, or convert it into a &ldquo;polder&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> a section of artificially
drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for the two-fold
purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from outside and
of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for its own
sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means of
drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century
new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to
the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the
masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been
carried on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands,
and also that a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the
fertile sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make
the subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of
peat from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.</p>

<p><i>Drainage.</i>&mdash;It has been shown that the western provinces of
Holland may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact
the surface of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11½ to 16½ ft.
below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively
very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption
proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder,
as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is
intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other,
the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area
to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced
windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless
hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by
the advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The
power of the pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per
1000 hectares for every metre that the water has to be raised, or
stated in another form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly
9 &#8468; of water through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches,
or canals, afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level
at which it is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes
the unit of water measurement for the polder, and is called the
polder&rsquo;s <i>zomer peil</i> (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders
(<i>koepolders</i>) Z.P. is 1 to 1½ ft. below the level of the polder,
and in agricultural polders 2½ to 3½ ft. below. Owing to the shrinkage
of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands which have been
drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of the polder are
often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by means of small
dams or sluices to make separate water-tight compartments
(<i>afpolderingen</i>), each having its own unit of measurement. Some
polders also have a winter peil as a precaution against the increased
fall of water in that season. The summer water-level of the pasture
polders south of the former Y is about 4 to 8 ft. below the Amsterdam
zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the north, it reaches 10½ ft. below
A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and in reclaimed lands (<i>droogmakerijen</i>)
may be still lower, thus in the Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is
21¼ ft. below.</p>

<p>The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial
means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders
of Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into
the sea at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used.
But in North Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder
water has generally to be raised. In some deep polders and drained
lands where the water cannot be brought to the required height
at once, windmills are found at two or even three different levels.
The final removal of polder water, however, is only truly effected
upon its discharge into the &ldquo;outer waters&rdquo; of the country, that is,
the sea itself or the large rivers freely communicating with it; and
this happens with but a small proportion of Dutch polders, such
as those of Zeeland, the Holland Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.</p>

<p>As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers
were gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through
which they flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they
communicated. Their level ranges from about 1½ to 4 ft. above
that of the pasture polders. In addition, various kinds of canals
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
and endiked or embanked lakes had come into existence, forming
altogether a vast network of more or less stagnant waters. These waters
are utilized as the temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder
water, each system of reservoirs being termed a <i>boezem</i> (bosom or
basin), and all lands watering into the same boezem being considered
as belonging to it. The largest boezem is that of Friesland, which
embraces nearly the whole province. It sometimes happens that
a polder is not in direct contact with the boezem to which it belongs,
but first drains into an adjacent polder, from which the water is
afterwards removed. In the same way, some boezems discharge
first into others, which then discharge into the sea or rivers. This
is usually the case where there is a great difference in height between
the surface of the boezem and the outer waters, and may be illustrated
by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte boezems in the provinces
of South and North Holland respectively. In time of drought
the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run back into the
polders, and so serve a double purpose as water-reservoirs. Boezems,
like polders, have a standard water-level which may hot be exceeded,
and as in the polder this level may vary in the different
parts of an extended boezem. The height of the <i>boezem peil</i> ranges
<span class="correction" title="amended from beween">between</span> 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft. above to 1<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span> ft. below the Amsterdam zero, though
the average is about 1 to 1<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft. below. Some boezems, again, which
are less easily controlled, have a &ldquo;danger water-level&rdquo; at which
they refuse to receive any more water from the surrounding polders.
The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is of this kind,
and such a boezem is termed <i>besloten</i> or &ldquo;sequestered,&rdquo; in contradistinction
to a &ldquo;free&rdquo; boezem. A third kind of boezem is the
reserve or <i>berg-boezem</i>, which in summer may be made dry and used
for agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The
centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this
complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation
are better imagined than described, and even at the present
day the evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real.</p>

<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of
Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed
by Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered
by recent deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep
borings have revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the
&ldquo;Crags&rdquo; of East Anglia. They are divided into the <i>Diestien</i>,
corresponding in part with the English Coralline Crag, the <i>Scaldisien</i>
and <i>Poederlien</i> corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the
<i>Amstelien</i> corresponding with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the
south of Holland the total thickness of the Pliocene series is only
about 200 ft., and they are covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary
deposits; but towards the north the beds sink down and at the
same time increase considerably in thickness, so that at Utrecht a
deep boring reached the top of the Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft.
and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the bottom. At Amsterdam
the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the surface, but the boring,
1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the uppermost division of the
Pliocene, viz. the <i>Amstelien</i>. Eastward and westward of Amsterdam,
as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise slowly to the surface,
and gradually decrease in thickness. They were laid down in a
broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly the whole
of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is
evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the
deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to
England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of
northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series indicates
the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift containing
Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east of the
Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of
alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>

<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Situated in the temperate zone between 50° and 53° N.
the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and
night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a correspondingly
wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the
region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean
annual temperature was 49.8° Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9° Fahr.;
the minimum, -5.8° Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is
29.93 in.; the mean annual moisture, 81%; the mean annual
rainfall, 27.99 in. The mean annual number of days with rain is
204, with snow 19, and with thunder-storms 18. The increased
rainfall from July to December (the summer and autumn rains), and
the increased evaporation in spring and summer (5.2 in. more than
the rainfall), are of importance as regards &ldquo;poldering&rdquo; and draining
operations. The prevalence of south-west winds during nine
months of the year and of north-west during three (April-June) has
a strong influence on the temperature and rainfall, tides, river
mouths and outlets, and also, geologically, on dunes and sand drifts,
and on fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast. The west
winds of course increase the moisture, and moderate both the winter
cold and the summer heat, while the east winds blowing over the
continent have an opposite influence. It cannot be said that the
climate is particularly good, owing to the changeableness of the
weather, which may alter completely within a single day. The
heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living within doors
or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an influence on the
character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of certain
districts, however, can it be said that they are positively unhealthy;
to this category belong some parts of the Holland provinces, Zeeland,
and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations
from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often burdened
with sea-fogs.</p>

<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive
forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter,
martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals,
and the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common.
In the 18th century wolves still roamed the country in such large
numbers that hunting parties were organized against them; now
they are unknown. Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state
in Gelderland and Overysel, foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded
regions on the borders of the country, and hares and rabbits in the
dunes and other sandy stretches. Among birds may be reckoned
about two hundred and forty different kinds which are regular
inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of these are migratory.
The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel, magpie, jay, raven,
various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested wren, tufted lark
and titmouse are among the birds which breed here. Birds of
passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of various kinds,
golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale. Storks are
plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most
characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.</p>

<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely,
the heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (<i>Erica
tetralix</i>) and ling (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>) cover all the waste sandy regions
in the eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the
meadow-lands is monotonous. In the more damp and marshy
places the bottom is covered with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth
equisetum, and rush. In the ditches and pools common yellow and
white water-lilies are seen, as well as water-soldier (<i>Stratiotes aloides</i>),
great and lesser reed-mace, sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant
forms of the dunes are stunted and meagre as compared with the
same forms elsewhere. The most common plant here is the stiff
sand-reed (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>), called sand-oats in Drente and Overysel,
where it is much used for making mats. Like the sand-reed,
the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the buckthorn (<i>Hippophae
rhamnoides</i>) perform a useful service in helping to bind the sand
together. Furze and the common juniper are regular dune plants,
and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel and
Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (<i>Rosa pimpinellifolia</i>)
also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (<i>Sedum acre</i>), field
fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep&rsquo;s fescue grass,
the pretty Solomon-seal (<i>Polygonatum officinale</i>), and the broad-leaved
or marsh orchis (<i>Orchis latifolia</i>). The sea-plants which
flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly assist
the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated in places.
Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and Groningen, the
Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer the shore
to sandspurry (<i>Spergularia</i>), or sea-poa or floating meadow grass
(<i>Glyceria maritima</i>), which grows up to the dikes, and affords pasture
for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the Biesbosch
lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable quantities
for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (<i>Zostera
marina</i>) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of
June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along
the rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the
sand and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the area and population
in the eleven provinces of the Netherlands:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Province</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density per<br />sq. m. in<br />1900.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Brabant</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">509,628</td> <td class="tcr rb">553,842</td> <td class="tcc rb">280</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gelderland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">512,202</td> <td class="tcr rb">566,549</td> <td class="tcc rb">288</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">949,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,144,448</td> <td class="tcc rb">981</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">829,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">968,131</td> <td class="tcc rb">905</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Zeeland</td> <td class="tcr rb">690</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,234</td> <td class="tcr rb">216,295</td> <td class="tcc rb">313</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Utrecht</td> <td class="tcr rb">534</td> <td class="tcr rb">221,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,034</td> <td class="tcc rb">470</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Friesland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">335,558</td> <td class="tcr rb">340,262</td> <td class="tcc rb">265</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Overysel</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">295,445</td> <td class="tcr rb">333,338</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Groningen</td> <td class="tcr rb">790</td> <td class="tcr rb">272,786</td> <td class="tcr rb">299,602</td> <td class="tcc rb">379</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drente</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,544</td> <td class="tcc rb">144</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">850</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,721</td> <td class="tcr rb">281,934</td> <td class="tcc rb">332</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> &emsp; Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,648</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,511,415</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,104,137*</td> <td class="tcc allb">404</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="5">* This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.</td></tr>
</table>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span></p>

<p>The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces
of North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and
Drente on the other. This divergence is partly explained by
the difference of soil&mdash;which in Drente comprises the maximum
of waste lands, and in South Holland the minimum&mdash;and partly
also by the greater facilities which the seaward provinces enjoy
of earning a subsistence, and the greater variety of their industries.
The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague,
Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen,
Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht,
Leeuwarden, Zwolle, Delft, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch, Schiedam,
Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn, Helder, Enschedé, Gouda, Zaandam,
Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing, Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen
and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns, such as Assen,
Enschedé, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen, Zaandam,
Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy
fact that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an
equal share in the general increase of population. This, taken
in conjunction with the advance in trade and shipping, the
diminution in emigration, and the prosperity of the savings
banks, points to a favourable state in the condition of the people.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The roads are divided into national or royal
roads, placed directly under the control of the <i>water-staat</i> and supported
by the state; provincial roads, under the direct
<span class="sidenote">Roads.</span>
control of the states of the provinces, and almost all
supported by the provincial treasuries; communal and polder
roads, maintained by the communal authorities and the polder
boards; and finally, private roads. The system of national roads,
mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827, but still in process of
extension, brings into connexion nearly all the towns.</p>

<p>The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends
into every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost
a maritime appearance. The united length of the canals
exceeds 1500 m. As a matter of course the smaller
<span class="sidenote">Canals.</span>
streams have been largely utilized in their formation, while the
necessity for a comprehensive drainage system has also contributed
in no small degree. During the years 1815-1830 a large part of the
extensive scheme of construction inaugurated by King William I.
was carried out, the following canals, among others, coming into
existence in that period: the North Holland ship canal (depth,
16½ ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the Grift canal between
Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting Zwolle with
the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William&rsquo;s canal (6½ ft.),
from &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the Ternuzen-Ghent ship
canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again taken up by the
state, which alone or in conjunction with the provincial authorities
constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal (1859-1869), the drainage
canals of the &ldquo;Peel&rdquo; marsh in North Brabant, and of the eastern
provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892) from the Maas to
Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel (1884-1888)
canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and the
Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals
in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and
Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to
Delfzyl, and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen
by way of Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship
canals to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, called the New Waterway
and the North Sea canal respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872
and 1865-1876 at a cost of 2½ and 3 million pounds sterling, the
former by widening the channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg,
and cutting across the Hook of Holland, the latter by utilizing the
bed of the Y and cutting through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876
an agreement was arrived at with Germany for connecting the
important drainage canals in Overysel, Drente and Groningen with
the Ems canal system, as a result of which the Almelo-Noordhorn
(1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.</p>

<p>The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In
Zeeland they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the
river mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere
and Flushing (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from
Zierikzee also to the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866)
canal connects the East and West Scheldt; similarly in South
Holland the Voorne canal unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas,
which does not allow the passage of large vessels above Brielle;
whilst owing lo the banks and shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis
the New Waterway was cut to Rotterdam. Of another character
is the Zederik canal, which unites the principal river of central
Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the Linge with the Merwede
at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek and the Zederik
canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine (1881-1893;
depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character belongs to the
canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of Holland
where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only waterways
which render possible the drainage of the fens and the export of
peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart
connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt;
in Drente the Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen
with Meppel, and receives on the eastern side the drainage canals
of the Drente fens, namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen
Vaart (1850-1860; 1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the
Lauwers Zee by the Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten
and the Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it
into connexion with the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the
province and in Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal
from Harlingen to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden
to the Lemmer, whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam;
and the Caspar Robles or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep
connect it with Groningen.</p>

<p>The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly accomplished.
The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (<i>Hollandsch
Yzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij</i>). In 1845 the state undertook
<span class="sidenote">Railways.</span>
to develop the railway system, and a company of private
individuals was formed to administer it under the title of the
<i>Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatspoorwegen</i>. In 1860, however,
the total length of railways was only 208 m., and in that year
a parliamentary bill embodying a comprehensive scheme of construction
was adopted. By 1872 this programme was nearly completed,
and 542 m. of new railway had been added. In 1873 and
1875 a second and a third bill provided for the extension of the
railway system at the cost of the state, and, in 1876, 1882 and 1890
laws were introduced readjusting the control of the various lines,
some of which were transferred to the Holland railway. The state
railway system was completed in 1892, and since that time the
utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new undertakings.
These include various local lines such as the line Alkmaar-Hoorn
(1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschedé-Ahaus in Germany
(1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the
line Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg) Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl,
connecting all the fen countries on the eastern
borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was opened
in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from
north and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The
two longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
(1862-1867),<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877)
to Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company,
and the State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870)
(junction at Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)&mdash;Arnhem (1865)&mdash;Nijmwegen
(1879)&mdash;Venlo (1883)&mdash;Maastricht (1865). The four
transverse lines belong to the State and Holland railways alternately
and are, beginning with the State railway: (1) the line
Flushing (1872)&mdash;Rozendaal (1860)&mdash;Tilburg (1863)&mdash;Bokstel
(whence there is a branch line belonging to the North Brabant and
Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany, opened
in 1873)&mdash;Eindhoven&mdash;Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
(2) the line Hook of Holland&mdash;Rotterdam (1893)&mdash;Dordrecht (1872-1877)&mdash;Elst
(1882-1885)&mdash;Nijmwegen (1879)&mdash;Cleves, Germany
(1865); (3) the line Rotterdam&mdash;Utrecht (1866-1869) and Amsterdam&mdash;Utrecht&mdash;Arnhem
(1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company,
but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
Amsterdam&mdash;Hilversum&mdash;Amersfoort&mdash;Apeldoorn (1875), whence it
is continued (<i>a</i>) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen,
Germany (1865); (<i>b</i>) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschedé (1866)
to Gronau, Germany; (<i>c</i>) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk
(1878). Of these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental
routes in connexion with the steamboat service to England (ports
of Queenborough and Harwich respectively). Two other lines of
railway, both belonging to the state, also traverse the country west
to east, namely, the line Rozendaal&mdash;&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch (1890)&mdash;Nijmwegen,
and in the extreme north, the line from Harlingen
through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen (1866) to the border at
Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected with the German
railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces are further
connected by the lines Amsterdam&mdash;Zaandam (1878)&mdash;Enkhuizen
(1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the Zuider Zee to
Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to Leeuwarden (1883-1885);
the Netherlands Central railway, Utrecht&mdash;Amersfoort&mdash;Zwoole&mdash;Kampen
(1863); and the line Utrecht&mdash;&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch
(1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by the
lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in
the post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
Amsterdam time.</p>

<p>Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented
by steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or
across the country on special embankments, while one of them is
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
carried across the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge.
<span class="sidenote">Tramways.</span>
The state first began to encourage the construction of these local
light railways by means of subsidies in 1893, since when
some of the most prominent lines have come into existence,
such as Purmerend&mdash;Alkmaar (1898), Zutphen&mdash;Emmerich
(1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902), from
&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in
Belgium (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland
and Zeeland islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam
and Numansdorp on the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda
or Bergen-op-Zoom, via Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee
and Brouwershaven (1900). An electric tramway connects Haarlem
and Zandvoort. The number of passengers carried by the steam-tramways
is relatively higher than that of the railways. The value
of the goods traffic is not so high, owing, principally, to the want of
intercommunication between the various lines on account of differences
in the width of the gauge.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren
stretches of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland
and North Brabant. They formerly served to support large
flocks of sheep and some cattle, but are gradually transformed
by the planting of woods, as well as by strenuous efforts at
cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two principal
agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North
Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products
of cultivation on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat,
and on the sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax
and beetroot are also cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco,
hemp, hops, colza and chicory form special cultures. With the
possible exception of oats, the cereals do not suffice for home
consumption, and maize is imported in large quantities for
cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and breweries.
Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and
flourish especially on the low fen soil and <i>geest</i> grounds along the
foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland.
The principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions,
asparagus, gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &amp;c. The principal
flowers are hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other
bulbous plants, the total export of which is estimated at over
£200,000. Fruit is everywhere grown, and there is a special
cultivation of grapes and figs in the Westland of South Holland.
The woods, or rather the plantations, covering 6%, consist
of (1) the so-called forest timber (<i>opgaandhout</i>; Fr. <i>arbres
de haute futaie</i>), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar, birch,
ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood
(<i>akkermaal</i> or <i>hakhout</i>), embracing the elder, willow, beech,
oak, &amp;c. This forms no unimportant branch of the national
wealth.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under
permanent pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic
industries of the country. The provinces of
Friesland, North and South Holland, and Utrecht take
<span class="sidenote">Livestock.</span>
the lead as regards both quality and numbers. A smaller,
hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep are kept upon
the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also favour the
rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most important
in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of horse
commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous
in Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are
generally kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably
improved under the care of the government (state and provincial),
which grants subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the
importation of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of
factories for dairy produce, schools, &amp;c.</p>

<p><i>Fisheries.</i>&mdash;The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said
to have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the
following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery
how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland
fisherman. It steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries,
however, but again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century.
The fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
namely, the &ldquo;deep-sea&rdquo; fishery of the North Sea, and the &ldquo;inner&rdquo;
(<i>binnengaatsch</i>) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be
farther divided into the so-called &ldquo;great&rdquo; or &ldquo;salt-herring&rdquo; fishery,
mainly carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer
and autumn, and the &ldquo;fresh-herring&rdquo; fishery, chiefly pursued at
Scheveningen, Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring
fisheries is enhanced by the careful methods of smoking and salting,
the export of salted fish being considerable. In the winter the
largest boats are laid up and the remainder take to line-fishing.
Middelharnis, Pernis and Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch
of fishery, which yields halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl
fisheries of the coast yield sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &amp;c., of
which a large part is brought alive to the market. In the Zuider
Zee small herring, flat fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught,
the chief fishing centres being the islands of Texel, Urk and
Wieringen, and the coast towns of Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen,
Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk, Vollenhove. The
anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and July sometimes
yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are obtained
on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the
New Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in
the hands of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large
quantities of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not
only supply the great local demand, but allow of large exports.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Manufacturing Industries.</i>&mdash;The mineral resources of Holland
give no encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception
of the coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a
few furnaces in Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and
gravel in the making of dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks
and potteries, the quarrying of stone at St Pietersberg,
&amp;c. Nevertheless the industry of the country has developed
in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium.
The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which
flourishes especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where
jute is also worked into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen
and linen goods Tilburg ranks first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht
and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens is best developed at
Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry include
carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin
and liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and
beer-brewing in most of the principal towns; shoe-making and
leather-tanning in the Langstraat district of North Brabant;
paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the Zaan, and in Limburg;
the manufacture of earthenware and faïence at Maastricht,
the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and
Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine
at Osch; chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting
and broom-making at Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting
and the manufacture of quinine at Amsterdam; and
the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven, Amsterdam,
Utrecht, Kampen, &amp;c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance
in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller
towns along the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding
yards are at Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing,
where there is a government dockyard for building warships.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Trade and Shipping.</i>&mdash;To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in
the rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to
the public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large
fleet of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are
becoming more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine
transport trade have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the
commercial business at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and
transit trade. The other principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen
(for Belgium), Harlingen, Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam,
Groningen, den Helder, Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the
national mail steamship services are the lines to the East and West
Indies, Africa and the United States. An examination of its lists
of exports and imports will show that Holland receives from its
colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, cinnamon;
from England and Belgium its manufactured goods and coals;
petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United States; grain
from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of the Black
Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn from
England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore
from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to
Germany, its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish
to Belgium and Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and
Hamburg, as well as England. The bulk of trade is carried on with
Germany and England; then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the
United States, &amp;c. In the last half of the 19th century the total
value of the foreign commerce was more than trebled.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>&mdash;The government of the Netherlands
is regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848
and 1887, under which the sovereign&rsquo;s person is inviolable and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
the ministers are responsible. The age of majority of the
sovereign is eighteen. The crown is hereditary in both the
male and the female line according to primogeniture; but it
is only in default of male heirs that females can come to the
throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first subject
of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange. The
sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the
ultimate direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war
and peace, to make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one
or both chambers of parliament, the supreme command of the
army and navy, the supreme administration of the state finances
and of the colonies and other possessions of the kingdom, and
the prerogative of mercy. By the provisions of the same constitution
he establishes the ministerial departments, and shares
the legislative power with the first and second chambers of
parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at
the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial
executive functions are entrusted are eight in number&mdash;ministers
respectively of the interior, of &ldquo;water-staat,&rdquo; trade and industry
(that is, of public works, including railways, post-office, &amp;c.),
of justice, of finance, of war, of marine, of the colonies and
of foreign affairs. There is a department of agriculture, but
without a minister at its head. The heads of departments are
appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign, usually
determined, however, as in all constitutional states, by the
will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.</p>

<p>The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South
Holland sending 10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and
Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4, Overysel, Limburg and Groningen
each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each 2. According to
the fundamental law (<i>Grondwet</i>) of 1887, they are chosen by
the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear
the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but
also from amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank.
Those deputies who are not resident in the Hague are entitled
to receive 16s. 8d. a day during the session. The duration of
parliament is nine years, a third of the members retiring every
three years. The retiring members are eligible for re-election.
The members of the second chamber are chosen in the electoral
districts by all capable male citizens not under 23 years of age,
who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum of
one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of
members is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the
Hague 3, Groningen and Utrecht 2 members each. Members must
be at least thirty years old, and receive an annual allowance
of £166, besides travelling expenses. They only, and the government,
have the right of initiating business, and of proposing
amendments. Their term is four years, but they are re-eligible.
All communications from the sovereign to the states-general
and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures
relating to internal administration or to foreign possessions,
are first submitted to the consideration of the council of state,
which consists of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who
is the president. The state council also has the right of making
suggestions to the sovereign in regard to subjects of legislation
and administration.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial
states, which are returned by direct election by the same electors
as vote for the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half
of the members retire every three years subject to re-election
or renewal. The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner
for the province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in
the year, they name a committee of deputy-states which manages
current general business, and at the same time exercises the right
of control over the affairs of the communes. At the head of every
commune stands a communal council, whose members must be not
under 23 years of age. They are elected for six years (one-third of
the council retiring every two years) by the same voters as for the
provincial states. Communal franchise is further restricted, however,
to those electors who pay a certain sum to the communal rates.
The number of councillors varies according to the population between
7 and 45. One of the special duties of the council is the supervision
of education. The president of the communal council is the
burgomaster, who is named by the sovereign in every instance for
six years, and receives a salary varying from £40 to over £600.
Provision is made for paying the councillors a certain fee&mdash;called
&ldquo;presence-money&rdquo;&mdash;when required. The burgomaster has the
power to suspend any of the council&rsquo;s decrees for 30 days. The
executive power is vested in a college formed by the burgomaster
and two, three or four magistrates (<i>wethouders</i>) to be chosen by and
from the members of the council. The provinces are eleven in
number.</p>

<p><i>National Defence.</i>&mdash;The home defence system of Holland is a
militia with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in
the &ldquo;militia&rdquo; or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called
up for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace
strength under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half
are permanent cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the
year&rsquo;s contingent were trained for eight months and more, and
5200 for four months. The war strength of the militia is 105,000,
that of the second line or reserve 70,000. The defence of the country
is based on the historic principle of concentrating the people and
their resources in the heart of the country, covered by a wide belt
of inundations. The chosen line of defence is marked by a series
of forts which control the sluices, extending from Amsterdam,
through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and through Utrecht to
Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues thence by
the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast also
is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about 26,000,
all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily enlisted
European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was £2,331,255.
The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists (1909) of
9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels, manned by
8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines. Recruiting
is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
conscription amongst the maritime population.</p>

<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the
high council (<i>hooge raad</i>) at the Hague, the supreme court of the
whole kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials
and for the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts
of justice established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden
and &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each
arrondissement; (4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of
communes, whose jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount
(under 200 guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who
at the same time look after the interest of minors. The high council
is composed of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three
advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were
formerly divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement
tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal
code of 1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement
courts, which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal
courts.</p>

<p>Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle
at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for
drunkards and beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen
in Drente, which were brought from the Society of Charity
(<i>Maatschappij van Weldadigkeid</i>) in 1859. The inmates practise
agriculture, as well as various industries for supplying all the requirements
of the colony. The objection raised against these
establishments is that the prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage
of the country, but a class of more or less voluntary inmates.
Children under 16 years of age are placed in the three state reformatories,
and there is an institution for vagabond women at
Rotterdam.</p>

<p><i>Charitable and other Institutions.</i>&mdash;Private charities have always
occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities.
At the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drente</a></span>). Of the
numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and
the fine arts, the following are strictly national&mdash;the Royal Academy
of Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
(1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School
of Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
Middelburg, Utrecht, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there
are private and municipal associations, institutions and collections
in a large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general
utility are the Society for Public Welfare (<i>Maatschappij tot nut
van&rsquo;t algemeen</i>, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction
of educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam
(1873); Teyler&rsquo;s Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and
the societies for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences
(1752) in the same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography
and Ethnology of the Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society
at the Hague, the Royal Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the
Association for the Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &amp;c.</p>

<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
independent religious congregations. The bond between church
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
and state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618)
and the organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (<i>Nederlandsche
Hervormde Kerk</i>) as the national Protestant church, practically
came to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision
of the Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality
of all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present
organization of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed
by a general assembly or &ldquo;synod&rdquo; of deputies from the principal
judicatures, sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into
&ldquo;classes,&rdquo; and the classes again into &ldquo;circles&rdquo; (<i>ringen</i>), each circle
comprising from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being
governed by a &ldquo;church council&rdquo; or session. The provincial synods
are composed of ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and
these are composed of the ministers belonging to the particular class
and an equal number of elders appointed by the local sessions. The
meetings of the circles have no administrative character, but are
mere brotherly conferences. The financial management in each
congregation is entrusted to a special court (<i>kerk-voogdij</i>) composed
of &ldquo;notables&rdquo; and church wardens. In every province there is
besides, in the case of the Reformed Church, a provincial committee
of supervision for the ecclesiastical administration. For the
whole kingdom this supervision is entrusted to a common &ldquo;collegium&rdquo;
or committee of supervision, which meets at the Hague,
and consists of 11 members named by the provincial committee and
3 named by the synod. Some congregations have withdrawn from
provincial supervision, and have thus free control of their own
financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox Church
is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most liberal
thought in the country, and have their own training college at
Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the
Christian Reformed Church (<i>Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk</i>) arose as
a protest against the government and the modern tendencies of the
Reformed Church; and for the same reason those who had founded
the Free University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886
into an independent body called the <i>Nederlandsche Gereformeerde
Kerk</i>. In 1892 these two churches united under the name of the
Reformed Churches (<i>Gereformeerde Kerken</i>) with the doctrine and
discipline of Dort. They have a theological seminary at Kampen.
Other Protestant bodies are the Walloons, who, though possessing
an independent church government, are attached to the Low-Dutch
Reformed Church; the Lutherans, divided into the main body of
Evangelical Lutherans and a smaller division calling themselves
the Re-established or Old Lutherans (<i>Herstelde Lutherschen</i>) who
separated in 1791 in order to keep more strictly to the Augsburg
confession; the Mennonites founded by Menno Simons of Friesland,
about the beginning of the 16th century; the Baptists, whose only
central authority is the General Baptist Society founded at Amsterdam
in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of Hernhutters
or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and
Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague.
There are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague,
Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the
Hague (1857) and Rotterdam (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic
Church, which before had been a mission in the hands of papal
legates and vicars, was raised into an independent ecclesiastical
province with five dioceses, namely, the archbishopric of Utrecht,
and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem, Breda, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch
and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side by side with
the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the Old
Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (<i>Oud Bisschoppelijke Clerezie</i>),
and the Jansenists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jansenism</a></span>). The Old Catholics, with whom
the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th century.
Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have bishops
at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Utrecht</a></span>). The large
Jewish population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx
of Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in
the beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized
under the central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church,
and divided into head and &ldquo;ring&rdquo; synagogues and associated
churches. The Roman Catholic element preponderates in the
southern provinces of Limburg, and North Brabant, but in Friesland,
Groningen and Drente the Baptists and Christian Reformed are
most numerous.</p>

<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under
the control and supervision of the state, being administered by a
special department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889
the state recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900
passed a law of compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are
generally in the hands of private societies or the municipal authorities,
are not interfered with by the state. According to the law of
1889 primary education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation
schools for boys and girls (co-education having been long
in vogue). These schools are established in every commune, the
state contributing aid at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure.
The age of admission is six; and the course is for six years, 7-13
being the legal age limits; the fee, from which poverty exempts,
is almost nominal. Nature-study, continued in the secondary
schools, is an essential part in the curriculum of these schools, and
elementary general history, English, French and German are among
the optional subjects. While the boys are instructed in woodwork,
needlework is taught to the girls, its introduction in 1889 having
been the first recognition of practical instruction in any form.
Continuation schools (<i>herhalingsscholen</i>) must be organized wherever
required, and are generally open for six months in winter, pupils
of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending. Secondary schools were
established by the law of 1863 and must be provided by every
commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the Burgher-Day-and-Evening
schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The first
named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in industrial
or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell into
disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two years,
but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the instruction,
though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special local industries;
the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling per annum.
Special mention must be made in this connexion of the school of
engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic Arts
at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or
a five years&rsquo; course, and the fees vary from £2, 10s. to £5 a year.
The instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific.
In both schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course,
that of the higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science
and medical branches of university education, a supplementary
examination in Greek and Latin being required for other branches.
The gymnasia, or classical schools, fall legally speaking under the
head of higher education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000
inhabitants, unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium.
A large proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to
the extent of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and
philological, but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in
favour of scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary
from £5 to £8 a year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and
bursaries, are sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher
schools. Among the schools which give specialized instruction,
mention must be made of the admirable trade schools
(<i>ambachtsscholen</i>) established in 1861, and the corresponding industrial
schools for girls; the fishery schools and schools of navigation;
the many private schools of domestic science, and of
commerce and industry, among which the municipal school at
Enschedé (1886) deserves special mention; and the school of social
work, &ldquo;Das Huis,&rdquo; at Amsterdam (1900). For the education of
medical practitioners, civil and military, the more important institutions
are the National Obstetrical College at Amsterdam, the
National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National College for
Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at Utrecht
for the training of military apothecaries for the East and West
Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the state
is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture for
every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
cases), &ldquo;winter schools&rdquo; of agriculture and horticulture, and a
state agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in
home and colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including
board and lodging, are about £50 a year. According to the
law of 1898, the state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or
testing-stations. Other schools of the same class are the Gerard
Adriaan van Swieten schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry
in Drente, the school of instruction in butter and cheese making
(<i>zuivelbereiding</i>) at Bolsward and the state veterinary college at
Utrecht.</p>

<p>There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden
(1575), Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums
of Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in
1811, but that of Amsterdam was converted into a municipal
university in 1877. In each of these universities there are five
faculties, namely, law, theology, medicine, science and mathematics,
and literature and philosophy, the courses for which are
respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven years for the two
last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (£16, 13s. 4d.) per
annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of degrees are
conferred, namely, the ordinary (<i>candidaats</i>) and the &ldquo;doctor&rsquo;s&rdquo;
degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only eligible
for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university at Amsterdam
founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of conferring
degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of engineering
in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of &ldquo;engineer.&rdquo;
The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as at
the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The
centre of Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the
students&rsquo; corps, at the head of which is a &ldquo;senate,&rdquo; elected annually
from among the students of four years&rsquo; standing. Membership of
the corps is gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only
passport to the various social and sports societies.</p>

<p>All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession
by examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in
the state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this
class of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years.
In the last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary
&ldquo;practice&rdquo; school attached to each college, and students are also
taught to make models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction
after the manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slöjd) system.
Assistant-teachers wishing to qualify as head-teachers must have
had two years&rsquo; practical experience. Pupil-teachers can only give
instruction under the supervision of a certificated teacher. The
minimum salary of teachers is determined by law. The teaching,
which follows the so-called &ldquo;Heuristic&rdquo; method, and the equipment
of schools of every description, are admirable.</p>

<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;The following statement shows the revenue and
expenditure of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and
1905:&mdash;</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Source.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Excise</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,678,075</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,042,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,514,998</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct taxation</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,300,865</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,135,665</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Indirect taxation</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,004,745</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,805,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,946,666</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Post Office</td> <td class="tcr rb">539,405</td> <td class="tcr rb">865,750</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,103,333</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Government telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">187,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">211,333</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Export and Import duties</td> <td class="tcr rb">440,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">801,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">930,912</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">State domains</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,186</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilot dues</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,079</td> <td class="tcr rb">191,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">State lotteries</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,666</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Game and Fisheries</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,750</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Railways</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">361,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">349,011</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Part paid by East Indies on account of</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; interest and redemption of public debt</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,916</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherland Bank contribution</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,500</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; Total*</td> <td class="tcr allb">9,475,337</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,394,220</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,017,079</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">* Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Object.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">National Debt</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,727,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,906,214</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,899,770</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of War</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,708,698</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,893,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,474,011</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Waterstaat</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,790,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,448,339</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,869,951</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Finance</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,537,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,092,343</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,297,180</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Marine</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,038,536</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,388,141</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,396,137</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Interior</td> <td class="tcr rb">815,188</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,330,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,613,134</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Justice</td> <td class="tcr rb">426,343</td> <td class="tcr rb">529,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">592,073</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Colonies</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,829</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,768</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,150</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dept. of Foreign Affairs</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,312</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,101</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,403</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Royal Household</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,666</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Superior Authorities of the State</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,792</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,251</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Unforeseen Expenditure</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,745</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,166</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; Total*</td> <td class="tcr allb">10,393,579</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,896,289</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,907,781</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">* Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment of<br />
&emsp; annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway extension, &amp;c.</td></tr>
</table>

<p>The total debt in 1905 amounted to £96,764,266, the annual
interest amounted to £3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905,
£27,416,651 has been devoted to the redemption of the public debt.
The total wealth of the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling.
The various provinces and communes have separate budgets. The
following table gives a statement of the provincial and communal
finances:&mdash;</p>
</div>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr rb">722,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">718,199</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Communal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,132,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,311,666</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,750,083</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr rb">740,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">702,718</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Communal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,683,800</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,503,250</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,085,250</td></tr>
</table>

<p><i>Colonies.</i>&mdash;The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have
an area of 600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000,
among which are 35,000 Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000
Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant Asiatics. The West Indian
possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or the government
of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of Curaçoa
and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of
St Martin, Curaçoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000
sq. m., with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are
Europeans, and the rest negroes and other people of colour,
and Chinese.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The chief place is due to the following geographical
publications:&mdash;Dr H. Blink, <i>Nederland en zijne Bewoners</i>
(Amsterdam, 1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography;
<i>Tegenwoordige Staat van Nederland</i> (Amsterdam, 1897); R.
Schuiling, <i>Aardrijkskunde van Nederland</i> (Zwolle, 1884); A. A.
Beekman, <i>De Strijd om het Bestaan</i> (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on
the characteristic hydrography of the Netherlands; and E. Reclus&rsquo;
<i>Nouvelle géographie universelle</i> (1879; vol. iv.). The <i>Gedenboek
uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk
Instituut van Ingenieurs</i>, 1847-1897 (&rsquo;s Gravenhage, 1898), is an
excellent aid in studying technically the remarkable works on
Dutch rivers, canals, sluices, railways and harbours, and drainage
and irrigation works. The <i>Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van
Nederland</i>, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem, 1895), is a complete gazetteer
with historical notes, and <i>Nomina Geographica Neerlandica</i>, published
by the Netherlands Geographical Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &amp;c.),
contains a history of geographical names. <i>Geschiedenis van den
Boereastand en den landbouw in Nederland</i>, H. Blink (Groningen,
1902), and the report on agriculture, published at the Hague by the
Royal Commission appointed in 1896, furnish special information
in connexion with this subject. Of more general interest are: <i>Eene
halve Eeuw, 1848-1898</i>, edited by Dr P. H. Ritter (Amsterdam,
1898), containing a series of articles on all subjects connected with
the kingdom during the second half of the 19th century, written by
specialists; and <i>Les Pays Bas</i> (Leiden, 1899), and <i>La Hollande
géographique, ethnologique, politique, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1900), both works
of the same class as the preceding.</p>

<p>Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as
well as literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to
Edmondo de Amicis (<i>Holland</i>, translated from the Italian, London,
1883); H. Havard, <i>Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &amp;c.</i> (translated from
the French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, <i>Holland and the
Hollanders</i> (London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also
be made of <i>Old Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee</i>, by W. J.
Tuyn (translated from the Dutch, London, 1901), <i>Nieuwe <span class="correction" title="amended from Wanderlingen">Wandelingen</span>
door Nederland</i>, by J. Craandijk and P. A. <span class="correction" title="amended from Schipperns">Schipperus</span>
(Haarlem, 1888); <i>Friesland Meres and through the Netherlands</i>,
by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); <i>On Dutch Waterways</i>, by G. C.
Davis (London, 1887); <i>Hollande et hollandais</i>, by H. Durand
(Paris, 1893); and <i>Holland and Belgium</i> by Professor N. G. van
Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860), the last three
being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations. Works of
historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are <i>Merkwaardige
Kasteelen in Nederland</i>, by J. van Lennep and W. J. Hofdyk (Leiden,
1881-1884); <i>Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden</i>, by G. van Arkel and
A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society (Amsterdam,
1891); and <i>Oud Holland</i>, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous contributions
to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
Royal Zoological Society &ldquo;Natura Artis Magistra&rdquo; at Amsterdam,
and the <i>Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland</i> (Haarlem, 1856-1863)
written by specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military
and naval defence may be studied in <i>De vesting Holland</i>, by A. L. W.
Seijffardt (Utrecht, 1887), and the <i>Handbook of the Dutch Army</i>,
by Major W. L. White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history
in <i>The Church in the Netherlands</i>, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893);
and education in vol. viii. of the <i>Special Reports on Educational
Subjects</i> issued by the Board of Education, London. Statistics are
furnished by the annual publication of the Society for Statistics in
the Netherlands, Amsterdam.</p>
</div>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">History from 1579 to Modern Times</span><a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>

<p>The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed
from its immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the
Union of Brussels and the Perpetual Edict, in its
permanence. The confederacy of the northern provinces
<span class="sidenote">Consequences of the Union of Utrecht.</span>
of the Netherlands which was effected (29th
of January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau,
was destined to be the beginning of a new national
life. The foundation was laid on which the Republic of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
United Netherlands was to be raised. Its immediate results
were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon
provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause
threatened it with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal
influence and indefatigable labours of the prince of Orange
stood in the way of a more general defection. Everywhere,
save in staunch and steadfast Holland and Zeeland, a feeling
of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the land.
In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere
his aims and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood.
He saw that unaided the patriotic party could not hope
to resist the power of Philip II., and he had therefore resolved
to gain the support of France by the offer of the sovereignty
<span class="sidenote">Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou.<br />
The Ban against William of Orange.<br />
The Act of Abjuration.<br />
The Apology.</span>
of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But Anjou
was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Protestants
a feeling that they were being betrayed.
But the prince persisted in the policy he felt to be a
necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was concluded
with the duke, by which he, under certain
conditions, agreed to accept the sovereignty of the <span class="correction" title="amended from Netherland">Netherlands</span>
provinces, except Holland and Zeeland. These two provinces
were unwilling to have any sovereign but William
himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed
to become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt
that he was justified in taking this step because of the
Ban which Philip had published on the 15th of March
1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and
miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his
life. His practical answer to the king was the act
of Abjuration, by which at his persuasion the representatives
of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders,
Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled
at the Hague, declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty
over them, and that they held themselves henceforth absolved
from their allegiance to him. In a written defence,
the famous <i>Apology</i>, published later in the year, William
replied at great length to the charges that had been
brought against him, and carrying the war into the enemy&rsquo;s
camp, endeavoured to prove that the course he had pursued
was justified by the crimes and tyranny of the king.</p>

<p>The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of
Brabant (February 1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of
Gelderland, count of Flanders and lord of Friesland.
<span class="sidenote">Attempt on the Life of Orange by Jean Jaureguy.</span>
William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in
order to give the French prince his strongest personal
support, and while there a serious attempt was made
upon his life (March 18th) by a youth named Jean
Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his
head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left
jaw. It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Meanwhile
Anjou soon grew tired of his dependent position and of
the limitations placed upon his sovereignty. He resolved by
a secret and sudden attack (17th of January 1583) to make
himself master of Antwerp and of the person of Orange.
<span class="sidenote">The French Fury.</span>
The assault was made, but it proved an utter failure.
The citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and
the French were routed with heavy loss. The &ldquo;French
Fury&rdquo; as it was called, rendered the position of Anjou in the
Netherlands impossible, and made William himself unpopular
in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the midst
of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize
resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and
Spanish influence under the able leadership of Alexander of
Parma. Antwerp, with St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was
still in the hands of the patriots and barred the way to the sea,
and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never for one moment did
William lose heart or relax his efforts and vigilance; he felt that
with the two maritime provinces secure the national cause need
not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn to their
end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic
zealot, by name Balthazar Gérard, from attempting to assassinate
the man whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of
God and the king. Under the pretext of seeking a passport,
<span class="sidenote">Assassination of William the Silent.</span>
Gérard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at Delft, and
firing point blank at William as he left the dining
hall, mortally wounded him (10th of July 1584).
Amidst general lamentations &ldquo;the Father of his
Country,&rdquo; as he was called, was buried with great state in the
Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge.</p>

<p>But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or
worked in vain. The situation was critical, but there was no
panic. Throughout the revolted provinces there was a general
determination to continue the struggle to the bitter end. To
make head, however, against the victorious advance of Parma,
before whose arms all the chief towns of Brabant and Flanders,
Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly&mdash;after a valiant defence&mdash;Antwerp
itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for the protection
of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the commanding
personal influence of William was no more, was without
any central authority which could claim obedience. The States-General
were but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces,
<span class="sidenote">Maurice of Nassau.</span>
and amongst these Holland by its size and wealth (after
the occupation by the Spaniards of Brabant and
Flanders) was predominant. Maurice of Nassau,
William&rsquo;s second son, had indeed on his father&rsquo;s death
been appointed captain and admiral-general of the
Union, president of the Council of State, and stadholder of
Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only seventeen,
to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the
command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two
devoted adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate
<span class="sidenote">The Sovereignty offered to Henry III. and declined.</span>
of Holland, and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, pensionary
of Rotterdam, were the statesmen who at this difficult
juncture took the foremost part in directing the policy
of the confederacy. They turned first to France.
The sovereignty of the provinces was offered to Henry
III., but the king, harassed by civil discords in his
own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585). Repelled
in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to
England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish
arms, and especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refusing
the sovereignty, she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and
1000 horse to the aid of the Provinces under the command
of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being
<span class="sidenote">Leicester Governor-general.</span>
guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns
of Flushing, Brill and Rammekens as pledges (10th
of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in Holland, was in the
presence of the States-General and of Maurice of Nassau invested
with the title of governor-general and practically sovereign
powers (February 1586).</p>

<p>The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He
knew nothing of the language or the character of the people he
was called upon to govern; his own abilities both as
general and statesman were mediocre; and he was
<span class="sidenote">Failure and withdrawal of Leicester.</span>
hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness
and changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying
to consolidate the forces of the Provinces for united action and
to centralize its government, he undoubtedly did his best,
according to his lights, for the national cause. But he was too
hasty and overbearing. His edict prohibiting all commercial
intercourse with the enemy at once aroused against him the
bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and Zeeland, who
thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council of
State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal
adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial
states of Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position
impossible. The traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen
by their English governors, Stanley and York, both Catholics,
rendered all Englishmen suspect. The States of Holland under
the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, took up an attitude
of resolute hostility to him, and the States of Holland dominated
the States-General. In the midst of these divided councils the
important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly discredited,
Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
in which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned
to England.</p>

<p>Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States
at the beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all
probability he would have crushed out the revolt
and reconquered the northern Netherlands. But the
<span class="sidenote">Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.</span>
attention of the Spanish king was at this time concentrated
upon the success of the Invincible Armada.
The army of Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of
England, and the United Provinces had a respite. They were
fortunately able to avail themselves of it. The commanding
abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of Holland, gradually
gathered into his hands the entire administration of the Republic.
He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more and
more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency
of purpose. At the same time Maurice of
<span class="sidenote">Maurice of Nassau.</span>
Nassau, now grown to man&rsquo;s estate, began to display
those military talents which were to gain for him the
fame of being the first general of his time. But
Maurice was no politician. He had implicit trust in the
advocate, his father&rsquo;s faithful friend and counsellor, and for
many years to come the statesman and the soldier worked in
harmony together for the best interests of their country (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oldenbarneveldt</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurice</a></span>, prince of Orange). At the
side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis,
stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander
in the field.</p>

<p>After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied
with campaigns on the southern frontier against the French,
and the Netherlanders had been content to stand on
guard against attack. The surprise of Breda by a
<span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1591.</span>
stratagem (8th of March 1590) was the only military
event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had
not wasted the time. The States&rsquo; forces had been reorganized
and brought to a high state of military discipline and training.
In 1591 the States-General, after considerable hesitation, were
persuaded by Maurice to sanction an offensive campaign. It
was attended by marvellous success. Zutphen was captured
on the 20th of May, Deventer on the 20th of June. Parma,
who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to retire
with loss. Hulst fell after a three days&rsquo; investment, and finally
Nymegen was taken on the 21st of October. The fame of
Maurice, a consummate general at the early age of twenty-four,
was on all men&rsquo;s lips. The following campaign was signalized
<span class="sidenote">Death of Parma.<br />
New province of Stadt en Landen.</span>
by the capture of Steenwyk and Koevorden. On the
8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States
were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary.
In 1593 the leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice&rsquo;s
reputation as an invincible besieger. The town fell after an
investment of three months. Groningen was the
chief fruit of the campaign of 1594. With its dependent
district it was formed into a new province under the
name of Stadt en Landen. William Louis became
the stadholder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groningen</a></span>). The soil of the northern
Netherlands was at last practically free from the presence of
Spanish garrisons.</p>

<p>The growing importance of the new state was signalized by
the conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England,
France and the United Provinces. It was of short
duration and purchased by hard conditions, but it
<span class="sidenote">Triple Alliance of France, England and the United Provinces.</span>
implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth
of the States-General, as a sovereign power, with
whom treaties could be concluded. Such a recognition
was justified by the brilliant successes of the campaign
of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish
force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any
loss to the victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg,
Meurs, Groenlo, Bredevoort, Enschedé, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal
and Lingen fell into the hands of Maurice.</p>

<p>The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 completely
changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved
to marry his elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia,
to her cousin, the Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who
<span class="sidenote">Albert and Isabel, Sovereigns of the Netherlands.</span>
had been governor-general of the Netherlands since 1596,
and to erect the Provinces into an independent sovereignty
under their joint rule. The instrument was
executed in May; Philip died in September; the
marriage took place in November. In case the marriage
should have no issue, the sovereignty of the
Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The
archdukes (such was their official title) did not make their
<i>joyeuse entrée</i> into Brussels until the close of 1599. The step
was taken too late to effect a reconciliation with the rebel
provinces. Peace overtures were made, but the conditions
were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously considered
the question of giving in their submission to the new
sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven
mightily by the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East
and West Indies, and were to be found in every sea. The year
1600 saw the foundation of the Chartered East India Company
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch East India Company</a></span>). The question of freedom
of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to the Dutch
people than freedom of religious worship. To both these concessions
Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed.</p>

<p>Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch
commerce, was made the objective of a daring offensive campaign
in 1600 by the orders of the States-General under the
influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the teeth of the opposition
<span class="sidenote">The Battle of Nieuport.</span>
of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis.
By a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached
Nieuport on the 1st of July, and proceeded to invest it. The
archduke Albert, however, followed hard on his steps with an
army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his communications
cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate combat
took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and
valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare
for Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand
Spaniards were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred
and five standards. To have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish
infantry in open fight was a great triumph for the States troops
and their general, but it was barren of results. Maurice refused
to run further risks and led back his army to Holland. For the
following three years all the energies alike of the archdukes and
<span class="sidenote">Siege of Ostend.</span>
the States-General were concentrated on the siege
of Ostend (15th of July 1601-20th of Sept. 1604), the
solitary possession of the Dutch in Flanders. The
heroic obstinacy of the defence was equalled by the perseverance
of the attack, and there was a vast expenditure, especially on
the side of the Spaniards, of blood and treasure. At last when
reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before the resolution of
Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the command
of the besiegers had been entrusted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinola</a></span>). A month
before the surrender, however, another and more commodious
seaport, Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army
under Maurice, and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted.</p>

<p>Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the
campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel
of skill between him and Maurice without much advantage
accruing to either side. But the archdukes&rsquo;
<span class="sidenote">Negotiations for Peace.</span>
treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted;
both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotiations
for peace were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards
to make concessions was further quickened by the destruction
of their fleet at Gibraltar by the Dutch admiral Heemskerk,
(April 1607). But there were many difficulties in the way.
The peace party in the United Provinces headed by Oldenbarneveldt
was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William
Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers,
the Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The
Spaniards on their side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom
of trade in the Indies and of freedom of religious worship. At
last, after the negotiations had been repeatedly on the point of
breaking off, a compromise was effected by the mediation of
the envoys of France and England. On the 9th of April 1609
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the
Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with
<span class="sidenote">The Twelve Years&rsquo; Truce.</span>
the Provinces, &ldquo;in the quality of free States over
whom the archdukes made no pretentions.&rdquo; The <i>uti
possidetis</i> as regards territorial possession was recognized.
Neither the granting of freedom of worship
to Roman Catholics nor the word &ldquo;Indies&rdquo; was mentioned,
but in a secret treaty King Philip undertook to place no hindrance
in the way of Dutch trade, wherever carried on.</p>

<p>One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was
the increase of Oldenbarneveldt&rsquo;s influence and authority in the
government of the Republic. But though Maurice
and his other opponents had reluctantly yielded to
<span class="sidenote">Theological strife in Holland.</span>
the advocate&rsquo;s skilful diplomacy and persuasive
arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman
and the stadholder which was destined never to be healed. The
country was no sooner relieved from the pressure of external
war than it was torn by internal discords. After a brief interference
in the affairs of Germany, where the intricate question
of the Cleves-Jülich succession was already preparing the way
for the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, the United Provinces became immersed
in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were
<span class="sidenote">Arminius and Gomarus.</span>
mixed up important political issues. The province
of Holland was the arena in which it was fought out.
Two professors of theology at Leiden, Jacobus Arminius
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arminius</a></span>) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the
leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon
certain tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination.
Gomarus supported the orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius
assailed it. The Arminians appealed to the States of Holland
(1610) in a Remonstrance in which their theological position
was defined. They were henceforth known as &ldquo;Remonstrants&rdquo;;
<span class="sidenote">Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.</span>
their opponents were styled &ldquo;Contra-Remonstrants.&rdquo;
The advocate and the States of
Holland took sides with the Remonstrants, Maurice
and the majority of the States-General (four provinces
out of seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became
a question of the extent of the rights of sovereign princes under
the Union. The States-General wished to summon a national
synod, the States of Holland refused their assent, and made
levies of local militia (<i>waard-gelders</i>) for the maintenance of order.
The States-General (9th of July 1618) took up the challenge,
and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was placed at the
head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht, which
supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of
<span class="sidenote">Waard-gelders.</span>
Holland to insist on the disbanding of the <i>waard-gelders</i>.
On the side of Maurice, whom the army
obeyed, was the power of the sword. The opposition
collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged; and
the leaders of the party of state rights&mdash;the advocate himself,
Hugo de Groot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grotius</a></span>), pensionary of Rotterdam, and
Hoogerbeets, pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown
into prison. The whole proceedings were illegal, and the illegality
was consummated by the prisoners being brought before a
<span class="sidenote">Oldenbarneveldt executed.</span>
special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly all of whom were
personal enemies of the accused. The trial was
merely a preliminary to condemnation. The advocate
was sentenced to death, and executed (13th of May
1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences of Grotius
and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had
met at Dort on the 13th of November 1618. One hundred
members, many of them foreign divines, composed
<span class="sidenote">Synod of Dort.</span>
this great assembly, who after 154 sittings gave their
seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and
the Heidelberg Catechism. The Arminians were condemned,
their preachers deprived, and the Remonstrant party placed
under a ban (6th of May 1619).</p>

<p>In 1621 the Twelve Years&rsquo; Truce came to an end, and war
broke out once more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of
Oldenbarneveldt, was supreme in the land, but he missed
sorely the wise counsels of the old statesman whose tragic end
<span class="sidenote">Renewal of the war.<br />
Death of Maurice.</span>
he had been so largely instrumental in bringing about. He
and Spinola found themselves once more at the head
of the armies in the field, but the health of the stadholder
was undermined, and his military genius was
under a cloud. Deeply mortified by his failure to relieve Breda,
which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice fell seriously
ill, and died on the 23rd of April 1625. He was
succeeded in his dignities by his younger brother
Frederick Henry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick Henry</a></span>, prince of Orange),
who was appointed stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general of the
Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as
a general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able statesman.
The moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper
did much to heal the wounds left by civil and religious strife,
and during his time the power and influence of the stadholderate
<span class="sidenote">The period of Frederick Henry.</span>
attained their highest point. Such was his popularity
and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great
offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of
his five-year-old son, by the <i>Acte de Survivance</i>. He
did much to justify the trust placed in him, for the period of
Frederick Henry is the most brilliant in the history of the Dutch
Republic. During his time the East India Company, which had
founded the town of Batavia in Java as their administrative
<span class="sidenote">The East and West India Companies.</span>
capital, under a succession of able governor-generals
almost monopolized the trade of the entire
Orient, made many conquests and established a network
of factories and trade posts stretching from the Cape of
Good Hope to Japan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch East India Company</a></span>). The
West India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the
same model, aimed rather at waging war on the enemies&rsquo; commerce
than in developing their own. Their fleets for some years
brought vast booty into the company&rsquo;s coffers. The Mexican
treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn, the boldest of
their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send armies
across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a
flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see Dutch West
India Company). The operations of these two great chartered
companies occupy a place among memorable events of Frederick
Henry&rsquo;s stadholderate; they are therefore mentioned here, but
for further details the special articles must be consulted.</p>

<p>When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother&rsquo;s place, he
found the United Provinces in a position of great danger and of
critical importance. The Protestants of Germany
were on the point of being crushed by the forces of the
<span class="sidenote">Policy of Frederick Henry.</span>
Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League. It lay
with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour
of their co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish
Habsburgs fully occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed
to imperialist attack from the east, was a task involving grave
risks and possible disaster. In these circumstances, Frederick
Henry saw the necessity of securing French aid. It was secured
by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van Aarssens (q.v.) but
on hard conditions. Richelieu required the assistance of the
Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance of the
Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder,
despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence
induced the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus
obtain the French alliance on which the safety of the republic
depended.</p>

<p>The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in
1629. His capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto
supposed to be impregnable, after a siege of five
months was a triumph of engineering skill. Wesel
<span class="sidenote">Sieges of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht.</span>
also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a
large Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000
soldiers, for the invasion of Zeeland, was completely
destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the troops made
prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made
memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier
town lying on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the
prince of Orange in the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
and Imperialist, whose united forces were far larger than his own.
This brilliant feat of arms was the prelude to peace negotiations,
<span class="sidenote">Death of the Infanta Isabel.</span>
which led to a lengthy exchange of diplomatic notes.
No agreement, however, was reached. The death of
the Infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion
of the Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king
of Spain, rendered all efforts to end the war, for the time being,
fruitless.</p>

<p>At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed
to the prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had
to contend against a strong peace party in Holland
headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with the aid of
<span class="sidenote">Alliance with France.</span>
the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was
overcome. Pauw was replaced as pensionary by
Jacob Cats, and the objections of Richelieu were met and
satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance with France was
concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and each
party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the
assent of the other. A large French force was sent into the
Netherlands and placed under the command of the prince of
Orange. The military results of the alliance were during the
first two campaigns inconsiderable. The Cardinal Infant
Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the Netherlands,
and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were
dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder
was able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities.
His failure to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice.
<span class="sidenote">Capture of Breda.</span>
It fell in 1625 into the hands of Spinola after a blockade
of eleven months; it was now retaken by Frederick
Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of
immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland,
and of Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies
caused the campaigns of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defensive
and dilatory. An attempted attack on Antwerp was foiled
by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A body of 6000 men
under Count William of Nassau were surprised and utterly
cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive
negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had
been much hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however,
without a signal triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be
on sea and not on land. A magnificent Spanish armada consisting
of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000 soldiers and sailors under the
command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to the Channel in
September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow
seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by
<span class="sidenote">Battle of the Downs.</span>
a small Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp,
the Spaniards sheltered themselves under the English
Downs by the side of an English squadron. Tromp
kept watch over them until he had received large
reinforcements, and then (21st of October) boldly attacked them
as they lay in English waters. Oquendo himself with seven
vessels escaped under cover of a fog; all the rest of the fleet
was destroyed. This crushing victory assured to the Dutch
the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The naval
power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow.</p>

<p>The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public
feeling in England. The circumstances under which the battle
of the Downs was won were galling to the pride of
the English people, and intensified the growing
<span class="sidenote">English and Dutch Commercial Rivalry.<br />
Marriage of William and Mary.</span>
unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom
possessed and the other claimed supremacy upon
the seas. The prosperity of the world-wide Dutch
commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across the
Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between
Dutch and English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere,
and the seeds were already sown of that stern rivalry which was
to issue in a series of fiercely contested wars. But in
1639-1640 civil discords in England stood in the way
of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens
was able so &ldquo;to sweeten the bitterness of the pill&rdquo;
as to bring King Charles not merely to &ldquo;overlook the scandal
of the Downs,&rdquo; but to consent to the marriage of the princess
royal with William, the only son of the stadholder. The wedding
of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and 10 years)
took place on the 12th of May 1641 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II., prince
of Orange</a></span>). This royal alliance gave added influence and
position to the house of Orange-Nassau.</p>

<p>About this time various causes brought about a change in
the feelings which had hitherto prevented any possibility of
peace between Spain and the United Netherlands.
The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened
<span class="sidenote">Changed relations of the United Provinces with France and Spain.</span>
the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of
the Portuguese colonies. But it was in the Portuguese
colonies that the conquests of the Dutch East and
West India Companies had been made, and the
question of the Indies as between Netherlander and
Spaniard assumed henceforth quite a different complexion.
Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the French alliance, passed
away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed by those of
Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Condé at Rocroy
opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French
conquest of the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health
growing enfeebled, the prince became anxious before his death
to obtain peace and security for his country by means of an
accommodation with Spain. In 1643 negotiations were opened
which, after many delays and in the face of countless difficulties,
were at length, four years later, to terminate successfully.</p>

<p>The course of the <i>pourparlers</i> would doubtless have run
more smoothly but for the infirm health and finally the death
of the prince of Orange himself. Frederick Henry
expired on the 14th of March 1647, and was buried
<span class="sidenote">Death of Frederick Henry&mdash;his last campaigns.</span>
by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In
his last campaigns he had completed with signal
success the task which, as a military commander, he
had set himself,&mdash;of giving to the United Provinces a thoroughly
defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In 1644 he captured
Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders which
skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the possession
of the States, and with it the complete control of all the
waterways to the sea.</p>

<p>The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay
the carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart,
of concluding a separate peace with Spain behind the
back of France, notwithstanding the compact of 1635
<span class="sidenote">The Peace of Münster.</span>
with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had
already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick
Henry, and afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the
new prince of Orange (who, under the <i>Acte de Survivance</i>, had
inherited all his father&rsquo;s offices and dignities) and of two of the
provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht, the negotiations were by the
powerful support of the States of Holland and of the majority
of the States-General, quickly brought to a successful issue. The
treaty was signed at Münster on the 30th of January 1648. It
was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and involved
a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so
<span class="sidenote">Complete triumph of the Dutch.</span>
long fought. The United Provinces were recognized
as free and independent, and Spain dropped all her
claims; the <i>uti possidetis</i> basis was adopted in respect
to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely
closed&mdash;a clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit
of Amsterdam; the right to trade in the East and West Indies
was granted, and all the conquests made by the Dutch from
the Portuguese were ceded to them; the two contracting parties
agreed to respect and keep clear of each other&rsquo;s trading grounds;
each was to pay in the ports of the other only such tolls as natives
paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces, the eighty
years&rsquo; war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the
United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its
prosperity and greatness.</p>

<p>No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose
between the provincial States of Holland and the prince of
Orange, supported by the other six provinces, upon the question
of the disbanding of the military forces. William was a young
<span class="sidenote">The form of Government in the United Provinces.</span>
man (he was twenty-one at the time of his father&rsquo;s death) of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span>
the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He was totally
opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about
a speedy resumption of the war. With this view he
entered into secret negotiations for a French alliance
which, as far as can be gathered from extant records,
had for its objects the conquest and partition by the
allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in
England on behalf of Charles II. As a preliminary
step William aimed at a centralization of the powers of government
in the United Provinces in his own person. He saw clearly
the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he wished
to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times
almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates,
the stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces,
each of which had different historical traditions and a different
form of government, and one of which&mdash;Holland&mdash;in wealth and
importance outweighed the other six taken together. Between
the States of Holland and the States-General there was constant
<span class="sidenote">The position of Holland and Amsterdam.</span>
jealousy and friction. And yet strangely enough
the States of Holland themselves were not really
representative of the people of that province, but only
of the limited, self-coopting burgher aristocracies of
certain towns, each of which with its rights and liberties
had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost among
these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich
burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the
authority of the States-General, the stadholder and even of the
States of Holland themselves.</p>

<p>The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the
truce of 1609, measured their strength with that of the States-General,
but the issue had been decided conclusively
in favour of the federal authority by the sword of
<span class="sidenote">The position in 1650.</span>
Maurice. The party and the principles of Oldenbarneveldt,
however, though crushed, were not extinguished,
and though Frederick Henry by his personal influence
and prudent statesmanship had been able to surmount the
difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter at times
strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct
both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion
of the peace of Münster and the death of the veteran stadholder
the struggle for predominance in the Union between the Orange-federalist
and the Hollander States-rights parties was certain
to be renewed. The moment seemed to be favourable for the
assertion of provincial sovereignty because of the youth and
inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But William II.,
though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular
capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon
ambitious projects, the scope of which has been already indicated.
The collision came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-General
<span class="sidenote">The question of disbanding the forces.</span>
in the disbanding of the forces wished to
retain the <i>cadres</i> of the regiments complete in case of a
renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected,
and, although the army was a federal force, gave orders
for the general disbanding of the troops in the pay of
the province. The officers refused to obey any orders but those
of the council of State of the Union. The provincial states, on
their part, threatened them with loss of pay. At this juncture
the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a commission headed
by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland, and
provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the
Union. Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province
by refusing its quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality
by dealing with individual towns instead of with the states of
the province. The visitation was a failure. The town councils,
though most of them willing to receive William in his capacity
as stadholder, declined to give a hearing to the commission.
<span class="sidenote">The Prisoners of Loevenstein.</span>
Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either stadholder
or commission. In these circumstances William
resolved upon strong measures. Six leading members
of the States of Holland were seized (30th of
July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and troops
under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Friesland,
were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council
had been warned, and the gates were shut and guarded. The
<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> nevertheless was completely successful. The anti-Orange
party, remembering the fate of Oldenbarneveldt, were
stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their leaders. The
States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in
their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks
were rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for
&ldquo;his great trouble, care and prudence.&rdquo; William appeared to
be master of the situation but his plans for future action were
<span class="sidenote">Sudden Death of William II.</span>
never to be carried into effect. Busily engaged in
secret negotiations with France, he had retired to his
hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox
on the 27th of October. A few days later he expired
at the Hague (6th of November), aged but twenty-four years.
A week after his death, his widow, the princess Mary of England,
gave birth to a son who, as William III., was to give added lustre
to the house of Orange.</p>

<p>The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered
decisive defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of
Holland a Grand Assembly was summoned, consisting
of delegates from all the provinces, to consider the
<span class="sidenote">The Grand Assembly.</span>
state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at
the Hague on the 18th of January 1651. The conclusions
arrived at were that all sovereign powers resided in the
provinces, and that to them severally, each within its own
borders, belonged the control of the military forces and of
religion. There was to be no captain-general of the Union. All
the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which remained
true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the
office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the establishment
of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the
handing over of the control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies
who formed the town councils of that province.</p>

<p>Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact
that with the revival of the political principles of Oldenbarneveldt,
there was found a statesman of commanding
ability to fill the office in which the famous advocate
<span class="sidenote">The office of Grand Pensionary.</span>
of Holland had for so many years been &ldquo;minister of
all affairs&rdquo; in the forming state. The title of advocate
had indeed been replaced by that of grand pensionary (<i>Raad
Pensionaris</i>), but the duties assigned to the office remained the
same, the only change of importance being that the advocate
was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a term of five
years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant
of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit
a man of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to
exercise control in all departments of policy and of government.
All correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all
despatches, conducted the debates over which he presided, kept
the minutes, drafted the resolutions, and was <i>ex officio</i> the
leader and spokesman of the delegates who represented the
Province of Holland in the States-General. Such was the
<span class="sidenote">John de Witt.</span>
position to which John de Witt, a young man of
twenty-eight years of age, belonging to one of the
most influential patrician families of Dordrecht (his
father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the prisoners of Loevenstein)
was appointed in 1653. From that date until 1672 it was his
brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United Netherlands.
He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland
was dominant in the States-General (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John de Witt</a></span>).</p>

<p>The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the
very highest point of commercial prosperity, based upon an
almost universal carrying trade, and the strictest
system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had
<span class="sidenote">Disputes between English and Dutch Traders.</span>
frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English
traders in different parts of the world, and especially
in the East Indies, culminating in the so-called
&ldquo;Massacre of Amboyna&rdquo;; and the strained relations between
the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England,
have probably led to active hostilities during the reign of
Charles I. With the accession of Cromwell to power the breach
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
was widened. A strong party in the Provinces were unfriendly
to the Commonwealth, and insults were offered in the Hague
to the English envoys. The parliament replied by passing the
memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a deadly
blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that
struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after
<span class="sidenote">Naval struggle with England.</span>
three great wars, in the defeat of the weaker country.
The first English war lasted from May 1652 to April
1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights took
place, which were desperately contested and with
varying success. The leaders on both sides&mdash;the Netherlanders
Tromp (killed in action on the 10th of August 1653) and de
Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and Monk&mdash;covered themselves
with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade were so serious
that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the burgher party
of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement
<span class="sidenote">Peace of Westminster.</span>
was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on
the 5th of April 1654. The Dutch conceded the
striking of the flag and compensation for English
claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and elsewhere.
The act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of
Orange from holding the office of stadholder and of captain-general,
had been one of the conditions on which Cromwell had
insisted. The consent of the States-General was refused, but by
a secret treaty Holland, under the influence of de
<span class="sidenote">Act of Seclusion.</span>
Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign
province. The popular feeling throughout the United
Provinces was strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion,
by which at the dictation of a foreign power a ban of exclusion
was pronounced against the house of Orange-Nassau, to which
the republic owed its independence.</p>

<p>In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from
Charles Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was
concluded between France, England and the United
Provinces with a view to the settlement of the Dano-Swedish
<span class="sidenote">War with Sweden.</span>
question, which ended in securing a northern
peace in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade.
The foreign affairs of the republic were throughout these years
ably conducted by de Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial
expansion in the Eastern seas made secure and firm. An
advantageous peace with Portugal was made in 1662.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed
in 1660 by the restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the
new king the act of Seclusion was repealed, and the
education of the young prince of Orange was undertaken
<span class="sidenote">Second English war.</span>
by the States of Holland under the superintendence
of de Witt. But Charles owed a grudge
against Holland, and he was determined to gratify it. The
Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances revived, and
finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in time
of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New
York. War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of
terrific battles. On the 13th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral
Obdam was completely defeated by the English under the
duke of York. The four days&rsquo; fight (11th-14th of June 1666)
ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but later
in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue
and forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his
revenge, for on the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under
de Ruyter and Cornelius de Witt made their way up the Medway
as far as Chatham and burnt the English fleet as it lay at anchor.
Negotiations between the two countries were already in progress
<span class="sidenote">Peace of Breda.<br />
The Triple Alliance.</span>
and this event hastened a settlement. The peace of
Breda was signed (31st of July 1667) on terms on
the whole favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland
was retained by England in exchange for Suriname. In the
following year by the efforts of Sir William Temple the much
vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between Great
Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check
the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. The instability
of Charles II., who sold himself to Louis by the treaty
of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no effect, and left the
United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of the French
king.</p>

<p>From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch,
and so well had his diplomacy served him that they were left without
a friend in Europe. In 1672 the storm broke: the
English without a declaration of war tried, unsuccessfully,
<span class="sidenote">The French invasion.</span>
to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet;
and the French at the same time set forth in apparently
irresistible strength to overcome the despised traders of Holland.
The States were ill-prepared on land though their fleet was
strong and ready; party spirit had become intensely bitter as
the prince of Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>) grew to man&rsquo;s estate,
and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the
popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely
neglected their land forces. Town after town fell before the
French armies, and to de Witt and his supporters there seemed
to be nothing left but to make submission and accept the best
terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The young prince alone
rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face against such
<span class="sidenote">William III. Stadholder and Captain-general.<br />
The third English war.<br />
Murder of the Brothers de Witt.</span>
cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support
of the great majority of the people. Amidst general
acclamation William was elected stadholder, first of
Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed captain-general
of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the
fleet under de Ruyter had encountered a combined English
and French force in Solebay (7th of June), and after a
desperate fight, in which the French had but slackly supported
their allies, had more then held its own. William,
in his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet
the French in the open field, was able to persuade
his countrymen to open the dikes and by flooding
the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage
and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired
the people to make heroic sacrifices for their independence,
but unfortunately such was the revulsion of
feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself
and his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated
mob at the Hague (20th of August).</p>

<p>William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling
with chequered success against the superior forces of the
French, strove by his diplomacy, and not in vain, to
gain allies for the republic. The growing power of
<span class="sidenote">Peace of Westminster.</span>
France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden,
Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear
to the persuasions of the stadholder and were ready to aid his
efforts to curb the ambition of Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter,
in a series of fiercely contested battles, successfully maintained
his strenuous and dogged conflict against the united English
and French fleets. In England the war was exceedingly unpopular,
and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude peace.
The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests
should be restored, was signed on the 14th of February 1674.
The French now found themselves threatened on many sides,
<span class="sidenote">The war with France.<br />
Death of de Ruyter.<br />
Peace of Nymwegen.</span>
and were reduced to the defensive. The prince, however,
suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in 1674
prevented from invading France. The war, nevertheless,
during the following years was on the whole
advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a Dutch squadron fought
two hard but indecisive battles with a superior French force,
off Stromboli (8th of January) and off Messina (22nd of April).
In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly
wounded and died (29th of April). In 1677 negotiations
for peace went on, and were forwarded by the
marriage, at the close of the year, of William of Orange with
his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York.
At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nymwegen
by which the Dutch secured the integrity
and independence of their country. All the conquests
made by the French were given up.</p>

<p>The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed
the peace of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations
of the famous confederacy which changed the whole aspect
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
of European politics. The league of Augsburg (1686), which
<span class="sidenote">League of Augsburg.</span>
followed the revocation of the edict of Nantes, placed Orange
at the head of the resistance to French domination.
The league was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden,
the United Provinces and by several German states.
In England William and Mary were looked upon as the natural
successors to the throne on the death of James II., and William
kept up close relations with the malcontents in Church and
State, who disliked the arbitrary and papistical policy of his
father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince of Wales the
situation was changed, and William determined to intervene
actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis
XIV., having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the
Palatinate. The opposition of Amsterdam to an English
<span class="sidenote">Revolution of 1688.</span>
expedition, in the absence of danger from the side of
France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688
ensued, and England became, under William&rsquo;s strong
rule, the chief member of the Great Coalition against
French aggression. In the Grand Alliance of 1689-1690 he was
accused of sacrificing Dutch to English interests, but there
can be no doubt that William loved his native country better
than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the United
Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations
<span class="sidenote">The Grand Alliance.</span>
with and subordination to Great Britain during a
long series of years, it was due not to the policy of
William, but to the fact that the territory of the
republic was small, open to attack by great military
powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder&rsquo;s
authority and popularity continued unimpaired, despite of
his frequent absences in England. He had to contend, like his
predecessors, with the perennial hostility of the burgher aristocracy
of Amsterdam, and at times with other refractory town
councils, but his power in the States during his life was almost
autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the influence and
ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland,
<span class="sidenote">William and Heinsius.</span>
a wise and prudent statesman, whose tact and moderation
in dealing with the details and difficulties of internal
administration were conspicuous. The stadholder
gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and the pensionary on
his part loyally supported William&rsquo;s policy and placed his
services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heinsius</a></span>).</p>

<p>The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful.
In 1690 (July 1st) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at
Fleurus; and the Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely
handled by Tourville (10th July) off Beachy Head
<span class="sidenote">War with France.</span>
that for two years the command of the sea remained
in the possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la
Hogue (29th of May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to
the allies. On land the combined armies fared ill. In 1691
the French took Mons, and in 1692 Namur, in which year after
a hard-fought battle William was defeated at Steenkirk and in
1693 at Neerwinden. But William&rsquo;s military genius never shone
so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was
to be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real
triumph of skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations,
exhaustion compelled the French king to sign the peace of
<span class="sidenote">Peace of Ryswick.<br />
Death of William III.</span>
Ryswick in 1697, in which William was recognized
by France as king of England, the Dutch obtaining
a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to
garrison the Netherland barrier towns. This peace, however, did
no more than afford a breathing space during which Louis XIV.
prepared for a renewal of the struggle. The great question of
the Spanish succession was looming in all men&rsquo;s eyes, and
though partition treaties between the interested
powers were concluded in 1698 and 1700, it is practically
certain that the French king held himself little bound
by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch troops
out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing
James III. on the death of his father; and it was clear
that another war was imminent when William III. died in
1702.</p>

<p>In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made
hereditary in the family of the prince of Orange, but William
died childless, and the republican burgher party was strong
enough to prevent the posts being filled up. William
<span class="sidenote">Stadholderless Government.</span>
had wished that his cousin, Count John William
Friso of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Groningen,
should succeed him, but his extreme youth and
the jealousy of Holland against a &ldquo;Frisian&rdquo; stood in the way
of his election. The result was a want of unity in counsel and
action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing
aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay
for their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the
bulk of the charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity
in the policy of the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining,
until his death in 1720, in the capable and tried hands of the
grand pensionary Heinsius, who had at his side a number of
exceptionally experienced and wise counsellors&mdash;among these
Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years (1680-1725) secretary
of the council of state, and afterwards grand pensionary of
Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his
father in 1699 as recorder (<i>Griffier</i>) of the States-General, and
held that important office for fifty years. The tradition of
William III. was thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm
hand and strong personality of that great ruler the United
Provinces were relegated to a subordinate place in the councils
of the nations, and with the gradual decadence of its navy
the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be reckoned
with.</p>

<p>In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702,
Dutch troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and
Eugene, and had their share in winning the great
victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde
<span class="sidenote">War of the Spanish Succession.</span>
(1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of
Utrecht, concluded in 1713, the interests of the
Netherlands were but half-heartedly supported by
the English plenipotentiaries, and the French were able to obtain
far more favourable terms than they had the power to exact.
But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the Spanish
Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United
Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a
satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor,
<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Utrecht.</span>
and be known henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands.
The peace of Utrecht taught the Dutch that the great
powers around them, while ready to use their resources for
war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted
peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear
of all foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the
United Netherlands upon European politics comes almost to
an end.</p>

<p>The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing
George I. on the throne of England; and they succeeded in
coming to an agreement both with France and with
Austria over the difficulties connected with the barrier
<span class="sidenote">Peace policy.</span>
towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate
their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under
the close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled
all offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which
the influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their
turn exercised predominance in the States-General, became more
and more an assembly of &ldquo;shopkeepers&rdquo; whose policy was to
maintain peace for the sake of the commerce on which they
thrived. For thirty years after the peace of Utrecht the Provinces
kept themselves free from entanglement in the quarrels of
<span class="sidenote">Ostend East India Company.</span>
their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East
India Company (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostend Company</a></span>), however,
by the emperor Joseph II. in 1723, at once aroused
the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants
who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm,
and declared that the Ostend Company had been set up in
contravention to the terms of Article V. of the treaty of Münster.
In maintaining this position the States had the support of
England, but it was not until 1731 that they succeeded in
obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This
step led in 1743 to their being involved in the War of the
<span class="sidenote">War of the Austrian Succession.<br />
Revolution of 1747.<br />
William IV.</span>
Austrian Succession, and thus being drawn into hostilities
with France, which invaded the barrier country.
In 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and
Saxony, a Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent
of troops in the field. The Dutch took an active part in the
campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily at Fontenoy, after which
battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian Netherlands. The
French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747
entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest.
The United Provinces, as in 1672, seemed to lie at the
mercy of their enemies, and as in that eventful year,
popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher
oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the
saviour of the state. John William Friso had died
young in 1711, leaving a posthumous son, William
Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected stadholder
by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were
always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though
with very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other
provinces, however, under pressure from Holland, bound themselves
not to elect stadholders, and they refused to revive the
office of captain-general of the Union. By the conquest of
Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and the states of that
province, in which there were always many Orange partisans,
elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and
admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious,
and was followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and
Overysel. Finally the States-General (May 4) appointed the
prince, who was the first member of his family to be stadholder
of all the seven provinces, captain and admiral-general of
the Union, and a little later these offices were declared hereditary
in both the male and female lines.</p>

<p>William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely
anxious to do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace,
and the development of the resources and commercial
prosperity of the country, and his powerful dynastic
<span class="sidenote">Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.</span>
connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter
of George II.) gave him weight in the councils of
Europe. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the
influence of Great Britain was exerted on behalf of the States,
though it nominally restored the old condition of things, left
the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low from their old
position among the nations. At first the stadholder&rsquo;s efforts
to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered
by the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strongholds
<span class="sidenote">Death of William IV.<br />
Anne of England Regent.</span>
of anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good
intentions were becoming more generally recognized,
William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October
1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son,
William V., heir to his dignities. The princess Anne of England
became regent, but she had a difficult part to play, and on the
outbreak of the Seven Years&rsquo; War in which the
Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality,
her English leanings brought much unpopularity upon
her. She died in 1759, and for the next seven years
the regency passed into the hands of the States, and the
government was practically stadholderless.</p>

<p>In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession
to power was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak
man, without energy or resolution, and he allowed
himself to be entirely led by his old guardian the
<span class="sidenote">William V.</span>
duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina
of Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely
deferred. In the American War of Independence William&rsquo;s
sympathies were strongly on the English side, while those
of the majority of the Dutch people were with the revolted
colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have driven
the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing
attitude of the British government with regard to the right of
neutral shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained
by Dutch commerce at the hands of British privateers. The
<span class="sidenote">The Armed Neutrality.</span>
famous agreement, known as the &ldquo;Armed Neutrality,&rdquo; with
which in 1780 the States of the continent at the
instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the
maritime claims put forward by Great Britain drew the
Provinces once more into the arena of European politics.
Every effort was made by the English to prevent the Dutch
from joining the league, and in this they were assisted by the
stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only by the
bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to
throw in their lot with the opponents of England.
<span class="sidenote">War with England.</span>
Nothing could have been more unfortunate, for the
country was not ready for war, and party spirit was too
strong for united action to be taken or vigorous preparations
to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was
destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the
English fleet without the possibility of a blow being struck in
their defence. An indecisive, but bravely fought action with
Admiral Parker at the Dogger Bank showed, however, that the
Dutch seamen had lost none of their old dogged courage, and did
much to soothe the national sense of humiliation. In the negotiations
<span class="sidenote">Peace of Paris.</span>
of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch found
themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled
to accept the disadvantageous but not ungenerous
terms accorded to them by Great Britain. They had to sacrifice
some of their East Indian possessions and to concede to the
English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas.</p>

<p>One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the
strengthening of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents,
who had now arrogated to themselves the name of
&ldquo;patriots.&rdquo; It was they, and not the stadholder, who
<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Patriot&rdquo; Party.<br />
Intervention of the King of Prussia.<br />
Difficulty with the Emperor.</span>
had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining
&ldquo;the Armed Neutrality,&rdquo; but the consequences of the
war, in which this act had involved them, was largely visited
upon the prince of Orange. The &ldquo;patriot&rdquo; party did their
utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and harass him with petty
insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged to
interfere to save his niece, who was even more unpopular
than her weak husband, from being driven
from the country. In 1784 the emperor Joseph II.
took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to
raise the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself
was, however, no more prepared for attack than the Republic
for defence, but the Dutch had already sunk so low,
that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to induce
the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to
enforce. To hold the mouth of the Scheldt and
prevent at all costs a revival of Antwerp as a commercial port
had been for two centuries a cardinal point of Dutch policy.
This difficulty removed, the agitation of the &ldquo;patriots&rdquo; against
the stadholderate form of government increased in violence, and
William speedily found his position untenable. An insult offered
<span class="sidenote">Prussian Invasion.<br />
Restoration to power of William V.</span>
to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion
of the country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam
capitulated, the country was occupied, and the patriot
leaders declared incapable of holding any office. The Orange
party was completely triumphant, and William V., under the
protection of Prussia and England, with which states
the United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves,
was restored to power. It was, however, impossible
to make the complicated and creaking machinery of
the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United Netherlands
work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been
within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy,
had not the cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away
from its path, never to be revived.</p>

<p>When war broke out between the French revolutionary
government and the coalition of kings, the Provinces
remained neutral as long as they could. It was not till
Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian Netherlands
<span class="sidenote">The French invade the Netherlands.</span>
in 1792, and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt,
that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
the French, but for various reasons the conquest of the
country was delayed until 1795. In the closing months
of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a large and victorious army,
invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost of that winter gave
his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and low-lying
lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied
<span class="sidenote">Overthrow of the Stadholderate.<br />
Flight of William V.<br />
The Batavian Republic.<br />
Changes of Government.</span>
Amsterdam, and crossing the ice with his cavalry
took the Dutch fleet, as it lay frost-bound at the
Texel. The stadholder and his family fled to England,
and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under
the duke of York retreated into Germany. The &ldquo;patriots,&rdquo; as
the anti-Orange republicans still styled themselves,
received the French with open arms and public rejoicings,
and the government was reorganized so as
to bring it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stadholderate,
the offices of captain and admiral-general, and all the
ancient organization of the United Netherlands were abolished,
and were transformed into the Batavian Republic, in close
alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon cause
to regret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance
meant French domination, and participation in the
wars of the Revolution. Its consequences were the
total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of all the Dutch
colonies by the English. Internally one change of government
succeeded another; after the States-General came a
national convention; then in 1798 a constituent
assembly with an executive directory; then chambers
of representatives; then a return to the earlier systems
under the names of the eight provincial and one central Commissions
(1801). These changes were the outcome of a gradual
reaction in a conservative direction.</p>

<p>The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the
Dutch got back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian
colonies; it was, however, but the brief and deceptive
interlude between two storms; when war began
<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1805.</span>
again England once more took possession of all she
had restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon
Bonaparte imposed upon them a new constitution, and Rutger
Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was made, under the
ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the government.
In the next year the French emperor added Holland,
as the United Provinces were now named, to the ring of
dependent sovereignties, by means of which he sought to
build up a universal empire, and he forced his brother Louis
to be the unwilling king of an unwilling people. The new
<span class="sidenote">Louis Bonaparte King of Holland.</span>
king was a man of excellent intentions and did his
best to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding
himself unable to protect them from the despotic
overlordship of his brother, after a four years&rsquo; reign,
Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by decree
of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had
to bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of
taxation. The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a
general revolt in the Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son
<span class="sidenote">The Sovereign Prince.<br />
Creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.<br />
The Hundred Days.</span>
of William V.) was recalled, and amidst general
rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the
sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. 1, 1813),
with the title of sovereign prince. On the downfall
of Napoleon the great powers determined to create in the Low
Countries a powerful state, and by the treaty of London (June
14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch
provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands,
which was also to include the bishopric of Liège and
the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince of Orange was
placed upon the throne on the 15th of March 1815 as
William I., king of the Netherlands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William I.</a></span>,
king of the Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the
House of Nassau were exchanged for Luxemburg, of which
territory King William in his personal capacity
became grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty
was delayed by the Hundred Days&rsquo; campaign,
which for a short time threatened its very existence. The
daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the Dutch and
Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to fight
side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange,
eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by
his gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where
<span class="sidenote">William I. crowned at Brussels.<br />
Constitution of the Netherlands.</span>
he was wounded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II.</a></span>, king of the Netherlands).
The Congress of Vienna confirmed the
arrangements made by the treaty of London, and
William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at
Brussels on the 27th of September 1815. Under the constitution
the king, as hereditary sovereign, possessed full executive
powers, and the initiative in proposing laws. He had
the power of appointing his own council of state.
The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of
States-General, and was divided into an Upper
Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower Chamber
elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the
press, and political equality were principles of the constitution,
guaranteed to all.</p>

<p>The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many
of the territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was
an attempt to create a strong state out of diverse
and jarring elements. It was an artificial union,
<span class="sidenote">Difference between the Dutch and Belgic provinces.</span>
which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship
could have rendered permanent and solid. North
and south were divided from one another by religious
belief, by laws and usages, by material interests, and
by two centuries and a half of widely severed national
life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic
Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring
people, with interests in distant lands and colonial
possessions; the Belgians were agriculturists, except where
their abundance of minerals made them manufacturers. The
national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German and English,
the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and
French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of
which a really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion
and racial difficulties might have gradually built up a Netherland
nation able to hold from its population and resources
a considerable place among European powers. For it must not
be forgotten that some two-thirds of the Belgian people are by
origin and language of the same race as the Dutch. But when
difficulties and differences arose between North and South, as
they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The
king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch
prejudices, and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The
<span class="sidenote">The Belgian Revolution.<br />
Reign of William II.<br />
Accession of William III.<br />
The Constitution of 1848.</span>
consequences were the Belgian Revolution of 1830,
which ended in the intervention of the great powers,
and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an independent
kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding
questions between the two countries was not reached till 1839
(for an account of the Belgian Revolution, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Belgium</a></span>). King
William I. in the following year, having become unpopular
through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to
his son William II., who reigned in peace till his
death in 1849, when he was succeeded by his eldest
son William III. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>, king of the Netherlands).
His accession marked the beginning of constitutional government
in the Netherlands. William I. had been to
a large extent a personal ruler, but William II.,
though for a time following in his father&rsquo;s steps, had
been moved by the revolutionary outbreaks of 1848
to concede a revision of the constitution. The fundamental
law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the States-General
should be elected by the Provincial Estates
instead of being appointed by the king, and that the
second chamber should be elected directly by all
persons paying a certain amount in taxation. Ministers
were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal
measure of self-government was also granted. During the long
reign of William III. (1849-1890) the chief struggles of parties
in the Netherlands centred round religious education. On
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
the one side are the liberals, divided into moderates and
progressives, the representatives to a large extent of the commercial
towns. Opposed to them is the coalition of
<span class="sidenote">Political parties in the Netherlands.</span>
the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled anti-revolutionaries,
supported by the Calvinistic peasantry,
and the Catholics, who represent about one-third of
the population and have their headquarters in Dutch Brabant,
Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There is also in the Netherlands
a small, but very strenuous socialist party, which was founded
by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor Domela-Nieuwenhuis.
It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and certain country
districts of Friesland.</p>

<p>The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously,
but a Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay
held office from 1888 to 1891, and again a coalition
ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr Kuyper at its
<span class="sidenote">Religious education.</span>
head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate
liberals supported by a large part of the Catholic
and anti-revolutionary parties were in power. The constitution
of 1848 made it the duty of the state to provide free primary
secular education, but it allowed to members of all creeds the
liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried into
effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals
and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists.
But the long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist
coalition, and united them against the neutral schools,
and in 1889 they were able to pass a law enabling not only the
unsectarian public schools, but all private schools organized
by societies and bodies recognized by the law to receive subventions
from the state. In 1890 there were 3000 public schools
with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private schools with 195,000
scholars.</p>

<p>The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been
the cause of violent party strife and controversy. It was taken
in hand as early as 1872, but as a revision of the constitution
was necessary, no change was actually carried out till 1887.
The law of that year lowered the qualification of the payer of
a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to all householders
paying a certain <i>minimum</i> house duty, and to all lodgers who
had for a given time paid a <i>minimum</i> of rent, also to all who
possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose
definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing
of such a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox)
ministry of 1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted
to deal with the question, and a proposal was made by the
minister Tak van Poortvliet, which almost amounted to universal
<span class="sidenote">Extension of the suffrage.</span>
suffrage. The educational qualification was to be
able to write, the social that of not receiving charitable
relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through
all parties. It was supported by the radical left, by
a large portion of the Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper,
and by some Catholics; it had against it the moderate liberals,
the aristocratic section of the Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of
the Catholics, and a few radicals under an influential leader
van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the Takkians were
victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second ballots.
Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians,
24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed
(1894) and in 1896 carried into law what was known as the
van Houten project. It gave the right of voting to all Dutchmen
over twenty-five years of age, who paid 1 fl. in direct taxation;
were householders or lodgers as defined in 1887, or tenants of
a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the recipients of certain
salaries or had certain deposits in the public funds or savings
banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had been
raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to
<span class="sidenote">Military service.</span>
700,000. The question of universal military service
has also divided parties. The principle of personal
service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics
and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though
exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain
classes of students.</p>

<p>The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin
have during a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch
ministries. In 1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange
for certain possessions of Holland on the coast of
<span class="sidenote">The Achin war.</span>
Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch
to occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of
Achin opposed by force of arms the efforts of the Dutch to make
their occupation effective, and has succeeded in maintaining a
vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial troops suffering severely
from the effects of the insalubrious climate. Until 1871 the
surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned into
a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the
war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries
and of cabinets.</p>

<p>William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving
child, Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother,
the queen-dowager Emma, became regent. One
effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was the
<span class="sidenote">Queen Wilhelmina.</span>
severance of the bond between the Netherlands and
Luxemburg. The grand duchy, being hereditary
only in the male line, passed to the nearest agnate, the duke of
Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached the age of eighteen,
assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince Henry of
Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to
a strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of
their kinsmen in South Africa, and there were times during the
war, especially after President Kruger had fled from the
Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and had settled in Holland,
when it was a task of some difficulty for the Dutch government
to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the Netherlands
from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under
Dr Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of
the Boers in restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain
a correct attitude of strict neutrality. In 1903 the government
took strong measures to prevent a threatened general strike of
railway employees, the military were called out, and occupied the
stations. A bill was passed by the States-General declaring
railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905 for the Second
Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr Kuyper
accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed
by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had
not become a mother gradually caused some public concern as
to the succession; but in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national
rejoicings, gave birth to a princess.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar,
<i>Vaderlandsche historie</i>, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation
by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W.
Bilderdijk, <i>Geschiedenis der Vaderlands</i> (13 vols., 1832-1853);
Groen G. van Prinsterer, <i>Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland</i>
(6th ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema,
<i>Saken van spaet en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden
(1621-1668)</i> (15 vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van
den Bos (Lambertus Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of
Aitzema contains a large number of important diplomatic and other
documents; A. de Wicquefort, <i>Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas
depuis la paix de Munster</i> (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1719-1743); in these
volumes will be also found a rich collection of original documents;
R. Fruin, <i>Tien jaren uit den tactig jarigen oorlog</i> (<i>1588-1598</i>), (6th ed.,
1905), a standard work; J. L. Motley, <i>History of the United Netherlands</i>
(<i>1584-1609</i>), (4 vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, <i>History of the
People of the Netherlands</i>, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam,
1900); <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv.
(see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, <i>Vingt années de république
parlementaire au 17me siècle. Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire
de Hollande</i> (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, <i>Histoire du royaume des
Pays-Bas 1814-1830</i> (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper, <i>Geschiedenis
van Nederland na 1830</i> (5 vols., 1873-1882); also the
following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, <i>Archives ou
correspondance inédite de la maison d&rsquo;Orange-Nassau</i>, 2<span class="sp">e</span> série (1584-1688)
(5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, <i>Brieven (1652-1669)</i> (6 vols.,
1723-1725); A. Kluit, <i>Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot
1795</i> (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, <i>Inleiding tot eene geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche diplomatic</i> (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C. de
Jonge, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen</i>, (6 vols., 1833-1848);
E. Luzac, <i>Holland&rsquo;s Rijkdom</i> (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin,
<i>Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der Republick</i>,
edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, <i>Geschiedenis
der Nederlanders buiten Europa</i> (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
<i>Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde</i> (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken
Hüet, <i>Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de Nordnederlandsche
beschaving in de 17<span class="sp">e</span> eeuw</i> (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, <i>Repertorium
der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des Vaterlands
in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen</i>, 2 parts
(1905); other parts of this valuable <i>repertorium</i> are in course of
publication.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the
river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, 19th of April
1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.)
from the outer glacis of the fortress.</p>

<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is
throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of
Germany, the <i>Amsterdamsch Peil</i> (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level,
and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam
at the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and
provincial &ldquo;peils&rdquo; are, however, also in use on some waterways.</p>

<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See J. Lorié, <i>Contributions à la géologie des Pays-bas</i> (1885-1895),
<i>Archives du Mus. Teyler</i> (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 109-240,
vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and <i>Bull. soc.
belge géol.</i> vol. iii. (1889); <i>Mém.</i> pp. 409-449; F. W. Harmer,
&ldquo;On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., London</i>, vol. lii. (1896) pp. 748-781, pls. xxxiv., xxxv.</p>

<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The dates indicate the period of construction of the different
sections.</p>

<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy
of the northern provinces in 1579 see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF.<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span>&mdash;The first mention
of Holland in any document is found in an imperial <i>gift brief</i>
dated May 2nd, 1064. In this the phrase &ldquo;<i>omnis comitatus
in Hollandt</i>&rdquo; occurs, but without any further description of the
locality indicated. A comparison with other documentary
evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland with
the <i>forestum Merweda</i>, or the bush-grown fenland lying between
the Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district
surrounding the town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original
Holland was submerged by a great inundation in 1421, and its
modern appellation of Biesbosch (reed-forest) is descriptive of
what must have been the condition of the entire district in early
times. The word Holland is indeed by many authorities thought
to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so spelt by
13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest
spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it
means lowlying-land (hol = hollow), a derivation which is
equally applicable to the district in Lincolnshire which bears
the same name.</p>

<p>The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne
by the Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about
1015) and made it his residence (see below). It was
<span class="sidenote">The first Count of Holland.</span>
not, however, till late in the 11th century that his
successors adopted the style &ldquo;<i>Hollandensis comes</i>&rdquo; as
their territorial designation (it is found for the first
time on a seal of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland
became gradually extended northwards to connote all the
land subject to the rule of the counts between Texel and
the Maas.</p>

<p>The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later
Holland) centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives
its records have been preserved. In 922 Charles the
Simple gave in full possession to a count in Frisia,
<span class="sidenote">Dirk I.</span>
Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin Theodoricus),
&ldquo;the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from Swithardeshage
to Kinhem.&rdquo; This man, usually known as Dirk I.,
died about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name.
Among the records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by
which the emperor Arnulf gave to a certain count Gerolf the
same land &ldquo;between Swithardeshage and Kinhem,&rdquo; afterwards
held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this Gerolf was
his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been
<span class="sidenote">Dirk II.<br />
Extent of his dominions.<br />
Arnulf.<br />
Dirk III.</span>
preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was
the founder of the abbey of Egmont. His younger
son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder son Arnulf
married Liutgardis, daughter of Siegfried of Luxemburg and
sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the
emperor Otto III., with whom he was in great favour
in 983, a considerable extension of territory, that now
covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to
Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as
holding the three countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemerland
and Texla or Texel; in other words his rule extended over
the whole country from the right bank of the Maas or Meuse to
the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised authority at Ghent.
He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he was
slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was
succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the
guardianship of his mother, Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of
almost all his possessions, except Kennemerland and Maasland.
But no sooner was he arrived at man&rsquo;s estate than
Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour.
He waged war, successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop
of Utrecht, and made himself master not only of his ancestral
possessions, but of the district on the Meuse known as the
Bushland of Merweda (<i>forestum Merweda</i>), hitherto subject to
the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this marshy tract, at a
point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the Waal,
<span class="sidenote">Foundation of Dordrecht.<br />
Defeat of Godfrey of Lorraine.<br />
Beginning of the County of Holland.</span>
he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy
tolls. Around this castle sprang up the town of Thuredrecht
or Dordrecht. The possession of this stronghold
was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel, Cologne
and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were
made by the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne
to the emperor. Henry II. took the part of the complainants
and commissioned Duke Godfrey of Lorraine to
chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey
invaded Dirk&rsquo;s lands with a large army, but they were
impeded by the swampy nature of the country and
totally defeated with heavy loss (July 29, 1018). The duke
was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk was not
merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda
Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal
of the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he
conquered. This victory of 1018 is often regarded as
the true starting-point of the history of the county of
Holland. Having thus established his rule in the
south, Dirk next proceeded to bring into subjection the
Frisians in the north. He appointed his brother Siegfrid or
Sikka as governor over them. In his later years Dirk went
upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he returned in
1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039.</p>

<p>His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his
warlike and strenuous race. He began the long strife with the
counts of Flanders, as to the lordship over Walcheren
and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel was important,
<span class="sidenote">Dirk IV.<br />
Quarrel with Flanders about Zeeland.</span>
as dealing with the borderland between French and
German overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did
not at first break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk
and Baldwin V. of Flanders had a common danger in
the emperor Henry III., who in 1046 occupied the
lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey
the Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the
emperor, and his territory was invaded by a powerful
imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk entrenched himself
in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter came on he
surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the
enemy&rsquo;s ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they
made their way amidst the marches, which impeded their
retreat. He was able to recover what he had lost and to make
peace on his own terms. Two years later he was again assailed by
a coalition headed by the archbishop of Cologne and the bishop
of Utrecht. They availed themselves of a very hard winter to
penetrate into the land over the frozen water. Dirk offered a
stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy account,
was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight (1049).
He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I.</p>

<p>Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious.
He gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He
found a formidable adversary in the able and warlike
William, who, becoming bishop of Utrecht in 1054,
<span class="sidenote">Floris I.</span>
was determined to recover the lost possessions of his see; and
in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, Egbert,
margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liége and others,
invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the
invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they
were surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of
Guelders and Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into
the hands of Floris. The attack was renewed in 1061. In a
battle at Nederhemert Floris met with his death in the hour
of victory. He is said to have been killed as, wearied with
pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by his
<span class="sidenote">Dirk V.</span>
son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his
mother, Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems
now to have seized his opportunity and occupied all the territory
that he claimed. In this he was confirmed by two charters of
the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May 2, 1064). Among
the possessions thus assigned to him is found <i>comitatus omnis</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
<i>in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus</i>. An
examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk
as <i>in Westflinge et circa oras Rheni</i>, <i>i.e.</i> west of the Vlie and
around the mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear
to have withdrawn to the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving
William in undisturbed occupation of the disputed lands.
In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage with Robert, the
second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for his
adventurous career (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>). On his marriage his father
<span class="sidenote">Robert the Frisian guardian to his stepson</span>
invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage
including the islands of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the
Scheldt. He now became guardian to his stepson,
in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt.
Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was
ruler of all Frisia (Zeeland), and thus became known
among his Flemish countrymen as Robert the Frisian. The
death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil war in
Flanders, the claim of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew
Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin.
The issue was decided by the decisive victory of Robert at
Cassel (February 1071) when Arnulf was killed and Richilde
taken prisoner (see Flanders). While Robert was thus engaged
in Flanders, an effort was made to recover &ldquo;the County of
Holland&rdquo; and other lands now held by William of Utrecht.
The people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor
Henry IV. were speedily brought back under episcopal rule by
<span class="sidenote">Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine conquers Holland.<br />
The Bishop of Utrecht surrenders it to Dirk V.<br />
Floris II.<br />
Dirk VI.</span>
an army under the command of Godfrey the Hunchback,
duke of Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the request
of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in
the Frisian borderland. At Delft, of which town
tradition makes Godfrey the founder, the duke was
treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William
of Utrecht died on the 17th of the following April.
Dirk V., now grown to man&rsquo;s estate, was not slow to take
advantage of the favourable juncture. With the help of Robert
(his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged Conrad,
the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde
and took him prisoner. The bishop purchased his
liberty by surrendering all claim to the disputed lands.
Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively
known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091
and was succeeded by his son Floris II. the Fat. This count
had a peaceful and prosperous reign of thirty-one years.
After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla of Saxony,
governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor.
The accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the
imperial throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened
her position. The East Frisian districts, Oostergoo
and Westergoo, were by Lothaire transferred from
the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the counts of Holland
(1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome subjects to
Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the leadership
of Dirk&rsquo;s own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor
Conrad III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohenstaufen,
gave back these Frisian districts to the bishop; it
was in truth somewhat of an empty gift. The Frisian
peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and
were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord,
whether count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by
Floris III.</p>

<p>Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by
allying himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted
adherent and friend of Frederick Barbarossa. He had
<span class="sidenote">Floris III.</span>
troubles with West Friesland and Groningen, and a
war with the count of Flanders concerning their
respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten.
In 1170 a great flood caused immense devastation in the north
and helped to form the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied
Frederick Barbarossa upon the third Crusade, of which he was a
distinguished leader. He died in 1190 at Antioch of
<span class="sidenote">Dirk VII.</span>
pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on
the whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West
Zeeland and with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his
brother William, ended in his favour. The brothers were
reconciled and William was made count of East Friesland. In
1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken prisoner by the
duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on humiliating terms.
He only survived his defeat a short time and died early in
1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of age.
The question of female succession thus raised was not likely
to be accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the
intention of Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter&rsquo;s
rights by appointing his brother her guardian. His widow
Alida, however, an ambitious woman of strong character, as
soon as her husband was dead, hurried on a marriage between
Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted with the nobles
of Holland, who now for the first time make their appearance as
a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William had
made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle
<span class="sidenote">William I.</span>
ensued. William was supported by the Zeelanders
and Ada was forced to fly to England. William,
by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206, became
undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his
time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great
battle of Bouvines in 1214 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philip Augustus</a></span>), and was
taken prisoner. Two years later he accompanied Louis, the
eldest son of Philip Augustus, in his expedition against King
John of England. William is perhaps best known in history by
his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He distinguished himself
greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did not long
survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters
conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from
his reign&mdash;those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht
<span class="sidenote">Floris IV.</span>
(1220). His son Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded
him under the guardianship of his maternal uncle,
Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life close
relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his
quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was
murdered in 1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the
count of Clermont. Another long minority followed his death,
during which his brother Otto, bishop of Utrecht, acted as
guardian to his nephew William II.</p>

<p>William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV.,
having deposed the emperor Frederick II., after several princes
had refused to allow themselves to be nominated in
the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the young
<span class="sidenote">William II.<br />
Elected King of the Romans.<br />
Floris V.</span>
count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans
(1247) by an assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics.
William took Aachen in 1248 and was there crowned
king; and after Frederick&rsquo;s death in 1250, he had a
considerable party in Germany. He brought a war
with Margaret of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a
successful conclusion (1253). He was on the point of proceeding
to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an expedition against
the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and armour,
through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he
left his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but
two years old on his father&rsquo;s death; and he was
destined during a reign of forty years to leave a deeper
impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its
counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high
capacity, and throughout his reign he proved himself an able
and beneficent ruler. Alike in his troubles with his turbulent
subjects and in the perennial disputes with his neighbours
he pursued a strong, far-sighted and successful policy. But his
active interest in affairs was not limited to the Netherlands.
<span class="sidenote">Alliance with Edward I. of England.</span>
He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England
in his strife with France, and secured from the English
king great trading advantages for his people; the
staple of wool was placed at Dort (Dordrecht) and
the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on
the English coast. So intimate did their relations become that
Floris sent his son John to be educated at the court of Edward
with a view to his marriage with an English princess. To
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
balance the power of the nobles he granted charters to many of
the towns. Floris made himself master of Amstelland and
<span class="sidenote">First Charter to Amsterdam.</span>
Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the
chief commercial town of Holland, counts him the
founder of its greatness. Its earliest extant charter
dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the alliance
of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because
Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his
dynastic dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut,
Floris&rsquo;s nephew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>). The real motives of his policy
will, however, never be known, for shortly afterwards a conspiracy
of disaffected nobles, headed by Gijsbrecht van Amstel,
<span class="sidenote">Murder of Floris V.</span>
Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was
formed against him. He was by them basely murdered
in the castle of Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic
event has been immortalized in dramas from the pens of
Holland&rsquo;s most famous writers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vondel</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hooft</a></span>). The
burghers and people, who knew him to be their best friend,
took such vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce
the power of the nobles.</p>

<p>John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered;
he was but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was
married to Eleanor, daughter of Edward I. His
reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes, the
<span class="sidenote">John I.</span>
young count&rsquo;s guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen,
who had a strong following in Zeeland. In 1299 van Borselen
was killed, and a few months later John I. died. John of
Avesnes was at once recognized as his successor by the Hollanders.
Thus with John I. ended the first line of counts, after a rule
of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps never seen
<span class="sidenote">Extinction of the first line of Counts. Their high character.</span>
an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal
descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there
is not a weak man among them. Physically handsome
and strong, model knights of the days of chivalry,
hard fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders
of men; always ready to advance the commerce of
the country, they were the supporters of the growing towns,
and likewise the pioneers in the task of converting a land
of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural territory
rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their
failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled
race.</p>

<p>John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son
of John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of
William II. of Holland. On his succession to the
countship the Hollanders were willing to receive him,
<span class="sidenote">John II. of the House of Avesnes.</span>
but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle
ensued before his authority was generally recognized.
In 1301 Bishop William of Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but
was killed in battle. John made use of his victory to secure the
election of his brother Guy as bishop in his place. A war with
the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at first
victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at
length driven out of Holland and Zeeland In 1304. John II. died
in that year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed
the Good (1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel
<span class="sidenote">William III.</span>
with Flanders, which had during a century and a half
caused so many wars, was finally settled by the treaty
of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland
was granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in
Imperial Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam,
which had hitherto been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William,
on the death of his uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland.
This count did much to encourage civic life and to develop the
resources of the country. He had close relations through
marriage with the three principal European dynasties of his
time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the French king;
in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter
Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut,
was married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance
William III. occupied a position of much dignity and influence,
which he used to further the interests and increase the welfare
of his hereditary lands. He was in all respects a great prince
and a wise and prudent statesman. He was succeeded by his
<span class="sidenote">William IV.</span>
son, William IV., who was the ally of his brother-in-law,
Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of adventure,
and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in
disguise, and on his way took part in an expedition of the
knights of the Teutonic Order against the infidel Wends and
Lithuanians. He was killed in battle against the Frisians in
1345. He left no children, and the question as to the succession
now brought on Holland a period of violent civil commotions.
<span class="sidenote">The Empress Margaret.</span>
His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister,
the empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of
Hainaut, or in other words, by Edward III. of England.
Margaret came in person and was duly recognized
as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned
to her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest,
Louis, renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as
stadholder in her place. William was but sixteen, and disorder
and confusion soon reigned in the land. The sudden death of
the emperor in 1347 added to the difficulties of his position.
In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her sovereignty, and
<span class="sidenote">William V. of the House of Bavaria.</span>
the stadholder became count under the title of William
V. This was the time of the formation of the famous
parties in Holland, known as Kabbeljauws (Cods)
and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher party,
were the supporters of William (possibly the name was
derived from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of
arms), the latter the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted
to catch and devour the fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was
the disorder in the land that Margaret, at the request of the nobles,
came to Holland to take into her own hands the reins of government.
The struggle between the nobles and the cities broke out
into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret&rsquo;s aid, winning
a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks
and their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods
at Vlaardingen&mdash;an overthrow which ruined Margaret&rsquo;s cause.
Edward III. shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress
saw herself compelled (1354) to come to an understanding with
her son, he being recognized as count of Holland and Zeeland,
she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years later, leaving William,
who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in possession of the
entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His tenure
of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357
he showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his
<span class="sidenote">Albert of Bavaria.</span>
own consent and the support of both parties, invited
Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger brother of William
V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358).
William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died
in 1404, having ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years,
first as Ruward, then as count. Despite outbreaks from time
to time of the Hook and Cod troubles, he was able to make his
authority respected, and to help forward in many ways the
social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was
steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall
into the hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the
Cod party. Opposed to them were the nobility and the lower
classes, forming the Hook party. In Albert&rsquo;s latter years a
fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was caused by the count&rsquo;s
espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks had the support
of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards reconciled
<span class="sidenote">William VI.<br />
Jacqueline of Bavaria.</span>
to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404.
On his accession to power William upheld the Hooks,
and secured their ascendancy. His reign was much
troubled with civil discords, but he was a brave soldier, and was
generally successful in his enterprises. He died in 1417, leaving
an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba),
who had in her early youth been married to John,
heir to the throne of France. At a gathering held at
the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles and representatives
of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at
William&rsquo;s request to support his daughter&rsquo;s claims to the succession.
But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span>
about a month later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at
17 years of age face to face with a difficult situation. She
was at first welcomed in Holland and Zeeland, but found
her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria, supported
by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have
expected help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John
IV. of Brabant, her third husband Humphrey of Gloucester,
her cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, all behaved shamefully
to her. Her romantic and sad life has rendered the courageous
and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque figure in
the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her
powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end
of her life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found
repose with Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth
husband. Him Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily
seized; and thereby in 1433 the Duchess Jacqueline was compelled
to cede her rights over the counties of Holland and
Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no
<span class="sidenote">Accession of the Burgundian Dynasty.<br />
Philip the Good.<br />
Flourishing state of Holland.</span>
children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed
possession of her lands. He had already acquired by
inheritance, purchase or force almost all the other
Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of
the Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have
an independent existence and became an outlying province
of the growing Burgundian power (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>). During
the years that followed the accession to the sovereignty
of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant
part. It was governed by a stadholder, and but
small respect was shown for its chartered rights and privileges.
The quarrels between the Hook and Cod factions still continued,
but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly repressed by the
strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time contented
herself with growing material prosperity. Her
herring fishery, rendered more valuable by the curing
process discovered or introduced by Benkelszoon,
brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen
were already laying the foundations of her future maritime
greatness. It was in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz
Koster of Haarlem contributed his share to the discovery of
printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold (1467-1477)
<span class="sidenote">Charles the Bold.<br />
Mary of Burgundy.</span>
the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike
prince, suffered much from the burden of taxation
An outbreak at Hoorn was by Charles sternly repressed.
The Hollanders were much aggrieved by the establishment
of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands at Mechlin.
(1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their privileges.
The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the granting
to Holland as to the other provinces of the Netherlands,
of the Great Privilege of March 1477, which
restored the most important of their ancient rights and liberties
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). A high court of justice was established
for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the native
language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles
again disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at
Leiden and Dordrecht and had to be repressed by armed
force.</p>

<p>By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her possessions,
including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son
Philip, under the guardianship of his father the Archduke
Maximilian of Austria. Thus the Burgundian
<span class="sidenote">Maximilian of Austria.<br />
Philip II. the Fair.</span>
dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs.
During the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of
the Hooks caused much strife and unrest in Holland. Their
leaders. Francis of Brederode and John of Naaldwijk, seized
Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally ended
the strife between Hooks and Cods. The &ldquo;Bread
and Cheese War,&rdquo; an uprising of the peasants in
North Holland caused by famine, is a proof of the
misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In
1494, Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was
declared of age. His assumption of the government was greeted
with joy in Holland, and in his reign the province enjoyed rest
and its fisheries benefited from the commercial treaty concluded
<span class="sidenote">The Emperor Charles V. (Charles III.).<br />
Philip III.<br />
William of Orange Stadholder.<br />
The revolt of the Netherlands.<br />
Union of Utrecht.<br />
Abjuration of Philip&rsquo;s Sovereignty.</span>
with England. The story of Holland during
the long reign of his son and successor Charles III.
(1506-1555), better known as the emperor Charles V.,
belongs to the general history of the Netherlands
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). On the abdication of Charles, his
son Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the
ruler whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about
the revolt of the Netherlands. His appointment of
William, prince of Orange, as stadholder of Holland
and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the
future of those provinces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William the Silent</a></span>). The
capture of Brill and of Flushing in 1572 by the Sea-Beggars
led to the submission of the greater part of
Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince
of Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states
of Holland to meet at Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of
Dutch independence. From this time forward William made
Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the
Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the
resistance to Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem,
Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland from being
overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed
the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between
Holland and Zeeland brought about by the influence
of William was the germ of the larger union of Utrecht
between the seven northern provinces in 1579. But
within the larger union the inner and closer union between
Holland and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the
sovereignty of the Netherlands was offered to the
duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces refused
to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title
of count of Holland and Zeeland. In the following
year William in the name of the two provinces
solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July 24).
After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of
Holland was never revived.</p>

<p>In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain,
which followed the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict
fell upon Holland. More than half the burden of the charges
of the war fell upon this one province; and with Zeeland it
furnished the fleets which formed the chief defence of the country.
Hence the importance attached to the vote of Holland in the
assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by deputies
at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called
the grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to,
and the spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which
met at the Hague in the same building as the States-General,
consisted of representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents)
of the principal towns, together with representatives of the
nobles, who possessed one vote only. The advocate was the
<span class="sidenote">Government of Holland.<br />
Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.</span>
paid minister of the states. He presided over their
meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all
correspondence, and, as stated above, was their
spokesman in the States-General. The advocate (or
grand pensionary) of Holland therefore, if an able man, had
opportunities for exercising a very considerable influence,
becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was this
influence as exerted by the successive advocates of
Holland, Paul Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt,
which rendered abortive the well-meant efforts of the
earl of Leicester to centralize the government of the
United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of
Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman
of the struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions
gave to the advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details
of administration, and for thirty years the conduct of affairs
remained in his hands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oldenbarneveldt</a></span>). This meant
the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the federation, in other
words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the town corporations
of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This
authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span>
by the extensive powers with which the stadholder princes
of Orange were invested; and the chief crises in the internal
<span class="sidenote">Contest between the Principles of National and Provincial Sovereignty.</span>
history of the Dutch republic are to be found in
the struggles for supremacy between two, in reality,
different principles of government. On the one side
the principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to
the voice of Holland a preponderating weight that was
decisive; on the other side the principle of national
sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to
whom the States-General and the provincial states
delegated executive powers that were little less than monarchical.</p>

<p>The conclusion of the twelve years&rsquo; truce in 1609 was a triumph
for Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the
opposition of Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the
outbreak of the religious dispute between the Remonstrant
<span class="sidenote">Maurice Prince of Orange and John of Oldenbarneveldt.<br />
Frederick Henry Prince of Orange.<br />
William II. Prince of Orange.</span>
and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a
life and death struggle between the sovereign province
of Holland and the States-General of the union. The
sword of Maurice decided the issue in favour of the
States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown
and the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619).
The stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh
monarchical authority (1625-1647), but even he at the
height of his power and popularity had always to
reckon with the opposition of the states of Holland
and of Amsterdam, and many of his plans of campaign
were thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies.
His son William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding
to the stadholdership, and the states of Holland were
sufficiently powerful to carry through the negotiations
for the peace of Münster (1648) in spite of his opposition.
A life and death conflict again ensued, and once
more in 1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the
opposition of the Hollanders. The sudden death of William in
the hour of his triumph caused a complete revolution in the
government of the republic. He left no heir but a posthumous
infant, and the party of the burgher regents of Holland was
<span class="sidenote">John de Witt.</span>
once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder
was abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary
(<i>Raad-Pensionaris</i>) of Holland, for two decades held
in his hands all the threads of administration, and occupied the
same position of undisputed authority in the councils of the land
as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning of the century.
Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of the
United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was
carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded
with Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed
to exclude for ever the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder
of Holland or captain-general of the union. In 1672
<span class="sidenote">William III. Prince of Orange.</span>
another revolution took place. John de Witt was
murdered, and William III. was called to fill the office
of dignity and authority which had been held by his
ancestors of the house of Orange, and the stadholdership
was declared to be hereditary in his family. But William
died without issue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>) and a stadholderless period,
during which the province of Holland was supreme in the union,
followed till 1737. This change was effected smoothly, for
though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had
in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary
of Holland from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom
he thoroughly trusted, who worked with him in the furtherance
of his policy during life and who continued to carry out that
policy after his death. In 1737 there was once more a reversion
<span class="sidenote">William IV. Prince of Orange.</span>
to the stadholdership in the person of William IV.,
whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary
both in the male and female line in 1747. But
until the final destruction of the federal republic by
the French armies, the perennial struggle went on between the
Holland or federal party (<i>Staatsgesinden</i>) centred at Amsterdam&mdash;out
of which grew the patriot party under William V.&mdash;and the
Orange or unionist party (<i>Oranjegesinden</i>), which was strong in
the smaller provinces and had much popular support among
the lower classes. The French conquest swept away the old
condition of things never to reappear; but allegiance to the
Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813 became the rallying
point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the leading
part played by the province of Holland in the history of the
republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over
by the sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly,
and often officially, known as Holland.</p>

<p>The full title of the states of Holland in the 17th and 18th
centuries was: <i>de Edele Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van
Holland en Westfriesland</i>. After 1608 this assembly
consisted of nineteen members, one representing the
<span class="sidenote">Constitution of the States of Holland.</span>
nobility (<i>ridderschap</i>), and eighteen, the towns. The
member for the nobles had precedence and voted first.
The interests of the country districts (<i>het platte land</i>)
were the peculiar charges of the member for the nobles.
The nobles also retained the right of appointing representatives
to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors, in certain
colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of
the East India Company, and to various public offices. The
following eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter&mdash;(1)
Dordrecht, (2) Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam,
(6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam, (8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10)
Schoonhoven, (11) Brill; North Quarter:&mdash;(12) Alkmaar,
(13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16) Monnikendam,
(17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the
nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the
nineteen members had only one vote each. Each town&rsquo;s deputation
was headed by its pensionary, who was the spokesman
on behalf of the representatives. Certain questions such as
peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition of taxation,
changes in the mode of government, &amp;c., required unanimity
of votes. The grand pensionary (<i>Raad-Pensionaris</i>)
<span class="sidenote">The Grand Pensionary.</span>
was at once the president and chief administrative
officer of the states. He presided over all meetings,
conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was
charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the
execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence.
Nor were his functions only provincial. He was the head and
the spokesman of the deputation of the states to the States-General
of the union; and in the stadholderless period the
influence of such grand pensionaries of Holland as John de Witt
and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and intricate
machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign
and semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head
of the state, to work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable
unity of policy. This was secured by the indisputable
predominance in the union of the province of Holland. The
policy of the states of Holland swayed the policy of the generality,
and historical circumstances decreed that the policy of the
states of Holland during long and critical periods should be
controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office
of grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in
the months of March, July, September and November. During
the periods of prorogation the continuous oversight of the business
and interests of the province was, however, never neglected.
<span class="sidenote">College of Deputed Councillors.</span>
This duty was confided to a body called the College
of Deputed Councillors (<i>het Kollegie der Gekommitteerde
Raden</i>), which was itself divided into two sections,
one for the south quarter, another for the north
quarter. The more important&mdash;that for the south quarter&mdash;consisted
of ten members, (1) the senior member of the
nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives (for periods of three
years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leiden,
Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth
member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam,
Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary
presided over the meetings of the college, which had the general
charge of the whole provincial administration, especially of
finance, the carrying out of the resolutions of the states, the
maintenance of defences, and the upholding of the privileges
and liberties of the land. With particular regard to this last-named
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span>
duty the college deputed two of its members to attend
all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and
report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary
to the interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province
of Holland. The institution of the College of Deputed Councillors
might thus be described as a vigilance committee of the states in
perpetual session. The existence of the college, with its many
weighty and important functions, must never be lost sight of
by students who desire to have a clear understanding of the
remarkable part played by the province of Holland in the history
of the United Netherlands.</p>
<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
Macatawa Bay (formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan,
and 25 m. W.S.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900)
7790, of whom a large portion were of Dutch descent; (1904) 8966;
(1910) 10,490. It is served by the Père Marquette Railroad,
by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake ports, and by
electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck, and the
neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa
Beach, Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle
Park and Waukezoo. In the city itself are Hope College
(co-educational; founded in 1851 and incorporated as a college
in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch) Reformed Church in
America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869;
suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a
grain and fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures
are furniture, leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles,
shoes, beet sugar, gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and
steam launches, and pianos. In 1908 seven weekly, one daily,
and two monthly papers (four denominational) were published
at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The municipality owns its
water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland was founded
in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev.
A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871
much of it was destroyed by a forest fire.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> a cloth so called from the country where it was
first made. It was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish
colour&mdash;unbleached flax. Several varieties are now made:
hollands, pale hollands and fine hollands. They are used for
aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLAR, WENZEL<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> or <b>WENCESLAUS</b> [<span class="sc">Vaclaf Holar</span>] (1607-1677),
Bohemian etcher, was born at Prague on the 13th of July
1607, and died in London, being buried at St Margaret&rsquo;s church,
Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677. His family was
ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and
young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined
to become an artist. The earliest of his works that have come
down to us are dated 1625 and 1626; they are small plates,
and one of them is a copy of a Virgin and Child by Dürer, whose
influence upon Hollar&rsquo;s work was always great. In 1627 he was
at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an etcher and
engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633,
to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the
famous amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy
to the imperial court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna
and Prague, and finally came in 1637 to England, destined to
be his home for many years. Though he lived in the household
of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not exclusively for
him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers which was
afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year in
England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent
View of Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty
shillings for the plate,&mdash;perhaps a twentieth part of what would
now be paid for a single good impression. Afterwards we hear
of his fixing the price of his work at fourpence an hour, and
measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil War had its effect
on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord Arundel left
England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the
duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With
other royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he
stood the long and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we
have some hundred plates from his hand dated during the years
1643 and 1644 he must have turned his enforced leisure to good
purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was released, and joined
Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight years,
the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates
of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous &ldquo;muffs&rdquo; and
&ldquo;shells,&rdquo; and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652
he returned to London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the
engraver near Temple Bar. During the following years were
published many books which he illustrated:&mdash;Ogilby&rsquo;s <i>Virgil</i>
and <i>Homer</i>, Stapylton&rsquo;s <i>Juvenal</i>, and Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Warwickshire</i>,
<i>St Paul&rsquo;s</i> and <i>Monasticon</i> (part i.). The booksellers continued
to impose on the simple-minded foreigner, pretending to decline
his work that he might still further reduce the wretched price
he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his position.
The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost
his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father
as an artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous
&ldquo;Views of London&rdquo;; and it may have been the success of these
plates which induced the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier,
to draw the town and forts. During his return to England
occurred the desperate and successful engagement fought by his
ship the &ldquo;Mary Rose,&rdquo; under Captain Kempthorne, against
seven Algerine men-of-war,&mdash;a brilliant affair which Hollar
etched for Ogilby&rsquo;s <i>Africa</i>. He lived eight years after his
return, still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end
his wonderful powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh
(dated 1670), one of the greatest of his works. He died in extreme
poverty, his last recorded words being a request to the bailiffs
that they would not carry away the bed on which he was dying.</p>

<p>Hollar&rsquo;s variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740,
and include views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic
subjects, landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms.
No one that ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells,
or a butterfly&rsquo;s wing as he has done. His architectural drawings,
such as those of Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his
views of towns, are mathematically exact, but they are pictures
as well. He could reproduce the decorative works of other
artists quite faultlessly, as in the famous chalice after Mantegna&rsquo;s
drawing. His <i>Theatrum mulierum</i> and similar collections
reproduce for us with literal truth the outward aspects of the
people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in which
he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement
and power.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Almost complete collections of Hollar&rsquo;s works exist in the British
Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable
catalogues of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (2nd ed. 1759)
by George Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, published
at Berlin, is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1599-1680), English
statesman and writer, second son of John Holles, 1st earl of
Clare (<i>c.</i> 1564-1637), by Anne, daughter of Sir Thomas Stanhope,
was born on the 31st of October 1599. The favourite son of his
father and endowed with great natural abilities, Denzil Holles
grew up under advantageous circumstances. Destined to
become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King
Charles&rsquo;s arbitrary government, he was in early youth that
prince&rsquo;s playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare
was, however, no friend to the Stuart administration, being
especially hostile to the duke of Buckingham; and on the
accession of Charles to the throne the king&rsquo;s offers of favour
were rejected. In 1624 Holles was returned to parliament for
Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had from
the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the
foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his
brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely
censures Buckingham&rsquo;s conduct of the expedition to the Isle
of Rhé; &ldquo;since England was England,&rdquo; the declared, &ldquo;it
received not so dishonourable a blow&rdquo;; and he joined in the
demand for Buckingham&rsquo;s impeachment in 1628. To these
discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king&rsquo;s
arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when
Sir John Finch, the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot&rsquo;s
Protestations and was about to adjourn the House by the king&rsquo;s
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
command, Holles with another member thrust him back into
the chair and swore &ldquo;he should sit still till it pleased them to
rise.&rdquo; Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to read
the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the
usher of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance,
and the king had sent for the guard. But Holles, declaring that
he could not render the king or his country better service, put
the Protestations to the House from memory, all the members
rising to their feet and applauding. In consequence a warrant
was issued for his arrest with others on the following day.
They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and subsequently
in the King&rsquo;s Bench. When brought upon his <i>habeas corpus</i>
before the latter court Holles offered with the rest to give bail,
but refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the
court had no jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been
committed in parliament. On his refusal to plead he was
sentenced to a fine of 1000 marks and to imprisonment during
the king&rsquo;s pleasure. Holles had at first been committed and
remained for some time a close prisoner in the Tower of London.
The &ldquo;close&rdquo; confinement, however, was soon changed to a
&ldquo;safe&rdquo; one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and
exercise, but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense.
On the 29th of October Holles, with Eliot and Valentine, was
transferred to the Marshalsea. His resistance to the king&rsquo;s
tyranny did not prove so stout as that of some of his comrades
in misfortune. Among the papers of the secretary Sir John
Coke is a petition of Holles, couched in humble and submissive
terms, to be restored to the king&rsquo;s favour;<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> having given the
security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated
early in 1630, and on the 30th of October was allowed bail.
Being still banished from London he retired to the country,
paying his fine in 1637 or 1638. The fine was repaid by the
parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was revised on a
writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding
his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county
of the resistance to ship money, though it would appear that
he subsequently made submission.</p>

<p>Holles was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments
assembled in 1640. According to Laud he was now &ldquo;one of the
great leading men in the House of Commons,&rdquo; and in Clarendon&rsquo;s
opinion he was &ldquo;a man of more accomplished parts than any
of his party&rdquo; and of most authority. He was not, however,
in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was at
first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Strafford,
Holles had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud
he held out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use
his influence with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl
refused, and Holles advised Charles that Strafford should demand
a short respite, of which he would take advantage to procure
a commutation of the death sentence. In the debate on the
attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford&rsquo;s family, and later
obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son.
In all other matters in parliament Holles took a principal part.
He was one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd
of May 1641, which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to
give it their approval. Although, according to Clarendon,
he did not wish to change the government of the church, he
showed himself at this time decidedly hostile to the bishops.
He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House of Peers,
supported the Londoners&rsquo; petition for the abolition of episcopacy
and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the
bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late
canons should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy
in the affairs of Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported
strongly the independence and purity of the judicial bench,
and opposed toleration of the Roman Catholics. On the 9th
of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on behalf of the queen of
Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and royal family
and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant religion
everywhere. Together with Pym, Holles drew up the Grand
Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on
the 22nd of November 1641, in which he argued for the right
of one House to make a declaration, and asserted: &ldquo;If kings
are misled by their counsellors we may, we must tell them of
it.&rdquo; On the 15th of December he was a teller in the division
in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the militia
he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges&rsquo; Militia Bill
of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 31st of December he
took up to the king the Commons&rsquo; demand for a guard under
the command of Essex. &ldquo;Holles&rsquo;s force and reputation,&rdquo;
said Sir Ralph Verney, &ldquo;are the two things that give the success
to all actions.&rdquo; After the failure of the attempt by the court
to gain over Holles and others by offering them posts in the
administration, he was one of the &ldquo;five members&rdquo; impeached
by the king.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Holles at once grasped the full significance of the
king&rsquo;s action, and after the triumphant return to the House
of the five members, on the 11th of January, threw himself
into still more pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy
of the crown. He demanded that before anything further was
done the members should be cleared of their impeachment;
was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of Richmond;
and on the 31st of January, when taking up the militia petition
to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the
same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed
starving artificers of London, congregated round the House.
On the 15th of June he carried up the impeachment of the nine
Lords who had deserted the parliament; and he was one of
the committee of safety appointed on the 4th of July.</p>

<p>On the outbreak of the Civil War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>)
Holles, who had been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent
with Bedford to the west against the marquess of Hertford,
and took part in the unsuccessful siege of the latter at Sherborne
Castle. He was present at Edgehill, where his regiment of
Puritans recruited in London was one of the few which stood
firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the 13th of
November his men were surprised at Brentford during his
absence, and routed after a stout resistance. In December
he was proposed for the command of the forces in the west,
an appointment which he appears to have refused. Notwithstanding
his activity in the field for the cause of the parliament,
the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holles from the
first. As early as September he surprised the House by the
marked abatement of his former &ldquo;violent and fiery spirit,&rdquo;
and his changed attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies,
who attributed it scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to
his new wife. He probably foresaw that, to whichever side
victory fell, the struggle could only terminate in the suppression
of the constitution and of the moderate party on which all his
hopes were based. His feelings and political opinions, too,
were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with horror the
transference of the government of the state from the king and
the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now
advocated peace and a settlement of the disputes by concessions
on both sides; a proposal full of danger because impracticable,
and one therefore which could only weaken the parliamentary
resistance and prolong the struggle. He warmly supported
the peace negotiations on the 21st of November and the 22nd
of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the
more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of
complicity in Waller&rsquo;s plot, but swore to his innocency; and
his arrest with others of the peace party was even proposed
in August, when Holles applied for a pass to leave the country.
The king&rsquo;s successes, however, for the moment put a stop to
all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holles addressed the
citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them &ldquo;to
join with their purses, their persons, and their prayers together&rdquo;
to support the army of Essex. In November Holles and Whitelocke
headed the commission appointed to treat with the king
at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince the royalists of the
necessity of yielding in time, before the &ldquo;new party of hot men&rdquo;
should gain the upper hand. Holles and Whitelocke had a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
private meeting with the king, when at Charles&rsquo;s request they
drew up the answer which they advised him to return to the
parliament. This interview was not communicated to the other
commissioners or to parliament, and though doubtless their
motives were thoroughly patriotic, their action was scarcely
compatible with their position as trustees of the parliamentary
cause. Holles was also appointed a commissioner at Uxbridge
in January 1645 and endeavoured to overcome the crucial
difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion altogether.
As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holles now
came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army
faction. &ldquo;They hated one another equally&rdquo;; and Holles
would not allow any merit in Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice
and attributing his successes to chance and good fortune.
With the support of Essex and the Scottish commissioners
Holles endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell&rsquo;s
impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and
&ldquo;passionately&rdquo; opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return
Holles was charged with having held secret communications
with the king at Oxford and with a correspondence with Lord
Digby; but after a long examination by the House he was
pronounced innocent on the 19th of July 1645. Determined
on Cromwell&rsquo;s destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent
counsels of Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell
was too strong to be resisted or provoked, and on the 29th of
March 1647 drew up in parliament a hasty proclamation declaring
the promoters of the army petition enemies to the state; in
April challenging Ireton to a duel.</p>

<p>The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against
Holles. &ldquo;They were resolved one way or other to be rid of
him,&rdquo; says Clarendon. On the 16th of June 1647 eleven members
including Holles were charged by the army with various offences
against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh demands for
their impeachment and for their suspension, which was refused.
On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence,
asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against
them was handed into the House on the 19th of July, and on
the 20th Holles took leave of the House in <i>A grave and learned
speech...</i>. After the riot of the apprentices on the 26th, for
which Holles disclaimed any responsibility, the eleven members
were again (30th of July) recalled to their seats, and Holles was
one of the committee of safety appointed. On the flight of the
speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the army, and
the advance of the latter to London, Holles, whose party and
policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of
August for Sainte-Mère <span class="correction" title="amended from Eglide">Eglise</span> in Normandy. On the 26th of
January 1648 the eleven members, who had not appeared
when summoned to answer the charges against them, were
expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of June,
these proceedings were annulled; and Holles, who had then
returned and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the
eleven members, was discharged. He returned to his seat on
the 14th of August.</p>

<p>Holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with
the king at Newport on the 18th of September 1648. Aware
of the plans of the extreme party, Holles threw himself at the
king&rsquo;s feet and implored him not to waste time in useless negotiations,
and he was one of those who stayed behind the rest in
order to urge Charles to compliance. On the 1st of December
he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride&rsquo;s
Purge on the 6th of December Holles absented himself and
escaped again to France. From his retirement there he wrote
to Charles II. in 1651, advising him to come to terms with the
Scots as the only means of effecting a restoration; but after
the alliance he refused Charles&rsquo;s offer of the secretaryship of
state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in alarm at the plots being
formed against him was attempting to reconcile some of his
opponents to his government, sent Holles a pass &ldquo;with notable
circumstances of kindness and esteem.&rdquo; His subsequent movements
and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in
1656 Cromwell&rsquo;s resentment was again excited against him as
the supposed author of a tract, really written by Clarendon.
He appears to have been imprisoned, for his release was ordered
by the council on the 2nd of September 1659.</p>

<p>Holles took part in the conference with Monk at Northumberland
House, when the Restoration was directly proposed, and
with the secluded members took his seat again in parliament on
the 21st of February 1660. On the 23rd of February he was
chosen one of the council to carry on the government during
the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed against
him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on
the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He
took a leading part in bringing about the Restoration, was
chairman of the committee of seven appointed to prepare an
answer to the king&rsquo;s letter, and as one of the deputed Lords
and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation to Charles
to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his
reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the 5th of June.
He was one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try
the regicides in September and October. On the 20th of April
1661 he was created Baron Holles of Ifield in Sussex, and became
henceforth one of the leading members of the Upper House.</p>

<p>Holles, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador
to France on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously
English, and a zealous upholder of the national honour and
interests; but his position was rendered difficult by the absence
of home support. On the 27th of January 1666 war was declared,
but Holles was not recalled till May. Pepys remarks on the
14th of November: &ldquo;Sir G. Cartaret tells me that just now my
Lord Holles had been with him and wept to think in what a
condition we are fallen.&rdquo; Soon afterwards he was employed
on another disagreeable mission in which the national honour
was again at stake, being sent to Breda to make a peace with
Holland in May 1667. He accomplished his task successfully,
the articles being signed on the 21st of June.</p>

<p>On the 12th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s
banishment and was nearly put out of the council in consequence.
In 1668 he was manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner&rsquo;s
case, in which his knowledge of precedents was of great service,
and on which occasion he published the tract <i>The Grand
Question concerning the Judicature of the House of Peeres</i> (1669).
Holles, who was honourably distinguished by Charles as a &ldquo;stiff
and sullen man,&rdquo; and as one who would not yield to solicitation,
now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the
resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court.
Together with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle
Act of 1670 and the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the
latter being chiefly founded on the invasion of the privileges
of the peers which it involved; and he defended with vigour
the right of the Peers to record their protests. On the 7th of
January 1676 Holles with Halifax was summarily dismissed
from the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning
the king in favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holles addressed
a Letter to Van Beuninghen at Amsterdam on &ldquo;Love to our
Country and Hatred of a Common Enemy,&rdquo; enlarging upon the
necessity of uniting in a common defence against French aggression
and in support of the Protestant religion. &ldquo;The People
are strong but the Government is weak,&rdquo; he declares; and he
attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power
from the nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak
princes. &ldquo;Save what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken
one true step nor struck one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth.&rdquo;
He endeavoured to embarrass the government this year in his
tract on <i>Some Considerations upon the Question whether the
parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15 months</i>. It was
held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while for
publishing another pamphlet written by Holles entitled <i>The
Grand Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament</i>
(otherwise <i>The Long Parliament dissolved</i>) the corrector of the
proof sheets was committed to the Tower and fined £1000.
In order to bring about the downfall of Danby (afterwards duke
of Leeds) and the disbanding of the army, which he believed
to be intended for the suppression of the national liberties, Holles
at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many others, in a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French envoys,
and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter&rsquo;s presents on
the ground that he was a member of the council, having been
appointed to Sir William Temple&rsquo;s new modelled cabinet in
1679. Barillon described him as at this period in his old age
&ldquo;the man of all England for whom the different cabals have the
most consideration,&rdquo; and as firmly opposed to the arbitrary
designs of the court. He showed moderation in the Popish
Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax
rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed
by his death on the 17th of February 1680.</p>

<p>The character of Holles has been drawn by Burnet, with whom
he was on terms of friendship. &ldquo;Hollis was a man of great
courage and of as great pride.... He was faithful and firm to his
side and never changed through the whole course of his life....
He argued well but too vehemently; for he could not bear
contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn Roman
in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe
but fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a
man of an unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment
when it was not biased by passion.&rdquo;<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Holles was essentially
an aristocrat and a Whig in feeling, making Cromwell&rsquo;s supposed
hatred of &ldquo;Lords&rdquo; a special charge against him; regarding the
civil wars rather as a social than as a political revolution, and
attributing all the evils of his time to the transference of political
power from the governing families to the &ldquo;meanest of men.&rdquo;
He was an authority on the history and practice of parliament
and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already mentioned
was the author of <i>The Case Stated concerning the Judicature
of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals</i> (1675); <i>The Case
Stated of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of
Impositions</i> (1676); <i>Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing
that the Bishops are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital</i>
(1679); <i>Lord Holles his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend
concerning the judicature of the Bishops in Parliament...</i>.<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> He
also published <i>A True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain
French gentlemen</i> (1671), an account of Holles&rsquo;s intercession on
their behalf and of his dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling;
and he left <i>Memoirs</i>, written in exile in 1649, and dedicated
&ldquo;to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver St John ... and Mr
Oliver Cromwell....&rdquo; published in 1699 and reprinted in Baron
Maseres&rsquo;s <i>Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars</i>, i. 189. Several
speeches of Holles were printed and are extant, and his Letter
to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted.</p>

<p>Holles married (1) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of
Sir Francis Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of
Sir John Shirley of Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter
Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and (3) in 1666 Esther, daughter
and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of Columbiers in Normandy,
widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left one son, Francis,
who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by his
other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of
his grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holles, in 1694, the estates
devolving on John Holles (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke
of Newcastle.</p>

<p>Holles&rsquo;s brother, <span class="sc">John Holles</span>, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666),
was member of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments
before succeeding to the peerage in 1637. He took some part in
the Civil War, but &ldquo;he was very often of both parties, and never
advantaged either.&rdquo; The earldom of Clare, which had been
granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John Holles, in return
for the payment of £5000, became merged in the dukedom of
Newcastle in 1694, when John Holles, the 4th earl, was created
duke of Newcastle.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Holles&rsquo;s Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dictionary
of National Biography</i>; by Horace Walpole in <i>Royal and Noble
Authors</i>, ii. 28; by Guizot in <i>Monk&rsquo;s Contemporaries</i> (Eng. trans.,
1851); and by A. Collins in <i>Historical Collections of Noble Families</i>
(1752), and in the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>. See also S. R. Gardiner,
<i>History of England</i> (1883-1884), and <i>History of the Great Civil War</i>
(1893); Lord Clarendon, <i>History of the Rebellion</i>, edited by W. D.
Macray; G. Burnet, <i>History of His Own Time</i> (1833); and B. Whitelock,
<i>Memorials</i> (1732).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Earl Cowper</i>, i. 422.</p>

<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in
<i>Thomason Tracts</i>, E 199 (55), is a forgery.</p>

<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Burnet&rsquo;s <i>History of His Own Times</i>, vi. 257, 268.</p>

<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The rough draft, apparently in Holles&rsquo;s handwriting, is in <i>Egerton
MSS.</i> ff. 136-149.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLOWAY, THOMAS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1800-1883), English patent-medicine
vendor and philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd
of September 1800, of humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth
year he lived at Penzance, where he assisted his mother and
brother in the baker&rsquo;s shop which his father, once a warrant
officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his death. On
coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo,
an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment
which was to carry his name all over the world. The secret of
his enormous success in business was due almost entirely to
advertisement, in the efficacy of which he had great faith. He
soon added the sale of pills to that of the ointment, and began
to devote the larger part of his profits to advertising. Holloway&rsquo;s
first newspaper announcement appeared on the 15th of October
1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had reached
the sum of £5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing
as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of £50,000
per annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly
by the two princely foundations&mdash;the Sanatorium and the
College for Women at Egham (q.v.), endowed by Holloway
towards the close of his life&mdash;that his name will be perpetuated,
more than a million sterling having been set apart by him for the
erection and permanent endowment of these institutions. In
the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who
died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide
what he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university
for women. The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric
donor (he had an unconcealed prejudice against doctors, lawyers
and parsons) died of congestion of the lungs at Sunninghill on
the 26th of December 1883.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLY<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>Ilex Aquifolium</i>), the European representative of a
large genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae,
containing about 170 species. The genus finds its chief development
in Central and South America; is well developed in Asia,
especially the Chinese-Japanese area, and has but few species
in Europe, Africa and Australia. In Europe, where <i>I. Aquifolium</i>
is the sole surviving species, the genus was richly represented
during the Miocene period by forms at first South American and
Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper, <i>Paléont.
végét.</i> iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and
evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly
dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules,
and have a persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate
four- or rarely five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five
stamens adherent to its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous
in the female flowers, and a two- to twelve-celled ovary; the
fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid, and usually red drupe,
containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:389px; height:510px" src="images/img615.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Ilex Aquifolium.</i> Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about ½ nat. size.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>1. Flower with abortive stamens.</p>
<p>2. Flower with abortive pistil.</p>
<p>3. Floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>4. Fruit.</p>
<p>5. Fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the <span class="grk" title="kêlastros">&#954;&#942;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> of
Theophrastus;<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ang.-Sax. <i>holen</i> or <i>holegn</i>; Mid. Eng. <i>holyn</i> or
<i>holin</i>, whence <i>holm</i> and <i>holmtree</i>;<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Welsh, <i>celyn</i>; Ger. <i>Stechpalme</i>,
<i>Hulse</i>, <i>Hulst</i>; O. Fr. <i>houx</i>; and Fr. <i>houlx</i>),<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>I. Aquifolium</i>,
is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth, ash-coloured
bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3 in.
long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or,
as commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire&mdash;a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
peculiarity alluded to by Southey in his poem <i>The Holly
Tree</i>. The flowers, which appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious,
as in all the best of the cultivated varieties in nurseries (<i>Gard.
Chron.</i>, 1877, i. 149). Darwin (<i>Diff. Forms of Flow.</i>, 1877, p.
297) says of the holly: &ldquo;During several years I have examined
many plants, but have never found one that was really hermaphrodite.&rdquo;
Shirley Hibberd, however (<i>Gard. Chron.</i>, 1877,
ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of &ldquo;flowers bearing globose
anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries.&rdquo;
In his opinion, <i>I. Aquifolium</i> changes its sex from male to female
with age. In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of
pollen, though but slightly or not at all shorter than in the male
flowers; the latter are more numerous than the female, and have
a smaller ovary and a larger corolla, to which the filaments
adhere for a greater length. The corolla in male plants falls
off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken into separate
segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly occurs
in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and
southern Europe, from as high as 62° N. lat. in Norway to Turkey
and the Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally
in forest glades or in hedges, and does not flourish under the
shade of other trees. In England it is usually small, probably
on account of its destruction for timber, but it may attain to
60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions one tree at Claremont,
in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak Hill, Shropshire,
are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance from the
ground (<i>N. and Q.</i>, 5th ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant in
France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil
not absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist
sandy loam. Beckmann (<i>Hist. of Invent.</i>, 1846, i. 193) says that
the plant which first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in
Italy was the holly, which is there still considered to indicate
that its habitat is aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by
means of the seeds, which do not normally germinate until their
second year, by whip-grafting and budding, and by cuttings of
the matured summer shoots, which, placed in sandy soil and
kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations, generally
strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in
damp weather in September and October, or, according to some
writers, in spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be
taken that the roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is
rarely injured by frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright
red berries in winter render it a valuable ornamental tree. The
yield of berries has been noticed to be less when a warm spring,
following on a wet winter season, has promoted excess of growth.
There are numerous varieties of the holly. Some trees have
yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In the fruitless
variety <i>laurifolia</i>, &ldquo;the most floriferous of all hollies&rdquo; (Hibberd),
the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as <i>femina</i> is,
on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its berries.
The leaves in the unarmed varieties <i>aureo-marginata</i> and <i>albo-marginata</i>
are of great beauty, and in <i>ferox</i> they are studded with
sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant,
and is patient of clipping, which is best performed by the knife.
Evelyn&rsquo;s holly hedge at Say&rsquo;s Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long,
9 ft. high and 5 ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn
recommends the employment of seedlings from woods, the
plants should be 9 to 12 in. in height, with plenty of small
fibrous roots, and require to be set 1 to 1½ ft. apart, in well-manured
and weeded ground and thoroughly watered.</p>

<p>The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially
when from the heartwood of large trees, and almost as white
as ivory, except near the centre of old trunks, where it is brownish.
It is employed in inlaying and turning, and, since it stains well,
in the place of ebony, as for teapot handles. For engraving it
is inferior to box. When dry it weighs about 47½ &#8468; per cub. ft.
From the bark of the holly bird-lime is manufactured. From
the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named <i>ilixanthin</i>,
<i>ilicic acid</i>, and a bitter principle, <i>ilicin</i>, which has been variously
described by different analytical chemists. They are eaten by
sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder
for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and
purging, but are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other
birds. The larvae of the moths <i>Sphinx ligustri</i> and <i>Phoxopteryx
naevana</i> have been met with on holly. The leaves are mined
by the larva of a fly, <i>Phytomyza ilicis</i>, and both on them and
the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse <i>Aphis ilicis</i>
(Kaltenbach, <i>Pflanzenfeinde</i>, 1874, p. 427). The custom of
employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at
Christmas is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded
as a survival of the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old
Teutonic practice of hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens
as a refuge for sylvan spirits from the inclemency of
winter. A Border proverb defines an habitual story-teller as
one that &ldquo;lees never but when the hollen is green.&rdquo; Several
popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In the county
of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house
before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly
and non-prickly kinds are distinguished as &ldquo;he&rdquo; and &ldquo;she&rdquo;
holly; and in Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according
as the holly brought at Christmas into a house is smooth or
rough, the wife or the husband will be master. Holly that has
adorned churches at that season is in Worcestershire and Herefordshire
much esteemed and cherished, the possession of a
small branch with berries being supposed to bring a lucky year;
and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly prevalent
in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a door
are a protection against thunder.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among the North American species of <i>Ilex</i> are <i>I. opaca</i>, which
resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, <i>I.</i> (<i>Prinos</i>) <i>glabra</i>, and
the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, <i>I.</i> (<i>Prinos</i>) <i>verticillata</i>.
Hooker (<i>Fl. of Brit. India</i>, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four Indian
species of <i>Ilex</i>. The Japanese <i>I. crenata</i>, and <i>I. latifolia</i>, a remarkably
hardy plant, and the North American <i>I. Cassine</i>, are among
the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of several species of
<i>Ilex</i> are used by dyers. The member of the genus most important
economically is <i>I. paraguariensis</i>, the prepared leaves of which constitute
Paraguay tea, or <span class="sc">Maté</span> (q.v.). Knee holly is <i>Ruscus aculeatus</i>,
or butcher&rsquo;s broom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Broom</a></span>); sea holly, <i>Eryngium maritimum</i>,
an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly of America, <i>Nemopanthes
canadensis</i>, also a member of the order Ilicineae.</p>

<p>Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, <i>Arboretum</i>, ii.
506 (1844).</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. Plant.</i> i. 9. 3, iii. 3. 1, and 4. 6, <i>et passim</i>. On the <i>aquifolium</i>
or <i>aquifolia</i> of Latin authors, commonly regarded as the
holly, see A. de Grandsagne, <i>Hist. Nat. de Pline</i>, bk. xvi., &ldquo;Notes,&rdquo;
pp. 199, 206.</p>

<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The term &ldquo;holm,&rdquo; as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is
stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain.
From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree <i>Quercus Ilex</i>,
the evergreen oak, received the appellation of &ldquo;holm-oak.&rdquo;</p>

<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Skeat (<i>Etymolog. Dict.</i>, 1879) with reference to the word holly
remarks: &ldquo;The form of the base <span class="sc">Kul</span> (= Teutonic <span class="sc">Hul</span>) is probably
connected with Lat. <i>culmen</i>, a peak, <i>culmus</i>, a stalk; perhaps
because the leaves are &lsquo;pointed.&rsquo;&rdquo; Grimm (<i>Deut. Wörterb.</i> Bd. iv.)
suggests that the term <i>Hulst</i>, as the O.H.G. <i>Hulis</i>, applied to the
butcher&rsquo;s broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for hedges,
may have reference to the holly as a protecting (<i>hüllender</i>) plant.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLYHOCK<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (from M.E. <i>holi</i>&mdash;doubtless because brought
from the Holy Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.)&mdash;and A.-S.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span>
<i>hoc</i>, a mallow), <i>Althaea rosea</i>, a perennial plant of the natural
order <i>Malvaceae</i>, a native of the East, which has been cultivated
in Great Britain for about three centuries. The ordinary
hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the florists&rsquo; varieties have
all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose, purple, violet and
other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in its prime
about August, but by careful management examples may be
obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Hollyhocks
are propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or
by planting out in rich sandy soil, in a close frame, with a gentle
bottom heat, single eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from
outgrowths of the old stock or of the lateral offsets of the spike.
The seed may be sown in October under cover, the plants
obtained being potted in November, and kept under glass till
the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or June,
in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best
removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants
are not disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance
about April and May. Seedlings may also be raised in February
or March, by the aid of a gentle heat, in a light and rich moist
soil; they should not be watered till they have made their
second leaves, and when large enough for handling should be
pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently transferred
to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched
and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be
staked; and water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure
should be liberally supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition
require the side growths to be pinched out; and it is recommended,
in cold, bleak or northerly localities, when the flowering
is over, and the stalks have been cut off 4 to 6 in. above the soil,
to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the finest double-flowered
kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland.
The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation.
The forms now grown are due to the careful selection and
crossing of varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties
may be raised with certainty from plants growing near together.</p>

<p>The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the
attacks of slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, <i>Puccinia
malvacearum</i>, which is a native of Chile, attained notoriety
in the Australian colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in
1869, threatened the extermination of the hollyhock, the soft
parts of the leaves of which it destroys, leaving the venation
only remaining. It has been found especially hurtful to the
plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on the wild mallows.
The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard pale-brown
pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a resting-period,
but when produced late in the season may last as resting-spores
until next spring. Spraying early in the season with
Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means
of treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs
of being attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants
such as mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-spider
injures the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay
by syringing the plants frequently with plenty of clean water.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLLY SPRINGS,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Marshall
county, Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m.
S.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559
negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs is served by the Illinois
Central and the Kansas City, Memphis &amp; Birmingham (Frisco
System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded streets,
and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat
of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal
institution for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College
(1905; Presbyterian), for white girls; and of the North Mississippi
Agricultural Experiment Station. The principal industries
are the ginning, compressing and shipping of cotton, and the
manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city also manufactures
pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity, and has
an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered
as a city in 1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant
established here a large depot of supplies designed for the use
of the Federal army while on its march toward Vicksburg, but
General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of cavalry, surprised
the post at daylight on the 20th of this month, burned the supplies
and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home and is
the burial-place of Edward Cary Walthall (1831-1898), a Democratic
member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and
in 1895-1898.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLMAN, JAMES<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1786-1857), known as the &ldquo;Blind
Traveller,&rdquo; was born at Exeter on the 15th of October 1786.
He entered the British navy in 1798 as first-class volunteer, and
was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In 1810 he was invalided
by an illness which resulted in total loss of sight. In consideration
of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812 appointed one
of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such a
life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests
that he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819,
1820 and 1821 journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland,
the parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the
Netherlands. On his return he published <i>The Narrative of a
Journey through France</i>, &amp;c. (London, 1822). He again set out
in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of the world, but
after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was suspected
of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate
1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the
frontiers of Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia
and Hanover. He now issued <i>Travels through Russia, Siberia</i>,
&amp;c. (London, 1825). Shortly afterwards he again set out to
accomplish by a somewhat different method the design which
had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an account
of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes
in 1834-1835, under the title of <i>A Voyage round the World,
including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &amp;c.,
from 1827 to 1832</i>. His last journeys were through Spain,
Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro, Syria and Turkey; and he
was engaged in preparing an account of this tour when he died
in London on the 29th of July 1857.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1809-1894), American writer
and physician, was born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge,
Mass. His father, Abiel Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist
clergyman, the writer of a useful history, <i>Annals of America</i>,
and of much very dull poetry. His mother (the second wife of
Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New York family.
Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas
Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her
he derived his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic
humour and wit. From Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered
Harvard in the &ldquo;famous class of &rsquo;29,&rdquo; made further illustrious
by the charming lyrics which he wrote for the anniversary
dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching &ldquo;After
the Curfew.&rdquo; After graduation he studied law perfunctorily
for a year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by
a spirited lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old
frigate <i>Constitution</i>. These verses were sung all over the land,
and induced the Navy Department to revoke its order and save
the old ship. Turning next to medicine, and convinced by a
brief experience in Boston that he liked it, he went to Paris in
March 1833. He studied industriously under Louis and other
famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his vacations
visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy. Returning
to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high professional
ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only
moderate success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer
of gay little poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not sufficiently
serious. He won prizes, however, for professional papers,
and lectured on anatomy at Dartmouth College. He wrote
two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked with trenchant
wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New England.
In 1843 he published his essay on the <i>Contagiousness of Puerperal
Fever</i>, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon
him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position
with dignity, temper and judgment; and in time he was honoured
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
as the discoverer of a beneficent truth. The volume of his
medical essays holds some of his most sparkling wit, his shrewdest
observation, his kindliest humanity. In 1840 he married Amelia
Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles Jackson (1775-1855),
formerly associate justice of the State supreme judicial court,
a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She died in
the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell
Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench
on which his grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed
professor of anatomy and physiology In the Medical School
of Harvard University, the duties involving the giving of instruction
also in kindred departments, so that, as he said, he
occupied &ldquo;not a chair, but a settee in the school.&rdquo; He delivered
the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later years
these were his only link with the medical profession. They were
fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at
the end of the day, when they were fagged, because he alone
could keep them awake. In later years he made few finished
contributions to medical knowledge; his eager and impetuous
temperament caused him to leave more patient investigators
to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by his
fertile and imaginative mind.</p>

<p>In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at
Harvard University, he published his first volume of <i>Poems</i>,
which afterwards reached a second edition. Among these earlier
lyrics was &ldquo;The Last Leaf,&rdquo; one of the most delicate combinations
of pathos and humour in literature. His collected poetry
fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a Boston publishing house
(Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James Russell Lowell to
edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on condition that
he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this urgent
invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for
heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of
Cambridge and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once
threw himself into the enterprise with zeal. He christened it
<i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>; and, as Mr Howells afterwards said, he
&ldquo;not only named but made&rdquo; it, for in each number of its first
volume there appeared one of the papers of the <i>Autocrat of the
Breakfast Table</i>. The opening of the <i>Autocrat</i>&mdash;&ldquo;I was just
going to say when I was interrupted&rdquo;&mdash;is explained by the fact
that in the old <i>New England Magazine</i> (1831 to 1833) the Doctor
had published two <i>Autocrat</i> papers, which, by his wish, have
never been reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new
magazine would inevitably have failed had it not been for these
fascinating essays. Their originality of conception, their wit
and humour, their suggestions of what then seemed bold ideas,
and their expression of New Englandism, all combined to make
them so popular that the most harassed merchant in that gloomy
winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus Dr
Holmes made <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, which in return made
him. A success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest
of his career; he ceased to be a physician and became an author.
These twelve papers were immediately (1858) published as a
volume. No sooner was the <i>Autocrat</i> silent than the <i>Professor</i>
(1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table. The <i>Professor</i>
was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has hardly
been so widely popular as the <i>Autocrat</i>. Its theology, which
seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict
and old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day
it seems mild enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady
had another boarder, who took the vacant chair&mdash;the <i>Poet</i>
(published 1872). But here Holmes fell a little short. In these
three books, especially in the <i>Autocrat</i> and the <i>Professor</i>, the
Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner table in Boston,
but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused him. The
dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston&rsquo;s proudest
traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes&rsquo;s life.
There he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner,
Agassiz, Motley, and many other charming talkers, and among
them all he was admitted to be the best.</p>

<p>There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in
the <i>Autocrat</i> and the <i>Professor</i>. Holmes had an ambition for
more sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, <i>Elsie Venner</i>, at
first called <i>The Professor&rsquo;s Story</i>, was published. The book
was illuminated throughout by admirable pictures of character
and society in the typical New England town. But the rattlesnake
element was unduly extravagant, and in other respects
the book was open to criticism as a work of art. It was written
with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of the
Doctor&rsquo;s literary work, and which had already been scented
and nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity
the Doctor was a theologian; no other topic enchained him
more than did the stern and merciless dogmas of his Calvinist
forefathers. His humanity revolted against them, his reason condemned
them, and he set himself to their destruction as his task
in literature. The religious world of his time was still so largely
under the control of old ideas that he was assailed as a freethinker
and a subverter of Christianity; though before his death opinions
had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon him
seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most
vehemently made them. None the less, undaunted and profoundly
earnest, he returned, six years later, to the same line of
thought in his second novel, <i>The Guardian Angel</i> (published
1867). This, though less well known than <i>Elsie Venner</i>, is in
many respects better. No more lifelike and charming picture
of the society of the New England country-town of the middle
third of the 19th century has ever been drawn, and every page
sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed,
still in the same line, by <i>A Mortal Antipathy</i>, a production
inferior to its predecessors.</p>

<p>Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from
those &ldquo;causes&rdquo; of temperance, abolition and woman&rsquo;s rights
which enthralled most of his contemporaries in New England.
The Civil War, however, aroused him for the time; finding him
first a strenuous Unionist, it quickly converted him into an
ardent advocate of emancipation. His interest was enhanced
by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below), who was three
times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of lieut.-colonel
in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war
lyrics, and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in
Boston, which showed a masterly appreciation of the stirring
public questions of the day. In 1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir
of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an affectionate tribute to
one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he contributed the
life of Emerson to the American &ldquo;Men of Letters&rdquo; series. He
admired the &ldquo;Sage of Concord,&rdquo; but was not quite in intellectual
sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in
widely different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume
proved very popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he
happily christened <i>Over the Tea Cups</i>. As a <i>tour de force</i> on the
part of a man of nearly fourscore years they are very remarkable.</p>

<p>After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston,
with summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and
occasional trips to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then
undertook a four months&rsquo; journey in Europe, and in England
had a sort of triumphal progress. On his return he wrote <i>Our
Hundred Days in Europe</i> (1887), a courteous recognition of the
hospitality and praise which had been accorded to him. During
this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters,
Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford
University made him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880,
Harvard University had made him Doctor of Laws. He died
on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried from King&rsquo;s Chapel,
Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn.</p>

<p>His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from
Harvard in 1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the
army as brevet lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of
law and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1866. He was
for some years editor of the <i>American Law Review</i>, and after
being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was appointed
in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court,
rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge
of the United States Supreme Court. His work on <i>The Common
Law</i> (1881) and his edition (1873) of Kent&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
are his principal publications; and he became widely recognized
as one of the great jurists of his day.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Holmes&rsquo;s <i>Complete Works</i>, in 13 volumes, were
published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, <i>Life and Letters of Oliver
Wendell Holmes</i> (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, <i>Bibliography</i> (Boston,
1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley&rsquo;s <i>American Authors</i>
(Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to the
&ldquo;Golden Treasury&rdquo; edition (1903) of <i>The Autocrat of the Breakfast
Table</i>. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy
(Boston, 1882); Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. T. Mo.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLMFIRTH,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on
and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m. S. of Huddersfield, and on the
Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 8977. The
valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In 1852 great
destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a reservoir
in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed in
woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLOCAUST<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="holokauston">&#8001;&#955;&#959;&#954;&#945;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="holokauton">&#8001;&#955;&#972;&#954;&#945;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#957;</span>, wholly burnt),
strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the sacrifices
of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as &ldquo;whole burnt
offerings&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>). The term is now often applied to a
catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a
massacre or slaughter.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLOCENE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="holos">&#8005;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, whole, <span class="grk" title="kainos">&#954;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, recent), in geology,
the time division which embraces the youngest of all the formations;
it is equivalent to the &ldquo;Recent&rdquo; of some authors. The
name was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits
that may be included are those containing neolithic implements;
deposits of historic times should also be grouped here; presumably
the youngest are those to be chronicled by the last man.
The Holocene formations obviously include all the varieties of
deposits which are accumulating at the present day: the gravels
and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and fluvio-glacial
deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the seas,
and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust
and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline
waters; peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes;
coral, algal and shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud,
lava and dust deposits of volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt
and pitch; to all these must be added the works of man.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), British artist, was
born in Leeds on the 9th of April 1861. He received his art
education under Professor Legros at the Slade School, University
College, London, where he had a distinguished career. After
passing six months at Newlyn, where he painted his first picture
exhibited in the Royal Academy, &ldquo;Fishermen Mending a Sail&rdquo;
(1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied for two
years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At his
return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years
assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself
to painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned
&ldquo;The Death of Torrigiano&rdquo; (1886), &ldquo;The Satyr King&rdquo; (1889),
&ldquo;The Supper at Emmaus,&rdquo; and, perhaps his best picture, &ldquo;Pan
and Peasants&rdquo; (1893). For the church of Aveley, Essex, he
painted a triptych altarpiece, &ldquo;The Adoration of the Shepherds,&rdquo;
with wings representing &ldquo;St Michael&rdquo; and &ldquo;St Gabriel,&rdquo; and
designed as well the window, &ldquo;The Resurrection.&rdquo; His portraits,
such as that of &ldquo;G. F. Watts, R.A.,&rdquo; in the Legros manner, show
much dignity and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his
chief reputation as an etcher of exceptional ability, combining
strength with delicacy, and a profound technical knowledge of
the art. Among the best known are the &ldquo;Monte Oliveto&rdquo;
series, the &ldquo;Icarus&rdquo; series, the &ldquo;Monte Subasio&rdquo; series, and
the &ldquo;Eve&rdquo; series, together with the plates, &ldquo;The Flight into
Egypt,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Prodigal Son,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Barn on Tadworth Common&rdquo;
(etched in the open air), and &ldquo;The Storm.&rdquo; His etched
heads of &ldquo;Professor Legros,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lord Courtney&rdquo; and &ldquo;Night,&rdquo;
are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness. His principal
dry-point is &ldquo;The Bather.&rdquo; In all his work Holroyd displays
an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and of
style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was
appointed the first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art
(Tate Gallery), and on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter
in 1906 he received the directorship of the National Gallery.
He was knighted in 1903. His <i>Michael Angelo Buonarotti</i>
(London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly work of real value.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1837-1909), German statesman,
for more than thirty years head of the political department
of the German Foreign Office. Holstein&rsquo;s importance began
with the dismissal of Bismarck in 1890. The new chancellor,
Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and Holstein, as the
repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became indispensable.
This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been ascribed to the
part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair, which
had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due
to a shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness
of his position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately
responsible. He protested against the despatch of the &ldquo;Kruger
telegram,&rdquo; but protested in vain. On the other hand, where
his ideas were acceptable, he was generally able to realize them.
Thus it was almost entirely due to him that Germany acquired
Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and the acquisition
of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and pertinacity
with which Holstein carried through his plans in these matters
was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired
Bismarck&rsquo;s faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences.
This is true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the
Morocco crisis. The emperor William II.&rsquo;s journey to Tangier
was undertaken on his advice, as a protest against the supposed
attempt at the isolation of Germany; but of the later developments
of German policy in the Morocco question he did not
approve, on the ground that the result would merely be to
strengthen the Anglo-French <i>entente</i>; and from the 12th of
March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To
the last he believed that the position of Germany would remain
unsafe until an understanding had been arrived at with Great
Britain, and it was this belief that determined his attitude
towards the question of the fleet, &ldquo;beside which,&rdquo; he wrote in
February 1909, &ldquo;all other questions are of lesser account.&rdquo;
His views on this question were summarized in a memorandum
of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a <i>résumé</i>.
He objected to the programme of the German Navy League on
three main grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in
South Germany, (2) the inevitable dislocation of the finances
through the huge additional charges involved, (3) the suspicion
of Germany&rsquo;s motives in foreign countries, which would bind
Great Britain still closer to France. As for the idea that
Germany&rsquo;s power would be increased, this&mdash;he wrote in reply
to a letter from Admiral Galster&mdash;was &ldquo;a simple question of
arithmetic&rdquo;; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively
increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built
two? Herr von Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince
Bülow, and died on the 8th of May 1909.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Hermann von Rath, &ldquo;Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein&rdquo;
in the <i>Deutsche Revue</i> for October 1909. He is also frequently
mentioned <i>passim</i> in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEIN,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110
the county of Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and
it was made a duchy in 1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled
by members of the house of Oldenburg, some of whom were also
kings of Denmark. It is now the southern part of the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein</a></span>, and
for history <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1825-1897), German
theologian, was born at Güstrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of
March 1825, and educated at Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock,
where in 1852 he became a teacher of religion in the Gymnasium.
In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New Testament studies,
passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he remained until
his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an adherent
of the Tübingen school, and held to Baur&rsquo;s views on the alleged
antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among his writings are <i>Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus</i>
(1867); <i>Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt</i> (1880); <i>Die synoptischen
Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts</i> (1886).</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> the Latinized name of Luc Holste
(1596-1661), German humanist, geographer and theological
writer, was born at Hamburg. He studied at Leiden university,
where he became intimate with the most famous scholars of the
age&mdash;J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius, whom he
accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed
at his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native
town, he left Germany for good. Having spent two years in
Oxford and London, he went to Paris. Here he obtained the
patronage of N. de Peiresc, who recommended him to Cardinal
Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the possessor of the most
important private library in Rome. On the cardinal&rsquo;s return
in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his palace and
made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman Catholicism
in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by
strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the
Congregation of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the
Vatican by Innocent X., and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander
VII. to receive Queen Christina&rsquo;s abjuration of Protestantism.
He died in Rome on the 2nd of February 1661. Holstenius was
a man of unwearied industry and immense learning, but he
lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he
had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier&rsquo;s <i>Italia
antiqua</i> (1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630),
with a dissertation on his life and writings, described as a model
of its kind; notes on Eusebius <i>Against Hierocles</i> (1628), on
the Sayings of the later Pythagoreans (1638), and the <i>De diis
et mundo</i> of the neo-Platonist Sallustius (1638); <i>Notae et
castigationes in Stephani Bysantini ethnica</i> (first published in
1684); and <i>Codex regularum, Collection of the Early Rules of the
Monastic Orders</i> (1661). His correspondence (<i>Epistolae ad
diversos</i>, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable source of
information on the literary history of his time.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See N. Wilckens, <i>Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii</i> (Hamburg,
1723); Johann Moller, <i>Cimbria literata</i>, iii. (1744).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLSTER,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman
and properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn
in the belt. The same word appears in Dutch, from which the
English word probably directly derives. The root is <i>hel</i>- or <i>hul</i>- to
cover, and is seen in the O. Eng. <i>heolster</i>, a place of shelter or
concealment, and in &ldquo;hull&rdquo; a sheath or covering. The German
word for the same object, <i>holfter</i>, is, according to the New
<i>English Dictionary</i>, from a different root.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLT, SIR JOHN<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England,
was born at Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642.
His father, Sir Thomas Holt, possessed a small patrimonial
estate, but in order to supplement his income had adopted the
profession of law, in which he was not very successful, although
he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his political
services to the &ldquo;Tories&rdquo; was rewarded with knighthood. After
attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon,
of which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year
entered Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very
dissipated youth, and even to have been in the habit of taking
purses on the highway, but after entering Gray&rsquo;s Inn about 1660
he applied himself with exemplary diligence to the study of law.
He was called to the bar in 1663. An ardent supporter of civil
and religious liberty, he distinguished himself in the state trials
which were then so common by the able and courageous manner in
which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In 1685-1686
he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time
he was made king&rsquo;s sergeant and received the honour of knighthood.
His giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the
king to exercise martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal
from the office of recorder, but he was continued in the office
of king&rsquo;s sergeant in order to prevent him from becoming counsel
for accused persons. Having been one of the judges who acted
as assessors to the peers in the Convention parliament, he took
a leading part in arranging the constitutional change by which
William III. was called to the throne, and after his accession he
was appointed lord chief justice of the King&rsquo;s Bench. His merits
as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable
when contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors
in office. In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness
of statement and unbending integrity he has had few if
any superiors on the English bench. Over the civil rights of his
countrymen he exercised a jealous watchfulness, more especially
when presiding at the trial of state prosecutions, and he was
especially careful that all accused persons should be treated with
fairness and respect. He is, however, best known for the firmness
with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the
authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several occasions
his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme
tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police
to help the soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger
that if any of the people were shot he would have the soldiers
hanged, and proceeding himself to the scene of riot he was
successful in preventing bloodshed. While steadfast in his
sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained on the bench
entire political impartiality, and always held himself aloof from
political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the chancellorship
in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it.
His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710.
He was buried in the chancel of Redgrave church.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt</i> (1681-1710) appeared
at London in 1738; and <i>The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby
v. White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed
from original MSS.</i>, at London (1837). See Burnet&rsquo;s <i>Own Times</i>;
<i>Tatler</i>, No. xiv.; a <i>Life</i>, published in 1764; Welsby, <i>Lives of Eminent
English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries</i> (1846); Campbell&rsquo;s
<i>Lives of the Lord Chief Justices</i>; and Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1798-1880), German poet
and actor, was born at Breslau on the 24th of January 1798,
the son of an officer of Hussars. Having served in the Prussian
army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly afterwards entered the
university of Breslau as a student of law; but, attracted by
the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his début
in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Maria Stuart</i>.
He led a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less
on the stage as an actor than as a reciter of his own poems.
In 1821 he married the actress Luise Rogée (1800-1825), and
was appointed theatre-poet to the Breslau stage. He next
removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an engagement at
the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the
vaudevilles <i>Die Wiener in Berlin</i> (1824), and <i>Die Berliner in Wien</i>
(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour.
In 1825 his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an
engagement at the Königsstädter theatre in Berlin, when he
wrote a number of plays, notably <i>Lenore</i> (1829) and <i>Der alte
Feldherr</i> (1829). In 1830 he married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839),
an actress engaged at the same theatre, and with her
played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831 he wrote
for the composer Franz Gläser (1798-1861) the text of the opera
<i>Des Adlers Horst</i> (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama,
<i>Der dumme Peter</i> (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the
stage and toured with his wife to various important cities,
Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Vienna. In the last
his declamatory powers as a reciter, particularly of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor was given the appointment
of manager of the Josefstädter theatre in the last-named
city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and reciter,
Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the
theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering
through Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement
at Breslau, he settled in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself
to a literary life and produced the novels <i>Die Vagabunden</i> (1851),
<i>Christian Lammfell</i> (1853) and <i>Der letzte Komödiant</i> (1863).
The last years of his life were spent at Breslau, where being in
poor circumstances he found a home in the <i>Kloster der barmherzigen
Brüder</i>, and here he died on the 12th of February 1880.</p>

<p>As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the
&ldquo;vaudeville&rdquo; into Germany; as an actor, although remaining
behind the greater artists of his time, he contrived to fascinate
his audience by the dramatic force of his exposition of character;
as a reciter, especially of Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
Lewald said of Holtei that by the energy of his poetic conception
and plastic force he brought his audience round to his own ideas;
and he added, &ldquo;an eloquence such as his I have never met with
in any other German.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great
charm. Notable among such productions are <i>Schlesische
Gedichte</i> (1830; 20th ed., 1893), <i>Gedichte</i> (5th ed., 1861), <i>Stimmen
des Waldes</i> (2nd ed., 1854). Mention ought also to be made
of Holtei&rsquo;s interesting autobiography, <i>Vierzig Jahre</i> (8 vols.,
1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with the supplementary volume
<i>Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien</i> (1864).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Holtei&rsquo;s <i>Theater</i> appeared in 6 vols. (1867); his <i>Erzählende Schriften</i>,
39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, <i>Karl von Holtei, ein
Lebensbild</i> (1880); F. Wehl, <i>Zeit und Menschen</i> (1889); O. Storch,
<i>K. von Holtei</i> (1898).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1748-1776),
German poet, was born on the 21st of December 1748 at the
village of Mariensee in Hanover, where his father was pastor.
In 1769 he went to study theology at Göttingen. Here he formed
a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H. Boie, the
brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders
of the famous society of young poets known as the <i>Göttinger
Dichterbund</i> or <i>Hain</i>. When in 1774 he left the university he
had abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he
was not destined to enter any other profession. He died of
consumption on the 1st of September 1776 at Hanover. Hölty
was the most gifted lyric poet of the Göttingen circle. He was
influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his love for the
Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the
artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other.
A strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads
are the pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models,
which sprang up in Germany during the next few years. Among
his most familiar poems may be mentioned <i>Üb&rsquo; immer Treu&rsquo; und
Redlichkeit</i>, <i>Tanzt dem schönen Mai entgegen</i>, <i>Rosen auf dem
Weg gestreut</i>, and <i>Wer wollte sich mit Grillen plagen?</i></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Hölty&rsquo;s <i>Gedichte</i> were published by his friends Count Friedrich
Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition,
enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but
still imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first
complete edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had
access to MSS. not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, <i>Hölty, sein Leben
und Dichten</i> (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, <i>Der Göttinger Dichterbund</i>,
vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Hölty&rsquo;s
poetry will be found.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span>
(1829-1889), German jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in
the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th of October 1829, was
descended from a family of the old nobility. He was educated
at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the universities
of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of
1848 inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained
for the rest of his life a strong advocate of political liberty.
In 1852 he graduated LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a
Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was nominated a professor extraordinary.
The predominant party in Prussia regarded his
political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an
ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided
to accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he
passed the last nineteen years of his life. During the thirty
years that he was professor he successively taught several
branches of jurisprudence, but he was chiefly distinguished as
an authority on criminal and international law. He was
especially well fitted for organizing collective work, and he has
associated his name with a series of publications of the first
value. While acting as editor he often reserved for himself,
among the independent monographs of which the work was
composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators
on account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among
the compilations which he superintended may be mentioned
his <i>Encyclopädie der Rechtswissenschaft</i> (Leipzig, 1870-1871,
2 vols.); his <i>Handbuch des deutschen Strafrechts</i> (Berlin, 1871-1877,
4 vols.), and his <i>Handbuch des Völkerrechts auf Grundlage
europäischer Staatspraxis</i> (Berlin, 1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among
his many independent works may be mentioned: <i>Das irische
Gefängnissystem</i> (Leipzig, 1859), <i>Französische Rechtszustände</i>
(Leipzig, 1859), <i>Die Deportation als Strafmittel</i> (Leipzig, 1859),
<i>Die Kürzungsfähigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen</i> (Leipzig, 1861), <i>Die
Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland</i> (Berlin, 1864),
<i>Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft</i> (Berlin, 1865), <i>Die
Principien der Politik</i> (Berlin, 1869), <i>Das Verbrechen des Mordes
und die Todesstrafe</i> (Berlin, 1875), <i>Rumäniens Uferrechte an
der Donau</i> (Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also
edited or assisted in editing a number of periodical publications
on legal subjects. From 1866 to the time of his death he was
associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow in editing <i>Sammlung
gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge</i> (Berlin).
Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of February 1889.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;), German
Protestant theologian, son of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877),
was born on the 17th of May 1832 at Karlsruhe, where
his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme
consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) was
appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately
liberal theologian, he became best known as a New Testament
critic and exegete, being the author of the Commentary on the
Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed., 1901), the Johannine books (1890;
2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the Apostles (1901), in the series
<i>Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament</i>. On the question of
the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in his
early work, <i>Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und
geschichtlicher Charakter</i> (1863), presents a view which has been
widely accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving
Matthew in its present form from Mark and from Matthew&rsquo;s
earlier &ldquo;collection of Sayings,&rdquo; the Logia of Papias, and Luke
from Matthew and Mark in the form in which we have them.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Other noteworthy works are the <i>Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen
Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i> (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the
<i>Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (2 vols., 1896-1897). He
also collaborated with R. Zöpffel in the preparation of a small
<i>Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen</i> (1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in
1893 became editor of the <i>Theol. Jahresbericht</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLUB, EMIL<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central
Africa, was born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the
7th of October 1847. He was educated at Prague University,
where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went to the Kimberley
diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his practice
as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal,
Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria
Falls, making extensive natural history collections, which he
brought to Europe in 1879 and distributed among over a hundred
museums and schools. In 1883 he went back to South Africa
with his wife, intending to cross the continent to Egypt. In
June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of the Victoria
Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between
that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the
Kafue the camp was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and
Holub was obliged to retrace his steps. He returned to Austria
in 1887 with a collection of great scientific interest, of over
13,000 objects, now in various museums. Holub died at Vienna
on the 21st of February 1902.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His principal works are: <i>Eine Culturskizze des Marutse-Mambunda-reichs</i>
(Vienna, 1879); <i>Sieben Jahre in Südafrika</i>, &amp;c. (2 vols.,
Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation appeared; <i>Die
Colonisation Afrikas</i> (Vienna, 1882); and <i>Von der Kapstadt ins Land
der Maschukulumbe</i> (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLY,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or
observance; a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection
and sinlessness of the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of
human worship and reverence, and hence transferred to those
human persons who, either by their devotion to a spiritual
ascetic life or by their approximation to moral perfection,
are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old English
was <i>hálig</i>, and is common to other Teutonic languages;
cf. Ger. and Dutch <i>heilig</i>, Swed. <i>helig</i>, Dan. <i>hellig</i>. It is
derived from <i>hál</i>, hale, whole, and cognate with &ldquo;health.&rdquo;
The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests that the sense-development
may be from &ldquo;whole,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> inviolate, from &ldquo;health,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span>
well-being,&rdquo; or from &ldquo;good-omen,&rdquo; &ldquo;augury.&rdquo; It is impossible
to get behind the Christian uses, in which from the earliest
times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin <i>sacer</i> and
<i>sanctus</i>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLY ALLIANCE, THE.<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> The famous treaty, or declaration,
known by this name was signed in the first instance by Alexander
I., emperor of Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and
Frederick William III., king of Prussia, on the 26th of September
1815, and was proclaimed by the emperor Alexander the same
day at a great review of the allied troops held on the Champ
des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text is as
follows:&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.</p>

<p class="center"><i>Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia.</i></p>

<p>Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and
the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events
which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and
especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to
shower down upon those States which place their confidence and
their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the
necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their
reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion
of our Saviour teaches;</p>

<p class="center"><i>Government and Political Relations.</i></p>

<p>They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object
than to publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution,
both in the administration of their respective States, and in their
political relations with every other Government, to take for their
sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts
of Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being
applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate
influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being
the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying
their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed
on the following Articles:&mdash;</p>

<p class="center"><i>Principles of the Christian Religion.</i></p>

<p>Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which
command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting
Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and
indissoluble fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen,
they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid
and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects
and armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same
spirit of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion,
Peace and Justice.</p>

<p class="center"><i>Fraternity and Affection.</i></p>

<p>Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether
between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be
that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable
good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be
animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same
Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as
merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One
family, namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the
Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in
reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really
belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love,
science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour,
the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties
consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender
solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises
from a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen
themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise
of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.</p>

<p class="center"><i>Accession of Foreign Powers.</i></p>

<p>Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the
sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall
acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too
long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the
destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will
be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.</p>
</div>

<p>The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by
the Baroness von Krüdener (<i>q.v.</i>); in any case it was the outcome
of the tsar&rsquo;s mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its
inception perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor
Francis signed willingly, the latter remarking that &ldquo;if it was a
question of politics, he must refer it to his chancellor, if of
religion, to his confessor.&rdquo; Metternich called it a &ldquo;loud-sounding
nothing,&rdquo; Castlereagh, &ldquo;a piece of sublime mysticism and
nonsense.&rdquo; None the less, in accordance with its last article,
the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited to the
instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being
excepted. The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on
the constitutional ground that all acts of the British crown
required the counter-signature of a minister, but he sent a letter
expressing his &ldquo;entire concurrence with the principles laid down
by the &lsquo;august sovereigns&rsquo; and stating that it would always be
his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their &lsquo;sacred maxims.&rsquo;&rdquo;
With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns sooner or
later appended their names.</p>

<p>In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language
of serious historians, the &ldquo;Holy Alliance&rdquo; soon became
synonymous with the combination of the great powers by whom
Europe was ruled in concert during the period of the congresses,
and associated with the policy of reaction which gradually
dominated their counsels. For the understanding of the inner
history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear distinction
must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand,
or Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was
established on definite treaties concluded for definite purposes,
of which the chief was the preservation of peace on the basis of
the territorial settlement of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a
general treaty&mdash;hardly indeed a treaty at all&mdash;which bound its
signatories to act on certain vague principles for no well-defined
end; and in its essence it was so far from necessarily reactionary
that the emperor Alexander at one time declared that it involved
the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their subjects.
Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the tsar
to make it the basis of the &ldquo;universal union,&rdquo; or general confederation
of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual
committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated
by the vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the
mouthpiece of the British government (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>;
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander I.</a></span> of Russia; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Londonderry, Robert Stewart,
2nd Marquis of</a></span>).</p>

<p>As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a
matter of fact, became effective. None the less, its principles
and the fact of its signature powerfully affected the course of
European diplomacy during the 19th century. It strongly
influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, to whom the
brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an article of
faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin (between
Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar&rsquo;s intervention
in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of his
brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a
conspiracy against popular liberties was, however, a mere
accident of the point of view of those who interpreted its principles.
It was capable of other and more noble interpretations,
and it was avowedly the inspiration of the famous rescript of
the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the circular of Count
Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898), which
issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague
in 1899.</p>
<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLYHEAD<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned
by Matthew Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmôn, Anglesey),
a seaport and market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on
the small Holy Island, at the western end of the county. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 10,079. Here the London and North-Western
railway has a terminus, 263½ m. from London by rail.
Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an embankment,
¾ m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the tide
flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village,
the town has since William IV.&rsquo;s reign acquired importance as
the Dublin mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge
was begun in 1847 and opened in September 1873. The east
breakwater scheme, which would have covered the Platter&rsquo;s
rocks&mdash;still very troublesome&mdash;and the Skinner&rsquo;s, was abandoned
for buoys which mark the spots. The north breakwater is
7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). The
roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together
make a magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound
of the breakwater was very costly to the railway company, as
time after time it was swept away by storms. On it is a central
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and on the wall a promenade
sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the end of the
breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1½ million
sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to
extend the old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft.,
were opened by King Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880.
These cost another half million. George IV. passed through
Holyhead in 1821 on his way to Ireland, and there is a commemorative
tablet on the old harbour pier. The church is said
to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early 7th century)
of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. The
churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the
south of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner,
of the steam packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi
rises perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at
some 2 m. from the town; it is a mass of serpentine rocks, off
which lie the North and South Stacks, each with a lighthouse
with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and 197 ft. above high
water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of British
fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman
watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding
and the Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Hon. W. Stanley&rsquo;s <i>Holy Island and Holyhead</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLY ISLAND,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Lindisfarne</span>, an irregularly shaped island
in the North Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in
which county it is included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to
the mainland at low water by flat sands, over which a track,
marked by wooden posts and practicable for vehicles, leads to the
island. There is a station on the North-Eastern railway at
Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island, but 1¼ m. inland.
The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1½ N. to S., extreme
distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it is sandy
and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation.
Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands,
and, with fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported.
There are several fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east
is a lake of 6 acres. At the south-west angle is the little
fishing village (formerly much larger) which is now a favourite
summer watering-place. Here is the harbour, offering good
shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its name from a
monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as a
cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still
extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott&rsquo;s description
of it as a &ldquo;solemn, huge and dark-red pile.&rdquo; An islet, lying off
the S.W. angle, has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to
have offered a retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The
castle, situated east of the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft.
high, dates from <i>c.</i> 1500.</p>

<p>When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach
to the Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the
site of his church and monastery, and made it the head of the
diocese which he founded in 635. For some years the see continued
in peace, numbering among its bishops St Cuthbert,
but in 793 the Danes landed on the island and burnt the settlement,
killing many of the monks. The survivors, however,
rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when,
through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland,
taking with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics.
The church and monastery were again destroyed and the bishop
and monks, on account of the exposed situation of the island,
determined not to return to it, and settled first at Chester-le-Street
and finally at Durham. With the fall of the monastery
the island appears to have become again untenanted, and
probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham
established there a cell of monks from their own house. The
inhabitants of Holy Island were governed by two bailiffs at
least as early as the 14th century, and, according to J. Raine
in his <i>History of North Durham</i> (1852), are called &ldquo;burgesses
or freemen&rdquo; in a private paper dated 1728. In 1323 the bailiffs
and community of Holy Island were commanded to cause all
ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell
with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under
double manning to be ready to set out on the kings service.
Towards the end of the 16th century the fort on Holy Island
was garrisoned for fear of foreign invasion by Sir William
Read, who found it very much in need of repair, the guns being
so decayed that the gunners &ldquo;dare not give fire but by trayne,&rdquo;
and the master gunner had been &ldquo;miserably slain&rdquo; in discharging
one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for
the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the
parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected
with the island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to
hold it for the Pretender.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1817-1906), English secularist
and co-operator, was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April
1817. At an early age he became an Owenite lecturer, and in
1841 was the last person convicted for blasphemy in a public
lecture, though this had no theological character and the incriminating
words were merely a reply to a question addressed
to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent
six months&rsquo; imprisonment, and upon his release invented
the inoffensive term &ldquo;secularism&rdquo; as descriptive of his opinions,
and established the <i>Reasoner</i> in their support. He was also
the last person indicted for publishing an unstamped newspaper,
but the prosecution dropped upon the repeal of the tax. His
later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the co-operative
movement among the working classes. He wrote
the history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), <i>The History of
Co-operation in England</i> (1875; revised ed., 1906), and <i>The
Co-operative Movement of To-day</i> (1891). He also published
(1892) his autobiography, under the title of <i>Sixty Years of an
Agitator&rsquo;s Life</i>, and in 1905 two volumes of reminiscences,
<i>Bygones worth Remembering</i>. He died at Brighton on the 22nd
of January 1906.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. McCabe, <i>Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake</i> (2 vols., 1908);
C. W. F. Goss, <i>Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J.
Holyoake</i> (1908).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLYOKE,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in a bend of the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N.
of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915; (1890) 35,637; (1900)
45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total population in
1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991 French-Canadians,
5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626 were
of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including
12,370 of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The
city&rsquo;s area is about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston
&amp; Maine, and the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railways,
and by an interurban line. Holyoke is characteristically an
industrial and mercantile city; it has some handsome public
buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded in 1870,
being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke
is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley,
about 4 m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with
South Hadley by an electric line. Just above Holyoke the
Connecticut leaves the rugged highlands through a rift between
Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a mountain-railway from
Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a meandering
valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume some
60 ft. in about 1½ m. The water-power was unutilized until
1849, when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which
enabled vast power to be developed along a series of canals
laid out from the river. This was, in its day, a colossal undertaking;
and its success transformed Holyoke from a farming
village into a great manufacturing centre&mdash;in 1900 and 1905
the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam
(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was
completed at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures
first, and later paper products were chief in importance, and
Holyoke now leads all the cities in the United States in the
manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total value of all factory
products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or 34.6% of
the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton
goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding
and blank books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
products. Silk and worsted goods are other important manufactures.
Opposite Holyoke, in Hampshire county, is South
Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and operates the gas
and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the water-supply
being derived from natural ponds, some of which are
outside the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York,
New Haven &amp; Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.)
to Westfield, Mass. Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield,
and after 1774 of West Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated
as a township, and in 1873 was chartered as a city.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLYSTONE,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for
scrubbing and cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word
is doubtful. Some authorities hold that it arose from the general
practice of scrubbing the decks for Sunday service; while others
think the name arises from the fact that the stone so employed
is naturally porous and full of holes. A small flint or stone having
a natural hole in it, and worn as a charm, is also called a holystone.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLY WATER,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> technically the water with which Christian
believers sign the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving
church. The edict of Gratian lays down that it should be
exorcized and blessed by the priest and sprinkled with exorcized
salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian, Gregorian and other
sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed once a
month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday.
In the 4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on
entering the church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ablution</a></span>).</p>

<p>In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for
baptisms and other lustrations. &ldquo;Water,&rdquo; says Tertullian in
his tract on baptism, &ldquo;was the abode at the first of the divine
Spirit, being more acceptable then (to God) than the other
elements.&rdquo; He pictures the world in the beginning: &ldquo;total
darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars, the melancholy
abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The liquid
alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own
right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God.&rdquo; Water was
similarly pure in itself in the old Persian religion.</p>

<p>The <i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>, or Egyptian church order, of about
<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250, give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact
that &ldquo;at cock crow the baptismal party shall take their stand
near waving water, pure, prepared, sacred, of the sea.&rdquo; The
<i>Teaching of the Apostles</i>, <i>c.</i> 100, merely insists on &ldquo;living,&rdquo;
that is, clear and running water. The ancient feeling, especially
Jewish, was that in lustrations the same water must not pass
twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless. Bubbling
waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.</p>

<p>Either because running water was not always at hand, or
as part of the growing tendency of the church to multiply
ceremonies, rituals arose late in the 3rd century for consecrating
water. The sacramentary of Serapion, <i>c.</i> 350, provides a prayer
asking that the divine Word may descend into the water and
hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan. In the Roman order
of baptism the priest prays that &ldquo;the font may receive the grace
of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and that the latter
may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this water
prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man
through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb
of the divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a
new creature.&rdquo; The water is then exorcized and evil spirits
warned off, and lastly blessed. During the prayer the priest
twice signs the water with the cross, and once blows upon it.</p>

<p>The first mention of a special consecration of water for other
ends than baptism is in the <i>Acts of Thomas</i> (? <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200); it is
for the purgation of a youth already baptized who had killed
his mistress because she would not live chastely with him. The
apostle prays: &ldquo;Fountain sent unto us from Rest, Power of
Salvation from that Power proceeding which overcomes and
subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these waters,
that the <i>Charisma</i> (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully perfected
through them.&rdquo; The youth then washes his hands, which on
touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.</p>

<p>The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy
Spirit is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense
in water, just as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and
carried away by it. So Tertullian writes: &ldquo;The water which
carried the Spirit of God (probably regarded as a shadow or
reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that which was carried
upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb and
take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially
does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate
and settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance.&rdquo;</p>

<p>&ldquo;Water,&rdquo; he continues, &ldquo;was generically hallowed by the
Spirit of God brooding over it at creation, and therefore all
special waters are holy, and at once obtain the sacrament of
sanctification when God is invoked (over them.) For the Spirit
from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon the waters, hallowing
them out of itself, and being so hallowed they drink up a
power of hallowing.&rdquo;</p>

<p>What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated
in the unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice
and fraud are not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt.
&ldquo;The waters are medicated in a manner through the intervention
of the angel, and the Spirit is corporeally washed in the water
and the flesh is spiritually purified in the same.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God
was invoked, like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As
regards rival Isiac and Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their
waters are destitute of divine power; nay, are rather tenanted
by the devil who in this matter sets himself to rival God. &ldquo;Without
any religious rite at all,&rdquo; he urges, &ldquo;unclean spirits brood
upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial gestation of the
divine Spirit.&rdquo; And he instances the &ldquo;darkling springs and
lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful
spirit.&rdquo; In the sequel he defines the rôle of the angel of baptism
who does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first;
but merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures
their being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the
rite of confirmation which immediately follows. &ldquo;The devil
who till now ruled over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the
water.&rdquo;</p>

<p>From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us&mdash;akin to
the folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and
water-worship in general&mdash;was to Tertullian and to the generations
of believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions
and beliefs of the church, nothing less than grim reality and
unquestionable fact.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, <i>The Blessing
of the Waters</i> (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>
(London, 1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLY WEEK<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="hebdomas megalê, hagia">&#7953;&#946;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#8048;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#955;&#951;, &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="tôn hagiôn, xêrophagias,
apraktos">&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#969;&#957;, &#958;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7940;&#960;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>,
also <span class="grk" title="hêmerai pathêmatôn, hêmerai staurôsimai">&#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#953; &#960;&#945;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;, &#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#953; &#963;&#964;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#974;&#963;&#953;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>: <i>hebdomas</i>
[or <i>septimana</i>] <i>major</i>, <i>sancta</i>, <i>authentica</i> [<i>i.e.</i> <i>canonizata</i>, du
Cange], <i>ultima</i>, <i>poenosa</i>, <i>luctuosa</i>, <i>nigra</i>, <i>inofficiosa</i>, <i>muta</i>, <i>crucis</i>,
<i>lamentationum</i>, <i>indulgentiae</i>), in the Christian ecclesiastical year
the week immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion
to the custom of marking this week as a whole with special
observances is to be found in the <i>Apostolical Constitutions</i>
(v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
Abstinence from wine and flesh is there commanded for all the
days, while for the Friday and Saturday an absolute fast is
enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical epistle
(260 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), refers to the six fasting days (<span class="grk" title="hex tôn nêsteiôn hêmerai">&#7957;&#958; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#957;&#951;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#8182;&#957; &#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#953;</span>)
in a manner which implies that the observance of them had
already become an established usage in his time. There is
some doubt about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed
to Constantine, in which abstinence from public business was
enforced for the seven days immediately preceding Easter
Sunday, and also for the seven which followed it; the <i>Codex
Theodosianus</i>, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions
at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law be closed
during those fifteen days (l. ii. tit. viii.). Of the particular days
of the &ldquo;great week&rdquo; the earliest to emerge into special prominence
was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum
Magnum (Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
in the early church was associated with an expectation that the
second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic
Church during this week, reference must be made to the <i>Missal</i> and
<i>Breviary</i>. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar
practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See
also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Easter</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Good Friday</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maundy Thursday</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palm Sunday</a></span>
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Passion Week</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLYWELL<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>Tre&rsquo;ffynnon</i>, well-town), a market town and
contributory parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales,
situated on a height near the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m.
from London by the London &amp; North-Western railway (the
station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban district (1901) 2652.
The parish church (1769) has some columns of an earlier building,
interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The remains of
Basingwerk Abbey (<i>Maes glas</i>, green field), partly Saxon and
partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain
origin but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131
Ranulph, 2nd earl of Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In
1535, when Its revenues were £150, 7s. 3d., it was dissolved, but
revived under Mary I. and used as a Roman Catholic burial
place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of Basingwerk castle,
an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the 19th century,
Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries,
lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory,
copper, brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and
mineral water, flannel and cement works. St Winifred&rsquo;s holy
well, one of the wonders of Wales, sends up water at the rate
of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying temperature,
higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative
powers many crutches and <i>ex voto</i> objects, hung round the well,
as in the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the
bottom are slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances.
The well itself is covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have
been erected by Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother
of Henry VII., with some portions of earlier date. The chapel
(restored) is used for public service. Catholics and others visit
it in great numbers. There are swimming baths for general use.
In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims was erected. Other public
buildings are St Winifred&rsquo;s (Catholic) church and a convent,
a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is expedited
by quays on the Dee.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLYWOOD,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east
shore of Belfast Lough, 4½ m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast
&amp; County Down railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a
favourite residential locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast.
There was a religious settlement here from the 7th century, which
subsequently became a Franciscan monastery. The old church
dating from the late 12th or early 13th century marks its site.
A Solemn League and Covenant was signed here in 1644 for the
defence of the kingdom, and the document is preserved at Belfast.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOLZMINDEN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick,
on the right bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger
Mountains, at the junction of the railways Scherfede-Holzminden
and Soest-Börssum, 56 m. S.W. of Brunswick. Pop.
(1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of
engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on
agriculture and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of
chemicals, but weaving and the making of pottery are also
carried on, and there are baryta mills and polishing-mills for
sandstone. By means of the Weser it carries on a lively trade.
Holzminden obtained municipal rights from Count Otto of
Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession of
Brunswick.</p>


<hr class="art" />

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:62px" src="images/img624.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
</table>

<p><span class="bold">HOLZTROMPETE<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument somewhat
resembling the Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed
by Richard Wagner for representing the natural pipe of the
peasant in <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>. This instrument is not unlike
the cor anglais in rough outline, being a conical tube of approximately
the same length, terminating in a small globular bell,
but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a cup-shaped
mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in
the key of C; the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby
the upper partials from the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A
single piston placed at a third of the distance from the mouthpiece
to the bell gives the notes D and F. Wagner inserted a
note in the score concerning the
cor anglais for which the part
was originally scored, and advised
the use of oboe or clarinet to
reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful
natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural
scale be specially made for the part, which would be preferable.
The Holztrompete was used at Munich for the first performance
of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>, and was still in use there in 1897. At
Bayreuth it was also used for the Tristan performances at the
festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W. Heckel&rsquo;s clarina,
an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and clarinet,
was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained
ever since, having been found more effective.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOMAGE<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (from <i>homo</i>, through the Low Lat. <i>hominaticum</i>,
which occurs in a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used
in the granting of a fief, and indicating the submission of a
vassal to his lord. It could be received only by the suzerain
in person. With head uncovered the vassal humbly requested
to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he then laid
aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling before
his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between
the hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: &ldquo;I become
your man from this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold
faith to you for the lands I claim to hold of you.&rdquo; The oath of
fealty, which could be received by proxy, followed the act of
homage; then came the ceremony of investiture, either directly
on the ground or by the delivery of a turf, a handful of earth, a
stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was done not
only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but
by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they
were not granted absolutely but only on condition of military
and other service. An infant might do homage, but he did not
thus enter into full possession of his lands. The ceremony was
of a preliminary nature, securing that the fief would not be
alienated; but the vassal had to take the oath of fealty, and
to be formally invested, when he reached his majority. The
obligations involved in the act of homage were more general
than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided
a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They
essentially resembled the obligations undertaken towards a
Teutonic chief by the members of his &ldquo;comitatus&rdquo; or &ldquo;gefolge,&rdquo;
one of the institutions from which feudalism directly sprang.
Besides <i>homagium ligeum</i>, there was a kind of homage which
imposed no feudal duty; this was <i>homagium per paragium</i>,
such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of France,
and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of
Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not
interfere with the vassal&rsquo;s allegiance as a subject to his sovereign,
or with his duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold
lands.</p>

<p>The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a
manorial court, or of the court in a court baron (consisting of
the tenants that do homage and make inquiries and presentments,
termed a <i>homage jury</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOMBERG, WILHELM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1652-1715), Dutch natural philosopher,
was the son of an officer of the Dutch East India Company,
and was born at Batavia (Java) on the 8th of January 1652.
Coming to Europe with his family in 1670, he studied law at
Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate at Magdeburg.
In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von Guericke,
and under his influence determined to devote himself to natural
science. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for
study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled
in Paris in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician
at Rome; then returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a
member of the Academy of Sciences and appointed director of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
its chemical laboratory. Subsequently he became teacher of
physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician (1705) to
the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th of
September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical
tendencies, but he made many solid contributions to chemical
and physical knowledge, recording observations on the preparation
of Kunkel&rsquo;s phosphorus, on the green colour produced in
flames by copper, on the crystallization of common salt, on the
salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by acids, on the freezing
of water and its evaporation <i>in vacuo</i>, &amp;c. Much of his work
was published in the <i>Recueil de l&rsquo;Académie des Sciences</i> from
1692 to 1714. The <i>Sal Sedativum Hombergi</i> is boracic acid,
which he discovered in 1702, and &ldquo;Homberg&rsquo;s phosphorus&rdquo;
is prepared by fusing sal-ammoniac with quick lime.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a town and watering-place
of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily
situated at the south-east foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m.
N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which it is connected by rail.
Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old and a new
town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides
the palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral
water-cure, there are churches of various denominations,
Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Russian-Greek and Anglican,
schools and benevolent institutions. On a neighbouring hill
stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in 1680 and
subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower,
183 ft. in height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly
existed under the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in
the 12th century. The palace is surrounded by extensive
grounds, laid out in the manner of an English park. The eight
mineral springs which form the attraction of the town to
strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates
and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime.
Their use is beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines,
and externally, for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The
establishments connected with the springs are arranged on a
scale of great magnificence, and include the Kurhaus (built
1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser Wilhelmsbad and the
Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park which
also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various recreations,
such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The
industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture
of leather and hats, but they are comparatively unimportant,
the prosperity of the town being almost entirely
due to the annual influx of visitors, which during the season
from May to October inclusive averages 12,000. In the beautiful
neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of Saalburg,
which can be reached by an electric tramway.</p>

<p>Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834,
and owing to its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after,
it rapidly became one of the favourite and most fashionable
health-resorts of Europe. In 1849 the town was occupied by
Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing the imperial decree
against gambling establishments, but immediately on their
withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued
unchecked until 1872, when the Prussian government refused
to renew the lease for gambling purposes, which then expired.
As the capital of the former landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg,
the town shared the vicissitudes of that state.</p>

<p>Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900)
4785. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church,
and manufactures of iron goods. In the neighbourhood are the
ruins of the castles of Karlsberg and of Hohenburg. The family
of the counts of Homburg became extinct in the 15th century.
The town came into the possession of Zweibrücken in 1755
and later into that of Bavaria.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Supp, <i>Bad Homburg</i> (7th ed., Homburg, 1903); Baumstark,
<i>Bad Homburg und seine Heilquellen</i> (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek,
<i>Homburg und Umgebung</i> (Homburg, 1896); Will, <i>Der Kurort
Homburg, seine Mineralquellen</i> (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, <i>Bad
Homburg und sein Heilapparat</i> (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-Davies,
<i>Homburg and its Waters</i> (London, 1897).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">HOME, EARLS OF.<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> Alexander Home or Hume, 1st earl of
Home (<i>c.</i> 1566-1619), was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Home
(d. 1575), who fought against Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry
Hill and at Langside, but was afterwards one of her most stalwart
supporters, being taken prisoner when defending Edinburgh
castle in her interests in 1573 and probably dying in captivity.
He belonged to an old and famous border family, an early member
of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of Verneuil
in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander
Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the
family fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491),
was created a lord of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being
one of the band of nobles who defeated the forces of King James
III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488. Other distinguished
members of the family were: the first lord&rsquo;s grandson and
successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain
of Scotland; and the latter&rsquo;s son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home
(d. 1516), a person of great importance during the reign of
James IV., whom he served as chamberlain. He fought at
Flodden, but before the death of the king he had led his men
away to plunder. During the minority of the new king, James
V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart,
duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September
1516 he was seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded,
his title and estates being restored to his brother George in 1522.
George, who was killed in September 1547 during a skirmish
just before the battle of Pinkie, was the father of Alexander,
the 5th lord.</p>

<p>Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father&rsquo;s death
in August 1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents
which marked the reign of James VI. He was warden of the
east marches, and was often at variance with the Hepburns,
a rival border family whose head was the earl of Bothwell;
the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old one,
and it was probably the main reason why Home&rsquo;s father, the
5th lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of
her intimacy with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to
England in 1603 and was created earl of Home in 1605; he died
in April 1619.</p>

<p>His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his
titles passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Coldingknows
(d. 1666), a descendant of the 1st Lord Home. This
earl was in the Scottish ranks at the battle of Preston and lost
his estates under the Commonwealth, but these were restored
to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the 8th earl (d. 1761)
fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his brother
Alexander, the 9th earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home
is descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the 11th earl
(1799-1881), was created a peer of the United Kingdom as
Baron Douglas, and his son Charles Alexander, the 12th earl
(b. 1834), took the additional name of Douglas. The principal
strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in Haddington
and Home castle in Berwickshire.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See H. Drummond, <i>Histories of Noble British Families</i> (1846).</p>
</div>

<hr class="art" />









<pre>





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