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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5 + "Hinduism" to "Home, Earls of" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 23, 2012 [EBook #39232] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE V<br /><br /> +Hinduism to Home, Earls of</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HINDUISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HODY, HUMPHREY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HINDU KUSH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HOE, RICHARD MARCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HINDUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HOE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HINGANGHAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HOEFNAGEL, JORIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HINGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HOF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HINGHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HOFER, ANDREAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HÖFFDING, HARALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HINSCHIUS, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HINTERLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HINTON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HIOGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HIP-KNOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HIPPARCHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HOFMANN, MELCHIOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HIPPEASTRUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HIPPED ROOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HIPPIAS OF ELIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HOGARTH, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HIPPO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HOGG, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HIPPOCRAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HIPPOCRATES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HOGMANAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HIPPOCRENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HOGSHEAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HIPPODAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HOHENASPERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HIPPODROME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HOHENFRIEDBERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HIPPOLYTUS</a> (Greek legend hunter)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HOHENHEIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HIPPOLYTUS</a> (writer of the early Church)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HOHENLIMBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HOHENLOHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HIPPONAX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HOHENSTAUFEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HIPPOPOTAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HOHENSTEIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HIPPURIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HOHENZOLLERN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HIPURNIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HOKKAIDO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HIRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HOKUSAI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HIRADO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HOLBEACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HIRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HOLBEIN, HANS</a> (the elder)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HIROSAKI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HOLBEIN, HANS</a> (the younger)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HIROSHIGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HIROSHIMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HOLBORN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HIRPINI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HOLCROFT, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HIRSAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HIRSCH, MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HIRSCHBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HIRSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HIRTIUS, AULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HOLGUÍN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HISHĀM IBN AL-KALBĪ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HOLIDAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HISPELLUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HISSAR</a> (district in Central Asia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HOLKAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HISSAR</a> (town & district of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HOLL, FRANK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HISTIAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HOLLAND, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HISTOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HOLLAND, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HISTORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HOLLAND, HENRY FOX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HOLLAND, HENRY RICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HITCHCOCK, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HITCHCOCK, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HOLLAND, PHILEMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HOLLAND, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HITCHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HOLLAND</a> (country)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HITTITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HOLLAND</a> (Michigan, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HITZACKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HOLLAND</a> (cloth)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HITZIG, FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HIUNG-NU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HIVITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HOLLOWAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HJÖRRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HOLLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HKAMTI LÔNG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HOLLYHOCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HLOTHHERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HOLLY SPRINGS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOACTZIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HOLMAN, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOADLY, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOAR, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HOLMFIRTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HOLOCAUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HOLOCENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOBART, JOHN HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HOBART PASHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOBART</a> (capital of Tasmania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HOLSTEIN</a> (duchy of Germany)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOBBES, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOBBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HOLSTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HOLT, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOBOKEN</a> (town of Belgium)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOBOKEN</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOBSON’S CHOICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOBY, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOCHE, LAZARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HOLUB, EMIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOCHHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HOLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HÖCHST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HOLY ALLIANCE, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HÖCHSTÄDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HOLYHEAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HOLY ISLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HOCKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HOCK-TIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HOLYOKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HOCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HOLYSTONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HODDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">HOLY WATER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HODDESDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">HOLY WEEK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HODEDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">HOLYWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HODENING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">HOLYWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HODGE, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">HOLZMINDEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HODGKIN, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">HOLZTROMPETE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HODGKINSON, EATON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">HOMAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">HOMBERG, WILHELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HODOGRAPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">HOME, EARLS OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HINDUISM,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a term generally employed to comprehend the +social institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the +great majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous +crop of their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course +of many centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical +scriptures. The actual proportion of the total population of +India (294 millions) included under the name of “Hindus” +has been computed in the census report for 1901 at something +like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made up +partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans, +Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous +forms of belief which have at various times separated from the +main stock, and developed into independent systems, such as +Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill +and jungle tribes, such as the Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols, +whose crude animistic tendencies have hitherto kept them, +either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale of the +Brahmanical community. The name “Hindu” itself is of +foreign origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the +river Sindhu was called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied +to the inhabitants of that frontier district, and gradually extended +over the upper and middle reaches of the Gangetic valley, +whence this whole tract of country between the Himalaya and +the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to be called by +the foreign conquerors “Hindustan,” or the abode of the +Hindus; whilst the native writers called it “Aryavarta,” or +the abode of the Aryas.</p> + +<p>But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term +Hinduism would thus range over the entire historical development +of Brahmanical India, it is also not infrequently used in +a narrower sense, as denoting more especially the modern phase +of Indian social and religious institutions—from the earlier +centuries of the Christian era down to our own days—as distinguished +from the period dominated by the authoritative doctrine +of pantheistic belief, formulated by the speculative theologians +during the centuries immediately succeeding the Vedic period +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahmanism</a></span>). In this its more restricted sense the term +may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering +variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social +concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though +one may at times find it convenient to speak of “Brahmanism +and Hinduism,” it must be clearly understood that the distinction +implied in the combination of these terms is an extremely +vague one, especially from the chronological point of view. +The following considerations will probably make this clear.</p> + +<p>The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists +in the conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma +(neutr.), being the one and only reality, itself unconditioned, +and the original cause and ultimate +<span class="sidenote">Connexion with Brahmanism.</span> +goal of all individual souls (<i>jīva</i>, <i>i.e.</i> living things). +Coupled with this abstract conception are two other +doctrines, viz. first, the transmigration of souls (<i>saṃsāra</i>), +regarded by Indian thinkers as the necessary complement of +a belief in the essential sameness of all the various spiritual +units, however contaminated, to a greater or less degree, they +may be by their material embodiment; and in their ultimate +re-union with the <i>Paramātman</i>, or Supreme Self; and second, +the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless working +of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and destructive +principle, represented respectively by the divine personalities +of Brahma (masc.), Vishṅu and Śiva, forming the +<i>Trimūrti</i> or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric, +doctrine, there can be little doubt of its owing its origin to +considerations of theological expediency, as being calculated +to supply a sufficiently wide formula of belief for general acceptance; +and the very fact of this divine triad including the +two principal deities of the later sectarian worship, Vishṇu and +Śiva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must have +been already in those early days favourite objects of popular +adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored +by a diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a +common creed. Thus, so far from sectarianism being a mere +modern development of Brahmanism, it actually goes back +to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical creed. Nay, +when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two +divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of +several previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may +well be traced right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of +the triple manifestation of the deity was indeed only a compromise +between Brahmanical aspirations and popular worship, +probably largely influenced by the traditional sanctity of the +number three, is sufficiently clear from the fact that, whilst +Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very embodiment +of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a +mere figurehead in the actual worship of the people, Śiva, on +the other hand, so far from being merely the destroyer, is also +the unmistakable representative of generative and reproductive +power in nature. In fact, Brahma, having performed his legitimate +part in the mundane evolution by his original creation +of the universe, has retired into the background, being, as it +were, looked upon as <i>functus officio</i>, like a venerable figure of +a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly +styled <i>pitāmaha</i>, “the grandsire.” But despite the artificial +character of the <i>Trimūrti</i>, it has retained to this day at least its +theoretical validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also +undoubtedly exercised considerable influence in shaping sectarian +belief, in promoting feelings of toleration towards the claims +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +of rival deities; and in a tendency towards identifying divine +figures newly sprung into popular favour with one or other of +the principal deities, and thus helping to bring into vogue that +notion of avatars, or periodical descents or incarnations of the +deity, which has become so prominent a feature of the later +sectarian belief.</p> + +<p>Under more favourable political conditions,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the sacerdotal +class might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing +something like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous +medley of races and tribes scattered over the peninsula, just +as they certainly did succeed in establishing the social prerogative +of their own order over the length and breadth of India. They +were, however, fated to fall far short of such a consummation; +and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to wink at, +or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive +practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of +godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and +symbols of every description. Indeed, according to a recent +account by a close observer of the religious practices prevalent +in southern India, fully four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian +race, whilst nominally acknowledging the spiritual guidance +of the Brahmans, are to this day practically given over to the +worship of their nondescript local village deities (<i>grāma-devatā</i>), +usually attended by animal sacrifices frequently involving the +slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of thousands of +victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly all of +the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people +“Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village +deity is regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more +intimately concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the +villagers. The origin of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity, +but it is probable that it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more +or less modified in various parts of south India by Brahmanical +influence. At the same time, many of the deities themselves +are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to observe a deity in +making even at the present day.”<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It is a significant fact that, +whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at which no animal +sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are almost invariably +Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the popular +performance of those “gloomy and weird rites for the propitiation +of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when +the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes, +even from the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society.”</p> + +<p>As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from +that of social organization no clear line of demarcation can be +drawn between Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though +it was not till later times that the network of class +<span class="sidenote">Caste.</span> +divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the degree of +intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its origin the +caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of Brahmanism, +and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the +preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief +and ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been +operative from the very dawn of the history of Aryanized India. +The social organism of the Aryan tribe did not probably differ +essentially from that of most communities at that primitive +stage of civilization; whilst the body of the people—the <i>Viś</i> +(or aggregate of <i>Vaiśyas</i>)—would be mainly occupied with +agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional classes—those +of the warrior and the priest—had already made good their +claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal community +would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But +when the fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact +with, and drove back or subdued the dark-skinned race that +occupied the northern plains—doubtless the ancestors of the +modern Dravidian people—the preservation of their racial +type and traditionary order of things would naturally become +to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme north-western +districts—the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from +the fairly uniform physical features of the present population +of these parts—they seem to have been signally successful in +their endeavour to preserve their racial purity, probably by +being able to clear a sufficiently extensive area of the original +occupants for themselves with their wives and children to +settle upon. The case was, however, very different in the +adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the sacred <i>Madhyadesa</i> +or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan immigrants +were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing +a considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must +remain uncertain whether it was that the thickly-populated +character of the land scarcely admitted of complete occupation, +but only of a conquest by an army of fighting men, starting +from the Aryanized region—who might, however, subsequently +draw women of their own kin after them—or whether, as has +been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place +at that time through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus +and northern Kashmir, where the nature of the road would +render it impracticable for the invading bands to be accompanied +by women and children. Be this as it may, the physical appearance +of the population of this central region of northern India—Hindustan +and Behar—clearly points to an intermixture of +the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized, +dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming +more pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Now, it was precisely in this part of India that mainly arose +the body of literature which records the gradual rise of the +Brahmanical hierarchy and the early development of the caste-system.</p> + +<p>The problem that now lay before the successful invaders +was how to deal with the indigenous people, probably vastly +outnumbering them, without losing their own racial identity. +They dealt with them in the way the white race usually deals +with the coloured race—they kept them socially apart. The +land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the +most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate +calling of the Aryan settler, the <i>Vaiśya</i>; whilst handicrafts, +gradually multiplying with advancing civilization and menial +service, were assigned to the subject race. The generic name +applied to the latter was <i>Śūdra</i>, originally probably the name +of one of the subjected tribes. So far the social development +proceeded on lines hardly differing from those with which one +is familiar in the history of other nations. The Indo-Aryans, +however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to +keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves, +but to shut them out from all participation in their own +higher aims, and especially in their own religious convictions +and ceremonial practices. So far from attempting to raise +their standard of spiritual life, or even leaving it to ordinary +intercourse to gradually bring about a certain community of +intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they deliberately +set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own traditional +modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious +practices of the servile race. The serf, the <i>Śūdra</i>, was not to +worship the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the +system of four castes (<i>varṇa</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “colour”; or <i>jāti</i>, “gens”). +Though the Brahman, who by this time had firmly secured his +supremacy over the <i>kshatriya</i>, or noble, in matters spiritual +as well as in legislative and administrative functions, would +naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the social +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> +order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper +classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary +privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing, +indeed, is more remarkable in the whole development of the +caste-system than the jealous pride which every caste, from the +highest to the lowest, takes in its own peculiar occupation and +sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a member of the three +upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread (<i>sūtra</i>)—made +of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective caste—with +which he was invested at the <i>upanayana</i> ceremony, or +initiation into the use of the sacred <i>sāvitri</i>, or prayer to the sun +(also called <i>gāyatrī</i>), constituting his second birth. Whilst the +Arya was thus a <i>dvi-ja</i>, or twice-born, the Sudra remained +unregenerate during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope +that, on the faithful performance of his duties in this life, he +might hereafter be born again into a higher grade of life. In +later times, the strict adherence to caste duties would naturally +receive considerable support from the belief in the transmigration +of souls, already prevalent before Buddha’s time, and from the +very general acceptance of the doctrine of <i>karma</i> (“deed”), +or retribution, according to which a man’s present station and +manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his actions and +thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will again, +by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his +status and condition in his next existence. Though this +doctrine is especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its +designation as a specific term (Pali, <i>Kamma</i>) may be due to +that creed, the notion itself was doubtless already prevalent in +pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to be necessarily and +naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in metempsychosis; +whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul, the +theory of the net result or fruit of a man’s actions serving hereafter +to form or condition the existence of some new individual +who will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a +peculiarly artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it +may, “the doctrine of <i>karma</i> is certainly one of the firmest +beliefs of all classes of Hindus, and the fear that a man shall +reap as he has sown is an appreciable element in the average +morality ... the idea of forgiveness is absolutely wanting; +evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious deeds so +far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is not +effaced, and must be atoned for” (<i>Census Report</i>, i. 364).</p> + +<p>In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the +intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems +to have proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity +of women of the Aryan stock would probably render these +mixed unions almost a necessity from the very outset; and the +vaunted purity of blood which the caste rules were calculated +to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more than a +relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain +it is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively +early period; and at the time of Buddha—some +five or six centuries before the Christian era—the social +organization would seem to have presented an appearance +not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be confessed, +however, that our information regarding the development +of the caste-system is far from complete, especially in +its earlier stages. Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture +on the important point as to the original social organization +of the subject race. Though doubtless divided into different +tribes scattered over an extensive tract of land, the subjected +aborigines were slumped together under the designation of +Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in all the +various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright +sordid and degrading character which it was left to <i>vratyas</i> or +outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts +and habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was +the process one of spontaneous growth adapting an already +existing social organization to a new order of things; or was +it originated and perpetuated by regulation from above? Or +was it rather that the status and duties of existing offices and +trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some +such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code +succeeded for a time in organizing the Roman society in the +5th century of our era? “It is well known” (says Professor +Dill) “that the tendency of the later Empire was to stereotype +society, by compelling men to follow the occupation of their +fathers, and preventing a free circulation among different +callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain +from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made +it into loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs +from Samnium, Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine +and oil, the men who fed the furnaces of the public baths, were +bound to their callings from one generation to another. It was +the principle of rural serfdom applied to social functions. Every +avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to his calling +not only by his father’s but also by his mother’s condition. +Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the +daughter of one of the baker caste married a man not belonging +to it, her husband was bound to her father’s calling. Not even +a dispensation obtained by some means from the imperial +chancery, not even the power of the Church could avail to break +the chain of servitude.” It can hardly be gainsaid that these +artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those +of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were +comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps +so much that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less +congenial to its permanent growth, but because it was not +allowed sufficient time to become firmly rooted; for already +great political events were impending which within a few decades +were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In India, on the other +hand, the institution of caste—even if artificially contrived +and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler—had at least +ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social +habits, and even in the affections, of the people. At the same +time, one could more easily understand how such a system +could have found general acceptance all over the Dravidian +region of southern India, with its merest sprinkling of Aryan +blood, if it were possible to assume that class arrangements +of a similar kind must have already been prevalent amongst +the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether +a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs +of those rude tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively +free from Hindu influences may yet throw some +light on this question, remains to be seen. But, by this as it +may, the institution of caste, when once established, certainly +appears to have gone on steadily developing; and not even the +long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising +resistance to the Brahman’s claim to being the sole arbiter +in matters of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable +retardant effect upon the progress of the movement. It was not +only by the formation of ever new endogamous castes and +sub-castes that the system gained in extent and intricacy, but +even more so by the constant subdivision of the castes into +numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often involving +gradations of social status important enough to seriously affect +the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various +other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or +daughter had to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but +within his caste. But whilst for his son he might choose a wife +from a lower sept than his own, for his daughter, on the other +hand, the law of hypergamy compelled him, if at all possible, +to find a husband in a higher sept. This would naturally lead +to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and would +render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably +married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom +and incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly +be doubted that this custom has been largely responsible for +the crime of female infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India; +as it also probably is to some extent for infant marriages, still +too common in some parts of India, especially Bengal; and +even for the all but universal repugnance to the re-marriage +of widows, even when these had been married in early childhood +and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span> +rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept, +and are liable—in accordance with the general custom in which +communal matters are regulated in India—to be brought before +a special council (<i>panchāyat</i>), originally consisting of five (<i>pancha</i>), +but now no longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly +the greater or less strictness in the observance of caste rules and +the orthodox ceremonial generally that determine the status +of the sept in the social scale of the caste. Whilst community +of occupation was an important factor in the original formation +of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of life have led to +considerable laxity in this respect—not least so in the case of +Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would +seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions +of their caste. Thus, “the prejudice against eating cooked food +that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong +that, although the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food +cooked by a Kshatriya or Vaiśya, yet the Brahmans, in most +parts of the country, would not eat such food. For these reasons, +every Hindu household—whether Brahman, Kshatriya or Sudra—that +can afford to keep a paid cook generally entertains the +services of a Brahman for the performance of its <i>cuisine</i>—the +result being that in the larger towns the very name of Brahman +has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a +cook” (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, <i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i>). +In this caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds +of occupation to which a member could not turn for a livelihood +without incurring serious defilement. In fact, adherence to +the traditional ceremonial and respectability of occupation +go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst agricultural castes, +those engaged in vegetable-growing or market-gardening are +inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as the Jat and +Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage +ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition +of ceremonial orthodoxy—though racially there seems little, +if any, difference between the two; and the Rajput, again, is +looked down upon by the Babhan of Behar because he does not, +like himself, scruple to handle the plough, instead of invariably +employing low-caste men for this manual labour. So also +when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of Bengal, +ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure, +“they will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any +form of manual labour, and thus necessarily carry on their +cultivation by means of hired servants” (H. H. Risley, <i>Census +Report</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public +opinion is concisely reviewed (<i>ib.</i>) as revealing itself “in the facts +that particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives +of one or other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system; +that Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans +of high standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes, +though not served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got +Brahmans of their own whose rank varies according to circumstances; +that certain castes are not served by Brahmans at all but have +priests of their own; that the status of certain castes has been +raised by their taking to infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage +of widows; that the status of others has been modified +by their pursuing some occupations in a special or peculiar way; +that some can claim the services of the village barber, the village +palanquin-bearer, the village midwife, &c., while others cannot; +that some castes may not enter the courtyards of certain temples; +that some castes are subject to special taboos, such as that they +must not use the village well, or may draw water only with their +own vessels, that they must live outside the village or in a separate +quarter, that they must leave the road on the approach of a high-caste +man and must call out to give warning of their approach.” ... +“The first point to observe is the predominance throughout India +of the influence of the traditional system of four original castes. +In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the list. Then +come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern +representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the +mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vaiśyas. When we +leave the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a +uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient +designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we +can point to no group that is generally recognized as representing +it. The term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote +a considerable number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher +of whom are considered ‘clean’ Sudras, while the precise status +of the lower is a question which lends itself to endless controversy.” +... In northern and north-western India, on the other hand, +“the grade next below the twice-born rank is occupied by a number +of castes from whose hands Brahmans and members of the higher +castes will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats. Below +these again is rather an indeterminate group from whom water is +taken by some of the higher castes, not by others. Further down, +where the test of water no longer applies, the status of the caste +depends on the nature of its occupation and its habits in respect of +diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the twice-born, but who +do not commit the crowning enormity of eating beef.... In +western and southern India the idea that the social state of a +caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats +from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule +take water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste. +In Madras especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity +of an unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration. +Thus the table of social precedence attached to the Cochin report +shows that while a Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only +by touching him, people of the Kammalan group, including masons, +blacksmiths, carpenters and workers in leather, pollute at a distance +of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at 36 ft., Pulayan or Cheruman cultivators +at 48 ft., while in the case of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef +the range of pollution is no less than 64 ft.”</p> +</div> + +<p>In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions, +the Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the +dominant position, being respected and even worshipped by all +the others. “The more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration +for the priestly class to such a degree that they will not cross +the shadow of a Brahman, and it is not unusual for them to be +under a vow not to eat any food in the morning, before drinking +<i>Bipracharanamrita</i>, <i>i.e.</i> water in which the toe of a Brahman +has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the Brahmans +is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods +worshipped in a Sudra’s house by Brahman priests” (Jog. +Nath Bh.). There are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans +who, for various reasons, have become degraded from their high +station, and formed separate castes with whom respectable +Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief amongst +these are the Brahmans who minister for “unclean” Sudras +and lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous +liquors; as well as those who officiate at the great public shrines +or places of pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept +forbidden gifts, and, as a matter of fact, often amass considerable +wealth; and those who officiate as paid priests at cremations and +funeral rites, when the wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased +are not unfrequently claimed by them as their perquisites.</p> + +<p>As regards the other two “twice-born” castes, several +modern groups do indeed claim to be their direct descendants, +and in vindication of their title make it a point to perform the +<i>upanayana</i> ceremony and to wear the sacred thread. But +though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in the reasonableness +of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of policy +that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two +higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged +by miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical +Sanskrit literature, the term <i>dvija</i>, or twice-born, is used simply +as a synonym for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups +included under the term of Sudras, the distinction between +“clean” and “unclean” Sudras is of especial importance for +the upper classes, inasmuch as only the former—of whom nine +distinct castes are usually recognized—are as a rule considered +fit for employment in household service.</p> + +<p>The picture thus presented by Hindu society—as made up of a +confused congeries of social groups of the most varied standing, +each held together and kept separate from others +by a traditional body of ceremonial rules and by the +<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span> +notion of social gradations being due to a divinely +instituted order of things—finds something like a counterpart +in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also +in the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types +represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there, +we meet with the same failure of welding the confused mass +into a well-ordered whole. In their theory of a triple manifestation +of an impersonal deity, the Brahmanical theologians, as +we have seen, had indeed elaborated a doctrine which might +have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative creed for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions; +yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of +a comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the +sacerdotal class themselves had made its universal acceptance +an impossibility, seeing that their laws, by which the relations +of the classes were to be regulated, aimed at permanently excluding +the entire body of aboriginal tribes from the religious +life of their Aryan masters. They were to be left for all time +coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and practices. +However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be +permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even +prior to the definite establishment of the caste-system, the +mingling of the lower race with the upper classes, especially +with the aristocratic landowners and still more so with the +yeomanry, had probably been going on to such an extent as to +have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate types of +colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to have +facilitated the ultimate division into four “colours” (<i>varna</i>). +In course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen, +assumed such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride +of blood, felt naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only +two “colours,” the Aryan Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra. +Under these conditions the religious practices of the lower race +could hardly have failed in the long run to tell seriously upon the +spiritual life of the lay body of the Brahmanical community. +To what extent this may have been the case, our limited knowledge +of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the people +does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the +same process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually +draw the lower race more or less under the influence of the Brahmanical +forms of worship, and thus contributed towards the +shaping of the religious system of modern Hinduism. The +grossly idolatrous practices, however, still so largely prevalent +in the Dravidian South, show how superficial, after all, that +influence has been in those parts of India where the admixture +of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had no +effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-day +practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them, +help at all events to explain the aversion with which the strange +rites of the subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers +of the Vedic pantheon. At the same time, in judging the apparently +inhuman way in which the Sudras were treated in the +caste rules, one has always to bear in mind the fact that the +belief in metempsychosis was already universal at the time, and +seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the apparent +injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good things +in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from +the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion +in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation +and his union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in +his case as in that of any other sentient being. What it did make +impossible for him was to attain that union immediately on the +cessation of his present life, as he would first have to pass through +higher and purer stages of mundane existence before reaching +that goal; but in this respect he only shared the lot of all but +a very few of the saintliest in the higher spheres of life, since +the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink, after his present +life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra.</p> + +<p>To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the +Aryan classes underwent in post-Vedic times, may have been +due to aboriginal influences is a question not easily answered, +though the later creeds offer only too many features in which +one might feel inclined to suspect influences of that kind. The +literary documents, both in Sanskrit and Pali, dating from about +the time of Buddha onwards—particularly the two epic poems, +the <i>Mahabharata</i> and <i>Ramayana</i>—still show us in the main the +<i>personnel</i> of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has +changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost +purely mythological figures. A number of the chief gods, +sometimes four, but generally eight of them, now appear as +<i>lokapalas</i> or world-guardians, having definite quarters or +intermediate quarters of the compass assigned to them as their +special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god of wealth, is +a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual and +ethical of Vedic deities—the king of the gods and the universe; +the nightly, star-spangled firmament—has become the Indian +Neptune, the god of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a +kind of superior raja, residing in <i>svarga</i>, and as such is on visiting +terms with earthly kings, driving about in mid-air with his +charioteer Matali. As might happen to any earth-lord, Indra +is actually defeated in battle by the son of the demon-king +of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till ransomed +by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror. +A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is +Hanuman, the deified chief of monkeys—probably meant to +represent the aboriginal tribes of southern India—whose wonderful +exploits as Rama’s ally on the expedition to Lanka Indian +audiences will never weary of hearing recounted. The Gandharvas +figure already in the Veda, either as a single divinity, +or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma +and as connected with the moon. In the later Vedic times +they are represented as being fond of, and dangerous to, women; +the Apsaras, apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely +associated with them. In the heroic age the Gandharvas have +become the heavenly minstrels plying their art at Indra’s court, +with the Apsaras as their wives or mistresses. These fair +damsels play, however, yet another part, and one far from +complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics considerable +merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic practices +by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring +supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods—a +notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic +conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their +own ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed +to employ the usually successful expedient of despatching +some lovely nymph to lure the saintly men back to worldly +pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems, as repeated by professional +reciters, either in their original Sanskrit text, or in their +vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions based +on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual enjoyment +for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these +heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear, +still enters largely into the religious convictions of the people. +“These popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into +Gujarati in easy, flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand, +the sweetest of our bards. They are read out by an intelligent +Brahman to a mixed audience of all classes and both sexes. +It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu character. I believe +the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to be seen in +most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious habits, +can be traced to that influence; and little wonder” (B. M. +Malabari, <i>Gujarat and the Gujaratis</i>). Hence also the universal +reverence paid to serpents (<i>naga</i>) since those early days; though +whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired +by the insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the +verbal coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-Aryan +tribe of Nagas had something to do with it must remain +doubtful. Indian myth represents them as a race of demons +sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage Kasyapa, with a jewel +in their heads which gives them their sparkling look; and +inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth +(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs +or kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters +often entering into matrimonial alliances with men, like the +mermaids of western legend.</p> + +<p>In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we +meet in the religious life of this period with an element of more +serious aspect in the two gods, on one or other of whom the +religious fervour of the large majority of Hindus has ever since +concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and Siva. Both these divine +figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions—the genial Vishnu +mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same name; +whilst the stern Siva, <i>i.e.</i> the kind or gracious one—doubtless +a euphemistic name—has his prototype in the old fierce +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span> +storm-god Rudra, the “Roarer,” with certain additional features +derived from other deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of +flocks and bestower of prosperity, worked up therewith. The +exact process of the evolution of the two deities and their advance +in popular favour are still somewhat obscure. In the epic poems +which may be assumed to have taken their final shape in the +early centuries before and after the Christian era, their popular +character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in the +Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult +is likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early +centuries of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the +Trimurti does not by any means exclude a certain rivalry between +them; but, on the contrary, a supreme position as the true +embodiment of the Divine Spirit is claimed for each of them +by their respective votaries, without, however, an honourable, +if subordinate, place being refused to the rival deity, wherever +the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not actually represented +as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst +at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the +adoration of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the +people did not fail to extend the pantheon by groups of new +deities in connexion with them. Two of such new gods actually +pass as the sons of Siva and his consort Parvati, viz. Skanda—also +called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or Subrahmanya +(in the south)—the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and +Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva’s troupes of attendants, being +at the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of +wisdom; whilst a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the +god of love, gets his popular epithet of Ananga, “the bodiless,” +from his having once, in frolicsome play, tried the power of his +arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere practices, when +a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the angry god +reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief attendant, +the great god (Mahadeva, Maheśvara) has already with him +the “holy” Nandi—presumably, though his shape is not +specified, identical in form as in name with Siva’s sacred bull +of later times, the appropriate symbol of the god’s reproductive +power. But, in this <span class="correction" title="amended from repect">respect</span>, we also meet in the epics with the +first clear evidence of what in after time became the prominent +feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over +India, viz. the feature represented by the <i>linga</i>, or phallic +symbol.</p> + +<p>As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement +to the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the +entire framework of legendary matter on which the later Vaishnava +creeds are based. The theory of Avataras which makes +the deity—also variously called Narayana, Purushottama, +or Vasudeva—periodically assume some material form in order +to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully developed; +the ten universally recognized “descents” being enumerated +in the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms, +the incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnavism; +and the fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana +(Rama), and one of the prominent warriors of the Mahabharata +(Krishna) become in this way identified with the supreme god, +and remain to this day the chief objects of the adoration of +Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to these creeds a human +interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly wanting in +the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too true +that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed +features of a highly objectionable character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of +the Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous +practices, this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and +spirits indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with +the pantheistic doctrine of the <i>Ekam Advitiyam</i>, “the One without +a Second”? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little +difficulty in answering that question. For him there is only the +One Absolute Being, the one reality that is all in all; whilst all the +phenomenal existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses +are nothing more than an illusion of the individual soul estranged +for a time from its divine source—an illusion only to be dispelled +in the end by the soul’s fuller knowledge of its own true nature +and its being one with the eternal fountain of blissful being. But +to the man of ordinary understanding, unused to the rarefied atmosphere +of abstract thought, this conception of a transcendental, +impersonal Spirit and the unreality of the phenomenal world can +have no meaning: what he requires is a deity that stands in intimate +relation to things material and to all that affects man’s life. Hence +the exoteric theory of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and +that not only the manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing +the cardinal processes of mundane existence—creation, +preservation, and destruction or regeneration—but even such as +would tend to supply a rational explanation for superstitious +imaginings of every kind. For “the Indian philosophy does not +ignore or hold aloof from the religion of the masses: it underlies, +supports and interprets their polytheism. This may be accounted +the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which accepts and even +encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining everything by +giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships as outward, +visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to show how each +particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of universal +divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore natural +objects and forces—a mountain, a river or an animal. The Brahman +holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling, divine +energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes +man’s understanding” (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, <i>Brahminism</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where +countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by +the side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu +gods seems to have made steady progress. The caste-system, +<span class="sidenote">Sectarianism.</span> +always calculated to favour unity of religious +practice within its social groups, must naturally have contributed +to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the support +it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works +of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial character, +mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which +eighteen principal (<i>maha-purana</i>) and as many secondary ones +(<i>upa-purana</i>) are recognized, the oldest of which may go back +to about the 4th century of our era. It was probably also +during this period that the female element was first definitely +admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine objects of +sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal gods +viewed as their <i>sakti</i>, or female energy, theoretically identified +with the <i>Maya</i>, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta, +and the <i>Prakriti</i>, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya +philosophy, as the primary source of mundane things. The +connubial relations of the deities may thus be considered “to +typify the mystical union of the two eternal principles, spirit +and matter, for the production and reproduction of the universe.” +But whilst this privilege of divine worship was claimed for +the consorts of all the gods, it is principally to Siva’s consort, +in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration on an +extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries, +the <i>Saktas</i>.</p> + +<p>In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an attempt was +made, about the latter part of the 8th century, by the distinguished +Malabar theologian and philosopher Sankara +Acharya to restore the Brahmanical creed to +<span class="sidenote">Sankara.</span> +something like its pristine purity, and thus once more +to bring about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief. +Though himself, like most Brahmans, apparently by predilection +a follower of Siva, his aim was the revival of the doctrine of the +Brahma as the one self-existent Being and the sole cause of +the universe; coupled with the recognition of the practical +worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods of the +Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical +result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the +<i>Smartas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> adherents of the <i>smriti</i> or tradition, which has a +numerous following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst +professing Sankara’s doctrines, is usually classed as one of the +Saiva sects, its members adopting the horizontal sectarial +mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in their case of a triple line, +the <i>tripundra</i>, prepared from the ashes of burnt cow-dung and +painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four Maths, +or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri +in Mysore, the spiritual head (<i>Guru</i>) of which wields considerable +power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of +southern India. In northern India, the professed followers of +Sankara are mainly limited to certain classes of mendicants +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +and ascetics, although the tenets of this great Vedanta teacher +may be said virtually to constitute the creed of intelligent +Brahmans generally.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Whilst Sankara’s chief title to fame rests on his philosophical +works, as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he +doubtless played an important part in the partial remodelling of +the Hindu system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly +losing ground in India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists +ever having been actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less +of Sankara himself ever having done so; but the traditional belief +in some personal god, as the principal representative of an invisible, +all-pervading deity, would doubtless appeal more directly to the +minds and hearts of the people than the colourless ethical system +promulgated by the Sakya saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship +appear as a rule to have been destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but +they seem rather to have been taken over by them for their own +religious uses; at any rate there are to this day not a few Hindu +shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to Dharmaraj, “the prince +of righteousness,” as the Buddha is commonly styled. That the +tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as Buddhism, so +long prevalent in India, cannot but have left their marks on Hindu +life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so easy +to lay one’s finger on the precise features that might seem to betray +such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals, +based on the principle of <i>ahimsa</i>, or inflicting no injury on sentient +beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have +made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that sentiments +of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of Manu. +Thus, in v. 46-48, “He who does not willingly cause the pain of +confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all, +obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without +effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his +mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals, +and the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss: +from flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain.” Moreover, in view +of the fact that Jainism, which originated about the same time as +Buddhism, inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant +degree, it seems by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness +towards living beings generally was already widely diffused among +the people when these new doctrines were promulgated. To the +same tendency doubtless is due the gradual decline and ultimate +discontinuance of animal sacrifices by all sects except the extreme +branch of Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown +to serpents and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a somewhat +different light, as having a mythical background; whilst quite +a special significance attaches to the sacred character assigned to +the cow by all classes of Hindus, even those who are not prepared +to admit the claim of the Brahman to the exalted position of the +earthly god usually conceded to him. In the Veda no tendency +shows itself as yet towards rendering divine honour to the cow; +and though the importance assigned her in an agricultural community +is easily understood, still the exact process of her deification +and her identification with the mother earth in the time of Manu +and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized type of +the useful quadruped—likewise often identified with the earth—presents +itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or “wish-cow” +(Kamadhenu, or Kamadugha, <i>i.e.</i> wish-milker), already appearing +in the Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified +with Surabhi, “the fragrant,” the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha. +Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna—his being reared at +Gokula (cow-station); his tender relations to the <i>gopis</i>, or cow-herdesses, +of Vrindavana; his epithets <i>Gopala</i>, “the cowherd,” +and <i>Govinda</i>, “cow-finder,” actually explained as “recoverer of +the earth” in the great epic, and the <i>go-loka</i>, or “cow-world,” +assigned to him as his heavenly abode—may have some connexion +with the sacred character ascribed to the cow from early times.</p> +</div> + +<p>Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years, +the gods Vishnu and Siva, or <i>Hari</i> and <i>Hara</i> as they are also +commonly called—with their wives, especially that +of the latter god—have shared between them the +<span class="sidenote">Worship.</span> +practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But, though +the people have thus been divided between two different religious +camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within +reasonable limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning +special allegiance to one of the two gods as his <i>ishṭā devatā</i> +(favourite deity), will not withhold his tribute of adoration from +the other gods of the pantheon. The high-caste Brahman will +probably keep at his home a śālagrām stone, the favourite +symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of Siva +and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the morning; +and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will +not fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava +shrines there. Indeed, “sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness +are to be found chiefly among the professional leaders of the +modern brotherhoods and their low-caste followers, who are +taught to believe that theirs are the only true gods, and that the +rest do not deserve any reverence whatever” (Jog. Nath). +The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the celebration of +the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of these—<i>e.g.</i> +the <i>Sankranti</i> (called <i>Pongal</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “boiled rice,” in the south), +which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn +and the beginning of its northward course (<i>uttarāyana</i>) on the +1st day of the month Māgha (c. Jan. 12); the <i>Gaṇeśa-caturthī</i>, +or 4th day of the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September), +considered the birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the +<i>Holi</i>, the Indian Saturnalia in the month of Phālgunḁ (February +to March)—have nothing of a sectarian tendency about them; +others again, which are of a distinctly sectarian character—such +as the <i>Krishna-janmāshṭamī</i>, the birthday of Krishna on +the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of +Śrāvaṇa (July-August), the <i>Durga-puja</i> and the <i>Dipavali</i>, +or lamp feast, celebrating Krishna’s victory over the demon +Narakasura, on the last two days of Aśvina (September-October)—are +likewise observed and heartily joined in by the whole +community irrespective of sect. Widely different, however, as is +the character of the two leading gods are also the modes of +worship practised by their votaries.</p> + +<p><i>Siva</i> has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +and his worship is accordingly more widely extended than +that of his rival, especially in southern India. Indeed there is +hardly a village in India which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated +to Siva, and containing the emblem of his reproductive power; +for almost the only form in which the “Great God” is adored +is the <i>Linga</i>, consisting usually of an upright cylindrical block +of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular perforated +slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however, +to be but little understood by the common people; and, as +H. H. Wilson remarks, “notwithstanding the acknowledged +purport of this worship, it is but justice to state that it is unattended +in Upper India by any indecent or indelicate ceremonies, +and it requires a rather lively imagination to trace any +resemblance in its symbols to the objects they are supposed +to represent.” In spite, however, of its wide diffusion, and +the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva +has never assumed a really popular character, especially in +northern India, being attended with scarcely any solemnity +or display of emotional spirit. The temple, which usually stands +in the middle of a court, is as a rule a building of very moderate +dimensions, consisting either of a single square chamber, surmounted +by a pyramidal structure, or of a chamber for the +linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having first circumambulated +the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at his +right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and +presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating +priest receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts +his hands—joined so as to leave a hollow space between the +palms—to his forehead, muttering a short prayer, and takes +his departure. Amongst the many thousands of Lingas, twelve +are usually regarded as of especial sanctity, one of which, that +of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is worshipped as “the lord +of Soma,” was, however, shattered by Mahmud of Ghazni; +whilst another, representing Siva as <i>Visvesvara</i>, or “Lord of the +Universe,” is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great +centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the +other hand, single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples +which are supposed to enshrine as many characteristic aspects +(linga) of the god in the form of the five elements, the most +holy of these being the shrine of Chidambaram (<i>i.e.</i> “thought-ether”) +in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the ether-linga. According +to Pandit S. M. Natesa (<i>Hindu Feasts, Fasts and Ceremonies</i>), +“the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines are +considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +natural bases are the five elements—earth, water, fire, air +and ether. The apprehension of God in the last of these five +as ether is, according to the Saiva school of philosophy, the +highest form of worship, for it is not the worship of God in a +tangible form, but the worship of what, to ordinary minds, is +vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of a knowledge +of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the +shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is +the case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he +ever asks the priests to show him the God in the temple he is +pointed to an empty space in the holy of holies, which has been +termed the Akasa, or ether-linga.” But, however congenial +this refined symbolism may be to the worshipper of a speculative +turn of mind, it is difficult to see how it could ever satisfy the +religious wants of the common man little given to abstract +conceptions of this kind.</p> + +<p>From early times, detachment from the world and the practice +of austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly conducive +to a spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a +state of ecstatic communion with the deity. On these +<span class="sidenote">Mendicant orders.</span> +grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for a man +solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last +two of the four stages (<i>āśrama</i>) of his life in such conditions of +renunciation and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect +which has not contributed its share to the element of religious +mendicancy and asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in connexion +with the Siva-cult that these tendencies have been most +extensively cultivated. Indeed, the personality of the stern +God himself exhibits this feature in a very marked degree, +whence the term <i>mahāyogī</i> or “great ascetic” is often applied +to him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are +considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following +may be mentioned: (1) <i>Daṇḍīs</i>, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand +with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it, +and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They +worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the “terrible.” A sub-section +of this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so +called from their assuming one of the names of Sankara’s four +disciples, and six of their pupils. (2) <i>Yogis</i> (or popularly, Jogis), +<i>i.e.</i> adherents of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic +practices enjoined by it with the view of mental abstraction and the +supposed attainment of superhuman powers—practices which, +when not merely pretended, but rigidly carried out, are only too +apt to produce vacuity of mind and wild fits of frenzy. In these +degenerate days their supernatural powers consist chiefly in conjuring, +sooth-saying, and feats of jugglery, by which they seldom +fail in imposing upon a credulous public. (3) <i>Sannyasis</i>, devotees +who “renounce” earthly concerns, an order not confined either +to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva persuasion. Those of the +latter are in the habit of smearing their bodies with ashes, and +wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary of <i>rudraksha</i> berries +(Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. “Rudra’s eye”), sacred to Siva, and +allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted and filthy. (4) +<i>Parama-hamsas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “supreme geese (or swans),” a term applied to +the world-soul with which they claim to be identical. This is the +highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed to be +solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be “equally +indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and incapable +of satiety or want.” Some of them go about naked, but +the majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) <i>Aghora Panthis</i>, a vile +and disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their +filthy habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding, +even to the extent of eating offal and dead men’s flesh, look almost +like a direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial +purity and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and +manner of eating and drinking; and they certainly make them +objects of loathing and terror wherever they are seen.</p> + +<p>On the general effect of the manner of life led by <i>Sadhus</i> or “holy +men,” a recent observer (J. C. Oman, <i>Mystics, Ascetics and Saints +of India</i>, p. 273) remarks: “<i>Sadhuism</i>, whether perpetuating the +peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of +far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testimony +to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the +world as a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion +with the Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before +men’s eyes, as the highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and +contempt of the world and human affairs. It has also necessarily +maintained amongst the laity a sense of the righteous claims of +the poor upon the charity of the more affluent members of the +community. Moreover, <i>sadhuism</i>, by the multiplicity of the independent +sects which have arisen in India, has engendered and +favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot escape the notice of the +most superficial observer.”</p> +</div> + +<p>An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly +Saiva sect, are the <i>Vīra Śaivas</i>, more commonly called <i>Lingayats</i> +(popularly Lingaits) or <i>Lingavats</i>, from their +practice of wearing on their person a phallic emblem +<span class="sidenote">Lingayats.</span> +of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed +in a case suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from +the movable nature of their badge, their <i>Gurus</i> are called <i>Jangamas</i> +(“movable”). This sect counts numerous adherents in +southern India; the Census Report of 1901 recording nearly +a million and a half, including some 70 or 80 different, mostly +endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather reformer, +of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum +district who seems to have lived in the 11th or 12th century. +According to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his +caste and went to reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the +Chalukya kingdom, and later on at Sangamesvara near Ratnagiri, +where he was initiated into the Vīra Śaiva faith which he +subsequently made it his life’s work to propagate. His doctrine, +which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against the +severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of +the southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples +there being adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries +are only occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants, +leading about a neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva’s +sacred bull <i>Nandi</i>. Though the Lingayats still show a certain +animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are +accordingly <span class="correction" title="amended from classes">classed</span> as an independent group beside the Hindus, +still they can hardly be excluded from the Hindu community, +and are sure sooner or later to find their way back to the +Brahmanical fold.</p> + +<p>Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival, +has from early times proved to the lay mind a more attractive +object of adoration on account of the genial and, +so to speak, romantic character of his mythical personality. +<span class="sidenote">Avatars.</span> +It is not, however, so much the original figure of the +god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as +the additional elements it has received through the theory of +periodical “descents” (<i>avatāra</i>) or incarnations applied to this +deity. Whilst the Saiva philosophers do not approve of the +notion of incarnations, as being derogatory to the dignity of +the deity, the Brahmans have nevertheless thought fit to adopt +it as apparently a convenient expedient for bringing certain +tendencies of popular worship within the pale of their system, +and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist doctrines; +and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as +the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether +the incarnation theory started from the original solar nature +of the god suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or +in what other way it may have originated, must remain doubtful. +Certain, however, it is that at least one of his Avatars is clearly +based on the Vedic conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the +dwarf who claims as much ground as he can cover by three steps, +and then gains the whole universe by his three mighty strides. +Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by different authorities, +only two have entered to any considerable extent into the +religious worship of the people, viz. those of <i>Rama</i> (or Ramachandra) +and <i>Krishna</i>, the favourite heroes of epic romance. +That these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the +hearts and feelings of the people, especially the warlike Kshatriyas,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +than the austere Siva is only what might have been +expected; and, indeed, since the time of the epics their cult +seems never to have lacked numerous adherents. But, on the +other hand, the essentially human nature of these two gods +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations +between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the +modes and forms of adoration features of a more popular and +more human kind. And accordingly it is exactly in connexion +with these two incarnations of Vishnu, especially that of Krishna, +that a new spirit was infused into the religious life of the people +by the sentiment of fervent devotion to the deity, as it found +expression in certain portions of the epic poems, especially the +<i>Bhagavadgita</i>, and in the <i>Bhagavata-purana</i> (as against the more +orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the Vishnu-purana), +and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith +in the <i>Sandilya-sutra</i>, and ultimately translated into practice +by the Vaishnava reformers.</p> + +<p>The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara’s +reconstructed creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman +of the 12th century. His followers, the Ramanujas, +or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called, worship +<span class="sidenote">Ramanujas.</span> +Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi +(the goddess of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama +with Sita and Krishna with Rukmini. Ramanuja’s doctrine, +which is especially directed against the Linga-worship, is essentially +based on the tenets of an old Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas +or Pancharatras, who worshipped the Supreme Being under +the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with Krishna, +as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars +with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial +mark of the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of +another division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana, +between the hair and the root of the nose, with a red +or yellow vertical stroke (representing the female element) +between the two white lines. They also usually wear, like all +Vaishnavas, a necklace of <i>tulasī</i>, or basil wood, and a rosary of +seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their most important +shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly, Mailkote +in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar +coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with +Vishnu’s emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The +Ramanuja Brahmans are most punctilious in the preparation +of their food and in regard to the privacy of their meals, before +taking which they have to bathe and put on woollen or silk +garments. Whilst Sankara’s mendicant followers were prohibited +to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity +of Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only +allowed his followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating +any food cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative +side, Ramanuja also met Sankara’s strictly monistic theory +by another recognizing Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the +Supreme Spirit animating the material world as well as the +individual souls which have become estranged from God through +unbelief, and can only attain again conscious union with him +through devotion or love (<i>bhakti</i>). His tenets are expounded +in various works, especially in his commentaries on the Vedanta-sutras +and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja +have split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas +as their chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets +on the Nalayir, a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point +of doctrine, they differ in their view of the relation between +God Vishnu and the human soul; whilst the former sect define +it by the <i>ape</i> theory, which makes the soul cling to God as the +young ape does to its mother, the latter explain it by the cat +theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues the souls +as the mother cat does her young ones.</p> + +<p><i>Madhva Acharya</i>, another distinguished Vedanta teacher +and founder of a Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1199, +was less intolerant of the Linga cult than Ramanuja, +but seems rather to have aimed at a reconciliation of +<span class="sidenote">Madhvas.</span> +the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The <i>Madhvas</i> +or <i>Madhvacharis</i> favour Krishna and his consort as their special +objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their +son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in +some of their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi +in South Kanara, with eight monasteries connected with it. +This shrine contains an image of Krishna which is said to have +been rescued from the wreck of a ship which brought it from +Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up of old by +no other than Krishna’s friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava +princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with +in Upper India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-Vaishnavas, +except that their central line is black instead of +red or yellow. Madhva—who after his initiation assumed +the name Anandatirtha—composed numerous Sanskrit works, +including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (<i>i.e.</i> the Vedanta +aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads. +His philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating distinctness +of nature for the divine and the human soul, and +hence independent existence, instead of absorption, after the +completion of mundane existence.</p> + +<p>The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a +numerous northern sect of similar tenets to those of the Ramanujas. +Indeed its founder, Ramananda, who probably +flourished in the latter part of the 14th century, +<span class="sidenote">Ramats.</span> +according to the traditional account, was originally a Sri-Vaishnava +monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity +in observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations, +and been ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals +apart from his brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set +up a schismatic math of his own at Benares. The sectarial +mark of his sect differs but slightly from that of the parent stock. +The distinctive features of their creed consist in their making +Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the chief objects of +their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and their attaching +little or no importance to the observance of privacy in the +cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members, +usually known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect, +drawn from all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder’s +twelve chief disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver, +a currier, a Rajput, a Jat and a barber—for, they argue, seeing +that Bhagavan, the Holy One (Vishnu), became incarnate even +in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may be born even in the +lowest of castes. Ramananda’s teaching was thus of a distinctly +levelling and popular character; and, in accordance therewith, +the Bhakta-malā and other authoritative writings of the sect +are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A +follower of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the +composer of the beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and +other works which “exercise more influence upon the great +body of Hindu population than the whole voluminous series +of Sanskrit composition” (H. H. Wilson).</p> + +<p>The traditional list of Ramananda’s immediate disciples +includes the name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man +who would accordingly have lived in the latter part +of the 15th century, and who is claimed by both Hindus +<span class="sidenote">Kabir.</span> +and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story +goes that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda’s +teaching, he sought to attach himself to him; and, one day +at Benares, in stepping down the ghat at daybreak to bathe +in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way of the teacher, +the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his foot, uttered +his customary exclamation “Ram Ram,” which, being also +the initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such, +making him Ramananda’s disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir’s +own reformatory activity lay in the direction of a compromise +between the Hindu and the Mahommedan creeds, the religious +practices of both of which he criticized with equal severity. +His followers, the Kabir Panthis (“those following Kabir’s +path”), though neither worshipping the gods of the pantheon, +nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are nevertheless +in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the +Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity, +when they do not rather address their homage, in hymns and +otherwise, to the founder of their creed himself. Whilst very +numerous, particularly amongst the low-caste population, in +western, central and northern India, resident adherents of +Kabir’s doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +“there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may +not be found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as translated +into the local dialects.” The mendicants of this creed, +however, never actually solicit alms; and, indeed, “the quaker-like +spirit of the sect, their abhorrence of all violence, their +regard for truth and the inobtrusiveness of their opinions render +them very inoffensive members of the state” (H. H. Wilson). +The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly in the form of dialogues, +in numerous Hindi works, composed by his disciples +and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the teacher’s +own words.</p> + +<p>The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried +on with even greater zeal from the latter part of the 15th century +by one of his followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the +creed of the <i>Nanak Shahis</i> or <i>Sikhs</i>—<i>i.e.</i> (Sanskr.) <i>sishya</i>, disciples, +whose guru, or teacher, he called himself—a peaceful +sect at first until, in consequence of Mahommedan persecution, +a martial spirit was infused into it by the tenth, and last, guru, +Govind Shah, changing it into a political organization. Whilst +originally more akin in its principles to the Moslem faith, the sect +seems latterly to have shown tendencies towards drifting back +to the Hindu pale.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of Ramananda’s disciples and successors several others, besides +Kabir, have established schismatic divisions of their own, which +do not, however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The +most important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu +about the year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar, +one section of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service, +whilst the others are either householders or mendicants. The +followers of this creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge, +except a skull-cap; nor do they worship any visible image of any +deity, the repetition (<i>japa</i>) of the name of Rama being the only +kind of adoration practised by them.</p> +</div> + +<p>Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their +adoration of Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Ramachandra, +usually associate with these gods their +wives, as their <i>saktis</i>, or female energies, the sexual +<span class="sidenote">Eroticism and Krishna worship.</span> +element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope +to enhance the emotional character of the rites of +worship. In some of the later Vaishnava creeds, on the other +hand, this element is far from being kept within the bounds of +moderation and decency. The favourite object of adoration +with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his mate—but +not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and +deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded +lord of Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala +Gopala, “the cowherd lad,” the foster son of the cowherd Nanda +of Gokula, taken up with his amorous sports with the <i>Gopis</i>, +or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana (Brindaban, near Mathura +on the Yamuna), especially his favourite mistress Radha or +Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna has +every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few +allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the +Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and +the Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with +the life of Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions, +especially the Hindi <i>Prem-sagar</i>, or “ocean of love,” a favourite +romance all over India, and has doubtless helped largely to +popularize the cult of Krishna. Strange to say, however, no +mention is as yet made by any of these works of Krishna’s +favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana—though scarcely +deserving that designation—that she makes her appearance, +viz. in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna’s amours in +Nanda’s cow-station are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome +detail; whilst the poet Jayadeva, in the 12th century, made +her love for the gay and inconstant boy the theme of his beautiful, +if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama, <i>Gita-govinda</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in +their worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or +Nimbarka (<i>i.e.</i> “the sun of the Nimba tree”), a teacher of uncertain +date, said to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently +established himself at Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where +the headquarters of his sect have remained ever since. The Mahant +of their monastery at Dhruva Kshetra near Mathura, who claims +direct descent from Nimbarka, is said to place the foundation of +that establishment as far back as the 5th century—doubtless an +exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is alleged, and seems by +no means improbable, was really a follower of Nimbarka, this +teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early part of the +12th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be +identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known +to have completed his chief work in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1150. It is worthy of +remark, in this respect, that—in accordance with Ramanuja’s and +Nimbarka’s philosophical theories—Jayadeva’s presentation of +Krishna’s fickle love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical +sense, as allegorically depicting the human soul’s striving, through +love, for reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many +backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their +tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though +several works, ascribed to Nimbarka—partly of a devotional character +and partly expository of Vedanta topics—are still extant. +Adherents of this sect are fairly numerous in northern India, +their frontal mark consisting of the usual two perpendicular white +lines, with, however, a circular black spot between them.</p> + +<p>Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of +their far larger following, are the two sects founded early in the +16th century by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya. +In the forms of worship favoured by votaries of these creeds the +emotional and erotic elements are allowed yet freer scope than in +those that preceded them; and, as an effective auxiliary to these +tendencies, the use of the vernacular dialects in prayers and hymns +of praise takes an important part in the religious service. The +Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called, from the title of +their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, <i>i.e.</i> “the cow-lords +(<i>gosvamin</i>) residing in Gokula,” are very numerous in western and +central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman, after +extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near +Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala. +About the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions +of the Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in +Udaipur (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha (“the lord of Sri,” +<i>i.e.</i> Vishnu) continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents +of this creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura +at the same time, are located at different places in Rajputana. +Vallabha himself went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he +died. In the doctrine of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic +theory of Sankara is resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous +cult of the deity. For, if the human soul is identical with God, the +practice of austerities must be discarded as directed against God, +and it is rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and +the pleasures of life that man’s love for God will best be shown. +The followers of his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy +merchants and bankers, direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lal, +the boyish Krishna of Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously +attended like a revered living person eight times a day—from its +early rising from its couch up to its retiring to repose at night. +The sectarial mark of the adherents consists of two red perpendicular +lines, meeting in a semicircle at the root of the nose, and having a +round red spot painted between them. Their principal doctrinal +authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as commented upon by Vallabha +himself, who was also the author of several other Sanskrit +works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect, children are +solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of four, and +even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108 beads of +basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are taught +the use of the octo-syllabic formula <i>Sri-Krishnah saranam mama</i>, +“Holy Krishna is my refuge.” Another special feature of this +sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called Maharajas, +so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and austere +practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow themselves +to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice kinds +of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the +“lord of the Gopis” himself, they claim and receive in their own +persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even, +it is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final +judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before +the Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these improprieties +were severely commented upon; and though so unsparing +a critic of Indian sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in +actual immoral practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he +admits that “the corrupting influence of a religion, that can make +its female votaries address amorous songs to their spiritual guides, +must be very great.”</p> + +<p>A modern offshoot of Vallabha’s creed, formed with the avowed +object of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the +early years of the 19th century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the +Oudh country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami +Narayana. Having entered on his missionary labours at Ahmadabad, +and afterwards removed to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting +with Bishop Heber, he subsequently settled at the village of Wartal, +to the north-west of Baroda, and erected a temple to Lakshmi-Narayana, +which, with another at Ahmadabad, forms the two chief +centres of the sect, each being presided over by a Maharaja. Their +worship is addressed to Narayana, <i>i.e.</i> Vishnu, as the Supreme +Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as to Krishna and Radha. +The sect is said to be gaining ground in Gujarat. Chaitanya, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +founder of the great Vaishnava sect of Bengal, was the son of a +high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous Bengal seat of Sanskrit +learning, where he was born in 1485, two years after the birth of +Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married in due +time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he lived as +a “householder” (<i>grihastha</i>) till the age of 24, when he renounced +his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant (<i>vairagin</i>), +visiting during the next six years the principal places of pilgrimage +in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success his +doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the Supreme +Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples the +task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve +years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship of +Vishnu as Jagannatha, or “lord of the world,” which he remodelled +in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of +Jayadeva to be recited before the images in the morning and evening +as part of the daily service; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava +creeds, seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into +accord with the experience of human love. To this end, music, +dancing, singing-parties (<i>sankirtan</i>), theatricals—in short anything +calculated to produce the desired impression—would prove welcome +to him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional +feeling in the <i>Bhaktas</i>, or faithful adherents: viz. (<i>santi</i>) +calm contemplation of the deity; (<i>dasya</i>) active servitude; (<i>sakhya</i>) +friendship or personal regard; (<i>vatsalya</i>) tender affection as between +parents and children; (<i>madhurya</i>) love or passionate attachment, +like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also seems +to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing +scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or “car-procession,” +in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of +pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother +Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car, +by the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be, +attended by people from all parts of India, without distinction of +caste or sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted +by Chaitanya as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances +are recommended as more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of +worship is a very simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the +constant repetition of names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha, +which of itself is considered sufficient to ensure future bliss. The +partaking of flesh food and spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited. +By the followers of this sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence +is habitually paid to their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chaitanya +himself, as well as his immediate disciples, have come to be +regarded as complete or partial incarnations of the deity to whom +adoration is due, as to Krishna himself; and their modern successors, +the Gosains, share to the fullest extent in the devout attentions +of the worshippers. Chaitanya’s movement, being chiefly +directed against the vile practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent +in Bengal, was doubtless prompted by the best and purest of intentions; +but his own doctrine of divine, though all too human, +love was, like that of Vallabha, by no means free from corruptive +tendencies,—yet, how far these tendencies have worked their way, +who would say? On this point, Dr W. W. Hunter—who is of +opinion that “the death of the reformer marks the beginning of +the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship,” observes (<i>Orissa</i>, i. 111), +“The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship at the present +day is that which has covered the temple walls with indecent +sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with licentious +rites” ... yet ... “it is difficult for a person not a Hindu to +pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu +can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest +really knows the truth about their inner mysteries”; whilst the +well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out +(<i>Antiquities of Orissa</i>, i. 111) that “such as they are, these +sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and +cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers. +As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have +had the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most +secret of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively, +and have had opportunities of judging which no European can +have, and I have no hesitation in saying that, ‘the mystic songs’ +of Jayadeva and the ‘ocean of love’ notwithstanding, there is +nothing in the rituals of Jagannatha which can be called licentious.” +Whilst in Chaitanya’s creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha, +remains at least theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable +step was taken by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance +to the female element, and making Krishna’s love for his +mistress the guiding sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it +will suffice to mention that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the +latter part of the 16th century, who worship Krishna as Radha-vallabha, +“the darling of Radha.” The doctrines and practices +of these sects clearly verge upon those obtaining in the third principal +division of Indian sectarians which will now be considered.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the <i>sakti</i>, +or the female principle as a primary factor in the creation and +reproduction of the universe. And as each of the principal +gods is supposed to have associated with him his own +<span class="sidenote">Saktas</span> +particular <i>sakti</i>, as an indispensable complement enabling +him to properly perform his cosmic functions, adherents of this +persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all +sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but +though Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its +luxuriant growth of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly +favourable to a development in this direction, it is practically +only in connexion with the Saiva system that an independent cult +of the female principle has been developed; whilst in other +sects—and, indeed, in the ordinary Saiva cult as well—such +worship, even where it is at all prominent, is combined with, and +subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has made this +cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is doubtless +the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in +addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see, +is likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory +of the god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already +foreshadowed in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst +in the speculative treatises of the later Vedic period, as well +as in the post-Vedic Brahmanical writings, the assumption of +the self-existent being dividing himself into a male and a female +half usually forms the starting-point of cosmic evolution.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In +the later Saiva mythology this theory finds its artistic representation +in Siva’s androgynous form of Ardha-narisa, or “half-woman-lord,” +typifying the union of the male and female energies; +the male half in this form of the deity occupying the right-hand, +and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this +type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into +two distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater +importance to the male or to the female principle; viz. the +<i>Dakshinacharis</i>, or “right-hand-observers” (also called <i>Dak-shina-margis</i>, +or followers “of the right-hand path”), and the +<i>Vamacharis</i>, or “left-hand-observers” (or <i>Vama-margis</i>, +followers “of the left path”). Though some of the Puranas, +the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely into +Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these +are fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost +invariably composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule, +in answer to questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds +the mysteries of this occult creed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of +India—Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its +adherents profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart +from the implied purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode +of adoration does not seem to offer any very objectionable features. +And even amongst the adherents of the left-hand mode of worship, +many of these are said to follow it as a matter of family tradition +rather than of religious conviction, and to practise it in a sober and +temperate manner; whilst only an extreme section—the so-called +<i>Kaulas</i> or <i>Kulinas</i>, who appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulopanishad, +as the divine authority of their tenets—persist in carrying +on the mystic and licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras. +But strict secrecy being enjoined in the performance of these rites, +it is not easy to check any statements made on this point. The +Sakta cult is, however, known to be especially prevalent—though +apparently not in a very extreme form—amongst members of the +very respectable Kayastha or writer caste of Bengal, and as these +are largely employed as clerks and accountants in Upper India, +there is reason to fear that their vicious practices are gradually +being disseminated through them.</p> +</div> + +<p>The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is +Siva’s wife—the <i>Devi</i> (goddess), <i>Mahadevi</i> (great goddess), +or <i>Jagan-mata</i> (mother of the world)—in one or other of her +numerous forms, benign or terrible. The forms in which she +is worshipped in Bengal are of the latter category, viz. <i>Durga</i>, +“the unapproachable,” and <i>Kali</i>, “the black one,” or, as some +take it, the wife of <i>Kala</i>, “time,” or death the great dissolver, +viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the <i>Durga-puja</i> is celebrated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span> +during ten days at the time of the autumnal equinox, in commemoration +of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon +Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding +a weapon in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast +into the water on the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence +the festival itself is commonly called Dasara in western India. +<i>Kali</i>, on the other hand, the most terrible of the goddess’s forms, +has a special service performed to her, at the <i>Kali-puja</i>, during +the darkest night of the succeeding month; when she is represented +as a naked black woman, four-armed, wearing a garland +of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of skulls round her +neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala), with +gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be +propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On +other occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices, +usually one or more kids; the head of the victim, which +has to be severed by a single stroke, being always placed in front +of the image of the goddess as a blood-offering (<i>bali</i>), with an +earthen lamp fed with ghee burning above it, whilst the flesh +is cooked and served to the guests attending the ceremony, +except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste musicians +who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this +class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use +certain kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead. +The use of wine, which at one time was very common on these +occasions, seems also to have become much more restricted; +and only members of the extreme section would still seem to +adhere to the practice of the so-called five <i>m’s</i> prescribed by +some of the Tantras, viz. <i>mamsa</i> (flesh), <i>matsya</i> (fish), <i>madya</i> +(wine), <i>maithuna</i> (sexual union), and <i>mudra</i> (mystical finger +signs)—probably the most degrading cult ever practised under +the pretext of religious worship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory +has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either +special forms and personifications or attendants of the “Great +Goddess.” They are generally arranged in groups, the most important +of which are the <i>Mahavidyas</i> (great sciences), the 8 (or 9) +<i>Mataras</i> (mothers) or <i>Mahamataras</i> (great mothers), consisting of +the wives of the principal gods; the 8 <i>Nayikas</i> or mistresses; and +different classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called <i>Yoginis</i>, <i>Dakinis</i> +and <i>Sakinis</i>. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure +Vedic <i>mantras</i>, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on +that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition +of superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables +called <i>bija</i> (germ), of magic circles (<i>chakra</i>) and diagrams (<i>yantra</i>), +and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of +fancied mysterious import.</p> +</div> + +<p>This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little +the character of their divine objects of worship is calculated to +exert that elevating and spiritualizing influence, +so characteristic of true religious devotion. In all +<span class="sidenote">General conclusions.</span> +but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is +only too apt to degenerate into that very state of +sexual excitation which devotional exercises should surely tend +to repress. If the worship of Siva, despite the purport of +his chief symbol, seems on the whole less liable to produce +these undesirable effects than that of the rival deity, it is doubtless +due partly to the real nature of that emblem being little +realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat +repellent character of the “great god,” more favourable to +evoking feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion. +All the more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with +the adoration of his consort, calculated to work up the carnal +instincts of the devotees to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy. +In the Vaishnava camp, on the other hand, the cult of Krishna, +and more especially that of the youthful Krishna, can scarcely +fail to exert an influence which, if of a subtler and more insinuating, +is not on that account of a less demoralizing kind. +Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less consonant with +godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this juvenile +god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by +dint of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for +all their refinements take these amusing adventures any the less +<i>au pied de la lettre</i>. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be +found with the legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly +honour and virtue, even as his consort Sita is the very model +of a noble and faithful wife; and yet this cult has perhaps +retained even more of the character of mere hero-worship than +that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted doctrine of +<i>karman</i> (deed) or <i>karmavipaka</i> (“the maturing of deeds”) +man himself—either in his present, or some future, existence—enjoys +the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad +actions, there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a +belief in the remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution. +And accordingly the “descents” or incarnations of +the deity have for their object, not so much the spiritual regeneration +of man as the deliverance of the world from some material +calamity threatening to overwhelm it. The generally recognized +principal Avatars do not, however, by any means constitute +the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in worldly +affairs, but—in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the +sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these +luminaries being temporarily swallowed by the dragon <i>Rahu</i> +(or <i>Graha</i>, “the seizer”)—so any uncommon occurrence would +be apt to be set down as a special manifestation of divine power; +and any man credited with exceptional merit or achievement, +or even remarkable for some strange incident connected with +his life or death, might ultimately come to be looked upon as a +veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of influencing the +destinies of man, and might become an object of local adoration +or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of people. +That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the +departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal +abode, would naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this +kind can scarcely be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this +respect is the worship of the <i>Pitris</i> (“fathers”) or deceased +ancestors, as entering largely into the everyday life and family +relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to offer reverential +homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to the third +degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has to +discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative +rite of obsequies called <i>Sraddha</i>—<i>i.e.</i> an oblation “made in faith” +(<i>sraddha</i>, Lat. <i>credo</i>)—is the duty and privilege of the eldest son +of the deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby +establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance; +and those other relatives who have the right to take part in the +ceremony are called <i>sapinda</i>, <i>i.e.</i> sharing in the <i>pindas</i> (or balls of +cooked rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual +offering to the Manes)—such relationship being held a bar to +intermarriage. The first <i>Sraddha</i> takes place as soon as possible +after the <i>antyeshti</i> (“final offering”) or funeral ceremony proper, +usually spread over ten days; being afterwards repeated once a +month for a year, and subsequently at every anniversary and +otherwise voluntarily on special occasions. Moreover, a simple +libation of water should be offered to the Fathers twice daily at +the morning and evening devotion called <i>sandhya</i> (“twilight”). +It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with sentiments +of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of offering +gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also +frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to +the Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family +being afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling +them to use but sparingly their little store of provisions, +in case the supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same +time one also meets with frank avowals of a superstitious fear +lest any irregularity in the performance of the obsequial rites +should cause the Fathers to haunt their old home and trouble the +peace of their undutiful descendant, or even prematurely draw +him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the Fathers, supposed +to be located in the southern region. Terminating as it usually +does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number of +Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers’ own +caste, the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a +matter of very considerable expense; and more than ordinary +benefit to the deceased is supposed to accrue from it when it takes +place at a spot of recognized sanctity, such as one of the great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +places of pilgrimage like Prayaga (Allahabad, where the three +sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, meet), Mathura, +and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the <i>tirtha-yatra</i>, +or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself considered +an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to the +time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places +is legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great +rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the +Narbada, the Krishna (Kistna), are studded with them, and the +water of these rivers is supposed to be imbued with the essence +of sanctity capable of cleansing the pious bather of all sin and +moral taint. To follow the entire course of one of the sacred +rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and back again on +the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction—that is, +always keeping the stream on one’s right-hand side—is held to be +a highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry +through. No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the +Ganges, is sent and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used +on occasion as healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In +Vedic times, at the <i>Rajasuya</i>, or inauguration of a king, some +water from the holy river Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling +water used for consecrating the king. Hence also sick persons are +frequently conveyed long distances to a sacred river to heal them +of their maladies; and for a dying man to breathe his last at the +side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be the surest way of +securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand +years ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts +such as these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism +is likely to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about +by the modern theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and +Arya-samaj, as so close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life +and thought as Sir A. Lyall seems to think? “The Hindu mind,” +he remarks, “is essentially speculative and transcendental; it will +never consent to be shut up in the prison of sensual experience, for +it has grasped and holds firmly the central idea that all things are +manifestations of some power outside phenomena. And the tendency +of contemporary religious discussion in India, so far as it can +be followed from a distance, is towards an ethical reform on the +old foundations, towards searching for some method of reconciling +their Vedic theology with the practices of religion taken as a rule +of conduct and a system of moral government. One can already +discern a movement in various quarters towards a recognition of +impersonal theism, and towards fixing the teaching of the philosophical +schools upon some definitely authorized system of faith and +morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical standard, and may thus +permanently embody that tendency to substitute spiritual devotion +for external forms and caste rules which is the characteristic of +the sects that have from time to time dissented from orthodox +Brahminism.”</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Census of India</i> (1901), vol. i. part i.; <i>India</i>, by +H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. <i>Ethnographical Appendices</i>, +by H. H. Risley; <i>The Indian Empire</i>, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907); +J. Muir, <i>Original Sanskrit Texts</i> (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873); +Monier Williams, <i>Religious Thought and Life in India</i> (London, +1883); <i>Modern India and the Indians</i> (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879); +<i>Hinduism</i> (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, <i>Asiatic Studies</i> +(2 series, London, 1899); “Hinduism” in <i>Religious Systems of the +World</i> (London, 1904); “Brahminism” in <i>Great Religions of the +World</i> (New York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, <i>Modern +Hinduism</i> (London, 1887); J. C. Oman, <i>Indian Life, Religious and +Social</i> (London, 1879); <i>The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India</i> +(London, 1903); <i>The Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India</i> +(London, 1907); S. C. Bose, <i>The Hindus as they are</i> (2nd ed., +Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson, <i>Hinduism and Christianity</i> (Edinburgh +and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J. Murray Mitchell, <i>Hinduism Past +and Present</i> (2nd ed., London, 1897); Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, +<i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i> (Calcutta, 1896); A. Barth, <i>The Religions +of India</i> (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, <i>The Religions of India</i> +(London, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. E.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can +best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform +worked upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized +and executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the +Holy Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic.” Sir Alfred C. +Lyall, <i>Asiatic Studies</i>, i. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, <i>The Village Deities +of Southern India</i> (Madras, 1907).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> “The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious +basis.” Sir A. C. Lyall, <i>Brahmanism</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Thus, in Berar, “there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the +dregs of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races +which have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become +fused with the general community, while these same races are still +distinct tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle.” Sir Alfred C. +Lyall, <i>As. St.</i>, i. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the present +age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the Brahmans, +and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when pictured, +is always of a dark-blue colour.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> As in the case of Siva’s traditional white complexion, it may +not be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu, +Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed +to them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown respectively. +The names of the two heroes meaning simply “black” +or “dark,” the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu, +who is also called <i>pītavasas</i>, dressed in yellow garment, <i>i.e.</i> the +colours of sky and sun combined.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic cosmogonic +hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that—“that one +(existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its <i>svadha</i> (? inherent +power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever +... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was +generated by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came +upon it, which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces +there were, <i>svadha</i> below, <i>prayati</i> (? will) above.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDU KUSH,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout +500 m. of its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it +fades into the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range +forms the water-divide between the Kabul and the Oxus basins, +and, for the first 200 m. reckoning westwards, the southern +boundary of Afghanistan. It may be said to spring from the +head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites with the great +meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and the yet +more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base +of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of +Kanjut. The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash +Pamir into the sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction +of the three great chains of mountains. As the Hindu +Kush strikes westwards, after first rounding the head of an Oxus +tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which Curzon considers to be the true +source of the Oxus), it closely overlooks the trough of that +glacier-fed stream under its northern spurs, its crest at the nearest +point being separated from the river by a distance which cannot +much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the northern boundary +of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the southern +boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan +kingdom at that point.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physiography.</i>—For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush +is a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting +the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no +considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height +from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the +well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial +offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad. +As the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns +south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks +on the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level. +Even here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the +chain, is apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be +looked for to the south, where the great square-headed giant called +Tirach Mir dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40 +or 50 m. of this south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus, +where the Hindu Kush overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan +to the west, the crest is intersected by many passes, of which +the most important is the Dorah group (including the Minjan and +the Mandal), which rise to about 15,000 ft., and which are, under +favourable conditions, practicable links between the Oxus and +Chitral basins.</p> + +<p>From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it +is seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the +Hindu Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in +altitude, the water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and +<span class="sidenote">Kafiristan section.</span> +Badakshan. Here its exact position is matter of conjecture. +It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible region of snowbound +crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000 ft. above +sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the passage +of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts, +and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved +on a rock in the pass.</p> + +<p>The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul +river, leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of +Kabul, is now an excellent kafila route, the road having +been engineered under the amir Abdur Rahman’s direction, +<span class="sidenote">Passes.</span> +and it is said to be available for traffic throughout the year. From +the Khawak to the head of the Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush +which, rising to the north-west of Kabul, flows north-east to meet +the Panjshir near Charikar, whence they run united into the plains +of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is intersected by passes at intervals, +all of which were surveyed, and several utilized, during the return +of the Russo-Afghan boundary commission from the Oxus to Kabul +in 1886. Those utilized were the Kaoshan (the “Hindu Kush” +pass <i>par excellence</i>), 14,340 ft.; the Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which +is a link in one of the amir of Afghanistan’s high roads to Turkestan; +and the Shibar (9800 ft.), which is merely a diversion into the upper +Ghorband of that group of passes between Bamian and the Kabul +plains which are represented by the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About +this point it is geographically correct to place the southern extremity +of the Hindu Kush, for here commences the Koh-i-Baba system +into which the Hindu Kush is merged.</p> + +<p>The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of +the Khawak, no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock +composition as at present exists to the north, points to +its construction under the same conditions of upheaval +<span class="sidenote">General conformation.</span> +and subsequent denudation as are common to the western +Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland. +Its upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the +north-west of the Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had +massed itself as a formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively +recent geologic period, and the same thrust upwards of +vast masses of cretaceous limestone has disturbed the overlying +recent beds of shale and clays with very similar results to those +which have left so marked an impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive +flexures or ridges are ranged in more or less parallel lines, +and from between the bands of hard, unyielding rock of older +formation the soft beds of recent shale have been washed out, to be +carried through the enclosing ridges by rifts which break across +their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but the face of a great +upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it northwards, just +as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great central tableland +of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting long, narrow, +lateral valleys and transverse lines of “antecedent” drainage, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span> +similar. There are few passes across the southern section of the +Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the politico-geographical +point of view, more important to India than the whole Himalayan +system) which have not to surmount a succession of crests or ridges +as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan. The exceptions +are, of course, notable, and have played an important part +in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a +little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the +crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the +Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of +Chitral and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies +on the watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic. +Its contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on +conditions of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses +towards one end. It marks the commencement of the water-divide +which primarily separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun, +or Chitral, river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat +and Bajour from that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar +river (it is called by all three names) is the longest +affluent of the Kabul, and it is in many respects a more important +river than the Kabul. Throughout its length it is closely flanked +on its left bank by this main water-divide, which is called Moshabar +or Shandur in its northern sections, and owns a great variety of +names where it divides Bajour from the Kunar valley. It is this +range, crowned by peaks of 22,000 ft. altitude and maintaining an +average elevation of some 10,000 ft. throughout its length of 250 m., +that is the real barrier of the north—not the Hindu Kush itself. +Across it, at its head, are the glacial passes which lead to the foot +of the Baroghil. Of these Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each +side, is typical. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilgit</a></span>.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka) +from the Pamir regions, which lead into the rocky gorges and +defiles of the upper affluents of the Hunza to the east of the Darkot, +belong rather to the Muztagh system than to the Hindu Kush. +Other passes across this important water-divide are the Shandur +(12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj; the Lowarai (10,450 ft.), +between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys; and farther south certain +lower crossings which once formed part of the great highway between +Kabul and India.</p> + +<p>Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway +between its source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is +the village and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the +right bank of the river, and extending for some 70 m. +<span class="sidenote">Chitral.</span> +from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush +known as Shawal, across which one or two difficult passes lead into +the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This spur carries the boundary of +Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some 50 m. below Chitral), +where it crosses the river to the long Shandur watershed. South +of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of Afghanistan (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kunar</a></span>). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British India may +be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100 m. +(direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar +Kisht on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu +Kush intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way +between the two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on +either side are rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the +only pass which leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The +Mandal pass, a few miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link +between the Oxus and the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the +Bashgol valley leads directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai, +about 50 m. below Chitral. Nor must we overlook the connexion +between north and south of the Hindu Kush which is afforded by +the long narrow valley of the Chitral (or Yashkun) itself, leading up +to the Baroghil pass. This route was once made use of by the +Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for invasion. Access to +Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter of practicable tracks, +or passes, in two or three directions, and the measure of practicability +under any given conditions can best be reckoned from Chitral +itself. By most authorities the possibility of an advance in force +from the north, even under the most favourable conditions, is considered +to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and passes of the +Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are left as nature +has made them.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Historical Notices.</i>—Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander’s +historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the +latter term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only +when the alpine barrier is in question. Whether the name was +given in mere vanity to the barrier which Alexander passed (as +Arrian and others repeatedly allege), or was founded also on +some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was no doubt +regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a +great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east, +whether called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself +applies Caucasus distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application +of the name Tanais to the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion +with Colchian Caucasus. Alexander, after building an +Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian near Charikar), +crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or Adrapsa. This +has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably +crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The +ancient Zend name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the +essential part of Paropamisus; this accounts for the great +Asiastic <i>Parnassus</i> of Aristotle, and the <i>Pho-lo-sin-a</i> of Hsüan +Tsang.</p> + +<p>The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (<i>c.</i> +1332) from Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name +which, however doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer, +“because of the number of Indian slaves who perished in passing” +its snows. Baber always calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way +in which he speaks of it shows clearly that it was a range that was +meant, not a solitary pass or peak (according to modern local use, +as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes). Probably, however, the +title was confined to the section from Khawak to Koh-i-Baba. +The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified into +Hindu <i>Koh</i> (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more +light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become +known to European geographers by the Oriental translations of +the two Petis de la Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and +D’Anville. Rennell and Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes +first crossed the range (1832). A British force was stationed at +Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost at Saighan.</p> + +<p>The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has +been the limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the +boundary of a considerable power. Greeks, White Huns, +Samanidae of Bokhara, Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and +Timuridae, down to Saddozais and Barakzais, have ruled both +sides of this great alpine chain.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is +now comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission +of 1884 and the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for +geographical investigation, and the information collected is to be +found in the reports and gazetteers of the Indian government. +The following are the chief recent authorities:—Report of the Russo-Afghan +Boundary Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart’s +Mission (1886); Report of Asmar Boundary Commission (1895); +Report of Pamir Boundary Commission (1896); J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes +of the Hindu Kush</i> (Calcutta, 1880); W. M’Nair, “Visit to Kafiristan,” +vol. vi. <i>R.G.S. Proc.</i>, 1884; F. Younghusband, “Journeys +on the Pamirs, &c.,” vol. xiv. <i>R.G.S. Proc.</i>, 1892; Colonel Durand, +<i>Making a Frontier</i> (London, 1899); Sir G. Robertson, <i>Chitral</i> +(London, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINDUR,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nalagarh</span>, one of the Simla hill states, under +the government of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551; +area, 256 sq. m.; estimated revenue, £8600. The country was +overrun by the Gurkhas for some years before 1815, when they +were driven out by the British, and the raja was confirmed in +possession of the territory. The principal products are grain +and opium.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINGANGHAT,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a town of British India in Wardha district, +Central Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901) +12,662. It is a main seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here +produced in the rich Wardha valley having given its name to +one of the best indigenous staples of India. The principal +native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have large transactions +and export on their own account; but the greater +number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and +several ginning and pressing factories.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINGE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (in Mid. Eng. <i>henge</i> or <i>heeng</i>, from <i>hengen</i>, to +hang), a movable joint, particularly that by which a door or +window “hangs” from its side-post, or by which a lid or cover +is attached to that which it closes; also any device which allows +two parts to be joined together and move upon each other +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joinery</a></span>). Figuratively the word is used of that on which +something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINGHAM,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., on Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900) +5059 (969 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910) +4965. Area, about 30 sq. m. The township is traversed by +the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and contains +the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham Center, and +South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span> +founded and endowed with about £12,000 in 1784 by Sarah +Derby (1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public +library (1868), with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting +House, erected in 1681, is one of the oldest church buildings in +the country used continuously. Manufactures were relatively +much more important in the 17th and 18th centuries than since. +There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of them—notably +Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry Hobart,—being +natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name; +and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township +of Hingham.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>History of the Town of Hingham</i> (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1794-1861), +German philosopher, studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy +at Heidelberg under Hegel (q.v.), who wrote a preface to +his <i>Religion im innern Verhältniss zur Wissenschaft</i> (Heidelberg, +1722). He became a <i>Privatdozent</i> in 1819, and held professorships +at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—(1) Philosophical: <i>Grundlinien der Philosophie der +Logik</i> (Halle, 1826); <i>Genesis des Wissens</i> (Heidelberg, 1835). (2) +On aesthetics: <i>Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust</i> (Halle, 1825); +<i>Schillers Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang</i> (Leipzig, +1837-1839). By these works he became a recognized exponent of +orthodox Hegelianism. (3) Historical: <i>Geschichte der Rechts- und +Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig, +1848-1852); <i>Die Könige</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINSCHIUS, PAUL<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son +of Franz Sales August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in +Berlin on the 25th of December 1835. His father was not only +a scientific jurist, but also a lawyer in large practice in Berlin. +After working under his father, Hinschius in 1852 began to study +jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin, the teacher who had +most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig Richter (1808-1864), +to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of the +study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took +the degree of <i>doctor utriusque juris</i>, and in 1859 was admitted to +the juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor +extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to +Berlin in 1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the +university of Kiel, which he represented in the Prussian Upper +House (1870-1871). He also assisted his father in editing the +<i>Preussische Anwaltszeitung</i> from 1862 to 1866 and the <i>Zeitschrift +für Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in Preussen</i> from 1867 to 1871. +In 1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical +law at Berlin. In the same year he took part in the conferences +of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which issued in the famous +“Falk laws.” In connexion with the developments of the +<i>Kulturkampf</i> which resulted from the “Falk laws,” he wrote +several treatises: <i>e.g.</i> on “The Attitude of the German State +Governments towards the Decrees of the Vatican Council” +(1871), on “The Prussian Church Laws of 1873” (1873), “The +Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875” (1875), and +“The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880” (1881). He +sat in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878, +and again in 1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented +the university of Berlin in the Prussian Upper House. +He died on the 13th of December 1898.</p> + +<p>The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame +are the <i>Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni</i> +(2 parts, Leipzig, 1863) and <i>Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken +und Protestanten in Deutschland</i>, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877). +The first of these, for which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered +materials in Italy, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, +Holland and Belgium, was the first critical edition of the False +Decretals. His most monumental work, however, is the <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, +which remains incomplete. The six volumes actually +published (<i>System des katholischen Kirchenrechts</i>) cover only +book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an exhaustive +historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic hierarchy +and its government of the church. The work is planned with +special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces +the whole of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles +and practice. Unfortunately even this part of the work remains +incomplete; two chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii., +which was to have dealt with “the rights and duties of the +members of the hierarchy,” remain unwritten; the most notable +omission is that of the ecclesiastical law in relation to the regular +orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the <i>Kirchenrecht</i> remains +a work of the highest scientific authority. Epoch-making in +its application of the modern historical method to the study of +ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become the +model for the younger school of canonists.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles <i>s.v.</i> by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie</i>, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINTERLAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (German for “the land behind”), the region +lying behind a coast or river line, or a country dependent for +trade or commerce on any other region. In the purely physical +sense “interior” <span class="correction" title="amended from on">or</span> “back country” is more commonly used, +but the word has gained a distinct political significance. It +first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when Germany +insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the +territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had +occupied. The “doctrine of the hinterland” was that the +possessor of the littoral was entitled to as much of the back +country as geographically, economically or politically was +dependent upon the coast lands, a doctrine which, in the space +of ten years, led to the partition of Africa between various +European powers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HINTON, JAMES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1822-1875), English surgeon and author, +son of John Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and +author of the <i>History and Topography of the United States</i> and +other works, was born at Reading in 1822. He was educated +at his grandfather’s school near Oxford, and at the Nonconformist +school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father’s removal +to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel. +After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk in +an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, +and this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his +interest in moral problems, so affected his health that in his +nineteenth year he resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts +by running away to sea. His intention having, however, been +discovered, he was sent, on the advice of the physician who +was consulted regarding his health, to St Bartholomew’s +Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his +diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at +Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone +to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage +thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned +to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon +in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially +in aural surgery, and gave also much of his attention to physiology. +He made his first appearance as an author in 1856 by contributing +papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the <i>Christian +Spectator</i>; and in 1859 he published <i>Man and his Dwelling-place</i>. +A series of papers entitled “Physiological Riddles,” +in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, afterwards published as <i>Life in Nature</i> +(1862), as well as another series entitled <i>Thoughts on Health</i> +(1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. +After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy’s Hospital in 1863, +he speedily acquired a reputation as the most skilful aural +surgeon of his day, which was fully borne out by his works, +<i>An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana tympani</i> (1874), and +<i>Questions of Aural Surgery</i> (1874). But his health broke down, +and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores of +acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875. +In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author +of <i>The Mystery of Pain</i> (1866) and <i>The Place of the Physician</i> +(1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of +many of the important moral and social problems of the time, +his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i>, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction +by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIOGO<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Hyogo</span>], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu, +Nippon, on the western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining +the foreign settlement of Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span> +growth of its prosperity has been very remarkable. Its population, +including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in 1891, and 285,002 +in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its trade increased +nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a few +staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade, +in which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches, +and cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much +of its prosperity to the fact of serving largely as the shipping +port of Osaka, the chief manufacturing town in Japan. The +foreign community, exclusive of Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons. +Kobe is considered the brightest and healthiest of all the places +assigned as foreign settlements in Japan, its pure, dry air and +granite subsoil constituting special advantages. It is in railway +communication with all parts of the country, and wharves +admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo +without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated +for a foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners +received permission to lease lands and houses direct from +Japanese owners beyond the treaty limits, a privilege which, +together with that of building villas on the hills behind the town, +ultimately involved some diplomatic complications. Kobe has +a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near +it a huge bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa, +which flows into the sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple +commemorates the spot where Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror +of Japanese loyalty, met his death in battle in 1336. The temple +of Ikuta was erected on the site of the ancient fane built by Jingo +on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.</p> + +<p>Hiogo’s original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance +of the Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a +very early period, but it did not become really prominent until +the 12th century, when Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan, +transferred the capital from Kioto to Fukuhara, in Hiogo’s +immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various public works +for improving the place. The change of capital was very brief, +but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIP.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1) (From O. Eng. <i>hype</i>, a word common in various forms +to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch <i>heup</i>, and Ger. <i>Hüfte</i>), +the projecting part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone +and the side of the pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known +as the haunch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joints</a></span>). (2)(O. Eng. <i>héope</i>, from same root +as M. H. Ger. <i>hiefe</i>, a thorn-bush), the fruit of the dog-rose +(<i>Rosa canina</i>); “hips” are usually joined with “haws,” the +fruit of the hawthorn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIP-KNOB,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof, +between the barge-boards of a gable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPARCHUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (fl. 146-126 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek astronomer, was born +at Nicaea in Bithynia early in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He observed +in the island of Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146 +until about 126 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and made the capital discovery of the +precession of the equinoxes in 130 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>History</i>). +The outburst of a new star in 134 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is stated by Pliny (<i>Hist. +nat.</i> ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation of his catalogue +of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy’s <i>Almagest</i>. +Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first table +of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention +of the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude +and longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental +part of his astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea. +None of his many works has survived except a Commentary +on the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus and Eudoxus, published by P. +Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by D. Petavius +in his <i>Uranologium</i> (Paris, 1630). A new edition was published +by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. B. J. Delambre, <i>Histoire de l’astronomie ancienne</i>, i. 173; +P. Tannery, <i>Recherches sur l’histoire de l’astr. ancienne</i>, p. 130; +A. Berry, <i>Hist. of Astronomy</i>, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>, +i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Astronomy of the Ancients</i>, p. 207; R. +Grant, <i>Hist. of Phys. Astronomy</i>, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll, <i>Sphaera</i>, +p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 45; +J. F. Montucla, <i>Hist. des mathématiques</i>, t. i. p. 257; J. A. Schmidt, +<i>Variorum philosophicorum decas</i>, cap. i. (Jenae, 1691).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> Pythagorean philosopher, +was one of the earliest of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is +mentioned both by Diogenes Laërtius and by Iamblichus, but +nothing is known of his life. Diogenes says that he left no +writings, but other authorities make him the author of a <span class="grk" title="mystikos +logos">μυστικὸς λόγος</span> directed against the Pythagoreans. According to Aristotle +(<i>Metaphysica</i>, i. 3), he was an adherent of the Heraclitean fire-doctrine, +whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the theory +that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have +regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates +the orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire, +or Hestia, to the more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite +of this divergence, Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, <i>History of Greek and Roman +Philosophy</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pythagoras</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPEASTRUM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order +Amaryllidaceae, containing about 50 species of bulbous plants, +natives of tropical and sub-tropical South America. In cultivation +they are generally known as <i>Amaryllis</i>. The handsome +funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster of two to many, at +the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the numerous +hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great +variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest +deep crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or +blended colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming +habit. Like other bulbs they are increased by offsets, which +should be carefully removed when the plants are at rest, and +should be allowed to attain a fair size before removal. These +young bulbs should be potted singly in February or March, in +mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about +two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil, +which should be made quite solid. They should be removed to +a temperature of 60° by night and 70° by day, very carefully +watered until the roots have begun to grow freely, after which +the soil should be kept moderately moist. As they advance +the temperature should be raised to 70° at night, and to 80° or +higher with sun heat by day. They do not need shading, but +should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily in the afternoon. +When growing they require a good supply of water. After the +decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist +temperature of from 70° to 80° by day during summer to perfect +their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the +winter they should have less water, but must not be kept entirely +dry. The minimum temperature should now be about 55°, to +be increased 10° or 15° in spring. As the bulbs get large they +will occasionally need shifting into larger pots. Propagation +is also readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties. Seeds +are sown when ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a +temperature of about 65°. The seedlings when large enough +to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several +in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist +atmosphere with a temperature from 60° to 70°. <i>H. Ackermanni</i>, +with large, handsome, crimson flowers—itself a hybrid—is the +parent of many of the large-flowered forms; <i>H. equestre</i> (Barbados +lily), with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also +given rise to several handsome forms; <i>H. aulicum</i> (flowers +crimson and green), <i>H. pardinum</i> (flowers creamy-white spotted +with crimson), and <i>H. vittatum</i> (flowers white with red stripes, +a beautiful species and the parent of many varieties), are stove +or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds, however, are now +only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely grown in +private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted +by the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved +during the past 100 years. <i>H. Johnsoni</i> is named after a +Lancashire watchmaker who raised it in 1799 by crossing <i>H. +Reginae</i> with <i>H. vittatum</i>. Since that time other species have +been used for hybridizing, notably <i>H. reticulatum</i>, <i>H. aulicum</i>, +<i>H. solandriflorum</i>, and sometimes <i>H. equestre</i> and <i>H. psittacinum</i>. +The finest forms since 1880 have been evolved from <i>H. Leopoldi</i> +and <i>H. pardinum</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(J. Ws.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPED ROOF,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> the name given in architecture to a roof +which slopes down on all four sides instead of terminating on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +two sides against a vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise +is made between the two, half the roof being hipped and half +resting on the vertical wall; this gives much more room inside +the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect, which is one +of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the south +of England, and is rarely found in other countries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1741-1796), German +satirical and humorous writer, was born on the 31st of January +1741, at Gerdauen in East Prussia, where his father was rector +of a school. He enjoyed an excellent education at home, and in +his sixteenth year he entered Königsberg university as a student +of theology. Interrupting his studies, he went, on the invitation +of a friend, to St Petersburg, where he was introduced at the +brilliant court of the empress Catherine II. Returning to +Königsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but, falling +in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was +aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with +enthusiasm to legal studies. He was successful in his profession, +and in 1780 was appointed chief burgomaster in Königsberg, +and in 1786 privy councillor of war and president of the town. +As he rose in the world, however, his inclination for matrimony +vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his ambition was +forgotten. He died at Königsberg on the 23rd of April 1796, +leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary +talents, rich in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of +contrasts and contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion, +dry pedantry and piety, morality and sensuality; simplicity +and ostentation composed his nature; and, hence, his literary +productions never attained artistic finish. In his <i>Lebensläufe +nach aufsteigender Linie</i> (1778-1781) he intended to describe the +lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually confined +himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons +well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of +heterogeneous reflections on life and philosophy. <i>Kreuz- und +Querzüge des Ritters A bis Z</i> (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against +the follies of the age—ancestral pride and the thirst for orders, +decoration and the like. Among others of his better known +works are <i>Über die Ehe</i> (1774) and <i>Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung +der Weiber</i> (1792). Hippel has been called the fore-runner +of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to this +author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of +scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly +influenced by Laurence Sterne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel’s works in 14 vols., +was issued at Berlin. <i>Über die Ehe</i> has been edited by E. Brenning +(Leipzig, 1872), and the <i>Lebensläufe nach aufsteigender Linie</i> has in +a modernized edition by A. von Öttingen (1878), gone through +several editions. See J. Czerny, <i>Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul</i> +(Berlin, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPIAS OF ELIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> Greek sophist, was born about the middle +of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was thus a younger contemporary +of Protagoras and Socrates. He was a man of great versatility +and won the respect of his fellow-citizens to such an extent that +he was sent to various towns on important embassies. At +Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and other leading +thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, +he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and +lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar, +history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy. +He boasted that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was +prepared at any moment to deliver an extempore address on +any subject to the assembly at Olympia. Of his ability there +is no question, but it is equally certain that he was superficial. +His aim was not to give knowledge, but to provide his pupils +with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in discussion +on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing +nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato’s +two dialogues, the <i>Hippias major</i> and <i>minor</i>, contain an exposé +of his methods, exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument +but written with full knowledge of the man and the class which +he represented. Ast denies their authenticity, but they must +have been written by a contemporary writer (as they are +mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and undoubtedly +represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing influence +of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question +that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting +on the meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style. +He is credited with an excellent work on Homer, collections of +Greek and foreign literature, and archaeological treatises, but +nothing remains except the barest notes. He forms the connecting +link between the first great sophists, Protagoras and +Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who brought their name +into disrepute.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sophists</a></span>; also histories of Philosophy (<i>e.g.</i> Windelband, Eng. +trans. by Tufts, pt. 1, c. 2, §§ 7 and 8).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPO,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed +with the Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary +of Archelaus and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle +declared that he was unworthy of the name of philosopher, and, +while comparing him with Thales in his main doctrine, adds that +his intellect was too shallow for serious consideration. He held +that the principle of all things is moisture (<span class="grk" title="to hygron">τὸ ὑγρόν</span>); that fire +develops from water, and from fire the material universe. +Further he denied all existence save that of material things as +known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among the +“Atheists.” The gods are merely great men canonized by +popular tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph, +wherein he claims for himself a place in this company.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRAS,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine +mixed with spices—such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar—and +strained through woollen cloths. The early spelling usual in English +was <i>ipocras</i>, or <i>ypocras</i>. The word is an adaptation of the Med. +Lat. <i>Vinum Hippocraticum</i>, or wine of Hippocrates, so called, not +because it was supposed to be a receipt of the physician, but from +an apothecary’s name for a strainer or sieve, “Hippocrates’ +sleeve” (see W. W. Skeat, <i>Chaucer</i>, note to the <i>Merchant’s Tale</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRATES,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> Greek philosopher and writer, termed the +“Father of Medicine,” was born, according to Soranus, in Cos, +in the first year of the 80th Olympiad, <i>i.e.</i> in 460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was a +member of the family of the Asclepiadae, and was believed to +be either the nineteenth or seventeenth in direct descent from +Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he was descended from +Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied medicine +under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in +philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were +his masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous +Asclepion of Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled +extensively, and taught and practised his profession at Athens, +probably also in Thrace, Thessaly, Delos and his native island. +He died at Larissa in Thessaly, his age being variously stated as +85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of his life are shrouded by +uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up in the absence of +any authentic record; the earliest biography was by one of the +Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd +century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and +Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is +internal evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related +are elsewhere told of other persons, and certain of them are +quite irreconcilable with his character, so far as it can be judged +of from his writings and from the opinions expressed of him by his +contemporaries; we may safely reject, for instance, the legends +that he set fire to the library of the Temple of Health at Cnidos, in +order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and that he refused +to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus, during +a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing be +assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (<i>Protag.</i> p. 283; +<i>Phaedr.</i> p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion +is also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held +by the Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have +been thrown on his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of +his writings bespeaks a man of the highest integrity and purest +morality.</p> + +<p>Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its +traditions and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span> +superstition aside, and to base the practice of medicine on the principles +of inductive philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly +the influence exercised upon him by the great men of his time, +but one cannot fail to connect his emancipation of medicine from +superstition with the widespread power exercised over Greek life +and thought by the living work of Socrates, Plato, Aeschylus, +Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was a +period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a +powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the +same influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be +remembered that his training was not altogether bad, although +superstition entered so largely into it. He had a great master in +Democritus, the originator of the doctrine of atoms, and there is +every reason to believe that the various “asclepia” were very +carefully conducted hospitals for the sick, possessing a curious +system of case-books, in the form of votive tablets, left by the +patients, on which were recorded the symptoms, treatment and +result of each case. He had these records at his command; and +he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and +the treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great +merits is that he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft, +and to direct exclusive attention to the natural history of +disease. How strongly his mind revolted against the use of +charms, amulets, incantations and such devices appears from his +writings; and he has expressly recorded, as underlying all his +practice, the conviction that, however diseases may be regarded +from the religious point of view, they must all be scientifically +treated as subject to natural laws (<i>De aëre</i>, 29). Nor was he +anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and +medicine which had for long existed in a confused and confusing +fashion.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> His knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology +was necessarily defective, the respect in which the dead body was +held by the Greeks precluding him from practising dissection; +thus we find him writing of the tissues without distinguishing +between the various textures of the body, confusing arteries, +veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the muscles as +“flesh.” But when we come to study his observations on the +natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we +recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician. +Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of +the existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, <span class="grk" title="physis">φύσις</span>, +the <i>vis medicatrix naturae</i>, in the management of which the art +of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only +obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at +large, but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated +blind empiricism; the aphorism “<span class="grk" title="hê peira sphalerê, hê krisis +chalepê">ἡ πεῖρα σφαλερή, ἡ κρίσις χαλεπή</span>” (whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position. +Holding firmly to the principle, <span class="grk" title="nousôn physies iêtroi">νούσων φύσιες ἰητροί</span>, he did not +allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he +was not a merely “expectant” physician; as Sydenham puts it, +his practice was “the support of enfeebled and the coercion of +outrageous nature.” He largely employed powerful medicines +and blood-letting both ordinary and by cupping. He advises, +however, great caution in their application. He placed great +dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of his +directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the +reasons given, there is much which is still adhered to at the +present day. His treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn">Περὶ ἀέρων, ὑδάτων, καὶ τόπων</span> (<i>Airs, +Waters, and Places</i>) contains the first enunciation of the principles +of public health. Although the treatises <span class="grk" title="Peri krisimôn">Περὶ κρισίμων</span> cannot +be accepted as authentic, we find in the <span class="grk" title="Prognôstikon">Προγνωστικόν</span> evidence of +the acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence +of critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of +reporting cases is most interesting and instructive; in them we +can read how thoroughly he had separated himself from the +priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are indebted for the +practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea was suggested +to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the presence of +morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular directions, by +means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion regarding their +nature. Laennec says, “Hippocrate avait tenté l’auscultation +immédiate.” Although the treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri nousôn">Περὶ νούσων</span> is doubtfully +from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of +having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of +the Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions +reached at the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is +shown by the retention in modern medicine of the name and the +practice of “Hippocratic succussion.” The power of graphic +description of phenomena in the Hippocratic writings is illustrated +by the retention of the term “facies Hippocratica,” +applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured in the +<i>Prognostics</i>. In surgery his writings are important and interesting, +but they do not bear the same character of caution as the +treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay <i>On Injuries of +the Head</i>, he advocates the operation “of trephining” more +strongly and in wider classes of cases than would be warranted +by the experience of later times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Hippocratic Collection</i> consists of eighty-seven treatises, of +which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has +been submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times +by a large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators, +see Adams’s <i>Genuine Works of Hippocrates</i>, Sydenham +Society, i. 27, 28). The treatises have been classified according +to (1) the direct evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style +and method, and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions +opposed to the general Hippocratic teaching—greatest weight +being attached to the opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general +estimate of commentators is thus stated by Adams: “The peculiar +style and method of Hippocrates are held to be conciseness of +expression, great condensation of matter, and disposition to regard +all professional subjects in a practical point of view, to eschew +subtle hypotheses and modes of treatment based on vague abstractions.” +The treatises have been grouped in the four following +sections: (1) genuine; (2) those consisting of notes taken by +students and collected after the death of Hippocrates; (3) essays +by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious. Littré accepts the following +thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) <i>On Ancient Medicine</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri +archaiês iêtrikês">Περὶ ἀρχαίης ἰητρικῆς</span>); (2) <i>The Prognostics</i> (<span class="grk" title="Prognôstikon">Προγνωστικόν</span>); (3) <i>The +Aphorisms</i> (<span class="grk" title="Aphorismoi">Ἀφορισμοί</span>); (4) <i>The Epidemics</i>, i. and iii. (<span class="grk" title="Epidêmiôn +a' kai g'">Ἐπιδημιῶν α′ καὶ γ′</span>); (5) <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri diaitês oxeôn">Περὶ διαίτης ὀξέων</span>); +(6) <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn">Περὶ ἀέρων, ὑδάτων, καὶ τόπων</span>); +(7) <i>On the Articulations</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri arthrôn">Περὶ ἄρθρων</span>); (8) <i>On Fractures</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri agmôn">Περὶ ἀγμῶν</span>); +(9) <i>The Instruments of Reduction</i> (<span class="grk" title="Mochlikos">Μοχλικός</span>); (10) <i>The Physician’s +Establishment, or Surgery</i> (<span class="grk" title="Kat' iêtreion">Κατ᾽ ἰητρεῖον</span>); (11) <i>On Injuries of the +Head</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn en kephalê trômatôn">Περὶ τῶν ἐν κεφαλῇ τρωμάτων</span>); (12) <i>The Oath</i> (<span class="grk" title="Horkos">Ὅρκος</span>); +(13) <i>The Law</i> (<span class="grk" title="Nomos">Νόμος</span>). Of these Adams accepts as certainly genuine +the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as +“pretty confidently acknowledged as genuine, although the evidence +in their favour is not so strong,” the 1st, 10th and 13th, and, in +addition, (14) <i>On Ulcers</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri helkôn">Περὶ ἑλκῶν</span>); (15) <i>On Fistulae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri +syringôn">Περὶ συρίγγων</span>); (16) <i>On Hemorrhoids</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri haimorrhoïdôn">Περὶ αἱμοῤῥοΐδων</span>); (17) <i>On the +Sacred Disease</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hierês nousou">Περὶ ἱερῆς νούσου</span>). According to the sceptical +and somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection +is to be regarded as spurious except <i>Epidemics</i>, books i. and iii. +(with a few interpolations), <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i>, <i>On Injuries +of the Head</i> (“insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei”), the former +portion of the treatise <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i>, and the +“obviously Hippocratic” fragments of the <i>Coan Prognostics</i>. +Perhaps also the <i>Oath</i> may be accepted as genuine; its comparative +antiquity is not denied. The <i>Aphorisms</i> are certainly later and +inferior. In the other non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he +can distinguish the hands of no fewer than nineteen different authors, +most of them anonymous, and some of them very late.</p> + +<p>The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which +was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio); +it was speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more +accurate and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent +editions, probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort, +1595, 1621, Geneva, 1657), until the publication of the great works +of Littré, <i>Œuvres complètes d’Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec +le texte grec en regard, collationnée sur les manuscrits et toutes les +éditions, accompagnée d’une introduction, de commentaires médicaux, +de variantes, et de notes philologiques</i> (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861), +and of F. Z. Ermerins, <i>Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum +reliquiae</i> (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited +above), and Reinhold’s <i>Hippocrates</i> (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867). +Daremberg’s edition of the <i>Œuvres choisies</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1855) +includes the <i>Oath</i>, the <i>Law</i>, the <i>Prorrhetics</i>, book i., the <i>Prognostics, +On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics</i>, books i. and iii., <i>Regimen</i>, +and <i>Aphorisms</i>. Of the separate works attributed to Hippocrates +the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of the +<i>Prognostics</i>, for example, seventy editions are known, while of the +<i>Aphorisms</i> there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For +some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span> +professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of +which greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference +may be made to Flügel’s contribution to the article “Hippokrates” +in the <i>Encyklopädie</i> of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially +catalogued by Fabricius in his <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. B. T.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria +dignus, ab studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit, vir et arte +et facundia insignis” (Celsus, <i>De medicina</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRENE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (the “fountain of the horse,” <span class="grk" title="hê hippou krênê">ἡ ἵππου κρήνη</span>), +the spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other +spring there, Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo, +and hence taken as the source of poetic inspiration. The spring, +surrounded by an ancient wall, is now known as <i>Kryopegadi</i> or +the cold spring. According to the legend, it was produced by +the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon’s horse Pegasus. The +same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and the +spring Peirene at Corinth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPODAMUS,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was he who introduced order and regularity +into the planning of cities, in place of the previous intricacy +and confusion. For Pericles he planned the arrangement of +the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians +founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as architect, +and afterwards, in 408 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he superintended the building of +the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad, +straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPODROME<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippodromos">ἱππόδρομος</span>, from <span class="grk" title="hippos">ἵππος</span>, horse, and +<span class="grk" title="dromos">δρόμος</span>, racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for +horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman <i>circus</i>, +except that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas +ten or more contended in the Greek games, so that the width +was far greater, being about 400 ft., the <span class="correction" title="amended from cource">course</span> being 600 to +700 ft. long. The Greek hippodrome was usually set out on the +slope of a hill, and the ground taken from one side served to +form the embankment on the other side. One end of the +hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with +an extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were +the stalls for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome +is more for equestrian and other displays than for horse racing. +The Hippodrome in Paris somewhat resembles the Roman +amphitheatre, being open in the centre to the sky, with seats +round on rising levels.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte, +queen of the Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter +and charioteer and favourite of Artemis. His stepmother +Phaedra became enamoured of him, but, finding her advances +rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter in which she accused +Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus thereupon +drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon his +father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving +along the shore at Troezen (the scene of the <i>Hippolytus</i> of +Euripides), a sea-monster (a bull or <i>phoca</i>) sent by Poseidon +emerged from the waves; the horses were scared, Hippolytus +was thrown out of the chariot, and was dragged along, entangled +in the reins, until he died. According to a tradition of Epidaurus, +Asclepius restored him to life at the request of Artemis, who +removed him to Italy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virbius</a></span>). At Troezen, where he had +a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine +honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to +have been rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to +have been placed amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga). +It was also the custom of the Troezenian maidens to cut off a +lock of their hair and to dedicate it to Hippolytus before marriage +(see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. 1). Well-known classical +parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and Antea (or +Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the +subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant), +of a tragedy by Seneca and of Racine’s <i>Phèdre</i>. A trace of it +has survived in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr +Hippolytus, a Roman officer who was torn to pieces by wild +horses as a convert to Christianity (see J. J. Döllinger, <i>Hippolytus +and Callistus</i>, Eng. tr. by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39, +51-60).</p> + +<p>According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented +the sun, which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the +story of Phaëthon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind +the sun, but is unable to overtake it. It is more probable, +however, that he was a local hero famous for his chastity, perhaps +originally a priest of Artemis, worshipped as a god at Troezen, +where he was closely connected and sometimes confounded with +Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech put into the mouth +of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course believes his +wife’s story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws his +son’s pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his +teeth. This seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual +and that of Poseidon, the chief deity of Troezen, in which the +representative of the intruding religion meets his death through +the agency of the offended god, as Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to +pieces by the votaries of the jealous Dionysus. According to +S. Reinach (<i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, x., 1907, p. 47), +the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis of an +equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful, +who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses. +Death was followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths +of Adonis (the sacred boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the +fawn), Phaëthon (the white sun-horse).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wilamowitz-Möllendorff’s Introduction to his German translation +of Euripides’ <i>Hippolytus</i> (1891); A. Kalkmann, <i>De Hippolytis +Euripideis</i> (Bonn, 1882); and (for representations in art) “Über +Darstellung der Hippolytussage” in <i>Archäologische Zeitung</i> (xli. +1883); J. E. Harrison, <i>Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens</i> +(1890), cl.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a writer of the early Church. The mystery +which enveloped the person and writings of Hippolytus,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> one of +the most prolific ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some +light thrown upon it for the first time about the middle of the +19th century by the discovery of the so-called <i>Philosophumena</i> +(see below). Assuming this writing to be the work of Hippolytus, +the information given in it as to the author and his times can be +combined with other traditional dates to form a tolerably clear +picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second half of +the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in +his <i>Bibliotheca</i> (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the +context of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that +Hippolytus himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and +even if it were, it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus +enjoyed the personal teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop; +it may perhaps merely refer to that relation of his theological +system to that of Irenaeus which can easily be traced in his +writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome under Bishop +Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his +learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a +young man, heard him preach (Hieron. <i>Vir. ill.</i> 61; cp. Euseb. +<i>H.E.</i> vi. 14, 10). It was probably not long before questions of +theology and church discipline brought him into direct conflict with +Zephyrinus, or at any rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.). +He accused the bishop of favouring the Christological heresies +of the Monarchians, and, further, of subverting the discipline of +the Church by his lax action in receiving back into the Church +those guilty of gross offences. The result was a schism, and for +perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as bishop at the head of +a separate church. Then came the persecution under Maximinus +the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop, +were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that +both of them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year +354 (<i>Catalogus Liberianus</i>) we learn that on the 13th of August, +probably in 236, the bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome +and that of Hippolytus in the cemetery on the Via Tiburtina. +So we must suppose that before his death the schismatic was +received again into the bosom of the Church, and this is confirmed +by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in the +Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to +him one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius (<i>Peristephanon</i>, 11) +drew a highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details +of which are certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus +the son of Theseus was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of +the historical Hippolytus little remained in the memory of after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +ages. Neither Eusebius (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (<i>Vir. ill.</i> 61) +knew that the author so much read in the East and the Roman +saint were one and the same person. The notice in the <i>Chronicon +Paschale</i> preserves one slight reminiscence of the historical facts, +namely, that Hippolytus’s episcopal see was situated at Portus +near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found +in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the +seat were carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of +numerous writings. It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work +at any rate of the 3rd century; at the time of Pius IX. it +was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in stone of a lost +tradition.</p> + +<p>Hippolytus’s voluminous writings, which for variety of +subject can be compared with those of Origen, embrace the +spheres of exegesis, homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography +and ecclesiastical law. His works have unfortunately +come down to us in such a fragmentary condition that it is +difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion of his intellectual +and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the best +preserved are the <i>Commentary on the Prophet Daniel</i> and the +<i>Commentary on the Song of Songs</i>. In spite of many instances of +a want of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain +sobriety and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable +to form an opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the <i>Homilies +on the Feast of Epiphany</i> which go under his name are wrongly +attributed to him. He wrote polemical words directed against +the pagans, the Jews and heretics. The most important of these +polemical treatises is the <i>Refutation of all Heresies</i>, which has +come to be known by the inappropriate title of the <i>Philosophumena</i>. +Of its ten books, the second and third are lost; +Book i. was for a long time printed (with the title <i>Philosophumena</i>) +among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were found in +1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the +author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally +admitted that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and +iv.-x. belong to the same work. The importance of the work has, +however, been much overrated; a close examination of the +sources for the exposition of the Gnostic system which is contained +in it has proved that the information it gives is not +always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on <i>Christ and +Antichrist</i> survives in a complete state. Among other things it +includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the +world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution +under Septimius Severus, <i>i.e.</i> about 202. The influence of +Hippolytus was felt chiefly through his works on chronographic +and ecclesiastical law. His chronicle of the world, a compilation +embracing the whole period from the creation of the world up to +the year 234, formed a basis for many chronographical works +both in the East and West. In the great compilations of ecclesiastical +law which arose in the East since the 4th century (see +below: also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolic Constitutions</a></span>) much of the material was +taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is +genuinely his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it +wrongly attributed to him, can no longer be determined beyond +dispute even by the most learned investigation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The edition of J. A. Fabricius, <i>Hippolyti opera +graece et latine</i> (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi, +<i>Bibliotheca veterum patrum</i> (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, <i>Cursus +patrol. ser. Graeca</i>, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a +complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian +Academy of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty, +for the textual problems of the various writings are complex +and confused: the Greek original is extant in a few cases only +(the <i>Commentary on Daniel</i>, the <i>Refutation, on Antichrist</i>, parts of +the <i>Chronicle</i>, and some fragments); for the rest we are dependent +on fragments of translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not +even published. Of the Academy’s edition one volume was published +at Berlin in 1897, containing the <i>Commentaries on Daniel</i> and on +the <i>Song of Songs</i>, the treatise on <i>Antichrist</i>, and the <i>Lesser Exegetical</i> +and <i>Homiletic Works</i>, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans +Achelis. The <i>Commentary on the Song of Songs</i> has also been +published by Bonwetsch (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation +based on a Russian translation by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian) +text, and he added to it (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small +exegetical pieces, which are preserved in a Georgian version only +(<i>The Blessing of Jacob</i>, <i>The Blessing of Moses</i>, <i>The Narrative of +David and Goliath</i>). A great part of the original of the <i>Chronicle</i> +has been published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the <i>Codex +Matritensis Graecus</i>, 221. For the <i>Refutation</i> we are still dependent +on the editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin +(Göttingen, 1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation +is to be found in the <i>Ante-Nicene Christian Library</i> (Edinburgh, +1868-1869).</p> + +<p>See Bunsen, <i>Hippolytus and his Age</i> (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger. +ed., 1853); Döllinger, <i>Hippolytus und Kallistus</i> (Regensb. 1853; +Eng. transl., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Ficker, <i>Studien zur Hippolytfrage</i> +(Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, <i>Hippolytstudien</i> (Leipzig, 1897); +Karl Johannes Neumann, <i>Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu +Staat und Welt</i>, part i. (Leipzig, 1902); Adhémar d’Alès, <i>La Théologie +de Saint Hippolyte</i> (Paris, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. K.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier +who was converted by St Lawrence.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF.<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> This book stands at the +head of a series of Church Orders, which contain instructions in +regard to the choice and ordination of Christian ministers, regulations +as to widows and virgins, conditions of reception of converts +from heathenism, preparation for and administration of baptism, +rules for the celebration of the eucharist, for fasting, daily prayers, +charity suppers, memorial meals, first-fruits, &c. We shall give +(1) a description of the book as we have it at present; (2) a brief +statement of its relation to allied documents; (3) some remarks +on the evidence for its date and authorship.</p> + +<p>1. We possess the <i>Canons of Hippolytus</i> only in an Arabic +version, itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek. +Attention was called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf +towards the end of the 17th century, but it was only in 1870 that +it was edited by Haneberg, who added a Latin translation, and +so made it generally accessible. In 1891 H. Achelis reproduced +this translation in a revised form, embodying it in a synopsis +of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and +derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its contents +with a free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made +by H. Riedel, based on fresh MSS. These showed that the book, +as hitherto edited, had been thrown into disorder by the displacement +of two pages near the end; they also removed other +difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation had been +based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have +added to our materials for the study of the book.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The book is attributed to “Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops +of Rome,” and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short +headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but +it is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon 1 is prefatory; +it contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially +in the Word, the Son of God; and it speaks of the expulsion of +heretics from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the +selection and ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The +bishop is chosen by the whole congregation: “one of the bishops +and presbyters” is to lay hands upon him and say a prayer which +follows (3): he is at once to proceed with “the offering,” taking +up the eucharistic service at the point where the <i>sursum corda</i> +comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be ordained with the same prayer +as a bishop, “with the exception of the word bishop”; but he is +given no power of ordination (this appears to be inconsistent with +c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and the prayer of his +ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various classes in the +Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith (6) is to +be counted a presbyter without ordination: “his confession is his +ordination.” Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel, +but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination +on the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts +are clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained +(9): “ordination is for men only.” Canons 10-15 describe conditions +for the admission of converts. Certain occupations are +incompatible with Christian life: only under compulsion may a +Christian be a soldier. Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations +concerning women. Canon 19 is a long one dealing with catechumens, +preparation for baptism, administration of that sacrament, and of +the eucharist for the newly baptized. The candidate is twice +anointed: first, with the oil of exorcism, after he has said, with his +face westward, “I renounce thee, O devil, and all thy following”; +and, again, immediately after the baptism. As he stands in the +water, he declares his faith in response to an interrogatory creed; +and after each of the three clauses he is immersed. After the +second anointing the bishop gives thanks “for that Thou hast made +them worthy that they should be born again, and hast poured out +Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one of +them, to the body of the Church”: he signs them with the cross +on their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds: +“the bishop gives them of the body of Christ and says, This is the +body of Christ, and they answer Amen”; and similarly for the cup. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> +Milk and honey are then given to them as being “born a second +time as little children.” A warning is added against eating anything +before communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily +services in church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23 +seems as if it closed the series, speaking, as it does, of “our brethren +the bishops” who in their cities have made regulations “according +to the commands of our fathers the apostles”: “let none of our +successors alter them; because it saith that the teaching is greater +than the sea, and hath no end.” We pass on, however, to regulations +about the sick (24) who are to be visited by the bishop, “because +it is a great thing for the sick that the high-priest should visit them +(for the shadow of Peter healed the sick).” Canons 25-27 deal again +with prayers and church-services. The “seven hours” are specified, +with reasons for their observance (25): attendance at sermons is +urged (26), “for the Lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed” +(comp. <i>Didachè</i> 4, part of the <i>Two Ways</i>). When there +are no prayers in church, reading at home is enjoined (27): “let +the sun each morning see the book upon thy knees” (comp. Ath. +<i>Ad virg.</i>, § 12, “Let the sun when he ariseth see the book in thy +hands”). Prayer must be preceded by the washing of the hands. +“No believer must take food before communicating, especially +on fast-days”: only believers may communicate (28). The sacred +elements must be guarded, “lest anything fall into the cup, and it +be a sin unto death for the presbyters.” No crumb must be dropped, +“lest an evil spirit get possession of it.” Canons 30-35 contain +various rules, and specially deal with suppers for the poor (<i>i.e.</i> +<i>agapae</i>) and memorial feasts. Then we have a prayer for the offering +of first-fruits (36); a direction that ministers shall wear fair garments +at “the mysteries” (37); and a command to watch during the +night of the resurrection (38). The last canon hereupon passes into +a general exhortation to right living, which forms a sixth part of +the whole book. In Riedel’s translation we read this for the first +time as a connected whole. It falls into two parts, and describes, +first, the true life of ordinary Christians, warning them against an +empty profession, and laying down many precepts of morality; +and then it addresses itself to the “ascete” who “wishes to belong +to the rank of the angels,” and who lives a life of solitude and +poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat strange +lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned against +spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes with +an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in St +Matthew xxv.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of +Hippolytus without some reference to allied documents (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolical Constitutions</a></span>). (<i>a</i>) The most important of +these is what is now commonly called the <i>Egyptian Church +Order</i>. This is preserved to us in Coptic and Aethiopic versions, +of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German translations. The +subject-matter and arrangement of these canons correspond +generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are +modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A +new light was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler’s +discovery (1900) of a Latin version (of which, unfortunately, +about half is missing) in the Verona palimpsest, from which +he has also given us large Latin fragments of the <i>Didascalia</i> +(which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic Constitutions, and +which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac). The Latin +of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than +the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the +<i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>. It has a preface which refers to a treatise +<i>Concerning Spiritual Gifts</i>, as having immediately preceded it; +but neither this nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the +introduction or concluding exhortation which is found in the +<i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>. (<i>b</i>) <i>The Testament of the Lord</i> is a document +in Syriac, of which the opening part had been published +by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani (1899) has given us the whole. +It professes to contain instructions given by our Lord to the +apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction containing +apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate directions +for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded +form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of +the preface to that document which appears in the Latin version. +It cannot be placed with probability earlier than the latter part +of the 4th century. (<i>c</i>) The <i>Apostolic Constitutions</i> is a composite +document, which probably belongs to the end of the 4th century. +Its first six books are an expanded edition of a <i>Didascalia</i> which +we have already mentioned: its seventh book similarly expands +and modifies the <i>Didachè</i> its eighth book begins by treating +of “spiritual gifts,” and then in c. 3 passes on to expand in like +manner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has +wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of +the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek +recension. (<i>d</i>) The <i>Canons of Basil</i> is the title of an Arabic +work, of which a German translation has been given us by +Riedel, who thinks that they have come through Coptic from +an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified form, +considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus.</p> + +<p>3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship. +Much of the material has been quite recently brought to +light, and criticism has not had time to investigate and pronounce +upon it. Some provisional remarks, therefore, are all that can +prudently be made. It seems plain that we have two lines of +tradition: (1) The Canons of Hippolytus, followed by the +Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself represented +(<i>a</i>) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and +the Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the +same preface (or portions of it); (<i>b</i>) by the Coptic and Aethiopic +versions. Now, the preface of the Latin version points to a time +when the canons were embodied in a <i>corpus</i> of similar materials, +or, at the least, were preceded by a work on “Spiritual Gifts.” +The Canons of Hippolytus have a wholly different preface, and +also a long exhortation at the close. The question which criticism +must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons of Hippolytus +are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is derived, +or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both. +At present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the +true explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to +contain contradictory regulations (<i>e.g.</i> cc. 2 and 4 of the +presbyters), and also suggest that they have received a considerable +supplement (after c. 23). There is, however, no doubt that +they present us with a more primitive stage of Church life than +we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The mention of sub-deacons +(which, after Riedel’s fresh manuscript evidence, cannot +now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult +to assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd +century.</p> + +<p>The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with +the temper of the writer to whom the Arabic title attributes +them; and it is to be noted that the exhortation at the +close contains a quotation from 2 Peter actually attributed +to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the earliest +author who can with certainty be said to have used this epistle. +But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple, straight-forward +and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the +closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented +to us in his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than +that of the writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of +Hippolytus as it would be to think of Origen in such a connexion. +How, then, are we to account for the attribution? There is +evidence to show that Hippolytus was highly reverenced throughout +the East: his writings, which were in Greek, were known, +but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed to +be “a pupil (<span class="grk" title="gnôrimos">γνώριμος</span>) of apostles” (Palladius, 4th century), +and the Arabic title calls him “chief of the bishops of Rome,” +<i>i.e.</i> archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution +more than the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the <i>Dormitio +Mariae</i> to “Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who +was the second after Peter the apostle” (<i>Texts and Studies</i>, iv. +2-44)—Evodius being by tradition first bishop of Antioch. +A whole group of books on Church Order bears the name of +Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our canons to Hippolytus +may be only an example of the same tendency. The +fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise <i>Concerning Spiritual Gifts</i>, +and that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin +preface to the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found +at the beginning of book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions, +introduces an interesting complication; but we cannot here +pursue the matter further. Dom Morin’s ingenious attribution +of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the ground of +Eusebius, <i>H.E.</i> vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the broader +church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean +authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +the strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were +compiled in their present form.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis, +<i>Texte u. Unters.</i> vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, <i>Testamentum Domini</i> +(1899); Hauler, <i>Didascaliae Apostolorum</i> (1900); Riedel, <i>Kirchenrechtsquellen +des Patriarchats Alexandrien</i> (1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPONAX,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from +Ephesus in 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge +in Clazomenae, where he spent the rest of his life in poverty. +His deformed figure and malicious disposition exposed him to +the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus and Athenis, upon +whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a series of +satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes +and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and +predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling, +his rude vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous +allusions to matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming +a favourite in Attica. He was considered the inventor +of parody and of a peculiar metre, the <i>scazon</i> or <i>choliambus</i>, +which substitutes a spondee for the final iambus of an iambic +senarius, and is an appropriate form for the burlesque character +of his poems.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in Bergk, <i>Poëtae lyrici Graeci</i>; see also B. J. Peltzer, +<i>De parodica Graecorum poèsi</i> (1855), containing an account of +Hipponax and the fragments.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPOPOTAMUS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (“river-horse,” Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">ἵππος</span>, horse and +<span class="grk" title="potamos">ποταμός</span>, river), the name of the largest representative of the +non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living +and extinct relatives. The common hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus +amphibius</i>), which formerly inhabited all the great rivers +of Africa but whose range has now been much restricted, is most +likely the <i>behemoth</i> of Scripture, and may very probably in +Biblical times have been found in the Jordan valley, since at a +still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a large part of +Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a family, +<i>Hippopotamidae</i>, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and +peccaries, or <i>Suidae</i>, by the following assemblage of characters: +Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with +four subequal toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching +the ground in walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously +growing; those of the upper jaw curved and directed downwards; +those of the lower straight and procumbent. Canines +very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones directed +downwards. Premolars <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span>; molars <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>. Stomach complex. No +caecum.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:373px" src="images/img522.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature, +measuring in the largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the extremity +of the upper lip to the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily +attains a length of 12 ft., with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders, +and a girth round the thickest part of the body almost equal to +its length. The small ears are exceedingly flexible, and kept in +constant motion when the animal is seeking to catch a distant +sound; the eyes are placed high up on the head, but little below +the level of the ears; while the gape is wide, and the upper lip +thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large tusks when the +mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped grinding-surfaces +are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances, +while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved +chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural +implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but +little elevated above the ground; and the feet, which are small +in proportion to the size of the animal, terminate in four short +toes each bearing a small hoof. With the exception of a few tufts +of hair on the lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the +extremity of the short robust tail, the skin of the hippopotamus, +some portions of which are 2 in. in thickness, is destitute of +covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious animals, living in herds +of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and in the beds of +rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily find +appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic +plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the +stomach being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They +feed principally by night, remaining in the water during the day, +although in districts where they are little disturbed they are less +exclusively aquatic. In such remote quarters, they put their +heads boldly out of the water to blow, but when rendered suspicious +they become exceedingly cautious in this respect, only +exposing their nostrils above the water, and even this they +prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their +enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and +divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight +minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least +1 ft. of water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when, +as often happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated +ground, they do immense damage to growing crops, destroying +by their ponderous tread even more than they devour. To scare +away these unwelcome visitors the natives in such districts are +in the habit of kindling fires at night. Although hippopotamuses +do not willingly go far from the water on which their existence +depends, they occasionally travel long distances by night in +search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are able +to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a +wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the +water and galloping inland, he writes: “I never could have +imagined that so unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such +speed. No man could have had a chance of escape.” The +hippopotamus does not confine itself to rivers and lakes, but has +been known to prefer the waters of the ocean as its home during +the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it seeks to avoid +collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence of +its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are +capsized and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks; +the bellowing grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a +mile away. As among elephants, so also among hippopotamuses +there are “rogues”—old bulls which have become soured in +solitude, and are at all times dangerous. Assuming the offensive +on every occasion, they attack all and sundry without shadow +of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which are +usually well known.</p> + +<p>The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus, +<i>H.</i> (<i>Choeropsis</i>) <i>liberiensis</i>, of West Africa, an animal not larger +than a clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized +by having generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is +much less aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the +habits of a pig.</p> + +<p>A small extinct species (<i>H. lemerlei</i>) inhabited Madagascar at +a comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were +natives of Crete (<i>H. minutus</i>) and Malta and Sicily (<i>H. pentlandi</i>) +during the Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species +(<i>H. amphibius major</i>) was distributed over Europe as far north +as Yorkshire at the same epoch; while an allied species (<i>H. +palaeindicus</i>) inhabited Pleistocene India. Contemporary with +the latter was, however, a species (<i>H. namadicus</i>) with three +pairs of incisors; and “hexaprotodont” hippopotamuses are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span> +also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (<i>H. +sivalensis</i> and <i>H. iravadicus</i>), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern +Europe (<i>H. hipponensis</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artiodactyla</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPPURIC ACID<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">ἵππος</span>, horse, <span class="grk" title="ouron">οὖρον</span>, urine), benzoyl +glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">9</span>NO<span class="su">3</span> or +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, an organic acid found in the urine of +horses and other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic +compounds, such as benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally. +J. v. Liebig in 1829 showed that it differed from benzoic +acid, and in 1839 determined its constitution, while in 1853 +V. Dessaignes (<i>Ann.</i> 87, p. 325) synthesized it by acting with +benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It is also formed by +heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius, <i>Ber.</i>, 1884, +17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with monochloracetic +acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble +in hot water, melt at 187° C. and decompose at about 240° C. It +is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid and +glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·O·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to +form hippuryl hydrazine, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, which +was used by Curtius for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIPURNIAS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000 +in number, living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their +houses are long, low and narrow: the side walls and roof are one, +poles being fixed in the ground and then bent together so as to +meet and form a pointed arch for the cross-sections. They use +small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are poisoned arrows. +They have a native god called Guintiniri.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRA,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32° +N., 44° 20′ E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa’ade +canal, on the shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum. +Its kings governed the western shore of the lower Euphrates and +of the Persian Gulf, their kingdom extending inland to the confines +of the Nejd. This Lakhmid kingdom was more or less +dependent, during the four centuries of its existence, on the +Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer state +towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding +of Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into +decay. The ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while extensive, +are insignificant in appearance and give no indications +of the existence of important buildings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRADO,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an island belonging to Japan, 19½ m. long and 6 m. +wide, lying off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu, +in 33° 15′ N. and 129° 25′ E. It is celebrated as the site of the +original Dutch factory—often erroneously written Firando—and +as the place where one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains +of Japan (<i>Hiradoyaki</i>) was produced in the 17th and 18th +centuries. The kilns are still active.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in the law of contract, a +form of bailment of goods, on credit, which has extended very +considerably of late years. Originally applied to the sale of +the more expensive kinds of goods, such as pianos and articles +of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement has now been extended +to almost every description. The agreement is usually in writing, +with a stipulation that the payments to purchase shall be by +weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is virtually +one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to +recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment, +it is treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision +that when the last instalment has been paid the goods shall +become the property of the hirer. A clause provides that in +case of default of any instalment, or breach of any part of the +agreement, all previous payments shall be forfeited to the lender, +who can forcibly recover the goods. Such agreements, therefore, +do not pass the property in the goods, which remains in the +lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the terms +of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature +of the transaction between the parties, where, for example, the +hire-purchase is merely to create a security for money. In such +a case a judge will look to the true nature of the transaction. +If it is not a real letting and hiring, the agreement will require +registration under the Bills of Sale Acts. If the agreement +contains words to the effect that a person has “bought or agreed +to buy” goods, the transaction comes under the Factors Act +1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose +of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership, +by which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in +his apparent possession, has been somewhat modified by trade +customs, in accordance with which property is frequently let +out on the hire-purchase system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRING<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>hýrian</i>, a word common to many Teutonic +languages cf. Ger. <i>heuern</i>, Dutch <i>huren</i>, &c.), in law, a contract +by which one man grants the use of a thing to another in return +for a certain price. It corresponds to the <i>locatio-conductio</i> of +Roman law. That contract was either a letting of a thing +(<i>locatio-conductio rei</i>) or of labour (<i>locatio operarum</i>). The +distinguishing feature of the contract was the price. Thus the +contracts of <i>mutuum</i>, <i>commodatum</i>, <i>depositum</i> and <i>mandatum</i>, +which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price is fixed, +cases of <i>locatio-conductio</i>. In modern English law the term can +scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense. The +contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the +head of <i>locatio-conductio</i>—such as those of landlord and tenant, +master and servant, &c.—are not in English law treated as cases +of hiring but as independent varieties of contract. Neither +in law books nor in ordinary discourse could a tenant farmer +be said to hire his land. Hiring would generally be applied to +contracts in which the services of a man or the use of a thing +are engaged for a short time.</p> + +<p><i>Hiring Fairs</i>, or <i>Statute Fairs</i>, still held in Wales and some +parts of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every +important country town. These fairs served to bring together +masters and servants. The men and maids seeking work stood +in rows, the males together and the females together, while masters +and mistresses walked down the lines and selected those who +suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were always held on +Martinmas Day (11th of November). Now they are held on +different dates in different towns, usually in October or November. +In Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their +mouths. In Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and +employed was closed by the giving of the “fasten-penny,” the +earnest money, usually a shilling, which “fastened” the contract +for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the Statute Fair it +was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or Runaway +Mop. “Mop” (from Lat. <i>mappa</i>, napkin, or small cloth) +meant in Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called, +it is suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those +seeking employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his +hat, the cowherd a tuft of cow’s hair, and so on. Another +possible explanation would be to take the word “mop” in its +old provincial slang sense of “a fool,” mop fair being the fools’ +fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were too dull or +slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps “runaway” +suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness, +or those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring +and so ran away.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIROSAKI,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku +or Rikuchiu, north Nippon, 22 m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop. +about 37,000. The fine isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain +of pilgrimage, rises to the west. Hirosaki is a very old place, +formerly residence of a great daimio (or daimyo) and capital of +a vast principality, and still the seat of a high court with jurisdiction +over the surrounding districts of Aomori and Akita. +Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continuous +verandas extending from house to house, and affording a +promenade completely sheltered from the snows of winter. +Apples of fine flavour grow in the district, which also enjoys +some reputation for its peculiar green lacquer-ware.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIROSHIGE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the +principal members of that branch of the <i>Ukiyo-ye</i> or Popular +School of Painting in Japan, a school which chiefly made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span> +colour-prints. His family name was Andō Tokitarō; that under +which he is known having been, in accordance with Japanese +practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was +a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the +account given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a +visit to Japan; where a sketch of a procession drawn with great +skill by Hiroshige at the age of ten years only is mentioned as +one of the remarkable sights seen. At the age of fifteen he +applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the studio of the elder +Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro. On the +death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own +account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (Tōkyō) he +removed to Kiōto, where he published a set of landscapes. He +soon returned to Yedo, where his work soon became popular, +and was imitated by other artists. He died in that city on the +6th day of the 9th month of the year, Ansei 5th, at the age of +sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his pupils, +Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and +another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were +closely associated with the work signed with the name of the +master. Hiroshige II. some time after the year 1863 fell into +disgrace and was compelled to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where +he died; Hiroshige III. then called himself Hiroshige II. He +died in 1896. The earlier prints by these artists, whose work +can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit. They +applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes +of depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of +convention that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan, +and by no European. Most of their subjects were derived from +the neighbourhood of Yedo, or were scenes on the old high road—the +Tokaidō—that ran from that city to Kiōto. The two +elder of the name were competent painters, and pictures and +drawings by them are occasionally to be met with.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. F. Strange, “Japanese Colour-prints” (<i>Victoria and +Albert Museum Handbook</i>, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIROSHIMA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the +government of its name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545. +It is very beautifully situated on a small plain surrounded by +hills, the bay being studded with islands. In its general aspect it +resembles Osaka, from which it is 190 m. W. by rail, and next to +that place and Hiogo it is the most important commercial centre +on the Inland Sea. The government has an area of about 3000 +sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000. Hiroshima is +famous all over Japan owing to its association with the neighbouring +islet of Itaku-Shima, “Island of Light,” which is dedicated +to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders +of Japan. The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the +island, which is inhabited largely by priests and their attendants, +is annually visited by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed +soil is never tilled, so that all provisions have to be brought from +the surrounding districts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRPINI<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from an Oscan or Sabine stem <i>hirpo-</i>, “wolf”), an +inland Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was +bounded by that of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the +S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and Frentani on the E. and N.E. On +the N. we find them, politically speaking, identified with the +Pentri and Caracēni, and with them constituting the Samnite +alliance in the wars of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samnites</a></span>). +The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these allies by +the foundation of Beneventum in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and henceforward they +are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and retained +their independence until, after joining in the Social war, +which in their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till +the final defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they received +the Roman franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the +evidence of their place-names, only a few fragments survive +(R. S. Conway, <i>The Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 170 ff.; and for <i>hirpo-</i>, +<i>ib.</i> p. 200). In the ethnology of Italy the Hirpini appear from +one point of view as the purest type of Safine stock, namely, that +in which the proportion of ethnica formed with the suffix <i>-no-</i> is +highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal or municipal +epithets being formed thereby (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Caudini</i>, <i>Compsani</i>) and only +one with the suffix -<i>ti</i>- (<i>Abellinates</i>), where it is clearly secondary. +On the significance of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRSAU<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (formerly <i>Hirschau</i>), a village of Germany, in the +kingdom of Württemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-Horb +railway, 2 m. N. of Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some +small manufactures, but it owes its origin and historical interest +to its former Benedictine monastery, <i>Monasterium Hirsaugiense</i>, +at one period one of the most famous in Europe. Its picturesque +ruins, of which only the chapel with the library hall are still in +good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of the establishment. +It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw, at +the instigation of his son, Bishop Notting of Vercelli, who enriched +it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius. +Its first occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from +Fulda, disciples of Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo, +headed by the abbot Liudebert. During about a century and a +half, under the fostering care of the counts of Calw, it enjoyed +great prosperity, and became an important seat of learning; but +towards the end of the 10th century the ravages of the pestilence +combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the selfishness +and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest ebb. +After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years +it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William—Wilhelm von +Hirsau—abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its +former splendour. By his <i>Constitutiones Hirsaugienses</i>, a new +religious order, the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of +which was afterwards adopted by many monastic establishments +throughout Germany, such as those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and +Schaffhausen. The friend and correspondent of Pope Gregory +VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot William took active +part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of his time; +while a treatise from his pen, <i>De musica et tonis</i>, as well as the +<i>Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii.</i>, bears +witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end +of the 12th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau +was again very perceptibly on the decline; and it never afterwards +again rose into importance. In consequence of the +Reformation it was secularized in 1558; in 1692 it was laid in +ruins by the French. The <i>Chronicon Hirsaugiense</i>, or, as in the +later edition it is called, <i>Annales Hirsaugienses</i> of Abbot Trithemius +(Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is, although containing much +that is merely legendary, an important source of information, +not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on the early +history of Germany. The <i>Codex Hirsaugiensis</i> was edited by +A. F. Gfrörer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Steck, <i>Das Kloster Hirschau</i> (1844); Helmsdörfer, <i>Forschungen +zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau</i> (Göttingen, 1874); +Weizsäcker, <i>Führer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau</i> +(Stuttgart, 1898); Süssmann, <i>Forschungen zur Geschichte des +Klosters Hirschau</i> (Halle, 1903); Giseke, <i>Die Hirschauer während +des Investiturstreits</i> (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, <i>Das Kloster +Hirschau</i> (Tübingen, 1886); and Baer, <i>Die <span class="correction" title="amended from Hirsauers">Hirsauer</span> Bauschule</i> +(Freiburg, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRSCH, MAURICE DE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron Hirsch auf Gereuth</span>, in the +baronage of Bavaria (1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist +(German by birth, Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at +Munich, 9th December 1831. His grandfather, the first Jewish +landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled with the <i>prädikat</i> “auf +Gereuth” in 1818; his father, who was banker to the Bavarian +king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for generations has +occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish community. +At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to school, +but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855 +he became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim +& Goldschmidt, of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a +large fortune, which he increased by purchasing and working +railway concessions in Austria, Turkey and the Balkans, and by +speculations in sugar and copper. While living in great splendour +in Paris and London and on his estates in Hungary, he devoted +much of his time to schemes for the relief of his Hebrew co-religionists +in lands where they were persecuted and oppressed. +He took a deep interest in the educational work of the Alliance +Israélite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the society +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span> +with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly paid +the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several +thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations +and presented the society with securities producing an annual +income of £16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary +of the emperor Francis Joseph’s accession to the Austrian throne +he gave £500,000 for the establishment of primary and technical +schools in Galicia and the Bukowina. The greatest charitable +enterprise on which he embarked was in connexion with the +persecution of the Jews in Russia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>). He +gave £10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation of the +refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame conclusion +to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the Russian +Jews, he offered the Russian Government £2,000,000 for the endowment +of a system of secular education to be established in the +Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing +to accept the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be +concerned in its control or administration. Thereupon Baron +de Hirsch resolved to devote the money to an emigration and +colonization scheme which should afford the persecuted Jews +opportunities of establishing themselves in agricultural colonies +outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization Association +as an English society, with a capital of £2,000,000, and in 1892 +he presented to it a further sum of £7,000,000. On the death of +his wife in 1899 the capital was increased to £11,000,000, of which +£1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death +duties. This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest +charitable trust in the world, is now managed by delegates of +certain Jewish societies, chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of +London and the Alliance Israélite Universelle of Paris, among +whom the shares in the association have been divided. The +association, which is prohibited from working for profit, possesses +large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia Minor. In +addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and complex +machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish persecution, +including emigration and distributing agencies, technical +schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model +dwellings in the congested Russian jewries. It also subventions +and assists a large number of societies all over the world whose +work is connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish +refugees. Besides this great organization, Baron de Hirsch +founded in 1891 a benevolent trust in the United States for the +benefit of Jewish immigrants, which he endowed with £493,000. +His minor charities were on a princely scale, and during his +residence in London he distributed over £100,000 among the +local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the +whole gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English +turf, of which he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said +himself, “for the London hospitals,” and in 1892, when his filly, +La Flêche, won the Oaks, St Leger and One Thousand Guineas, +his donations from this source amounted to about £40,000. +Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara, daughter of +Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had a +son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at +Ogyalla, near Komorn, in Hungary, 21st April 1896. The +baroness, who seconded her husband’s charitable work with +great munificence—their total benefactions have been estimated +at £18,000,000,—died at Paris on the 1st of April 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For details of Baron de Hirsch’s chief charities see the annual +reports of the Alliance Israélite Universelle and of the “Administration +Centrale” of the Jewish Colonization Association.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1808-1888), Jewish theologian, +was born in Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main +in 1888. He opposed the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and +presented Jewish orthodoxy in a new and attractive light. His +philosophical conception of tradition, associated as it was with +conservatism in ritual practice, created what is often known as +the Frankfort “Neo-Orthodoxy.” Hirsch exercised a profound +influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide +of liberalism. His famous <i>Nineteen Letters</i> (1836), with which +the Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by +Drachmann (New York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were +<i>Horeb</i>, and commentaries on the Pentateuch and Psalms. These +are marked by much originality, but their exegesis is fanciful. +Three volumes of his essays have been published (1902-1908); +these were collected as <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> from his periodical +<i>Jeschurun</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Hirsch’s religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, <i>A Book of +Essays</i> (London, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRSCHBERG,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Silesia, beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and +Zacken, 1120 ft. above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Görlitz, on the +railway to Glatz, with branches to Grünthal and Schmiedeberg. +Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is surrounded by pleasant promenades +occupying the site of its former fortifications. It possesses an +Evangelical church, the church of the Holy Cross, one of the six +<i>Gnaden Kirchen</i> for the Silesian Protestants stipulated for in the +agreement at Altranstädt between Charles XII. of Sweden and the +emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches, one of +which dates from the 14th century, a synagogue, several schools, +an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium +of commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include +the carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and +cotton fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain, +sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a +lively trade in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town +is celebrated for its romantic surroundings, including the +Cavalierberg, from which there is a splendid view, the Hausberg, +the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric temple, the Kreuzberg, +with walks commanding beautiful views, and the Sattler +ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was +in existence in the 11th century, and obtained town rights in +1108 from Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the +Hussites in 1427, and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640. +The foundation of its prosperity was laid in the 16th century by +the introduction of the manufacture of linen and veils.</p> + +<p>Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the +Saale with manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRSON,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of +Aisne, 35 m. by rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906) +8335. It occupies an important strategic position close to the +point of intersection of several railway lines, and not far from +the Belgian frontier. For its defence there are a permanent fort +and two batteries, near the railway junction. The town carries +on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles, iron and tin goods, +wool-spinning and brewing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIRTIUS, AULUS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 90-43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman historian and statesman. +He was with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the +civil war broke out in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to +protect Caesar’s interests. He was also a personal friend of +Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius Pansa by Caesar for +the consulship of 43; and after the dictator’s assassination in +March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial party +against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The +consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus +Brutus. On the 15th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius +at Forum Gallorum, about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life +in the engagement. Hirtius, however, compelled Antonius to +retire on Mutina, where another battle took place on the 25th +(or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain. Of the continuations +of Caesar’s <i>Commentaries</i>—the eighth book of the Gallic war, +the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish wars—the +first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian war +is perhaps by him (or Oppius); the last two are supposed to have +been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the +events described, with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation +in his proposed work on military commanders. The language +of Hirtius is good, but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M. +Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Literatur</i>, i.; also R. Schneider, +<i>Bellum Africanum</i> (1905). For the history of the period see under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius</a></span>; Cicero’s <i>Letters</i> (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier, +<i>Cicero and his Friends</i> (Eng. trans., 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISHĀM IBN AL-KALBĪ<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> [Abū-l Mundhir Hishām ibn +Maḥommed ibn us-Sā’b ul-Kalb] (d. <i>c.</i> 819), Arabic historian, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +was born in Kufa, but spent much of his life in Bagdad. Like his +father, on whose authority he relied largely, he collected information +about the genealogies and history of the ancient Arabs. +According to the <i>Fihrist</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nadīm</a></span>) he wrote 140 works. As +independent works they have almost entirely ceased to exist, but +his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually quoted +in the <i>Kitāb ul-Aghāni</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Large extracts from another of his works, the <i>Kitāb ul-Asnām</i>, +are contained in the <i>Khizānat ul-Adab</i> (iii. 242-246) and in the +geography of Yāqūt (q.v.). These latter have been translated with +comments by J. Wellhausen in his <i>Reste des arabischen Heidentums</i> +(2nd ed., Berlin, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISPELLUM<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria, +Italy, 3 m. N. of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia, +1030 ft. above sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned +before the time of Augustus, who founded a colony there (<i>Colonia +Iulia Hispellum</i>) and extended its territory to the springs of the +Clitumnus, which had originally belonged to the territory of +Mevania. It received the name of Flavia Constans by a rescript +of the emperor Constantine, a copy of which on a marble tablet +is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which the town is +entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it; two +other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks +of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what +is possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an +amphitheatre, and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern +high-road, outside the town.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISSAR,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a district in Central Asia, lying between 66° 30′ and 70° +E. and 39° 15′ and 37° N. and dependent on the amir of Bokhara. +It forms that part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which +lies on the north side of the river, opposite the Afghan province +of Balkh. The western prolongation of the Tian-shan, which +divides the basin of the Zarafshan from that of the upper Amu, +after rising to a height of 12,300 ft., bifurcates in 67° 45′ E. The +main chain, the southern arm of this bifurcation, designated the +Hissar range, but sometimes called also Koh-i-tau, forms the N. +and N.W. boundaries of Hissar. On the W. it is wholly bounded +by the desert; the Amu limits it on the S. and S.E.; and Karateghin +and Darvaz complete the boundary on the E. Until +1875 it was one of the least known tracts of Central Asia. Hissar +is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the Amu, +viz. the Surkhab or Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-darya, +which descend from the snowy mountains to the north +and form a series of fertile valleys, disposed in a fan-shape, +within which lie the principal towns. In the N.W. boundary +range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated the defile +formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, Bāb-al-Hadīd, Dar +Ahanīn and in Chinese T’ie-mēn-kuan) but now styled Buzghol-khana +or the Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be +a Mongol word meaning barrier. This pass is described as a deep +but narrow chasm in a transverse range, whose rocks overhang +and threaten to choke the tortuous and gloomy corridor (in +places but five paces wide) which affords the only exit from the +valley. In ancient times it was a vantage point of much importance +and commanded one of the chief routes between +Turkestan and India. Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who +passed through it in the 7th century, states that there were +then two folding doors or gates, cased with iron and hung +with bells, placed across the pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambassador +to the court of Timur, heard of this when he passed +through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the gates had then +disappeared.</p> + +<p>The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its +upper portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but +its chief products are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop. +15,000) commands the entrance into the fertile valleys of the +Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as Kabadian at the southern end +of the latter defends them from the south. Hissar was long +famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods. Kulab +produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from +the surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing +town, and is surrounded with rice-fields.</p> + +<p>The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks, +the former predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks +into the hills. On the banks of the Amu there are Turkomans +who work the ferries, drive sheep and accompany caravans. +Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are other elements +of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar and +Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the +north and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals +and garden plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown +in the district of Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and +rock-salt are all exported.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—This country was anciently part of the Persian +empire of the Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the +Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, and then subject to the invading +Asiatic tribes who broke up that kingdom, <i>e.g.</i> the Yue-chi. +It was afterwards conquered by the Ephthalites or White +Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early part of the +7th century. It then became subject successively to the Mahommedan +invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty +of Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subsequently +became a cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed +by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in 1869-1870, soon after the Russian +occupation of Samarkand.</p> +<div class="author">(J. T. Be.; C. El.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISSAR,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Delhi +division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana +railway and the Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi. +Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was founded in 1356 by the emperor +Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to supply it with water; +but this fell into decay during the 18th century, owing to the +constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely +depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards +occupied by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, +who built a fort and collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly +known for its cattle and horse fairs, and has a cotton factory.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms +the western border district of the great Bikanir desert, and +consists for the most part of sandy plains dotted with shrub +and brushwood, and broken by undulations towards the +south, which rise into hills of rock like islands out of a +sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose supply is +uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower +Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by +<i>jhils</i>, which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna +canal crosses the district from east to west, irrigating many +villages. The soil is in places hard and clayey, and difficult +to till; but when sufficiently irrigated it is highly productive. +Old mosques and other buildings exist in parts of the district. +Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white oxen, which are +in great request for the carriages of natives. The district has +always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this kind +of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has +suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in +1901 was 781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade, +whereas in the previous decade there had been an increase of +15%. The climate is very dry, hot westerly winds blowing +from the middle of March till July. Cotton weaving, ginning +and pressing are carried on. The district is served by the +Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the Jodhpur-Bikanir +railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi, +Hissar and Sirsa.</p> + +<p>Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract +of which Hissar district now forms part was the retreat of +Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the end of the 18th century the +Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after bloody struggles. +To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts, nature lent +her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally +to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810. +Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time +to British rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or +compelled to fly. The Bhattis rose under their hereditary +chiefs, and the majority of the Mahommedan population followed +their example. Before Delhi had been recovered, the rebels +were utterly routed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISTIAEUS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (d. 494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian +king Darius Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered +great service to Darius while he was campaigning in Scythia by +persuading his fellow-despots not to destroy the bridge over +the Danube by which the Persians must return. Choosing his +own reward for this service, he became possessor of territory near +Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and minerals. +The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to Susa, +where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually +a prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing +power in Ionia. During this period the Greek cities were left +under native despots supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-law +of Histiaeus, being ruler of Miletus in his stead. This prince, +having failed against Naxos in a joint expedition with the satrap +Artaphernes, began to stir up the Ionians to revolt, and this +result was brought to pass, according to Herodotus, by a secret +message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a formidable +character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could +quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at +the coast found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ultimately +driven to establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate; +more probably in charge of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium. +After the total failure of the revolt at the battle of Lade, he made +various attempts to re-establish himself, but was captured by +the Persian Harpagus and crucified by Artaphernes at Sardis. +His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who gave it honourable +burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian revolt +was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible; +there is evidence to show that the Ionians had been meditating +since about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination +and the “tyrants” on whom it rested (see Grote, <i>Hist. of +Greece</i>, ed. 1907, especially p. 122 note; art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionia</a></span>, and +authorities; also S. Heinlein in <i>Klio</i>, 1909, pp. 341-351).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISTOLOGY<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="histos">ἱστός</span>, web, tissue, properly the web-beam +of the loom, from <span class="grk" title="histanai">ἱστάναι</span>, to make to stand), the science which +deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cytology</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HISTORY.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> The word “history” is used in two senses. It +may mean either the record of events, or events themselves. +Originally (see below) limited to inquiry and statement, it was +only in comparatively modern times that the meaning of the word +was extended to include the phenomena which form or might +form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat careless +transference of ideas that this extension was brought about. +Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the +“history of England” without reference to any literary narrative. +We term kings and statesmen the “makers of history,” and sometimes +say that the historian only records the history which +they make. History in this connexion is obviously not the +record, but the thing to be recorded. It is unfortunate that such +a double meaning of the word should have grown up, for it +is productive of not a little confusion of thought.</p> + +<p>History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely +all the phenomena of human life, but those of the natural +world as well. It includes everything that undergoes change; +and as modern science has shown that there is nothing absolutely +static, therefore the whole universe, and every part of it, has +its history. The discovery of ether brought with it a reconstruction +of our ideas of the physical universe, transferring the +emphasis from the mathematical expression of static relationships +to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant transformation; +matter in equipoise became energy in gradual readjustment. +Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in every +particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage +between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal +activity has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history. +It is the same with the other sciences—especially the biological +division, where the doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude +of mind which is distinctly historical.</p> + +<p>But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely +the attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in +just this particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the +unstable nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more +and more capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no +longer held to be inevitable and immutable creations. We do +not attempt to fit them to absolute formulae, but continually +adapt them to a changing environment. Even modern architecture, +notably in America, reflects the consciousness of change. +The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was +fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the +architect builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which +will inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole +society not only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its +growing consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its +arts. In literature, philosophy and political science, there is the +same historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute +standards; it applies the standards of the author’s own environment. +We no longer condemn Shakespeare for having violated +the ancient dramatic laws, nor Voltaire for having objected to +the violations. Each age has its own expression, and in judging +each we enter the field of history. In ethics, again, the revolt +against absolute standards limits us to the relative, and morals +are investigated on the basis of history, as largely conditioned +by economic environment and the growth of intellectual freedom. +Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds as a source of +knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As for +political science, we do not regard the national state as that +ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman +Empire. It has hardly come into being before forces are evident +which aim at its destruction. Internationalism has gained +ground in Europe in recent years; and Socialism itself, which is +based upon a distinct interpretation of history, is regarded by its +followers as merely a stage in human progress, like those which +have gone before it. It is evident that Freeman’s definition of +history as “past politics” is miserably inadequate. Political +events are mere externals. History enters into every phase of +activity, and the economic forces which urge society along are +as much its subject as the political result.</p> + +<p>In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field. +The world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a +dynamic universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change. +Owing to this insistent change all things which happen, or seem +to happen, are history in the broader sense of the word. The +encyclopaedia itself is a history of them in the stricter sense,—the +description and record of this universal process. This +narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of this article.</p> + +<p>The word “history” comes from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="historia">ἱστορία</span>, which was +used by the Ionians in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for the search for +knowledge in the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation, +not narrative. It was not until two centuries later that the +historikos, the reciter of stories, superseded the <i>historeōn</i> (<span class="grk" title="historeôn">ἱστορέων</span>), +the seeker after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of +scientific research,—much the same as what the Athenians later +termed philosophy. Herodotus himself was as much a scientific +explorer as a reciter of narrative, and his life-long investigation +was <i>historiē</i> in his Ionian speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself +who first hinted at the new use of the word, applied merely to the +details accumulated during a long search for knowledge. It +is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it definitely applied +to the literary product instead of the inquiry which precedes it. +From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. <i>historia</i>) has been +a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment of +to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the +forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct +operations, one of which, investigation, is in the field of science, +while the other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art.</p> + +<p>The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as +art flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and +the literary gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel +with the scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with +scientific activity. Those periods which have been dominated +by the great masters of style have been less interested in the +criticism of the historian’s methods of investigation than in the +beauty of his rhetoric. The scientific historian, deeply interested +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> +in the search for truth, is generally but a poor artist, and his +uncoloured picture of the past will never rank in literature beside +the splendid distortions which glow in the pages of a Michelet or +Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is conditioned upon +genius, has no single traceable line of development. Here the +product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the +works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those +of Pheidias as models for all time. On the other hand, history +the science has developed so that it has not only gained recognition +among historians as a distinct subject, but it has raised with +it a group of auxiliary sciences which serve either as tools for +investigation or as a basis for testing the results. The advance +in this branch of history in the 19th century was one of its greatest +achievements. The vast gulf which lies between the history of +Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is the measure +of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the +scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of +Ābydos than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather +from the priests of Saïs. In tracing the history of history we +must therefore keep in mind the double aspect.</p> + +<p>History itself, this double subject, the science and the art +combined, begins with the dawn of memory and the invention +of speech. It is wrong to term those ages <i>pre-historic</i> whose +history has not come down to us, including in one category the +pre-literary age and the literary whose traces have been lost. +Even the pre-literary had its history, first in myth and then in +saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the myth, for +in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of the +gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination. +Poetry, as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium +for fact. The bard will exaggerate or distort his story. True +history, as a record of what really has happened, first reached +maturity in prose. Therefore, although much of the past has +been handed down to us in epic, in ballad and in the legends of +folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became history in +the narrower sense.</p> + +<p>The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions. +Their inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their +permanence depends not upon their importance, but upon the +durability of the substance on which they are inscribed. A note +for a wedding ring baked into the clay of Babylon has been +preserved, while the history of the greatest events has perished. +In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know how +to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral +tradition flourishes,—being within the reach of every man. It +is only recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art, +has undertaken to interpret for us this first written history. +The process by which the modern fits together all the obtainable +remains of an antiquity, and reconstructs even that past which +left no written record, lies outside the field of this article. But +such enlargement of the field of history is a modern scientific +product, and is to be distinguished from the imperfect beginnings +of history-writing which the archaeologist is able to decipher.</p> + +<p>Next to the inscriptions,—sometimes identical with them,—are +the early chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family +chronicles preserved the memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds +in the earliest age would have passed into the keeping of the +bards. Such family archives were perhaps the main source for +Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome or Greece. +Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the vehicle +for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in which +Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs.</p> + +<p>In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself +became the chief repository of records. There were simple +religious annals, votive tablets recording miracles accomplished +at a shrine, lists of priests and priestesses, accounts of benefactions, +of prodigies and portents. In some cases, as in Rome, the +pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely of religious history, +but of important political events as well. Down to the time of +the Gracchi (131 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the year’s +events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the +Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These +pontifical “annals” thus came to be a sort of civic history. +Chronicles of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical +authors, as for instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the +inventor of letters. But they were continued and edited by men +in whom the critical spirit was awakening, as when the chroniclers +of Ionian towns began the criticism of Homer.</p> + +<p>The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities; +men who carried their inquiry (<i>historiē</i>) beyond both written +record and oral tradition to a study of the world around them. +Their “saying” (<i>logos</i>) was gathered mostly from contemporaries; +and upon the basis of a widened experience they became +critics of their traditions. The opening lines of Hecataeus of +Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in words +which read like a sentence from Voltaire. “Hecataeus of +Miletus thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of +the Greeks seem to me manifold and laughable.” Those words +mark an epoch in the history of thought. They are the introduction +to historical criticism and scientific investigation. Whatever +the actual achievement of Hecataeus may have been, from his +time onward the scientific movement was set going. Herodotus +of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology, and established +chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a professional +story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific +investigation. Herodotus’ inquiry was not simply that of an idle +tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It +is easy for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources, +and his failure here or there to discriminate between fact and +fable. But given the imperfect medium for investigation and +the absence of an archaeological basis for criticism, the work of +Herodotus remains a scientific achievement, as remarkable for its +approximation to truth as for the vastness of its scope. Yet it +was Herodotus’ chief glory to have joined to this scientific spirit +an artistic sense which enabled him to cast the material into +the truest literary form. He gathered all his knowledge of the +ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it around the +story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and +the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme +is like that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose +epos, in which science is to this extent subordinated to art. “This +is the showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, +to the end that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse +of time, nor the works, great and marvellous, which have been +produced, some by Hellenes, some by Barbarians, may lose their +renown, and especially that the causes may be remembered for +which these waged war with one another” (<i>i.e.</i> the Persian war).</p> + +<p>In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was combined +with a higher science. He scorned the story-teller “who +seeks to please the ear rather than to speak the truth,” and yet +his rhetoric is the culmination of Greek historical prose. He +withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious that his narrative +would be considered “disappointing to the ear,” yet he recast the +materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift that +narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and +documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story. +It was his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian +war out of its separate parts. And yet this art was merely the +language of a scientist. The “laborious task” of which he speaks +is that of consulting all possible evidence, and weighing conflicting +accounts. It is this which makes his rhetoric worth while, “an +everlasting possession, not a prize competition which is heard +and forgotten.”</p> + +<p>From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon’s straight-forward +story, history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus +into the field of rhetoric. A revival of the scientific instinct of +investigation is discernable in Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of +the 4th century, but his attack upon his predecessors was the +text of a more crushing attack upon himself by Polybius, who +declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by passion. +Polybius’ comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise +upon history. He protests against its use for controversial +pamphlets which distort the truth. “Directly a man assumes +the moral attitude of an historian he ought to forget all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +considerations, such as love of one’s friends, hatred of one’s +enemies.... He must sometimes praise enemies and blame friends. +For as a living creature is rendered useless if deprived of its eyes, +so if you take truth from History, what is left but an improfitable +tale” (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke. Unfortunately +Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was +no artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and +the rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions, +so closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator; +history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In +Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an +extensive study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek +rhetoricians upon Roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint +of science. Cicero, although he said that the duty of the +historian is to conceal nothing true, to say nothing false, would +in practice have written the kind of history that Polybius +denounced. He finds fault with those who are <i>non exornatores +rerum sed tantum narratores</i>. History for him is the mine from +which to draw argument in oratory and example in education. +It is not the subject of a scientific curiosity.</p> + +<p>It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the +expansion of Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as +well. Universal history was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician, +and formed the theme of Polybius and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks +were the first to write histories of Rome worthy of the name. +The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon the +scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most +important <i>chronica</i> of antiquity.</p> + +<p>History-writing in Rome,—except for the Greek writers +resident there,—was until the first half of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in +the form of annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation,—and +the Ciceronian era. The first Roman historian who rose to the +conception of a science and art combined was Sallust, the student +of Thucydides. The Augustan age produced in Livy a great +popular historian and natural artist and a trained rhetorician +(in the speeches),—but as uncritical and inaccurate as he was +brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from +Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate +artist. His style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the +sternness and sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic +expression in its epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his +searching study of authorities, his keen judgment of men, and +his perception of underlying principles of moral law, his view was +warped by the heat of faction, which glows beneath his external +objectivity. After him Roman history-writing speedily degenerated. +Suetonius’ <i>Lives of the Caesars</i> is but a superior kind of +journalism. But his gossip of the court became the model for +historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source for +the <i>Historia Augusta</i>. The importance to us of this uncritical +collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of +history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th +century the epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy +the lessening curiosity in the past and became the handbooks +for the middle ages. The single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus +stands out of this age like a belated disciple of Tacitus. But +the world was changing from antique to Christian ideals just as +he was writing, and with him we leave this outline of ancient +history.</p> + +<p>The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history +of history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and +in its place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the +world force which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that +small fraction of antiquity from which it sprang,—the Jews. +Christianity from the first had forced thinking men to reconstruct +their philosophy of history, but it was only after the +Church’s triumph that its point of view became dominant in +historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan +models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to +the 17th—from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a +thousand years,—mankind was to look back along the line of +Jewish priests and kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest +only as it came into Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were +to illustrate the judgments of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect +the glory of Solomon. The process by which the “gentiles” +have been robbed of their legitimate history was the inevitable +result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay figures for +the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became +the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in +Sunday schools and in common opinion, not nations of living +men, with the culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do +not enter into the divine scheme of the world’s history. When a +line was drawn between pagan and Christian back to the creation +of the world, it left outside the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity. +But it must be remembered that that antiquity was one in which +the German nations had no personal interest. Scipio and the +Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The one living organization +with which they came into touch was the Church. So +Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian, +the organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and +Constantine, the murderer, a saint.</p> + +<p>Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church. +With Eusebius of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age +of persecutions gave way to a calm review of three centuries of +Christian progress. Eusebius’ biography of Constantine shows +what distortion of fact the father of Church history permitted +himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was fortunately written +for those who wanted to know what really happened, and +remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities. +With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and +the Latin manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the +<i>Historia tripartita</i>), it formed the body of Church history during +all the middle ages. An even greater influence, however, was +exercised by Eusebius’ <i>Chronica</i>. Through Jerome’s translation +and additions, this scheme of this world’s chronology became the +basis for all medieval world chronicles. It settled until our own +day the succession of years from the Creation to the birth of +Christ,—fitting the Old Testament story into that of ancient +history. Henceforth the Jewish past,—that one path back to +the beginning of the world,—was marked out by the absolute laws +of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out; +Sulpicius Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his <i>Historia +sacra</i>, adorned it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius +was admirably fitted to interpret the miraculous Bible story to +the middle ages. But there were few who could write like him, +and Jerome’s <i>Chronicle</i> itself, or rather portions of it, became, +in the age which followed, a sort of universal preface for the +monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts to +continue “imperial chronicles,” but they were insignificant +compared with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome.</p> + +<p>From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its +earliest apologists sought to show how the world had followed a +divine plan in its long preparation for the life of Christ. From +this central fact of all history, mankind should continue through +war and suffering until the divine plan was completed at the +judgment day. The fate of nations is in God’s hands; history +is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether He intervenes +directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation, +He is master of men’s fate. This idea, which has underlain all +Christian philosophy of history, from the first apologists who +prophesied the fall of the Empire and the coming of the millennium, +down to our own day, received its classic statement in St +Augustine’s <i>City of God</i>. The terrestrial city, whose eternity had +been the theme of pagan history, had just fallen before Alaric’s +Goths. Augustine’s explanation of its fall passes in review not +only the calamities of Roman history—combined with a pathetic +perception of its greatness,—but carries the survey back to the +origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this <i>civitas +terrena</i> he sets the divine city which is to be realized in Christendom. +The Roman Empire,—the last general form of the earthly +city,—gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main +thread of Augustine’s philosophy of history. The mathematical +demonstration of its truth was left by Augustine for his disciple, +Paulus Orosius.</p> + +<p>Orosius’ <i>Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans</i>, written +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> +as a supplement to the <i>City of God</i>, is the first attempt at a +Christian “World History.” This manual for the middle ages +arranged the rise and fall of empires with convincing exactness. +The history of antiquity, according to it, begins with Ninus. +His realm was overthrown by the Medes in the same year in +which the history of Rome began. From the first year of Ninus’ +reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis there were +sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and the +building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after +each city was built, it was taken,—Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by +Alaric, and Cyrus’ conquest took place just when Rome began the +Republic. But before Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon +and Carthage intervene, guardians of Rome’s youth (<i>tutor +curatorque</i>). This scheme of the four world-monarchies, which +was to prevail through all the middle ages, was developed through +seven books filled with the story of war and suffering. As it was +Orosius’ aim to show that the world had improved since the +coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius’ war history, written +to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of victory,—disaster +and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were +plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths +in Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through +the confusion of the German invasions one may look forward to +Christendom,—and its peace.</p> + +<p>The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the +chronicle, which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere +notes on Easter tables, to the dignity of national monuments. +Utterly lacking in perspective, and dominated by the idea of the +miraculous, they are for the most part a record of the trivial or +the marvellous. Individual historians sometimes recount the +story of their own times with sober judgment, but seldom know +how to test their sources when dealing with the past. Contradictions +are often copied down without the writer noticing them; +and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many documents,—monasteries, +towns and corporations gaining privileges +or titles of possession by the bold use of them,—the narrative +of medieval writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it +by collateral evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising, +Guibert of Nogent or Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if +they had had our appliances for comparison. But even men like +Roger Bacon, who deplored the inaccuracy of texts, had worked +out no general method to apply in their restoration. Toward the +close of the middle ages the vernacular literatures were adorned +with Villani’s and Froissart’s chronicles. But the merit of both +lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary narrative. +Neither was a history in the truest sense.</p> + +<p>The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic +sense, in the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of +the antique world. They did not altogether succeed; antiquity +to them meant largely Plato and Cicero. Their interests were +literary, and the un-Ciceronian centuries were generally ignored. +Those in which the foundations of modern Europe were laid, +which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities, Dante and +Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened +the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only +one degree better than that of the middle ages. History became +the servant to literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it +passed into the schools, where text-books still in use devote 200 +pages to the Peloponnesian war and two to the Athens of Pericles.</p> + +<p>But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to +the progress of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation +of texts first made that progress possible. Historical criticism +soon awoke. Laurentius Valla’s brilliant attack on the “Donation +of Constantine” (1440), and Ulrich von Hutten’s rehabilitation +of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark the rise of the +new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of controversy +it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of +humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with +the grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the +German scholars turned back to the sources of their national +history. Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered +Otto of Freising and Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the +search for manuscripts, and Vienna became a great humanistic +centre. Conrad Celtes left his <i>Germania illustrata</i> unfinished, +but he had found the works of Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger +gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room in Vienna, and +published several,—among them Gregory of Tours. This +national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in +France or England, where the classical humanities reigned. +The Reformation meanwhile gave another turn to the work of +German scholars.</p> + +<p>The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a +strange starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the +Renaissance, brought out scientific methods of historical investigation. +It not only sobered the humanist tendency to +sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect, it called for the documents +of the Church and subjected them to the most hostile criticism. +Luther himself challenged them. Then in the <i>Magdeburg +Centuries</i> (1559-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its +attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources +accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic +work is the first monument of modern historical research. The +reply of Cardinal Baronius (<i>Annales ecclesiastici</i>, 1588-1697) +was a still greater collection, drawn from archives which till +then had not been used for scientific history. Baronius’ +criticism and texts are faulty, though far surpassing anything +before his day, and his collection is the basis for most subsequent +ones,—in spite of J. J. Scaliger’s refutation, which was to contain +an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius.</p> + +<p>The movement back to the sources in Germany until the +Thirty Years’ War was a notable one. Collections were made +by Simon Schard (1535-1573), Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608), +Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior Goldast (1576-1635) +and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new epoch, both +by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena, and +by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association +(1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were, +instead of “correcting” them, was a notable advance. But +from Leibnitz until the 19th century German national historiography +made little progress,—although church historians like +Mosheim and Neander stand out among the greatest historians +of all time.</p> + +<p>France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian’s +Renaissance historians. The father of modern French history, +or at least of historical research, was André Duchesne (1584-1640), +whose splendid collections of sources are still in use. +Jean Bodin wrote the first treatise on scientific history (<i>Methodus +ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</i>, 1566), but he did not apply +his own principles of criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine +monks of the Congregation of St Maur to establish definitely +the new science. The place of this school in the history of history +is absolutely without a parallel. Few of those in the audiences +of Molière, returning home under the grey walls of St Germain-des-Près, +knew that within that monastery the men whose +midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific +history; and few of the later historians of that age have been +any wiser. But when Luc d’Achery turned from exegetics to +patristics and the lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian +humanist, he led the way to that vast work of collection and +comparison of texts which developed through Mabillon, Montfaucon, +Ruinart, Martène, Bouquet and their associates, into +the indispensable implements of modern historians. Here, as +in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product. +Jean Mabillon’s treatise, <i>De re diplomatica</i> (1681), was due to +the criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose <i>Acta +Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur</i> (1643, &c., see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>) +was destined to grow into the greatest repository of legend and +biography the world has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch’s +criticisms of the chronicle of St Denis, Mabillon prepared this +manual for the testing of medieval documents. Its canons are +the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the science of diplomatic +(q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval research. Henceforth +even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical rules +by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span> +documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon implements. +Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to +texts, we should go as far astray as any medieval chronicler. +The France of the Maurists supplied the most essential of these +instruments. The great “glossary” of Ducange is still in +enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia of the middle +ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new +footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon’s <i>Palaeographia graeca</i> +(1708), the monumental <i>Art de vérifier les dates</i> (3rd ed., 1818-1831, +in 38 vols.), and the <i>Nouveau Traité de diplomatique</i> (1750-1765) +of Dom Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of +texts which the Maurists published are too many and too vast +to be enumerated here (see C. Langlois, <i>Manuel de bibliographie +historique</i>, pp. 293 ff.). Dom Bouquet’s <i>Historiens de la Gaule +et de la France</i>—the national repertory for French historians—is +but one of a dozen tasks of similar magnitude. During the +18th century this deep under-work of scientific history continued +to advance, though for the most part unseen by the brilliant +writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history +in the salons of the old régime. Interrupted by the Revolution, +it revived in the 19th century, and the roll of honour of the +French École des Chartes has almost rivalled that of St +Germain-des-Prés.</p> + +<p>The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori +(1672-1750), the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast +collection of sources (<i>Rerum Italicarum scriptores</i>), prepared +amid every discouragement, remains to-day the national monument +of Italian history; and it is but one of his collections. +His output is perhaps the greatest of any isolated worker in the +whole history of historiography. The same haste, but much less +care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the compiler +of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by the +Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during +the 17th and 18th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684) +produced a national literary history of the first rank.</p> + +<p>England in the 16th century kept pace with Continental +historiography. Henry VIII.’s chaplain, John Leland, is the +father of English antiquaries. Three of the most precious +collections of medieval manuscripts still in existence were then +begun by Thomas Bodley (the Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop +Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at Cambridge), and Robert +Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British Museum). In +Elizabeth’s reign a serious effort was made to arrange the national +records, but until the end of the 18th century they were scattered +in not less than fifteen repositories. In the 17th and 18th +centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments +of research as William Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon</i>, Thomas Madox’s +<i>History of the Exchequer</i>, Wilkins’s <i>Concilia</i>, and Thomas Rymer’s +<i>Foedera</i>. But these works, important as they were, gave but +little idea of the wealth of historical sources which the 19th +century was to reveal in England.</p> + +<p>In the 19th century the science of history underwent a sort +of industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented +by the genius of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in +all the archives of Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers +grew into national or international associations, producing from +archives vast collections of material to be worked up into the +artistic form of history. The result of this movement has been +to revolutionize the whole subject. These men of the factory—devoting +their lives to the cataloguing of archives and libraries, +to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task of +indexing what they have produced—have made it possible for +the student in an American or Australian college to master in a +few hours in his library sources of history which baffled the long +years of research of a Martène or Rymer. The texts themselves +have mostly become as correct as they can ever be, and manuals +and bibliographies guide one to and through them, so that no one +need go astray who takes the trouble to make use of the mechanism +which is at his hand. For example, since the papal archives +were opened, so many <i>regesta</i> have appeared that soon it will be +possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day by +day for century after century.</p> + +<p>The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here. +Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or +calendared; government commissions have rescued numberless +documents from oblivion or destruction, and learned societies +have supplemented and criticized this work and co-ordinated the +results. Every state in Europe now has published the main +sources for its history. The “Rolls” series, the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica</i>, and the <i>Documents inédits</i> are but the more +notable of such national products. A series of periodicals +keeps watch over this enormous output. The files and indices +of the <i>English Historical Review</i>, <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, <i>Revue +historique</i>, or <i>American Historical Review</i> will alone reveal the +strength and character of historical research in the later 19th +century.</p> + +<p>Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a +way an implement in this great factory system, in which the past +is welded together again. Psychology has been drawn upon to +interpret the movements of revolutions or religions, anthropology +and ethnology furnish a clue to problems to which the key of +documents has been lost. Genealogy, heraldry and chronology +run parallel with the wider subject. But the real auxiliary +sciences to history are those which deal with those traces of the +past that still exist, the science of language (philology), of +writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of seals +(sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures, +and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences +underlie the whole development of scientific history. Dictionaries +and manuals are the instruments of this industrial revolution. +Without them the literary remains of the race would still +be as useless as Egyptian inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archaeology +itself remained but a minor branch of art until the +machinery was perfected which enabled it to classify and interpret +the remains of the “pre-historic” age.</p> + +<p>This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of +history—the recovery of that past which had already been lost +when our literary history began. The perspective stretches out +as far the other side of Homer as we are this. The old “providential” +scheme of history disintegrates before a new interest in +the “gentile” nations to whose high culture Hebrew sources bore +unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism is a part of the historic +process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible basis of history, +are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which they were +partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place in +the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone +left us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources, +and now fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The +scientific historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather +than in the quiet of a library with the classics spread out before +him. There he can reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan +age to which Homeric poems look back, as the Germanic epics +looked back to Rome or Verona. His discoveries, co-ordinated +and arranged in vast <i>corpora inscriptionum</i>, stand now alongside +Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their criticism. +Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men +were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals +and castles are studied as genuine historic documents.</p> + +<p>The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and +literary, has remade historical criticism. Ranke’s application +of the principles of “higher criticism” to works written since +the invention of printing (<i>Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber</i>) was +an epoch-making challenge of narrative sources. Now they are +everywhere checked by contemporary evidence, and a clearer +sense of what constitutes a primary source has discredited much +of what had been currently accepted as true. This is true not +only of ancient history, where last year’s book may be a thousand +years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an “old master” +remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote, +Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than +their truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight—<i>e.g.</i> the fall of +the Western Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in +1450, dates which once enclosed the middle ages. The perspective +changes—the Renaissance grows less and the middle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span> +ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes a complex of +economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution a +vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &c., &c. +The result has been a complete transformation of history since +the middle of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century the Augustinian scheme of world history +received its last classic statement in Bossuet’s <i>Histoire universelle</i>. +Voltaire’s reply to it in the 18th (<i>Essai sur les mœurs</i>) attacked +its limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure +on that of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the +evolutionary theory in this work, neither the <i>philosophe</i> historians +nor Hume nor Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in +history which could take the place of the Providence they +rejected. Religion, though false, might be a real historic force. +History became the tragic spectacle of a game of dupes—the +real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns slowly +acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves +themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation +of the laws which determine the direction of this evolution. +Giovanni Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there +is no science of human history. But his lonely life and unrecognized +labours leave him apart from the main movement, +until his works were discovered again in the 19th century. It +was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the 19th century, +first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history +which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of +its evolution. Heeren’s own influence, however, was slight. The +first half of the century (apart from the scientific activity of +Pertz, Guizot, &c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists, +with their exaggeration of the individual. Carlyle’s “great man +theory of history” is logically connected with the age of Scott. +It was a philosophy of history which lent itself to magnificent +dramatic creations; but it explained nothing. It substituted +the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of +Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as +Truth and Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but +dealing in words to say that the meaning of it all is God’s revelation +of Himself. Granting that, what is the process? Why does +it so slowly reveal the Right of the middle ages (as in slavery for +instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle stands to Bossuet +as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to realities. His +idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the keynote of +progress, and describes the function of each—Judaism to typify +duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism +patience, and Christianity love—does not account for the facts +of the history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the +real process of evolution, but an ideal which history has not +realized. Besides, it does not face the question how far religion +itself is a product or a cause, or both combined.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in +their philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in +his spiritism—recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment +and not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in +his <i>History of Civilization in England</i> (1857), was the first to work +out the influences of the material world upon history, developing +through a wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and +the general aspect of nature upon the formation of society. +Buckle did not, as is generally believed, make these three factors +dominate all history. He distinctly stated that “the advance of +European civilization is characterized by a diminishing influence +of physical laws and an increasing influence of mental laws,” +and “the measure of civilization is the triumph of mind over +external agents.” Yet his challenge, not only to the theologian, +but also to those “historians whose indolence of thought” or +“natural incapacity” prevented them from attempting more than +the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from +almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away, +we see that in spite of Buckle’s too confident formulation of his +laws, his pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the +Augustine of the scientific age. Among historians, however, +Buckle’s theory received but little favour for another generation. +Meanwhile the economists had themselves taken up the problem, +and it was from them that the historians of to-day have learned +it. Ten years before Buckle published his history, Karl Marx had +already formulated the “economic theory of history.” Accepting +with reservation Feuerbach’s attack on the Hegelian “absolute +idea,” based on materialistic grounds (<i>Der Mensch ist, was er isst</i>), +Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process of +growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in +the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to +socialism, which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation +of history. But the truth or falseness of socialism does +not affect the theory of history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the +Young-Hegelians that to separate history from natural science +and industry was like separating the soul from the body, and +“finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross material +production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of heaven” +(<i>Die heilige Familie</i>, p. 238). In his <i>Misère de la philosophie</i> +(1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships largely +depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles, +ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal +than the relations they express, but are historical and transitory +products. In the famous <i>Manifesto of the Communist Party</i> +(1848) the theory was applied to show how the industrial revolution +had replaced feudal with modern conditions. But it had +little vogue, except among Socialists, until the third volume of +<i>Das Kapital</i> was published in 1894, when its importance was +borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the controversy +has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation. +It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation +of all human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology +rests upon the postulate of Marx.</p> + +<p>The content of history always reflects the interests of the age +in which it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval +chronicles. Modern historians began with politics. But as the +complex nature of society became more evident in the age of +democracy, the economic or sociological history gained ground. +Histories of commerce and cities now rank beside those on war +and kings, although there are readers still who prefer to follow +the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the slow +evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history +has its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy. +Only now we know that no one of these is more than a single +glimpse at a vast complex of phenomena, most of which lie for +ever beyond our ken.</p> + +<p>This expansion of interest has intensified specialization. +Historians no longer attempt to write world histories; they +form associations of specialists for the purpose. Each historian +chooses his own epoch or century and his own subject, and +spends his life mastering such traces of it as he can find. His +work there enables him to judge of the methods of his fellows, +but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of material +which has been accumulated on the single subject before him. +Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative—the +<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Lavisse and Rambaud’s <i>Histoire +générale</i>, or Lavisse’s <i>Histoire de France</i>, like Hunt and Poole’s +<i>Political History of England</i>, and Oncken’s <i>Allgemeine Geschichte +in Einzeldarstellungen</i>. But even these vast sets cover but the +merest fraction of their subjects. The Cambridge history passes +for the most part along the political crust of society, and seldom +glances at the social forces within. This limitation of the professed +historian is made up for by the growingly historical +treatment of all the sciences and arts—a tendency noted before, +to which this edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> is itself +a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless +subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp +and stress of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph—<i>si +historiam requiris, circumspice</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See Ch. V. Langlois, <i>Manuel de bibliographie +historique</i> (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of +this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of historical +research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject. Similar +bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the +articles where they properly belong, <i>e.g.</i> in English medieval history +the manual of Chas. Gross, <i>Sources and Literature of English History</i>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span> +in German history the <i>Quellenkunde</i> of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th ed.); +for France the <i>Bibliographie de l’histoire de France</i> of G. Monod +(antiquated, 1888), or the <i>Sources de l’histoire de France</i> so ably +begun by A. Molinier’s volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps +the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is +the clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, <i>Introduction +to the Study of History</i> (trans. with preface by F. York +Powell, London, 1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim’s +<i>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mit +Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der +Geschichte</i> (3rd and 4th ed., Leipzig, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIT,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on +the west bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in +33° 38′ 8″ N., 42° 52′ 15″ E. It is picturesquely situated on a line +of hills, partly natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the +accumulation of centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft. +in height, bordering the river. The houses are built of field stones +and mud. A striking feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned +minaret, which leans quite perceptibly. Behind +and around Hit is an extensive but utterly barren plain, through +which flow several streams of bitter water, coming from mineral +springs. Directly behind the town are two bitumen springs, one +cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The gypsum +cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out here +and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the +whole place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the +river there are naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one +possessing great potential wealth in mineral oils and the like. +Hit, with its fringe of palms, is like an oasis in the desert +occasioned by the outcrop of these deposits. From time +immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of bitumen for +Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon its +bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the government, +but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them. +There is also a shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Babylonian +boats are still made, smeared within and without with +bitumen. Hit is the head of navigation on the Euphrates. It is +also the point from which the camel-post starts across the desert +to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from Hit, on a bitter stream, +lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is mentioned, under the +name of Ist, in the Karnak inscription as paying tribute to +Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 15) it is called +Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been <i>Ihi</i>, +which becomes in the Talmud <i>Ihidakira</i>, in Ptolemy <span class="grk" title="Idikara">Ιδικάρα</span>, and +in Zosimus and Ammianus <span class="grk" title="Dakira">Δακίρα</span> and Diacira.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Geo. Rawlinson’s <i>Herodotus</i>, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlinson; +J. P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (1897); H. V. Geere, <i>By Nile and +Euphrates</i> (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1544?-1605?), Spanish novelist +and poet, was born at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the 16th +century. He served in the campaign of 1569-1571 against the +Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed history of the city of Lorca +which remained unpublished till 1889. He owes his wide celebrity +to the <i>Historia de los bandos de Zegríes y Abencerrajes</i> (1595-1604), +better known as the <i>Guerras civiles de Granada</i>, which +purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original ascribed +to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage, +and the <i>Guerras de Granada</i> is in reality a historical novel, perhaps +the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical +novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which +led to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon +brilliancy, and Hita’s sympathetic transcription of life at the +Emir’s court has clearly suggested the conventional presentation +of the picturesque, chivalrous Moor in the pages of Mlle de +Scudéry, Mme de Lafayette, Châteaubriand and Washington +Irving. The second part is concerned with the author’s personal +experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though +Calderón’s play, <i>Amar después de la muerte</i>, is derived from it, the +second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first. +The exact date of Hita’s death is unknown. His blank verse +rendering of the <i>Crónica Troyana</i>, written in 1596, exists in +manuscript.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, EDWARD<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1793-1864), American geologist, +was born of poor parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the +24th of May 1793. He owed his education chiefly to his own +exertions, and was preparing himself to enter Harvard College +when he was compelled to interrupt his studies from a weakness +in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the academy of +his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order +to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821 +pastor of the Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he employed +his leisure in making a scientific survey of the western +counties of the state. From 1825 to 1845 he was professor of +chemistry and natural history, from 1845 to 1864 was professor of +natural theology and geology at Amherst College, and from 1845 +to 1854 was president; the college owed its early success largely +to his energetic efforts, especially during the period of his presidency. +In 1830 he was appointed state geologist of Massachusetts, +and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of the state of +New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from +Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College, +Vermont. Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and +botany, Hitchcock took an active interest in agriculture, and in +1850 he was sent by the Massachusetts legislature to examine +into the methods of the agricultural schools of Europe. In +geology he made a detailed examination and exposition of the +fossil footprints from the Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut +valley. His collection is preserved in the Hitchcock Ichnological +Museum of Amherst College, and a description of it was published +in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature on the +ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as +those of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook, +with the aid of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont, +which was completed in 1861. As a writer on geological science, +Hitchcock was largely concerned in determining the connexion +between it and religion, and employing its results to explain +and support what he regarded as the truths of revelation. He +died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Charles Henry Hitchcock</span> (1836-  ), did good +service in geology, in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and +other parts of America, and became professor of geology at Dartmouth +in 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are Edward Hitchcock’s principal works: <i>Geology +of the Connecticut Valley</i> (1823); <i>Catalogue of Plants growing without +cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst</i> (1829); <i>Reports on the Geology +of Massachusetts</i> (1833-1841); <i>Elementary Geology</i> (1840; ed. 2, +1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); <i>Fossil Footmarks +in the United States</i> (1848); <i>Outline of the Geology of the Globe and +of the United States in particular</i> (1853); <i>Illustrations of Surface +Geology</i> (1856); <i>Ichnology of New England</i> (1858); <i>The Religion of +Geology and its Connected Sciences</i> (1851; new ed., 1869); <i>Reminiscences +of Amherst College</i> (1863); and various papers in the <i>American +Journal of Science</i>, and other periodicals.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, GEORGE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1850-  ), American artist, was +born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from +Brown University in 1872 and from the law school of Harvard +University in 1874; then turned his attention to art and became +a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He attracted notice +in the Salon of 1885 with his “Tulip Growing,” a Dutch garden +which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at +Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the +Legion of Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy +of Arts, the Munich Secession Society, and other art bodies; and +is represented in the Dresden gallery; the imperial collection, +Vienna; the Chicago Art Institute, and the Detroit Museum of +Fine Arts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1817-1887), American +divine, was born at East Machias, Maine, on the 15th of August +1817, graduated at Amherst College in 1836, and later studied at +Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After a visit to Germany +he was a tutor at Amherst in 1839-1842, and was minister of the +First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1845-1852. +He became professor of natural and revealed religion in +Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855 +professor of church history in the Union Theological Seminary +in New York, of which he was president in 1880-1887. He died +at Somerset, Mass., on the 16th of June 1887.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his works are: <i>Life of Edward Robinson</i> (1863); <i>Socialism</i> +(1879); <i>Carmina Sanctorum</i> (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885); +and <i>Eternal Atonement</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITCHIN,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary +division of Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32 m. +N. from London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 10,072. It is the junction of the main line with +the Cambridge branch, and with a branch of the Midland railway +to Bedford. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, with a fine +porch, a painting of the Adoration of the Magi, attributed to +Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by Cromwell as a +prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments. +Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation +of the early 14th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later +in the same century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions +of the buildings appear in an existing block of almshouses. The +grammar school (1632) was reconstituted in 1889 for boys and +girls. Straw-plaiting, malting, brewing, and the cultivation and +distillation of lavender and peppermint are carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITTITES,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the +earlier records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names, +in Egyptian records of the XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties, +and in Assyrian from about 1100 to 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They appear also in +the Vannic cuneiform texts, and are believed to be the authors of +a class of monuments bearing inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic +character, and widely distributed over Asia Minor and +N. Syria, around which much controversy has raged during the +past thirty years.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Bible.</i>—In the Old Testament the name of the race is +written <i>Heth</i> (with initial aspirate), members of it being <i>Hitti</i>, +<i>Hittim</i>, which the Septuagint renders <span class="grk" title="chet">χέτ</span>, <span class="grk" title="chettaios">χετταῖος</span>, <span class="grk" title="chettein">χεττείν</span> or +<span class="grk" title="chetteim">χεττείμ</span>, keeping, it will be noted, ε in the stem throughout. The +race appears in two connexions, (<i>a</i>) In pre-Israelite Palestine, +it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3), and in the central +uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised “from the +wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the river +Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites.” The term “wilderness” +here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually +taken to mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land +before the coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel +(xvi. 3) to Jerusalem, “thy mother (was) an Hittite,” is quoted +in confirmation. Under the monarchy we hear frequently of +Hittites within the borders of Israel, but either as a small subject +people, coupled with other petty tribes, or as individuals in the +Jewish service (<i>e.g.</i> Uriah, in the time of David). It appears, +therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late times a detached +Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes +intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations +now amicable, now tyrannical (<i>e.g.</i> Hittites were made tributary +bondsmen by Solomon, 1 Kings ix. 20, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8). +(<i>b</i>) An independent and powerful Hittite people was domiciled +N. of Palestine proper, organized rather as a confederacy of tribes +than a single monarchy (1 Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presumably +it was a daughter of these Hittites that Solomon took to wife. +If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv. 64, “Tahtim-hodshi,” based on +the Septuagint version <span class="grk" title="gên chetteim kadês">γὴν χεττεὶμ καδής</span> be accepted, we hear of +them at Kadesh on Orontes; and some minor Hittite cities are +mentioned, <i>e.g.</i> Luz; but no one capital city of the race is clearly +indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates, though mentioned +three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi. 2), is not +connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not surprising, +since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the epoch +of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament +goes, therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable +people, widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some +extent assimilated by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter +portion was not much known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely +feared as a power in the early days of the monarchy, though not +in the later pre-Captivity period. The identification of the +northern and southern Hittites, however, presents certain +difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must +assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the +north and of a tribal population not confined to that country.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Egyptian Records.</i>—The decipherment of the inscriptions +of the XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the +19th century, to the discovery of the important part played in +the Syrian campaigns of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t<span class="su">8</span> +(vulgarly transliterated <i>Kheta</i>, though the vocalization is uncertain). +The coincidence of this name, beginning with an +aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with Heth. +That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of +the race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta +(“Great” and “Little”) in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh, +but at Carchemish, though they had not been in possession of the +latter place long (not in the epoch of Tethmosis I.’s Syrian +campaign). They were a power strong enough to give the +Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Ancient +History</i>, § “The New Empire”). Though he says he levied +tribute upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all +record fresh wars with the Kheta who appear as the northernmost +of Pharaoh’s enemies, and Amenophis or Amenhotep III. +saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian princess, who may or +may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some supposed to +have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which blossomed +in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the succeeding +dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called +Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by +Seti, the Kheta returned and were found holding Kadesh by +Rameses II., who, in his fifth year, there fought against them and +a large body of allies, drawn probably in part from beyond +Taurus, the battle which occasioned the monumental poem of +Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded in +Rameses’s twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and “Khetasar” +(<i>i.e.</i> Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy. +The discovery of a cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this +same treaty, in the Babylonian language, was reported from +Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H. Winckler in 1907. It argues +the Kheta a people of considerable civilization. The Kheta king +subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him his daughter to wife. +Rameses’ successor, Mineptah, remained on terms with the +Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the +latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on +Egypt which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this +point (<i>c.</i> 1150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)—the point at which (roughly) the monarchic +history of Israel in Palestine opens—Egyptian records cease to +mention Kheta; and as we know from other sources that the +latter continued powerful in Carchemish for some centuries to +come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite state interposed +an effective political barrier.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Assyrian Records.</i>—In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I. +(about 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), first deciphered in 1857, a people called <i>Khatti</i> +is mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (<i>i.e.</i> +Carchemish); and in other records of the same monarch, subsequently +read, much mention is made of this and of other N. +Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in the inscriptions of +Assur-nazir-pal (early 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in whose time Carchemish +was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far +over N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II. +(d. 825 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) raided the Khatti and their allies year after year; +and at last Sargon III., in 717 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, relates that he captured +Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and put an end to its independence. +We hear no more of it thenceforward. These <i>Khatti</i>, +there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with <i>Kheta</i>. (For the +chronology see further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and Assyria</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>4. <i>Other Cuneiform Records.</i>—The name of the race appears in +certain of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Babylonian +script to Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892 +on the site of his capital. Some of his governors in Syrian +districts (<i>e.g.</i> one Aziru of Phoenicia) report movements of the +Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive policy (about +1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). There are also other letters from rulers of principalities +in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who +write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been +Hittites.</p> + +<p>Certain <i>Khatē</i> or <i>Khati</i> are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions +(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +kings of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle +Euphrates N. of Taurus in the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This name +again may safely be identified with <i>Khatti-Kheta</i>.</p> + +<p>The Khatti also appear on a “prophecy-tablet,” referring +ostensibly to the time of Sargon of Agadé (middle of 4th +millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but the document is probably of very +much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary chronicle of the 1st +Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by them +about 1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>From all these various sources we should gather that the +Hittites were among the more important racial elements in N. +Syria and S.E. Asia Minor for at least a thousand years. The +limits at each end, however, are very ill defined, the superior +falling not later than 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and the inferior not earlier than +600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This people was militant, aggressive and unsettled in +the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and enervated +in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia +in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records +the <i>maneh</i> “of Carchemish.” These Hittites had close relations +with other Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy. +During the later part of their history they were in continual +contact with Assyria, and, as a Syrian power, and perhaps also +as a Cappadocian one, they finally succumbed to Assyrian +pressure.</p> + +<p><i>The “Hittite” Monuments.</i>—It remains to consider in the light +of the foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention +began to be called about 1870. In that year two Americans, +Consul J. A. Johnson and the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at +Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five basaltic blocks bearing +pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of which had been reported +by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their efforts and +subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard +Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be +obtained; and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to +W. Wright of Beirut, casts were taken and the stones themselves +sent to Constantinople by Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually +happens when a new class of antiquities is announced, it was soon +found that the “Hamathite” inscriptions did not stand alone. +A monument in the same script had been seen in Aleppo by +Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still exists, built +into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain clay +sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H. +Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh), +as long ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a “doubtful character,” +were compared by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite +class. A new copy of the long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in +S.W. Cappadocia was published by E. J. Davis in 1876, and +clearly showed Hamathite characters accompanying the figures. +Davis also reported, but did not see, a similar inscription at Bulgar +Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W. Skene and George +Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to excavations +being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and to +the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying +sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct +of these excavations, owing to the death of George Smith, +devolved on Consul Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satisfactorily +carried out. Meanwhile Wright, Ward and Sayce had +all suggested “Hittite” as a substitute for “Hamathite,” +because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in ancient +records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find +acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Carchemish +(but without positive proof to this day), and the occurrence +of Hamathite monuments there was held to confirm the +Hittite theory.</p> + +<p>In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain +Hittite signs and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote +syllabary, and suggested that the comparison might lead to a +beginning of decipherment; but the hope has proved vain. To +this scholar, however, is owed the next great step ahead. In +1879 it first occurred to him to compare the rock-monuments +at Boghaz Keui (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia, +discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently +explored by G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now +saw, bore Hittite pictographs. Other rock-sculptures at Giaur +Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel pass near Smyrna, he +suspected of belonging to the same class<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>; and visiting the +last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite pictographs +accompanying one of the two figures.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He announced his discoveries +in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite +empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the +dead. A month later he had the good fortune to recover copies +of a silver boss, or hilt-top, offered to various museums about +1860, but rejected by them as a meaningless forgery and for a +long time lost again to sight. Round the rim was a cuneiform +legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with six Hittite symbols +engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading the cuneiform +as <i>Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme</i> (<i>i.e.</i> “T. king of the country E.”), +Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the syllables +of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters, +reserving two as “ideograms” of “king” and “country,” +and launched into the field of decipherment. But he subsequently +recognized that this was a false start, and began afresh +from another basis. Since then a number of other monuments +have been found, some on new sites, others on sites already +known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen +by reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed +that, so far as at present known, they cluster most closely in +Commagene, Cappadocia and S. Phrygia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following notes supplement the map:—</p> + +<p>A. <span class="sc">West Asia Minor.</span>—“<i>Niobe</i>” (<i>Suratlu Tash</i>) and <i>Karabel</i> +(two); rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief. +Remains of buildings, not yet explored, lie near the “Niobe” figure. +Nothing purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian +excavation; but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna +and Aidin.</p> + +<p>B. <span class="sc">Phrygia.</span>—<i>Giaur-Kalessi</i>; rock-cut figures and remains of a +stronghold, but no inscriptions. <i>Doghanlüdere</i> and <i>Beikeui</i> in the +Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured +rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment +of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. <i>Kolitolu +Yaila</i>, near Ilghin; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from mounds +apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. <i>Eflatun Bunar</i> +(= Plato’s Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building with rude +and greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription. +Fassiler, W. of Konia; gigantic <i>stela</i>, or composite statue (figure +on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. <i>Konia</i>; relief of +warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful +Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford, +was bought there in 1903. <i>Emirghazi</i> (anc. <i>Ardistama</i>?); three +inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently +an important Hittite site. <i>Kara-Dagh</i>; hill-sanctuary with incised +carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell +and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their <i>Thousand and One Churches</i>, +1909).</p> + +<p>C. <span class="sc">North Cappadocia.</span>—<i>Boghaz Keui</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>); large city with +remains of palace, citadel, walls, &c. Long rock-cut inscription of +ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and +also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language, +first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of +Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the +site are the rock reliefs of <i>Yasili Kaya</i> in two hypaethral galleries, +showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures +meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of +figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description <i>Murray’s +Guide to Asia Minor</i>, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany +many of the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group +of Hittite remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly +explored until 1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been +superficial only and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight. +In 1906 a German expedition under Professor H. Winckler undertook +the work, and great numbers of cuneiform tablets were found. +These refer to the reigns of at least four kings from Subbiluliuma +(= Saplel, see above) to Hattusil II. or Khartusil (= Khetasar, see +above). The latter was an ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +and powerful enough to write to the Babylonian court as a sovereign +of equal standing. His letter shows that he considered the rise of +Assyria a menace to himself. Winckler claims to read <i>Hatti</i> as the +name of the possessors of Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name +the proof of the Hittite character of Syro-Cappadocian power and +of the imperial predominance of the city. But it remains to be +proved whether these tablets were written there, and not rather, +being in a foreign script, abroad, like most of the Tell el-Amarna +archives. O. Puchstein has cleared and studied important architectural +remains. <i>Euyuk</i>; large mound with remains of palace +entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but no Hittite +inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in a +native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character +and language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs +is here—a double-headed eagle “displayed” on the flank of one of +the gateway sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the +Seljuks of Konia their heraldic device adopted in the 13th century, +which, brought to Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem +of Teutonic empire in 1345. This derivation must be taken, however, +<i>cum grano</i>, proof of its successive steps being wanting. Kara-Euyuk; +a mound near Dedik, partially excavated by E. Chantre +in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small objects possibly, but not +certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was found on a deserted site +near <i>Yamuli</i> on the middle Halys, in 1907 by W. Attmore Robinson.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:578px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img536.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>D. <span class="sc">South Cappadocia.</span>—<i>Karaburna</i>; long, incised rock-inscription. +<i>Bogja</i>, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided <i>stela</i> with incised +inscription. <i>Assarjik</i>, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised rock-inscription. +<i>Ekrek</i>; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an +incised inscription on a <i>stela</i> of very late appearance. <i>Fraktin</i> +or <i>Farakdin</i> (probably anc. <i>Das-tarkon</i>); sculptured rock-panel +showing two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in +relief. <i>Arslan Tash</i>, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan +Dagh; two colossal lions, one with incised inscription. <i>Tashji</i> +in the Zamanti valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription. +<i>Andaval</i> and <i>Bor</i>; inscriptions incised on sculptured <i>stelae</i> of kings (?), +probably from Tyana (<i>Ekuzli Hissar</i>). All are now in Constantinople. +A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also +from Bor. <i>Nigdeh</i>; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription. +<i>Ivriz</i>; rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions +in relief. A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and +much defaced, was found hard by in 1906. <i>Bulgar Maden</i>; long +incised rock inscription, near silver-mines. <i>Gorun</i> (Gurun); two +rock-inscriptions in relief, much damaged. <i>Arslan-Tepe</i>, near +Ordasu (two hours from Malatia); large mound whence two sculptured +<i>stelae</i> or wall-blocks with inscriptions in relief have been +unearthed (now in Constantinople and the Louvre). Four other +reliefs, reported found near Malatia and published by J. Garstang +in <i>Annals Arch. and Anthrop.</i>, 1908, probably came also from Arslan +Tepe. <i>Palanga</i>; lower aniconic half of draped statue with incised +inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a small basalt lion. <i>Arslan +Tash</i>, near Palanga; two rude gateway lions, uninscribed. <i>Yapalak</i>; +defaced inscription, reported by J. S. Sterrett but never copied. +<i>Izgin</i>; obelisk with long inscription in relief on all four faces, now +in Constantinople. These last four places seem to lie on a main +road leading from Cappadocia to Marash and the Syrian sites. +The expedition sent out by Cornell University in 1907 found +several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near <i>Darende</i> in the valley of +the Tokhma Su.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">E. North Syria.</span>—<i>Marash</i>; several monuments (<i>stelae</i>, wall-blocks +and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are +now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America); evidently one +of the most important of Hittite sites. <i>Karaburshlu</i>, <i>Arbistan</i>, +<i>Gerchin</i>, <i>Sinjerli</i>; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su. +The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein’s notice in 1882 +by the chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Constantinople, +was the scene of extensive German excavations in +1893-1894, directed by F. v. Luschan and K. Koldewey, and was +found to cover a walled town with central fortified palace. Hittite, +cuneiform and old Aramaean monuments were found with many +small objects, most of which have been taken to Berlin; but no +Hittite inscriptions came to light. <i>Sakchegeuzu</i> (Sakchegözu), a +site with several mounds between Sinjerli and Aintab; series of +reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin and Constantinople. This +site is in process of excavation by Professor J. Garstang of the +University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has come to light in +the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery, with incised +and painted decoration, has been recovered. <i>Aintab</i>; fragment +of relief inscription. <i>Samsat</i> (Samosata); sculptured stela with +incised inscription much defaced. <i>Jerablus</i>; see above. Several +Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably +came from Jerablus, others from <i>Tell Bashar</i> on the Sajur. <i>Kellekli</i>, +near Jerablus; two <i>stelae</i>, one with relief inscription. <i>Iskanderun</i> +(Alexandretta); source of a long inscription cut on both sides of +a spheroidal object of unknown origin. <i>Kirchoglu</i>, a site on the +Afrin, whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription +was sent to Berlin. <i>Aleppo</i>; inscription in relief (see above). <i>Tell +Ahmar</i> (on left bank of Euphrates); large <i>stela</i> with sculpture and +long relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs +and two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south, +a lion and a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by +Miss G. L. Bell. <i>Tell Halaf</i> in Mid-Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain; +sculptures on portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +and large mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. <i>Hamah</i>; five +blocks inscribed in relief (see above).</p> + +<p>F. <span class="sc">Outlying Sites.</span>—<i>Erzerum</i>; source of an incised inscription, +perhaps not originally found there. <i>Kedabeg</i>; metal boss or hilt-top +with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be +Hittite, but doubtful. <i>Toprak Kaleh</i>; bronze fragments with two +pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. <i>Nineveh</i>; sealings, see above. +Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised inscriptions; +doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria. +The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the <i>stela</i> on the back.</p> + +<p>(For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &c., with +the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the bibliography.)</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Structures.</i>—The structural remains found as yet on Hittite +sites are few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (<i>a</i>) +Ground plans of a palatial building and three temples and +fortifications with sculptured gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace +was built round a central court, flanked by passages and entered +by a doorway of three <i>battants</i> hung on two columns. The +whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to those +of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough +core of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The +fortifications of the citadel have an elaborate double gate +with flanking towers, (<i>b</i>) Fortifications, palace, &c., at Sinjerli. +The gates here are more elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but +planned with the same idea—that of entrapping in an enclosed +space, barred by a second door, an enemy who may have forced +the first door, while flanking towers would add to his discomfiture. +The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central +pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui. +The massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of +relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems +to have been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous +kind, and accounts for most of the sculptured blocks that have +been found, <i>e.g.</i> at Jerablus, Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe, +&c. Columns, probably of wood, rested on bases carved as +winged lions, (<i>c</i>) Gate with sculptured approach at Euyuk. +The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as +that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never +properly uncovered or planned, (<i>d</i>) Sculptured porticoes of +temples or palaces uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf +(see above). On other sites, <i>e.g.</i> Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan, +Marash (above the modern town and near the springs), Beikeui, +mounds, doubtless covering structures, may be seen, and +sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably +Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No +tombs certainly Hittite have been found,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> though it is possible +that some of the reliefs (<i>e.g.</i> at Fraktin) are of funerary character.</p> + +<p><i>Sculptures and other Objects of Art.</i>—The sculptures hitherto +found consist of reliefs on rocks and on <i>stelae</i>, either honorific +or funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and +a few figures more or less in the round, though most of these +(<i>e.g.</i> the sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and +Marash) are not completely disengaged from the block. The +most considerable sculptured rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui +(see Pteria); the others (Ivriz, Fraktin, Karabel, Giaur Kalessi, +Doghanlüdere), it should be observed, all lie N. of Taurus—a +fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local +domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be +otherwise than <i>in situ</i>. Sculptured <i>stelae</i>, honorific or funerary, +all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing +a single regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light +at Bor, Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &c. These, like +most of the rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompanying +pictographic inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom inscribed, +the exceptions (<i>e.g.</i> the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain +blocks from Marash and Jerablus) being not more certainly +wall-dados than <i>stelae</i>. The only fairly complete anthropoid +statue known is the much-defaced “Niobe” at Suratlu Tash, +engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an +inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and +parts of others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable +differences in execution and details, all these sculptures show +one general type of art, a type which recalls now Babylonian, +now Assyrian, now Egyptian, now archaic Ionian, style, but is +always individual and easily distinguishable from the actual +products of those peoples. The figures, whether of men or beasts, +are of a squat, heavy order, with internal features (<i>e.g.</i> bones, +muscles, &c.) shown as if external, as in some Mesopotamian +sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic, +with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one +line with the sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Commagene +and the Tyana districts, the nose has a long curving tip, +of very Jewish appearance, but not unlike the outline given to +Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes. The lips are full and the +chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy is fleshy and +markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz +Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly +non-Semitic. But not much stress can be laid on these differences +owing to (1) great variety of execution in different sculptures, +which argues artists of very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether +individual portraits are intended in some cases and not in others. +The hair of males is sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail. +The fashions of head-covering and clothes are very various, +but several of them—<i>e.g.</i> the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the +conical hat at Boghaz Keui, Fraktin, &c; the “jockey-cap” +on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered over-robe, and the +upturned shoes—are not found on other Asiatic monuments, +except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are +represented more naturalistically than human beings, <i>e.g.</i> at +Yasili Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in +relief (<i>e.g.</i> at Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to +Mesopotamian and Egyptian, and perhaps to all primitive art.</p> + +<p>The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and +divine (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice +or adoration, or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin, +Ivriz, and perhaps the figures seated beside tables at Marash +Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &c.); of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sakchegeuzu); +but not, as known at present, of battle. Both at +Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same series are +widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some +showing the utmost <i>naïveté</i>, others expressing both outline and +motion with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing +hasty inductions as to relative dates from style and execution.</p> + +<p>Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art-products include +a few small objects in metal (<i>e.g.</i> heavy, inscribed gold ring +bought by Sir W. M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, supported +on three lions’ claws, bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor; +inscribed silver boss of “Tarkudimme,” mentioned above, +&c. &c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in steatite), +mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few scarabaeoid, +conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic symbols, +sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection +is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship, +bodies and limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or +unfilled outlines; a few vessels (<i>e.g.</i> inscribed basalt bowl found +at Babylon) and fragments of ware painted with dark ornament +on light body-clay, or in polychrome on a cream-white slip, or +black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian sites, &c. The +bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on the +Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappadocia +(see E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i>). A great many +small objects were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including +carved ivories, seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &c., but +these have not been published. Nor, except provisionally, has +the pottery, found at Sakchegeuzu.</p> + +<p><i>Inscriptions.</i>—These, now almost sixty in number (excluding +seals), are all in a pictographic character which employed +symbols somewhat elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to +conventional and “shorthand” representations in the incised +texts. So far, the majority of our Hittite inscriptions, like those +first found at Hamah, are in relief (cameo); but the incised +characters, first observed in the Tyana district, have since been +shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &c., to have had a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised +inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later +date than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions, +wherein both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to +very early times, suggests that this assumption is not necessarily +correct. The Hittite symbols at present known show about +two hundred varieties; but new inscriptions continually add +to the list, and great uncertainty remains as to the distinction +of many symbols (<i>i.e.</i> whether mere variants or not), and as +to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts. The +objects represented by these symbols have been certainly +identified in only a few instances. A certain number are heads +(human and animal) detached from bodies, in a manner not +known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic system, with which some +of the other symbols show obvious analogies. Articles of dress, +weapons, tools, &c., also appear. The longer inscriptions are +disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by lines, and, it +seems, they were to be read <i>boustrophedon</i>, not only as regards +the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which are +written in columnar fashion, syllable <i>below</i> syllable, and read +downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is +towards any faces which may be shown among the pictographs. +The words are perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation +marks.</p> + +<p>Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this +script, ever since it was first restored to our knowledge; and +among the would-be decipherers honourable mention must be +made, for persistence and courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and +of Professor P. Jensen. Other interpretations have been put +forward by F. E. Peiser (based on conjectures as to the names +on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder (based largely on Cypriote +comparisons and phonetic values transferred from these) and +C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian and +Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the +Hittite monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary +and inadequate foundations, and for other reasons, have not been +accepted. F. Hommel, J. Halévy and J. Menant have done +useful work in distinguishing word-groups, and have essayed +partial interpretations. No other decipherers call for mention. +A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have enlisted any large body +of adherents; and the former, who has worked upon his +system for thirty years and published in the <i>Proceedings of the +Society for Biblical Archaeology</i> for 1907 a summary of his +method and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan. +His system, however, like all others, is built in the main upon +hypotheses incapable at present of quite satisfactory verification, +such, for example, as the conjectural reading “Gargamish” +for a group of symbols which recurs in inscriptions from Jerablus +and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the other obvious elements +of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the location of +Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very probable. +Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with the +place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce’s +system. Jensen’s system may be said to have been effectually +demolished by L. Messerschmidt in his <i>Bemerkungen</i> (1898); +but Sayce’s system, which has been approved by Hommel and +others, is probably in its main lines correct. Its frequent +explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by the doctrines +of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative values +of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic +complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in +the process of “verification,” do not inspire confidence in +other than its broader results. Sayce’s phonetic values and +interpretations of determinatives are his best assured achievements. +But the words thus arrived at represent a language +on which other known tongues throw little or no light, and +their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some significant +cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give striking +confirmation of Sayce’s conjectures.</p> + +<p>Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection +of Hittite texts up to date, made a <i>tabula rasa</i> of all systems of +decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred—the +bisected oval, determinative of divinity—had been interpreted +with any certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled +with the steady refusal of historians to apply the results of any +Hittite decipherment, and the obvious lack of satisfactory +verification, without which the piling of hypothesis on hypothesis +may only lead further from probability, there is no choice but +to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the inscriptions +and all deductions drawn from them.</p> + +<p><i>Are the Monuments Hittite?</i>—It is time to ask this question, +although a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected +when the inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost +all “Hittitologues” assume a connexion between the monuments +and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites, but in various degrees; +<i>e.g.</i> while Sayce has said roundly that common sense demands +the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who were the +dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at +one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has +stated with equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only +one people out of many<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared +a common civilization, and that therefore they were authors of a +part of the monuments only—presumably the N. Syrian, Commagenian +and Cataonian groups. O. Puchstein<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> has denied to +the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments, holding these of +too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies) for the +flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian +and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh +(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the +strongest opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly +right as regards the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which +are of provincial appearance. The following considerations, however, +may be stated in favour of the ascription of the monuments +to the Hittites:—</p> + +<p>(1) The monuments in question are found frequently whereever, +from other records, we know the Hittites to have been +domiciled at some period, <i>i.e.</i> throughout N. Syria and in +Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti that Carchemish was a +flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be really Carchemish, +it is significant that apparently the most numerous +and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all +the early peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from +Egyptian and Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear +frequently as leading to war peoples from far beyond Taurus. +(4) The Kheta certainly had a system of writing and a glyptic art +in the time of Rameses II., or else the Egyptian account of their +copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The physiognomy +given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly representative +of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially +deciphered as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that +whether Boghaz Keui was actually the capital of the Hatti or +not, it was a great city of the Hatti, and that the latter were +an important element in Cappadocia from very early times. +Before the middle of the 16th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Cappadocian +Hatti were already in relations, generally more or less hostile, +with a rival power in Syria, that of Mitanni; and Subbiluliuma +(= Saplel or Saparura), king of these Hatti, a contemporary of +Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting +dominion in Syria by subduing Dushratta of Mitanni. Carchemish +thenceforward became a Hatti city and the southern +capital of Cappadocian power. Since all the Syrian monuments +of the Hittite class, so far known, seem comparatively late +(most show such strong Assyrian, influence that they must fall +after 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and probably even considerably later), while the +North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and +others saw long ago) are the earlier in style, we are bound to +ascribe the origin of the civilization which they represent to the +Cappadocian Hatti.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span></p> + +<p>Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while +independent, and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti, +cannot be determined at present. Winckler has adduced +evidence from names of local gods to show that there was an +Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for a +similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The +majority of scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as, +at any rate, non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have +called them proto-Armenian, and believed that they have +modern descendants in the Caucasus. This racial question can +hardly be determined till those Hatti records, whether in cuneiform +or pictographic script, which are couched in a native +tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have +proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the +significant indication that the Hittite nominative ended in <i>s</i> and +the accusative in <i>m</i>. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with +the peculiar class of monuments which we have been describing, +can hardly be further questioned; and it has become more than +probable that the Hatti of Cappadocia were responsible in the +beginning for the art and script of those monuments and for the +civilization of which they are memorials. Other peoples of +north Syria and Asia Minor (<i>e.g.</i> the Kummukh or Commagenians +and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the +influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while +subject to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and +Lydia (q.v.) influences of this same Cappadocian civilization +passed towards the west; and indeed, before the Greek colonization +of Asia Minor, a loosely knit Hatti empire may have +stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi (Kara Bel) and +Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of that +extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have +kept Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast +during the Bronze Age, and that power was in all likelihood the +Hatti kingdom of Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian +aggression, this power seems to have begun to suffer decay about +1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and thereafter to have shrunk inwards, leaving the +coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose successively +out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage to +influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times. +The Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with +Hatti power obscured from their view by the intermediate and +secondary state of Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the +latter as the seat of the oldest and most godlike of mankind. +Only one Greek author, Herodotus, alludes to the pre-historic +Cappadocian power and only at the latest moment of its long +decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends seem to +show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early contact, +had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon +stories, whose local range was very extensive, and the myths of +Memnon and Pelops. The real reference of these stories, however, +was forgotten, and it has been reserved to our own generation +to rediscover the records of a power and a civilization which once +dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and occupied all the +continental roads of communication between the East and the +West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first +to divine this importance of the Hittites should always be +ascribed to Sayce.</p> + +<p>The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would +appear to have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an +ethnic scattered widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at +an early period (Khatti invaded Akkad about 1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in the +reign of Samsuditana); but they first formed a strong state +in Cappadocia late in the 16th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subbiluliuma +became their first great king, though he had at least one dynastic +predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed +southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and +proceeded partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both +north Syria and western Mesopotamia where some of their +congeners were already settled. They came early into collision +with Egypt, and at the height of their power under Hattusil II. +fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II., on at least equal +terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic correspondence +of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms of +practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian +courts; and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly +with the Amorite tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or +confederacy probably included, on the west, both Phrygia and +Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence ceases to be important +with the generation following Hattusil II., and in the Assyrian +records, which begin about a couple of centuries later, we find +Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the Hatti-land. +It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre +took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north +Syria. If so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to +be sought among the remains at Jerablus and other middle +Euphratean sites, rather than in those at Boghaz Keui. The +establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not only made them +a commercial people and probably sapped their highland vigour, +but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North +Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded +with apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his +successors, Arnaunta (late 13th century?), was already feeling +the effect of Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath +Pileser I., about a century later, a long but often interrupted +series of Assyrian efforts to break up the Hatti power began. +A succession of Ninevite armies raided north Syria and even +south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced the Hatti. But +the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged. They +remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor +till well into the first millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and their Syrian seat was +not lost finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power +which took place in the latter part of the 9th century. What +had been happening to their Cappadocian province meanwhile +we do not yet know; but the presence of Phrygian inscriptions +at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of their power, suggests +that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley shook itself +free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with Assyria, +and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over +the home territory of its former suzerain. “White Syrians,” +however, were still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians +had destroyed the Phrygian monarchy, allowing Lydia to become +independent under the Mermnad dynasty. Croesus found them +centred at Pteria in the 6th century and dealt them a final +blow. But much of their secular or religious custom lived on +to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern +scholars as typically “Anatolian.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<b>General summaries:</b> L. Messerschmidt, <i>The +Hittites</i> (“Ancient East” series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, <i>The +Hittites</i> (“Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge” series, xii., 2nd ed. +1892); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, +Syria and Asia Minor</i> (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere, +<i>De la race et de la langue des Hétéens</i> (1891); P. Jensen, <i>Hittiter und +Armenier</i> (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht, +<i>Exploration in Bible Lands</i> (1903); W. Wright, <i>Empire of the +Hittites</i> (1884); F. Hommel, <i>Hettiter und Skythen</i> (1898); D. G. +Hogarth, <i>Ionia and the East</i> (1909); W. Max Müller, <i>Asien und +Europa</i>, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and +Assyrian history.</p> + +<p><b>Inscriptions:</b> L. Messerschmidt, “Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum,” +<i>Zeitsch. d. d. morgenländ. Gesellschaft</i> (1900, 1902, 1906, &c.), and +“Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften,” <i>Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. +Gesellschaft</i> (1898); P. Jensen, “Grundlagen für eine Entzifferung +der (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften,” <i>Zeitschr. d. d. morgenländ. +Gesellschaft</i> (1894); F. E. Peiser, <i>Die Hettitischen Inschriften</i> (1892); +A. H. Sayce, “Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions,” <i>Proc. +Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology</i> (1903), and “Hittite Inscriptions, translated +and annotated,” ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, “Études +Hétéennes,” <i>Recueil de travaux rel. à la philologie, &c.</i>, and <i>Mém. de +l’Acad. Inscr.</i>, vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Halévy in <i>Revue sémitique</i>, +vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and others +in <i>Proc.</i> and <i>Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch.</i> since 1876, and in <i>Recueil de +travaux, &c.</i>, since its beginning.</p> + +<p><b>Exploration:</b> G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, <i>Exploration arch. de +la Galatie</i>, &c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i> +(1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, “Syro-Cappadocian Monuments,” in +<i>Athen. Mitteilungen</i> (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, “Pre-Hellenic +Monuments of Cappadocia,” in <i>Recueil de travaux</i>, &c. (1892-1895); +and with Miss Gertrude Bell, <i>The Thousand and One Churches</i> (1909); +C. Humann and O. Puchstein, <i>Reisen in Nord-Syrien</i>, &c. (1890). +J. Garstang in <i>Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology</i>, i. (1908) +and following numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in <i>Berl.</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +<i>Philol. Wochenschrift</i> (1891), pp. 803, 951; and F. von Luschan, +and others, “Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli” in <i>Mitteil. Orient-Sammlungen</i> +(Berlin Museum, 1893 ff.); and on excavations at +Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in <i>Orient. Literaturzeitung</i> (Berlin, 1907); +<i>Mitteil. Orient-Gesellschaft</i> (Dec. 1907). See also <i>s.v.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the 17th century; +first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first published +in 1840 in Ritter’s <i>Erdkunde</i>, iii., after a drawing by Major Fischer, +made in 1837.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The “Niobe” statue near Manisa was not definitely known for +“Hittite” till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The “pseudo-Sesostres” of Herodotus, already demonstrated +non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till +found by Dr Beddoe in 1856.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether +of the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many +peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti; and the most we can +infer from these records is that there was an occasional league formed +under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a continuous +federation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst</i> (Berlin, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1792-1867), French architect, +was born at Cologne on the 20th of August 1792. After serving +an apprenticeship to a mason in his native town, he went in +1810 to Paris, and studied for some years at the Academy +of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of Bélanger, +the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his +principal inspector. Succeeding Bélanger as government architect +in 1818, he designed many important public and private +buildings in Paris and also in the south of France. From 1819 +to 1830 in collaboration with le Cointe he directed the royal +fêtes and ceremonials. After making architectural tours in +Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published the result +of his observations in the latter country in the work <i>Architecture +antique de la Sicile</i> (3 vols., 1826-1830; new edition, 1866-1867), +and also in <i>Architecture moderne de la Sicile</i> (1826-1835). One +of his important discoveries was that colour had been made +use of in ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially +discussed in <i>Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs</i> (1830) and in +<i>Restitution du temple d’Empédocle à Sélinunte</i> (1851); and in +accordance with the doctrines enunciated in these works he +was in the habit of making colour an important feature in most +of his architectural designs. His principal building is the church +of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style, which was constructed +between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two fountains +in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the +Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafés and restaurants of the +Champs Elysées, the houses forming the circle round the Arc +de Triomphe de l’Étoile, besides many embellishments of the +Bois de Boulogne and other places. In 1833 he was elected a +member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He died in Paris on the +25th of March 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITZACKER,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Hanover at the influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E. +of Lüneburg by the railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106. +It has an Evangelical church and an old castle and numerous +medieval remains. There are chalybeate springs and a hydropathic +establishment in the town. The famous library now in +Wolfenbüttel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke +of Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation +in 1643.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HITZIG, FERDINAND<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1807-1875), German biblical critic, +was born at Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor, +on the 23rd of June 1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg +under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius and +at Göttingen under Ewald. Returning to Heidelberg he became +<i>Privatdozent</i> in theology in 1829, and in 1831 published his +<i>Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testamente praktisch erörtert</i>, a +study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the +critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his +<i>Des Propheten Jonas Orakel über Moab</i>, an exposition of the +15th and 16th chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him +to the prophet Jonah mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833 +he was called to the university of Zürich as professor ordinarius +of theology. His next work was a commentary on Isaiah with +a translation (<i>Übersetzung u. Auslegung des Propheten Jesajas</i>), +which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which Hermann +Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the +Psalms (1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work. +At Zürich he laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during +which, besides commentaries on <i>The Psalms</i> (1835-1836; 2nd +ed., 1863-1865), <i>The Minor Prophets</i> (1838; 3rd ed., 1863), +<i>Jeremiah</i> (1841; 2nd ed., 1866), <i>Ezekiel</i> (1847), <i>Daniel</i> (1850), +<i>Ecclesiastes</i> (1847), <i>Canticles</i> (1855), and <i>Proverbs</i> (1858), he +published a monograph, <i>Über Johannes Markus u. seine Schriften</i> +(1843), in which he maintained the chronological priority of the +second gospel, and sought to prove that the Apocalypse was +written by the same author. He also published various treatises +of archaeological interest, of which the most important are +<i>Die Erfindung des Alphabets</i> (1840), <i>Urgeschichte u. Mythologie +der Philistäer</i> (1845), and <i>Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar</i>(1855). +After the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the +founders of the well-known <i>Studien und Kritiken</i>, he was called +in 1861 to succeed him as professor of theology at Heidelberg. +Here he wrote his <i>Geschichte des Volkes Israel</i> (1869-1870), in +two parts, extending respectively to the end of the Persian +domination and to the fall of Masada, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 72, as well as a work +on the Pauline epistles, <i>Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe</i> (1870), +on the Moabite Stone, <i>Die Inschrift des Mescha</i> (1870), and on +Assyrian, <i>Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens</i> (1871), besides revising +the commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which +was first published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the +<i>Monatsschrift des wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zürich</i>, the +<i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, the +<i>Theologische Studien u. Kritiken</i>, Eduard Zeller’s <i>Theologische +Jahrbücher</i>, and Adolf Hilgenfeld’s <i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche +Theologie</i>. Hitzig died at Heidelberg on the 22nd of +January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank; +and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and +sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations +have been considered fanciful. “He places the cradle of the +Israelites in the south of Arabia, and, like many other critics, +makes the historical times begin only with Moses” (F. Lichtenberger, +<i>History of German Theology</i>, p. 569).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His lectures on biblical theology (<i>Vorlesungen über biblische +Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen</i>) were published in 1880 +after his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by +his pupil, J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidelberg. +See Heinrich Steiner, <i>Ferdinand Hitzig</i> (1882); and Adolf +Kamphausen’s article in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIUNG-NU,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hiong-nu</span>, <span class="sc">Heung-nu</span>, a people who about +the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> formed, according to Chinese +records, a powerful empire from the Great Wall of China to the +Caspian. Their ethnical affinities have been much discussed; +but it is most probable that they were of the Turki stock, as were +the Huns, their later western representatives. They are the +first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which +seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a +heterogenous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps +even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste, though the +Mongolo-Tungus element probably predominated. Towards the +close of the 1st century of the Christian era the Hiung-nu empire +broke up. Their subsequent history is obscure. Some of them +seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural river. +These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and +many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of +the modern Turks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i> for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth, +<i>History of the Mongols</i> (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists, +Leiden, 1883 (<i>Actes</i>, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, <i>Histoire +générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares +occidentaux</i> (1756-1758).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HIVITES,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the +invading Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected +with Gibeon. The meaning of the name is uncertain; Wellhausen +derives it from <span title="Hava">חוה</span> “Eve,” or “serpent,” in which +case the Hivites were originally the snake clan; others explain +it from the Arabic <i>hayy</i>, “family,” as meaning “dwellers in +(Bedouin) encampments.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HJÖRRING,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the <i>amt</i> +(county) of its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula +of Jutland. Pop. (1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore +of Jammer Bay, a stretch of coast notoriously dangerous to +shipping. On the coast is Lönstrup, a favoured seaside resort. +In this neighbourhood as well as to the south-east of Hjörring, +slight elevations are seen, deserving the name of hills in this +low-lying district. Hjörring is on the northern railway of +Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of +Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HKAMTI LÔNG<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor +Hkampti by the peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span> +Shan states subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the +administrative border. Estimated area, 900 sq. m.; estimated +pop. 11,000. It lies between 27° and 28° N. and 97° and 98° E., +and is bordered by the Mishmi country on the N., by the Patkai +range on the W., by the Hukawng valley on the S. and E., and +indeed all round by various Chingpaw or Kachin communities. +The country is little known. It was visited by T. T. Cooper, the +Chinese traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was +murdered; by General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in +1884, by Mr Errol Grey in the following year, and by Prince +Henry of Orleans in 1895. All of these, however, limited their +explorations to the valley of the Mali-hka, the western branch of +the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has shrunk very much from its old +size. It was no doubt the northernmost province of the Shan +kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam Lōng-hpa, the brother of +the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its greatest +extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the +north has now completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry +of Orleans described it as “a splendid territory, fertile in soil and +abundant in water, where tropical and temperate culture flourish +side by side, and the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by +mountains.” According to him the Kiutze, the people of the +hills between the Irrawaddy and the Salween, call it the kingdom +of Moam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HLOTHHERE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht +in 673, and appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his +nephew Eadric, son of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was +issued under both names. Neither is mentioned in the account of +the invasion of Æthelred in 676. In 685 Eadric, who seems to +have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into exile and led the +South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and died of +his wounds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. eccl.</i> (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; <i>Saxon +Chronicle</i> (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, <i>Gesetze</i>, pp. 10 +sqq.; Thorpe, <i>Ancient Laws</i>, i. 26 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOACTZIN,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hoatzin</span>, a bird of tropical South America, +thought by Buffon to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fernandez +under these names, the <i>Opisthocomus hoazin</i> or <i>O. cristatus</i> +of modern ornithologists—a very curious and remarkable form, +which has long exercised the ingenuity of classifiers. Placed by +Buffon among his “<i>Hoccos</i>” (Curassows), and then by P. L. S. +Müller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus <i>Phasianus</i>, some of +its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W. Illiger in 1811 +as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus, <i>Opisthocomus</i>; but +various positions were assigned to it by subsequent systematic +authors. L’Herminier was the first to give any account of its +anatomy (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our +knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes +Müller (<i>Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin</i>, 1841, p. 177), Deville (<i>Rev. +et mag. de zoologie</i>, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, <i>Expéd. +Amérique du Sud, zoologie, anatomie</i>, p. 66), Huxley (<i>Proc. Zool. +Society</i>, 1868, p. 304), Perrin (<i>Trans. Zool. Society</i>, ix. p. +353), and A. H. Garrod (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1879, p. 109). After +a minute description of the skeleton of <i>Opisthocomus</i>, with the +especial object of determining its affinities, Huxley declared that +it “resembles the ordinary gallinaceous birds and pigeons more +than it does any others, and that when it diverges from them it is +either sui generis or approaches the <i>Musophagidae</i>.” He accordingly +regarded it as the type and sole member of a group, +named by him <i>Heteromorphae</i>, which sprang from the great +Carinate stem later than the <i>Tinamomorphae</i>, <i>Turnicomorphae</i>, +or <i>Charadriomorphae</i>, but before the <i>Peristeromorphae</i>, <i>Pteroclomorphae</i> +or <i>Alectoromorphae</i>. This conclusion is substantially +the same as that at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived +after closely examining and dissecting specimens preserved in +spirit; but the latter has gone further and endeavoured to trace +more particularly the descent of this peculiar form and some +others, remarking that the ancestor of <i>Opisthocomus</i> must have +left the parent stem very shortly before the true <i>Gallinae</i> first +appeared, and at about the same time as the independent pedigree +of the <i>Cuculidae</i> and <i>Musophagidae</i> commenced—these two +groups being, he believed, very closely related, and <i>Opisthocomus</i> +serving to fill the gap between them.</p> + +<p>The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the +extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly +unlike that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed +on the posterior part of the sternum—the fore part being, as it +were, cut away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets +the manubrium, with which it is firmly consolidated by means of +a prolonged and straight hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies +with the coracoids. This unique arrangement seems to be +correlated with the enormously capacious crop, which rests upon +the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also received in +a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral +muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as +more to resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided +by a partial constriction, after a fashion of which no other +example is known among birds. The true gizzard is greatly +reduced.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:408px" src="images/img541.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hoactzin.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant, +but is really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously +denticulated along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and +is beset by diverging bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle +of a patch of bare skin, are furnished with bristly lashes, resembling +those of horn-bills and some few other birds. The +head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish feathers. +The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and beneath +is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail +is long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the +feet stout, the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the +claws long and slightly curved. According to all who have +observed the habits of this bird, it lives in bands on the lower +trees and bushes bordering the streams and lagoons, feeding on +leaves and various wild fruits, especially, says H. W. Bates +(<i>Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>, i. 120), those of a species +of <i>Psidium</i>, and it is also credited with eating those of an arum +(<i>Caladium arborescens</i>), which grows plentifully in its haunts. +“Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss,” continues the same traveller, +and “it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals +sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when disturbed +by passing canoes.” It exhales a very strong odour—wherefore +it is known in British Guiana as the “stink-bird”—compared +by Bates to “musk combined with wet hides,” and +by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is said to be +polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above +one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays +her eggs to the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white, +somewhat profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots, +so as to resemble those of some of the <i>Rallidae</i> (<i>Proc. Zool. +Society</i>, 1867, pl. xv. fig. 7. p. 164). The young are covered +only with very scanty hair, like down, and have well-developed +claws on the first and second fingers of the wing, which they use +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; if +placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults +seem to be not at all aquatic.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOADLY, BENJAMIN<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1676-1761), English divine, was born +at Westerham, Kent, on the 14th of November 1676. In 1691 +he entered Catharine Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. +and was for two years tutor, after which he held from 1701 to +1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the Poultry, and along with +it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer, London. His first +important appearance as a controversialist was against Edmund +Calamy “the younger” in reference to conformity (1703-1707), +and after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury, +first on the interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole +Anglican doctrine of non-resistance. His principal treatises +on this subject were the <i>Measures of Submission to the Civil +Magistrate</i> and <i>The Origin and Institution of Civil Government +discussed</i>; and his part in the discussion was so much appreciated +by the Commons that in 1709 they presented an address to the +queen praying her to “bestow some dignity in the church on +Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and state.” +The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was +not conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron +to the rectory of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed +chaplain to the king, and the same year he obtained the bishopric +of Bangor. He held the see for six years, but never visited the +diocese. In 1716, in reply to George Hickes (q.v.), he published a +<i>Preservative against the Principles and Practices of Nonjurors +in Church and State</i>, and in the following year preached before +the king his famous sermon on the <i>Kingdom of Christ</i>, which +was immediately published by royal command. These works +were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the clergy, +but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with the +power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical +ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious +history. It was at once resolved to proceed against him in +convocation, but this was prevented by the king proroguing +the assembly, a step which had consequences of vital bearing +on the history of the Church of England, since from that period +the great Anglican council ceased to transact business of a more +than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the council +in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets +known as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a +want of clearness in the statements of Hoadly, partly from the +disingenuousness of his opponents and the confusion resulting +from exasperated feelings, developed into an intricate and +bewildering maze of side discussions in which the main issues +of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the possibility +of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the +meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings +of the questions around which he aroused discussion, he was +explicit in denying the power of the Church over the conscience, +and its right to determine the condition of men in relation to +the favour of God. The most able of his opponents was William +Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of Eton, and Thomas +Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind of +the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many +as seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one +period the crisis became so serious that the business of London +was for some days virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not +unskilled in the art of flattery, was translated in 1721 to the +see of Hereford, in 1723 to Salisbury and in 1734 to Winchester. +He died at his palace at Chelsea on the 17th of April +1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if prolix and his +theological essays have little merit. He must have been a +much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high +church party and his rationalism the other sections. He was +an intimate friend of Dr Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote +a life.</p> + +<p>Hoadly’s brother, <span class="sc">John Hoadly</span> (1678-1746), was archbishop +of Dublin from 1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from +the latter date until his death on the 19th of July 1746. In early +life the archbishop was very intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then +bishop of Salisbury, and in later life he was a prominent figure +in Irish politics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by +his son John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the +article “Hoadly” from the supplement to the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>. +See also L. Stephen, <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOAR, SAMUEL<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1778—1856), American lawyer, was born in +Lincoln, Massachusetts, on the 18th of May 1778. He was the +son of Samuel Hoar, an officer in the American army during the +War of Independence, for many years a member of the Massachusetts +General Court, and a member in 1820-1821 of the state +Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at Harvard in +1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began +practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate, +and for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of +Massachusetts. He was in early life a Federalist and was later +an ardent Whig in politics. He was a member of the state +senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833, and of the national house of +representatives in 1835-1837, during which time he made a +notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of congress +to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November +1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before, +he went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George +Nixon Briggs (1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina +the constitutionality of the state law which provided that “it +shall not be lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to +come into this state on board any vessel, as a cook, steward +or mariner, or in any other employment,” and that such free +negroes should be seized and locked up until the vessels on which +they had come were ready for sea, when they should be returned +to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment, he was +threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed +resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to +leave early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free +Soil movement in Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted +in the organization of the Republican Party. In 1850 he served +in the Massachusetts house of representatives. He married +a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut. He died at +Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in <i>Memorial Biographies of +the New England Historic Genealogical Society</i>, vol. iii. (Boston, +1883); the estimate by R. W. Emerson in <i>Lectures and Biographical +Sketches</i> (Boston, 1903); and “Samuel Hoar’s Expulsion from +Charleston,” <i>Old South Leaflets</i>, vol. vi. No. 140.</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar</span> (1816-1895), was born +at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 21st of February 1816. He +graduated at Harvard in 1835 and at the Harvard Law School +in 1839, and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1840. +From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the Massachusetts court +of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the state supreme +court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United States +in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought +unmerited “machine” appointments to offices in the civil +service until at the pressure of the “machine” Grant asked for +his resignation from the cabinet. The Senate had already +shown its disapproval of Hoar’s policy of civil service reform +by its failure in 1870 to confirm the President’s nomination of +Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme court. In 1871 he was +a member of the Joint High Commission which drew up the +Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector +on the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative +in Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of +Harvard University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887, +and was president of the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887. +He was also prominent in the affairs of the Unitarian church. +He was a man of high character and brilliant wit. He died at +Concord on the 31st of January 1895.</p> + +<p>Another son, <span class="sc">George Frisbie Hoar</span> (1826-1904), was born +in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He +graduated at Harvard in 1846 and at the Harvard Law School in +1849. He settled in the practice of law in Worcester, Massachusetts, +where in 1852 he became a partner of Emory Washburn +(1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> +Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single +term of service became the leader of his party in that body. He +was active in the organization of the Republican party in Massachusetts, +and in 1857 was elected to the State senate, but declined +a re-election. During 1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the +Free-State cause in Kansas. He was a member of the National +House of Representatives from 1869 until 1877, and in this body +took high rank as a ready debater and a conscientious committee +worker. He was prominent as a defender and supporter of the +Freedman’s Bureau, took a leading part in the later reconstruction +legislation and in the investigation of the Crédit Mobilier scandal, +and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the impeachment +of General W. W. Belknap, Grant’s secretary of war. In 1877 +he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the +disputed Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he +was a member of the United States senate. In the senate almost +from the start he took rank as one of the most influential leaders +of the Republican party; he was a member from 1882 until +his death of the important Judiciary Committee, of which he was +chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most important +piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of 1886. +He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from +1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He +was a conservative by birth and training, and although he did not +leave his party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the +Philippines, and spoke and voted against the ratification of the +Spanish Treaty. He was regent of the Smithsonian Institution in +1880-1881, and long served as an overseer of Harvard University +(1896-1904) and as president of its alumni association. He was +also president of the American Historical Association (1894-1895) +and of the American Antiquarian Society (1884-1887). +Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was president +of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at +Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 30th of September 1904. A +memorial statue has been erected there.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Recollections of Seventy Years</i> (New York, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1758-1838), English +antiquary, was the eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created +a baronet in 1786, and was born on the 9th of December 1758. +He was descended from Sir Richard Hoare (1648-1718), lord +mayor of London, the founder of the family banking business. +An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare, +enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he +had already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester, +daughter of William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death +in 1785 he paid a prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzerland. +He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made +a second continental tour, the record of his travels appearing in +1819 under the title <i>A Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily</i>. +A journey through Wales was followed by a translation of the +<i>Itinerarium Cambriae</i> and of the <i>Descriptio Cambriae of</i> Giraldus +Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of Giraldus to the +translation. This was first published in 1804, and has been +revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at +Stourhead, Wiltshire, on the 19th of May 1838, being succeeded +in the baronetcy by his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare. +Hoare’s most important work was his <i>Ancient History of North +and South Wiltshire</i> (1812-1819); he also did some work on the +large <i>History of Modern Wiltshire</i> (1822-1844).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were +printed privately, see the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> for July 1838, and +the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, <i>History +of the Hoare Family</i> (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1844-1899), Vice-President +of the United States 1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J., +on the 3rd of June 1844. He graduated at Rutgers College in +1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869, practised law at Paterson, +N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He was long conspicuous +in the State Republican organization, was chairman of +the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to +1890, became a member in 1884 of the Republican National +Committee, and was the delegate-at-large from New Jersey to +five successive Republican national nominating conventions. +He served in the New Jersey Assembly in 1873-1874, and in the +New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of the Assembly +in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He was +also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a +large fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President +in 1896, on the ticket with President McKinley, and was elected; +but while still in office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 21st of +November 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life</i> (New York, 1910) by David Magie.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBART, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1775-1830), American Protestant +Episcopal bishop, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the +14th of September 1775, being fifth in direct descent from +Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham, Massachusetts. He +was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the College of +Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and Princeton, +where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under +Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in +1798, and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop +of New York, with the right of succession, in 1811, and was acting +diocesan from that date because of the ill-health of Bishop Benjamin +Moore, whom he formally succeeded on the latter’s death +in February 1816. He was one of the founders of the General +Theological Seminary, became its professor of pastoral theology +in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his zeal for the historic +episcopacy he published in 1807 <i>An Apology for Apostolic +Order and its Advocates</i>, a series of letters to Rev. John M. Mason, +who, in <i>The Christian’s Magazine</i>, of which he was editor, had +attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart’s +<i>Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy</i> (1806). Hobart’s +zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led +him to oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for +an Episcopal seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary +was made directly responsible to the House of Bishops, and +Hobart approved the plan. His strong opposition to “dissenting +churches” was nowhere so clearly shown as in a pamphlet +published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from joining the +American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant +Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength +to control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the +Bible Society and especially of Scott’s <i>Commentaries</i>, he began +to edit with selected notes the <i>Family Bible</i> of the Society for +Promoting Christian Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges +to the clergy of Connecticut and New York entitled <i>The Churchman</i> +(1819) and <i>The High Churchman Vindicated</i> (1826), in +which he accepted the name “high churchman,” and stated and +explained his principles “in distinction from the corruptions of +the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant +Sects.” He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese, +attempting to make an annual visit to every parish. His failing +health led him to visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he +preached a characteristic sermon entitled <i>The United States of +America compared with some European Countries, particularly +England</i> (published 1826), in which, although there was some +praise for the English church, he so boldly criticized the establishment, +state patronage, cabinet appointment of bishops, lax +discipline, and the low requirements of theological education, as +to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been highly +praised for two volumes of <i>Sermons on the Principal Events and +Truths of Redemption</i> (1824). He died at Auburn, New York, on +the 12th of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank, +perfectly fearless in controversy, a speaker and preacher of much +eloquence, a supporter of missions to the Oneida Indians in his +diocese, and the compiler of the following devotional works: +<i>A Companion for the Altar</i> (1804), <i>Festivals and Fasts</i> (1804), +<i>A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer</i> (1805), and <i>A +Clergyman’s Companion</i> (1805).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memorial of Bishop Hobart</i>, containing a <i>Memoir</i> (New York, +1831); John McVickar, <i>The Early Life and Professional Years of +Bishop Hobart</i> (New York, 1834), and <i>The Closing Years of Bishop +Hobart</i> (New York, 1836).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBART PASHA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden</span> +(1822-1886), English naval captain and Turkish admiral, was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +born in Leicestershire on the 1st of April 1822, being the third +son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In 1835 he entered +the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast of +Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much +gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain +of the “Driver,” in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively +engaged at Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the +navy with the rank of post-captain; but his love of adventure +led him, during the American Civil War, to take the command +of a blockade-runner. He had the good fortune to run the +blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to Charleston +and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered +the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the +command of that fleet, with the rank of “Bahrie Limassi” +(rear-admiral). In this capacity he performed splendid service +in helping to suppress the insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded +by the Sultan with the title of Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart, +whose name had, on representations made by Greece, been +removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his +restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of +the Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In +command of the Turkish squadron he completely dominated +the Black Sea, blockading the ports of South Russia and the +mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the action of the Russian +fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still remained in the +Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or marshal, +being the first Christian to hold that high office. His achievements +as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his +handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts +of Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful +commander, worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of +British naval heroes. He died at Milan on the 19th of June +1886.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Sketches of My Life</i> (1886), which must, however, be used +with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBART,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Buckingham, +on the southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of +great beauty, standing on a series of low hills at the foot of +Mount Wellington, a lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad +for many months in the year. The town fronts Sullivan’s Cove, +a picturesque bay opening into the estuary of the river Derwent, +and is nearly square in form, laid out with wide streets intersecting +at right angles, the chief of which are served by electric tramways. +It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Tasmania, and of the +Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican cathedral +of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid +as early as 1817. St Mary’s Roman Catholic cathedral is a +beautiful building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical +building in Hobart is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper +Elizabeth Street. The most prominent public buildings are the +Houses of Parliament, to which an excellent library is attached; +the town hall, a beautiful building of brown and white Tasmanian +freestone in Italian style; the museum and national art gallery, +and the general post office (1904) with its lofty clock-tower. +Government House, the residence of the governor of Tasmania, +a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the +banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical +gardens adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most +extensive is the Queen’s Domain, covering an area of about +700 acres, while the most central is Franklin Square, adorned +with a statue of Sir John Franklin, the famous Arctic explorer, +who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to 1843. The university +of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in 1893, +has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its +invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent +attracts numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access, +well sheltered and deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels +of the largest tonnage. It is a regular port of call for several +intercolonial lines from Sydney and Melbourne, and for lines +from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an average +value of £850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops, grain, +timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling, +iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of +pottery and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large +fruit-growing district, the produce of which, for the most part, +is exported to London and Sydney. The city was founded in +1804 and takes its name from Lord Hobart (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buckinghamshire, +Earls of</a></span>), then secretary of state for the colonies. +It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and +in 1881 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present +form. The chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington, +Risdon, Glenorchy, Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the +city proper in 1901 was 24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1638-1709), the greatest landscape +painter of the Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at +Amsterdam in the second half of the 17th century. The facts +of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is more disappointing +than to find that in Hobbema’s case chronology and signed +pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the +latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the +former his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709. +If the masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called +“A Wooded Stream,” honestly bears the date of 1650, or “The +Cottages under Trees” of the Ford collection the date of 1652, +the painter of these canvases cannot be Hobbema, whose birth +took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that Hobbema +painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or fourteen. +For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas +as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably +erased from several of his productions. When Hobbema’s +talent was recognized, the contrary process was followed, and +in this way the name, and perhaps fictitious dates, reappeared +by fraud. An experienced eye will note the differences which +occur in Hobbema’s signatures in such well-known examples as +adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the Grosvenor +and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content +to know that, if the question of dates could be brought into +accordance with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema’s +life would be as follows.</p> + +<p>Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to +Eeltije Vinck of Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at +Amsterdam, on the 2nd of November 1668. Witnesses to the +marriage were the bride’s brother Cornelius Vinck and Jacob +Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that Hobbema and +Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at +this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the +former was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us, +since records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels, +cousins and contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of +the 17th century—one a framemaker, the son of Solomon, the +other a painter, the son of Isaac Ruysdael. Of Hobbema’s +marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four children. In +1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of the +Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived +till December 1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month +in the pauper section of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam. +Husband and wife had lived during their lifetime in the Rozengracht, +at no great distance from Rembrandt, who also dwelt +there in his later and impoverished days. Rembrandt, Hals, +Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike. They +all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their +toil, imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from +their labours. Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and +Ruysdael together represent the final development of landscape +art in Holland. Their style is so related that we cannot suppose +the first to have been unconnected with the second. Still their +works differ in certain ways, and their character is generally +so marked that we shall find little difficulty in distinguishing +them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of Hobbema +from the feebler productions of his imitators and predecessors—Isaac +Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten, Verboom, +du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk. +In the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all +conception. It is doubtful whether any one ever so completely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +mastered as he did the still life of woods and hedges, or mills +and pools. Nor can we believe that he obtained this mastery +otherwise than by constantly dwelling in the same neighbourhood, +say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian border, where day +after day he might study the branching and foliage of trees and +underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety +of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced +by the seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and moderately +toned, generally in an olive key, and often attuned +to a puritanical grey or russet, they surprise us, not only by +the variety of their leafage, but by the finish of their detail as +well as the boldness of their touch. With astonishing subtlety +light is shown penetrating cloud, and illuminating, sometimes +transiently, sometimes steadily, different portions of the ground, +shining through leaves upon other leaves, and multiplying in +an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the chance +be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a +cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream +that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with +several pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities +of charming our eye; and this wonderful artist, who is only +second to Ruysdael because he had not Ruysdael’s versatility +and did not extend his study equally to downs and rocky +eminences, or torrents and estuaries—this is the man who lived +penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals +of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint +his own figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de +Velde, Lingelbach, Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to +this much is conjecture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best of Hobbema’s dated pictures are those of the years 1663 +to 1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St +Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated. +Of 1665 fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace +collection. Of seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the +“Avenue at Middelharnis,” which some assign to 1689, and the +“Ruins of Breberode Castle,” two are dated 1667. A sample of the +last of these years is also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. +Amongst the masterpieces in private hands in England may be +noticed two landscapes in Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater +House, and one belonging to Mr Walter of Bearwood. On the +continent are a “Wooded Landscape” in the Berlin gallery, a +“Forest” belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris, and a “Glade” +in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the Antwerp +Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at +Vienna.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBBES, THOMAS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1588-1679), English philosopher, second +son of Thomas Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of +Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the 5th of April 1588. His father, +vicar of Charlton and Westport, an illiterate and choleric man, +quarrelled, it is said, with a brother clergyman at the church door, +and was forced to decamp, leaving his three children to the care +of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing glover at Malmesbury. +Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church at the age +of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was +taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a +young man named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and “a +good Grecian.” He had begun Latin and Greek early, and under +Latimer made such progress as to be able to translate the <i>Medea</i> +of Euripides into Latin iambic verse before he was fourteen. +About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford and entered at +Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal of +Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson, +who ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university. +Thus early was he brought into contact with the aggressive +Puritan spirit. Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his university +training, which was based on the scholastic logic then +prevalent. We have from himself a lively record of his student +life (<i>Vit. carm. exp.</i> p. lxxxv.), which, though penned in extreme +old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells how, when he had +slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and moods, he put +it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how he +then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as +throwing off species of themselves for perception, and as moved +by sympathies and antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all +beyond his comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his +old books again, fed his mind on maps and charts of earth and +sky, traced the sun in his path, followed Drake and Cavendish +girdling the main, and gazed with delight upon pictured haunts of +men and wonders of unknown lands. Very characteristic is the +interest in men and things, and the disposition to cut through +questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his own. +He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it +would be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious +insight into its weakness. The truth probably is that he took no +interest in studies which there was no risk in neglecting, and +thought as little of rejecting as of accepting the traditional +doctrines. He adds that he took his degree at the proper time; +but in fact, upon any computation and from whatever cause, he +remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of the required four, +years, not being admitted as bachelor till the 5th of February +1608.</p> + +<p>In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as +tutor to the son of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (afterwards +2nd earl of Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong connexion +with a great and powerful family. Twice it was loosened—once, +for a short time, after twenty years, and again, for a +longer period, during the Civil War—but it never was broken. +Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as the happiest of +his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than Hobbes, and +had been married, a few months before, at the instance of the +king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of +Kinloss, though by reason of the bride’s age, which was only +twelve years, the pair had no establishment for some time. +Hobbes was his companion rather than tutor (before becoming +secretary); and, growing greatly attached to each other, they +were sent abroad together on the grand tour in 1610. During +this journey, the duration of which cannot be precisely stated, +Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian, and +also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy +which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected +in favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler +and Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar +ideas, he determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was +engaged in a careful study of Greek and Latin authors, the outcome +of which was his great translation of Thucydides. But +<span class="sidenote">Translation of Thucydides.</span> +when he had finished his work he kept it lying by him +for years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative +readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was +fain to be content with “the few and better sort.”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +That he was finally determined to publication by the political +troubles of the year 1628 may be regarded as certain, not only +from his own express declaration at a later time (<i>Vit. carm. exp.</i>), +but also from unmistakable hints in the account of the life and +work of his author prefixed to the translation on its appearance. +This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted from the king +in the third parliament he had tried within three years of his +accession; and, in view of Hobbes’s later activity, it is significant +that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty, with +his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first +production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span> +before 1628, except that through his connexion with young +Cavendish he had relations with literary men of note like Ben +Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord Herbert of Cherbury. If +he never had any sympathy with Herbert’s intuitionalist principles +in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he afterwards showed, than +Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious doctrine, so that he +may be called the second of the English deists, as Herbert has +been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate (Aubrey’s +<i>Lives</i>, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as a +disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorhambury, +and would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager +thinker’s sudden “notions,” and that he was employed to make +the Latin version of some of the <i>Essays</i>, prove nothing when +weighed against his own disregard of all Bacon’s principles, and +the other evidence that the impulse to independent thinking +came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time after Bacon’s +death in 1626.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the +year 1629 that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Meanwhile +a great change had been wrought in his circumstances. +His friend and master, after about two years’ +<span class="sidenote">Philosophic Inquiry.</span> +tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague +in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so +disordered financially that the widowed countess was left with the +task of righting them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes +went on for a time living in the household; but his services were +no longer in demand, and, remaining inconsolable under his +personal bereavement, he sought distraction, in 1629, in another +engagement which took him abroad as tutor to the son of Sir +Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire family. This, his +second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent chiefly in +Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he then +first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end +in 1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devonshire, +now thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the +course of the next seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes +took his pupil over rhetoric,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> logic, astronomy, and the principles +of law, with other subjects. His mind was now full of the thought +of motion in nature, and on the continent he sought out the +philosophical speculators or scientific workers. In Florence in +1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever retained the warmest +admiration, and spent eight months in daily converse with the +members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together by Marin +Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he +too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629 +(Aubrey’s <i>Lives</i>, p. 604). Euclid’s manner of proof became the +model for his own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less +easy to determine when he awoke to an interest in the physical +doctrine of motion. The story told by himself (<i>Vit.</i> p. xx.) is that, +hearing the question asked “What is sense?” he fell to thinking +often on the subject, till it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies +and their internal parts were at rest, or were always in the same +state of motion, there could be no distinction of anything, and +consequently no sense; the cause of all things must therefore be +sought in diversity of movements. Starting from this principle +he was driven to geometry for insight into the ground and modes +of motion. The biographies we possess do not tell us where or +when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing is said, +however, which contradicts a statement that on his third journey +in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more seriously, +being interested in it before; and as he claims more than once +(<i>L.W.</i> v. 303; <i>E.W.</i> vii. 468) to have explained light and sound by +a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration may +be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till +the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering +passion, and the “philosopher” was on his way home before he +had advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought +to the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted.</p> + +<p>Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or +more from the time of its conception, but the execution was so +broken in upon by political events, and so complicated with other +labours, that its stages can hardly be followed without some previous +understanding of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there +is reason to believe they were sketched out from the beginning. +His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise <i>De corpore</i>, +a systematic doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena +were universally explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical +action was then (through Galileo and others) understood—the +theory of motion being applied in the light of mathematical science, +after quantity, the subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly +considered in its place among the fundamental conceptions of +philosophy, and a clear indication had been given, at first starting, +of the logical ground and method of all philosophical inquiry. He +would then single out Man from the realm of nature, and, in a +treatise <i>De homine</i>, show what specific bodily motions were involved +in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation +and knowledge, as also of the affections and passions thence resulting, +whereby man came into relation with man. Finally he would consider, +in a crowning treatise <i>De cive</i>, how men, being naturally +rivals or foes, were moved to enter into the better relation of Society, +and demonstrate how this grand product of human wit must be +regulated if men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. +Thus he proposed to unite in one coherent whole the separate +phenomena of Body, Man and the State.</p> +</div> + +<p>Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with discontent. +The reign of “Thorough” was collapsing, and the +forces pent up since 1629 were soon to rend the fabric of the +state. By these events Hobbes was distracted from the orderly +execution of his philosophic plan. The Short Parliament, as +he tells us at a later time (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 414), was not dissolved +before he had ready “a little treatise in English,” in which he +sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which +the members were determined to dispute before granting supplies +“were inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did +not then deny to be in the king.” Now it can be proved that +at this time he had written not only his <i>Human Nature</i> but also +his <i>De corpore politico</i>, the two treatises (though published +separately ten years later) having been composed as parts of +one work;<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and there cannot be the least question that together +they make “the little treatise” just mentioned. We are therefore +to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his +political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil +War, and, secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in +accordance with his philosophical conception, he had established +the grounds of polity in human nature. The first point is to +be noted, because it has often been supposed that Hobbes’s +political doctrine took its peculiar complexion from his revulsion +against the state of anarchy before his eyes, as he wrote during +the progress of the Civil War. The second point must be maintained +against his own implied, if not express, statement some +years later, when publishing his <i>De cive</i> (<i>L.W.</i> ii. 151), that +he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able +to set down any finished representation of the fundamental +doctrines which it presupposed. In the beginning of 1640, +therefore, he had written out his doctrine of Man at least, with +almost as much elaboration as it ever received from him.</p> + +<p>In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the +Short, and sent Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes, +who had become, or thought he had become, a marked +man by the circulation of his treatise (of which, +<span class="sidenote">In Paris.</span> +“though not printed, many gentlemen had copies”), hastened +to Paris, “the first of all that fled.” He was now for the fourth +and last time abroad, and did not return for eleven years. +Apparently he remained the greater part of the time in or about +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +Paris. He was welcomed back into the scientific coterie about +Mersenne, and forthwith had the task assigned him of criticizing +the <i>Meditations</i> of Descartes, which had been sent from Holland, +before publication, to Mersenne with the author’s request for +criticism from the most different points of view. Hobbes was +soon ready with the remarks that were printed as “Third” +among the six (later seven) sets of “Objections” appended, +with “Replies” from Descartes, to the <i>Meditations</i>, when +published shortly afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in <i>L.W.</i> v. +249-274). About the same time also Mersenne sent to Descartes, +as if they came from a friend in England, another set of objections +which Hobbes had to offer on various points in the scientific +treatises, especially the <i>Dioptrics</i>, appended by Descartes to +his <i>Discourse on Method</i> in 1637; to which Descartes replied +without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets. +The result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring +them together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his +own philosophical and physical ideas than careful to enter into +the full meaning of another’s thought; and Descartes was too +jealous, and too confident in his conclusions to bear with this +kind of criticism. He was very curt in his replies to Hobbes’s +philosophical objections, and broke off all correspondence on +the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne that he +had grave doubts of the Englishman’s good faith in drawing +him into controversy (<i>L.W.</i> v. 277-307).</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political +theory which the events of the last years had ripened within +him to settle, even in Paris, to the orderly composition of his +works. Though connected in his own mind with his view of +human nature and of nature generally, the political theory, +as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also, while he +may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he +never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained +in the unpublished “little treatise,” he might extend, but could +hardly otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his +carefully articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed, +before that sketch was written early in 1640, he may, under +pressure of the political excitement, have advanced no small +way in the actual composition of the treatise <i>De Cive</i>, the third +section of his projected system. In any case, it was upon this +section, before the others, that he set to work in Paris; and +before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date +of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was +forthwith printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content +to circulate a limited number of copies privately<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a>; and when +he found his work received with applause (it was praised even +by Descartes), he seems to have taken this recognition of his +philosophical achievement as an additional reason for deferring +publication till the earlier works of the system were completed. +Accordingly, for the next three or four years, he remained +steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in public +except a short treatise on optics (<i>Tractatus opticus, L.W.</i> v. +217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published +by Mersenne under the title <i>Cogitata physico-mathematica</i> +in 1644, and a highly compressed statement of his psychological +application of the doctrine of motion (<i>L.W.</i> v. 309-318), +incorporated with Mersenne’s <i>Ballistica</i>, published in the same +year. Thus or otherwise he had become sufficiently known by +1645 to be chosen as a referee, with Descartes, Roberval and +others, in the famous controversy between John Pell (q.v.) and +the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the squaring +of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal charm +for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all +or most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body, +not even now was he able to make way with its composition, +and when he returned to it after a number of years, he returned +a different man.</p> + +<p>The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist +cause began to decline from the time of the defeat at Marston +Moor, in the middle of 1644. Then commenced an exodus of +the king’s friends. Newcastle himself, who was a cousin of +Hobbes’s late patron and to whom he dedicated the “little +treatise” of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed +by a stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes. +The sight of these exiles made the political interest once more +predominant in Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling +issued in the formation of a new and important design. It first +showed itself in the publication of the <i>De cive</i>, of which the +fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond the inner circle +of friends and critics who had copies of the original impression. +Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the +Frenchman Samuel de Sorbière, by whom it was seen through +the Elzevir press at Amsterdam in 1647—having previously +inserted a number of notes in reply to objections, and also a +striking preface, in the course of which he explained its relation +to the other parts of the system not yet forthcoming, and the +(political) occasion of its having been composed and being +now published before them.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> So hopeless, meanwhile, was he +growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year, +he was on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the +south with a French friend,<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> when he was engaged “by the +month” as mathematical instructor to the young prince of Wales, +who had come over from Jersey about the month of July. This +<span class="sidenote">Leviathan.</span> +engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to 1648 when +Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than +ever into the company of the exiled royalists, it was then, +if not earlier, that he conceived his new design of bringing +all his powers of thought and expression to bear upon the +production of an English book that should set forth his whole +theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis +resulting from the war. The <i>De cive</i>, presently to be published, +was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political +theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished +treatise of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell +concerning human nature, but was written before the terrible +events of the last years had disclosed how men might still be +urged by their anti-social passions back into the abyss of anarchy. +There was need of an exposition at once comprehensive, incisive +and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be +regarded as a great artificial man or monster (<i>Leviathan</i>), composed +of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation +through human reason under pressure of human needs to its +dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions. +This, we may suppose, was the presiding conception from the +first, but the design may have been variously modified in the +three or four years of its execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651, +it is plain that he wrote in direct reference to the greatly changed +aspect of affairs in England. The king being dead, and the +royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly lost, he did not scruple, +in closing the work with a general “Review and Conclusion,” +to raise the question of the subject’s right to change allegiance +when a former sovereign’s power to protect was irrecoverably +gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth +to indulge much more freely than he might have otherwise +dared in rationalistic criticism of religious doctrines; while, +amid the turmoil of sects, he could the more forcibly urge that +the preservation of social order, when again firmly restored, +must depend on the assumption by the civil power of the right +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span> +to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural, against +the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or Presbyterian, +to the exercise of an <i>imperium in imperio</i>.</p> + +<p>We know the <i>Leviathan</i> only as it finally emerged from Hobbes’s +pen. During the years of its composition he remained in or near +Paris, at first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he +became a great favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by +a serious illness which disabled him for six months. Mersenne +begged him not to die outside the Roman Catholic Church, but +Hobbes said that he had already considered the matter sufficiently +and afterwards took the sacrament according to the rites of the +Church of England. On recovering from this illness, which nearly +proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily +forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the +same time translated into English, with characteristic force of +expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known +(from one or two letters) of his life in those years is that from +the year 1648 he had begun to think of returning home; he was +then sixty and might well be weary of exile. When 1650 +came, as if to prepare the way for the reception of his <i>magnum +opus</i>, he allowed the publication of his earliest treatise, divided +into two separate small volumes (<i>Human Nature, or the Fundamental +Elements of Policy, E.W.</i> iv. 1-76, and <i>De Corpore +Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic</i>, pp. 77-228).<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +In 1651<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> he published his translation of the De Cive under the +title of <i>Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and +Society</i> (<i>E.W.</i> ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater +work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle +of the same year, 1651, under the title of <i>Leviathan, or the Matter, +Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil</i> +(<i>E.W.</i> iii.), with a quaint frontispiece in which, from behind +hills overlooking a fair landscape of town and country, there +towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned giant, made +up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier +in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more +lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the +first effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with +the exiled royalist party, and to throw him for protection on +the revolutionary Government. No sooner did copies of the +book reach Paris than he found himself shunned by his former +associates, and though he was himself so little conscious of +disloyalty that he was forward to present a manuscript copy +“engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand”<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> to the young +king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped +to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal +presence when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway, +then, he saw himself exposed to a double peril. The exiles had +among them desperadoes who could slay; and, besides exciting +the enmity of the Anglican clergy about the king, who bitterly +resented the secularist spirit of his book, he had compromised +himself with the French authorities by his elaborate attack on +the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left +him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in +the depths of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent +(second) illness, he managed to reach London, where, sending +in his submission to the council of state, he was allowed to subside +into private life.</p> + +<p>Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years’ absence, +without having as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the +natural philosophers of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of +what he had been able to achieve in <i>Leviathan</i>; and it was +<span class="sidenote">Return to London.</span> +in no humble mood that he now, at the age of sixty-four, turned +to complete the fundamental treatise of his philosophical +system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon +roused to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to +indignation, were likely to be indifferent to anything +he should now write, whether it lay near to or far from +the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane, +London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake +of intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the +earl of Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> +he worked so steadily as to be printing the <i>De corpore</i> in the year +1654. Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept +the book back till the following year, and meanwhile the readers +of <i>Leviathan</i> had a different excitement. In 1654 a small +treatise, “Of Liberty and Necessity” (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 229-278), +<span class="sidenote">Controversy with Bramhall.</span> +issued from the press, claiming to be an answer to +a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall +of Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh, +d. 1663), addressed by Hobbes to the marquis of +Newcastle.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It had grown out of an oral discussion between +Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis’s presence at Paris in +1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down +his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this +form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication, +because he thought the subject a delicate one. But it happened +that Hobbes had allowed a French acquaintance to have a +private translation of his reply made by a young Englishman, +who secretly took a copy of the original for himself; and now it +was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had +become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion, +with an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its +front. Upon Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise, +but, after his plain speaking in <i>Leviathan</i>, there was nothing +in the piece that he need scruple to have made known, and he +seems to have condoned the act. On the other hand, Bramhall, +supposing Hobbes privy to the publication, resented the manner +of it, especially as no mention was made of his rejoinder. Accordingly, +in 1655, he printed everything that had passed between +them (under the title of <i>A Defence of the True Liberty of Human +Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity</i>), with loud +complaint against the treatment he had received, and the promise +added that, in default of others, he himself would stand forward +to expose the deadly principles of <i>Leviathan</i>. About this time +Hobbes had begun to be hard pressed by other foes, and, being +never more sure of himself than upon the question of the will, +he appears to have welcomed the opportunity thus given him +of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his <i>Questions +concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance</i> (<i>E.W.</i> v.), in which +he replied with astonishing force to the bishop’s rejoinder point +by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances +of the whole debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done) +all the pieces from the beginning. As perhaps the first clear +exposition and defence of the <i>psychological</i> doctrine of determinism, +Hobbes’s own two pieces must ever retain a classical +importance in the history of the free-will controversy; while +Bramhall’s are still worth study as specimens of scholastic +fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge +in 1658 with ponderous <i>Castigations of Mr Hobbes’s Animadversions</i>, +and also made good his previous threat in a bulky +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span> +appendix <i>entitled The Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale</i>. +Hobbes never took any notice of the <i>Castigations</i>, but ten years +later replied to the charges of atheism, &c., made in the non-political +part of the appendix, of which he says he then heard +for the first time (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 279-384). This <i>Answer</i> was first +published after Hobbes’s death.<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather +series of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the +time of publishing his <i>De corpore</i> in 1655, and which +checkered all his remaining years. In <i>Leviathan</i> he had +<span class="sidenote">Controversy with Wallis and Ward.</span> +vehemently assailed the system of the universities, as +originally founded for the support of the papal against +the civil authority, and as still working social mischief +by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly +noted at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of +scientific activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-1689), +the Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his <i>Vindiciae +academiarum</i> to some other assaults (especially against John +Webster’s <i>Examen of Academies</i>) on the academic system, retorted +upon Hobbes that, so far from the universities being now what he +had known them in his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces, +when they appeared, better understood there than he should like. +This was said in reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to +have been freely indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished +other such feats; and, when a year later the <i>De corpore</i> +(<i>L.W.</i> i.) finally appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone +home. In the chapter (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with +the famous problem whose solution he thought he had found, there +were left expressions against Vindex (Ward) at a time when the +solutions still seemed to him good; but the solutions themselves, +as printed, were allowed to be all in different ways halting, as he +naively confessed he had discovered only when he had been driven +by the insults of malevolent men to examine them more closely +with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion this, and reached +by a path not less strange, as was now to be disclosed by a relentless +hand. Ward’s colleague, the more famous John Wallis (q.v.), Savilian +professor of geometry from 1649, had been privy to the challenge +thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that they should critically +dispose of the <i>De corpore</i> between them. Ward was to occupy +himself with the philosophical and physical sections, which he did +in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the course of next +year (<i>In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio epistolica</i>). Wallis +was to confine himself to the mathematical chapters, and set to +work at once with characteristic energy. Obtaining an unbound +copy of the <i>De corpore</i>, he saw by the mutilated appearance of the +sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his demonstrations before +he issued them at last in their actual form, grotesque as it was, +rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also a copy of the +work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt of the +validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole course +from the time of Ward’s provocation—his passage from exultation +to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still without +abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all his +turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most trenchant +pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis’s <i>Elenchus +geometriae Hobbianae</i>, published in 1655 about three months after +the <i>De corpore</i>, contained also an elaborate criticism of Hobbes’s +whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical science +in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge—a +criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the conception, +exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the result. +Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already formed +but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical system, +Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to work +up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more +anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever +insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending +himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have +always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an +interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion +of the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then +was (and not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development +which made it before the end of the century the potent +instrument of physical discovery which it became in the hands of +Newton. He was even unable, in dealing with the elementary +conceptions of geometry, to work out with any consistency the few +original thoughts he had, and thus became the easy sport of Wallis. +At his advanced age, however, and with the sense he had of his +powers, he was not likely to be brought to a better mind by so +insulting an opponent. He did indeed, before allowing an English +translation of the <i>De corpore</i> (<i>E.W.</i> i.) to appear in 1656, take +care to remove some of the worst mistakes exposed by Wallis, and, +while leaving out all the references to Vindex, now profess to make, +in altered form, a series of mere “attempts” at quadrature; but +he was far from yielding the ground to the enemy. With the +translation,<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> in the spring of 1656, he had ready <i>Six Lessons to the +Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry, the other of Astronomy, +in the University of Oxford</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vii. 181-356), in which, after +reasserting his view of the principles of geometry in opposition to +Euclid’s, he proceeded to repel Wallis’s objections with no lack of +dialectical skill, and with an unreserve equal to Wallis’s own. He +did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict, even to maintain positions +that he had resigned in the translation, and he was not afraid to +assume the offensive by a counter criticism of three of Wallis’s +works then published. When he had thus disposed of the +“Paralogisms” of his more formidable antagonist in the first five +lessons, he ended with a lesson on “Manners” to the two professors +together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that he too +could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must be +allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis’s works, +especially the great treatise <i>Arithmetica infinitorum</i> (1655), only +showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the +modern analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep +up the game in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift +as before to strike, in three months’ time he had deftly turned his +own word against the would-be master by administering <i>Due +Correction for Mr Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his +Lessons right</i>, in a piece that differed from the <i>Elenchus</i> only in +being more biting and unrestrained. Having an easy task in +defending himself against Hobbes’s trivial criticism, he seized the +opportunity given him by the English translation of the <i>De corpore</i> +to track Hobbes again step by step over the whole course, and now +to confront him with his incredible inconsistencies multiplied by +every new utterance. But it was no longer a fight over mathematical +questions only. Wallis having been betrayed originally by his +fatal cleverness into the pettiest carping at words, Hobbes had +retorted in kind, and then it became a high duty in the other to +defend his Latin with great parade of learning and give fresh +provocation. One of Wallis’s rough sallies in this kind suggested to +Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with which, in 1657, he sought +to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in the <i>Lessons</i> that a +mathematical point must have quantity, though this were not +reckoned, he had explained the Greek word <span class="grk" title="stigmê">στιγμή</span>, used for a +point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot iron; whereupon he +was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for confounding <span class="grk" title="stigmê">στιγμή</span> +and <span class="grk" title="stigma">στιγμα</span>. Hence the title of his new piece: <span class="grk" title="Stigmai ageômetrias, +agroikias, antipoliteias, amatheias">Στιγμαὶ ἀγεωμετρίας, ἀγροικίας, ἀντιπολιτείας, ἀμαθείας</span>, or <i>Marks of the Absurd Geometry, +Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John +Wallis, Professor of Geometry and Doctor of Divinity</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vii. 357-400). +He now attacked more in detail but not more happily than +before Wallis’s great work, while hardly attempting any further +defence of his own positions; also he repelled with some force and +dignity the insults that had been heaped upon him, and fought +the verbal points, but could not leave the field without making +political insinuations against his adversary, quite irrelevant in +themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own resignation +to Cromwell’s rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly parried by +Wallis in a reply (<i>Hobbiani puncti dispunctio</i>, 1657) occupied mainly +with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it did not avail to +shake Hobbes’s determination to remain silent; and thus at last +there was peace for a time.</p> + +<p>Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658, +the outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed, +after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty +years before. So far as the treatise <i>De homine</i> (<i>L.W.</i> ii. 11-32) +was concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact. +It consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which, +though very creditable to Hobbes’s scientific insight, was out of +place, or at least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of +human nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing +cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the <i>Human +Nature</i> and the <i>Leviathan</i>, has all the appearance of having been +tagged in haste to the optical chapters (composed years before)<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +a makeshift for the proper transition required in the system from +questions of Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes +had in fact spent himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the +age of seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was +already in one form or another before the world, was content with +anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical +purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous +vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked +forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines. +Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest +production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy. +Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a +comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus (<i>Mathesis +universalis</i>, 1657), he might take this occasion of exposing afresh +the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and reasserting +his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of 1660, he had +managed to put his criticism and assertions into five dialogues under +the title <i>Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis +explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii</i>, with a sixth dialogue so called, +consisting almost entirely of seventy or more propositions on the +circle and cycloid.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Wallis, however, would not take the bait. +Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having solved, as he +thought, another ancient <i>crux</i>, the duplication of the cube, he had his +solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French, so as to put +Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a judgment that +might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was successful, +and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution than Hobbes +claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than ever +astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified +form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which +he had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical +doctrine. This was the <i>Dialogus physicus, sive De natura +aëris</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1661 against Boyle and +other friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that +malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming +themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in +1662) for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself personally, +and in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry +enjoined in the <i>De corpore</i>.<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> All the laborious manipulation recorded +in Boyle’s <i>New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air</i> (1660), +which Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the +manifesto of the new “academicians,” seemed to him only to confirm +the conclusions he had reasoned out years before from speculative +principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to +begin where he had left off their work would come to nought. To +as much of this diatribe as concerned himself Boyle quickly replied +with force and dignity, but it was from Hobbes’s old enemy that +retribution came, in the scathing satire <i>Hobbius heauton-timorumenos</i> +(1662). Wallis, who had deftly steered his course amid all the +political changes of the previous years, managing ever to be on the +side of the ruling power, was now apparently stung to fury by a +wanton allusion in Hobbes’s latest dialogue to a passage of his former +life (his deciphering for the parliament the king’s papers taken at +Naseby), whereof he had once boasted but after the Restoration +could not speak or hear too little. The revenge he took was crushing. +Professing to be roused by the attack on his friend Boyle, when he +had scorned to lift a finger in defence of himself against the earlier +dialogues, he tore them all to shreds with an art of which no general +description can give an idea. He got, however, upon more dangerous +ground when, passing wholly by the political insinuation against +himself, he roundly charged Hobbes with having written <i>Leviathan</i> +in support of Oliver’s title, and deserted his royal master in distress. +Hobbes seems to have been fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl +of sarcasm with which Wallis drove him anew from every mathematical +position he had ever taken up, and did not venture forth +into the field of scientific controversy again for some years, when +he had once followed up the physical dialogue of 1661 by seven +shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix, entitled <i>Problemata +physica, una cum magnitudine circuli</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 297-384), in 1662.<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +But all the more eagerly did he take advantage of Wallis’s loose +calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His answer to +the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself in the +third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of <i>Considerations +upon the Reputation, Loyalty, Manners and Religion of Thomas +Hobbes</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great biographical +value, he told his own and Wallis’s “little stories during +the time of the late rebellion” with such effect that Wallis, like a +wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second bout.</p> + +<p>After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period +of controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his +ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the +untiring old man’s labours in this last stage of his life. The first +piece, published in 1666, <i>De principiis et ratiocinatione geometrarum</i> +(<i>L.W.</i> iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title declared, +to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that there +was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those of +physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i> (August 1666). Three years later he brought +his three great achievements together in compendious form, <i>Quadratura +circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi</i>, and as soon as they +were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an answer to +the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany, who +paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 485-522). +Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward, refuted +him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his +propositions over again in <i>Rosetum geometricum</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 1-50), as a +fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism +(<i>Censura brevis</i>, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis’s treatise <i>De +motu</i>, published in 1669; also he sent <i>Three Papers</i> to the Royal +Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis, +still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them separately +with triumphant <i>Considerations on Dr Wallis’s Answer to them</i> +(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he believed, +established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to complete +the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society on all +the points at issue between them from the beginning, <i>Lux Mathematica +excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae Hobbesii</i> +(<i>L.W.</i> v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti Repertor) +added, being here “increased by many very brilliant rays.” Wallis +replied in the <i>Transactions</i>, and then finally held his hand. Hobbes’s +energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of eighty-six, he +published his <i>Principia et problemata aliquot geometrica, ante +desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 150-214), +containing in the chapters dealing with questions of principle not a +few striking observations, which ought not to be overlooked in the +study of his philosophy. His last piece of all, <i>Decameron physiologicum</i> +(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set of dialogues on +physical questions, most of which he had treated in a similar fashion +before; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was able to fire a +parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of the equality +of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at the end, appropriately +closed the strangest warfare in which perverse thinker ever +engaged.<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and +his other doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these +controversial writings on mathematics and physics +represent but one half of his activity after the age of +<span class="sidenote">Later Years.</span> +seventy; though, as regards the other half, it is not +possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely +in what order the works belonging to the period were produced. +From the time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence +in the public eye. No year had passed since the appearance of +<i>Leviathan</i> without some indignant protest against the influence +which its trenchant doctrine was calculated to produce upon +minds longing above everything for civil repose; but after the +Restoration “Hobbism” became a fashionable creed, which +it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to +denounce. Two or three days after Charles’s arrival in London, +Hobbes drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and +was at once received into favour. The young king, if he +had ever himself resented the apparent disloyalty of the +“Conclusion” of <i>Leviathan</i>, had not retained the feeling long, +and could appreciate the principles of the great book when the +application of them happened, as now, to be turned in his own +favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes’s wit (as he used +to say, “Here comes the bear to be baited”), and did not like +the old man the less because his presence at court scandalized +the bishops or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even +went the length of bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying) +a pension of £100, and had his portrait hung up in the royal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span> +closet. These marks of favour, naturally, did not lessen Hobbes’s +self-esteem, and perhaps they explain, in his later writings, a +certain slavishness toward the regal authority, which is wholly +absent from his rational demonstration of absolutism in the +earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with the rule +of a king who had appreciated the author of <i>Leviathan</i>, and +protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense +became necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against +Wallis’s imputation of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication +of the <i>Problemata physica</i> to the king, are evidence of the +hostility with which he was being pressed as early as 1662; +but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself seriously in danger. +In that year the Great Fire of London, following on the Great +Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the +House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against +atheism and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered +that the committee to which the bill was referred “should be +empowered to receive information touching such books as tend +to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness, or against the essence +and attributes of God, and in particular the book published +in the name of one White,<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> and the book of Mr Hobbes called +the <i>Leviathan</i>, and to report the matter with their opinion to +the House.” Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified +at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to +burn such of his papers as he thought might compromise him. +At the same time he set himself, with a very characteristic +determination, to inquire into the actual state of the law of +heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced +in three short Dialogues added (in place of the old “Review and +Conclusion,” for which the day had passed) as an Appendix to +his Latin translation of <i>Leviathan</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iii.), included with the +general collection of his works published at Amsterdam in 1668. +In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in +1680, <i>An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punishment +thereof</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that, +since the High Court of Commission had been put down, there +remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, +and that even when it stood nothing was to be declared heresy +but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as he maintained +the doctrine of <i>Leviathan</i> was not.</p> + +<p>The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare +was that Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print +anything on subjects relating to human conduct. The collected +edition of his Latin works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at +Amsterdam in 1668, because he could not obtain the censor’s +licence for its publication at London, Oxford or Cambridge. +Other writings which he had finished, or on which he must have +been engaged about this time, were not made public till after +his death—the king apparently having made it the price of his +protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the +popular sentiment. The most important of the works composed +towards 1670, and thus kept back, is the extremely spirited +dialogue to which he gave the title <i>Behemoth: the History of the +Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and +Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the +year 1660</i>.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> To the same period probably belongs the unfinished +<i>Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws +of England</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the constitutional +theory of English government as upheld by Coke. +Aubrey takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write +upon the subject in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon’s +<i>Elements of the Laws of England</i>, and though the attempt was +then unsuccessful, Hobbes later on took to studying the statute-book, +with <i>Coke upon Littleton</i>. One other posthumous production +also (besides the tract on Heresy before mentioned) may +be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an earlier time—the +two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave his +view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the +quaint verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were +first published, nine years after his death, under the title <i>Historia +ecclesiastica</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas +Rymer.</p> + +<p>For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word +of protest, whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took +to triumph over him. In 1669 an unworthy follower—Daniel +Scargil by name, a fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge—had +to recant publicly and confess that his evil life had been the +result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674 John Fell, the dean of +Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin translation of +Anthony Wood’s <i>History and Antiquities of the University of +Oxford</i> (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the +account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this +time the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a +dignified letter (<i>Vit. Auct.</i> pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by +adding to the translation when it appeared a note full of the +grossest insults. And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not +without his consolations. No Englishman of that day stood in +the same repute abroad, and foreigners, noble or learned, who +came to England, never forgot to pay their respects to the old +man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no progress of the +years seemed able to quench. Among these was the grand-duke +of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a +portrait to adorn the Medicean library.</p> + +<p>His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours. +The autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour, +occasional pathos and sublime self-complacency, was thrown +off at the age of eighty-four. At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he +sent forth a translation of four books of the <i>Odyssey</i> (ix.-xii.) +in rugged but not seldom happily turned English rhymes; and, +when he found this <i>Voyage of Ulysses</i> eagerly received, he had +ready by 1675 a complete translation of both <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> +(<i>E.W.</i> x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation “Concerning the +Virtues of an Heroic Poem,” showing his unabated interest in +questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time at his +patron’s seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with intellectual +work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which it had +long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as +late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher “somewhat +to print in English.” The end came very soon afterwards. A +suppression of urine in October, in spite of which he insisted upon +being conveyed with the family from Chatsworth to Hardwick +Hall towards the end of November, was followed by a paralytic +stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of December, in his +ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring church +of Ault Hucknall.</p> + +<p>He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a +temperate life, though he used to say that he had been drunk +about a hundred times. His favourite exercise was +tennis, which he played regularly even after the age of +<span class="sidenote">Personal characteristics.</span> +seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though +in argument he occasionally lost his temper. As a friend +he was generous and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he +was curiously timid in ordinary life, and is said to have had a +horror of ghosts. He read little, and often boasted that he +would have known as little as other men if he had read as much. +He appears to have had an illegitimate daughter for whom he +made generous provision. In the National Portrait Gallery +there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are in +the possession of the Royal Society.</p> + +<p>As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls +into any regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said +that he handed on the torch to Locke. He was the +one English thinker of the first rank in the long period +<span class="sidenote">Place in English thought.</span> +of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but, +save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation +of succession among the three. It would be difficult even to +prove any ground of affinity among them beyond a desposition to +take sense as a prime factor in the account of subjective experience: +their common interest in physical science was shared +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +equally by rationalist thinkers of the Cartesian school, and was +indeed begotten of the time. Backwards, Hobbes’s relations are +rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who, from the +beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the +physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished +by the name of science in opposition to philosophy. +But even more than in external nature, Hobbes was interested in +the phenomena of social life, presenting themselves so impressively +in an age of political revolution. So it came to pass that, +while he was unable, by reason of imperfect training and too +tardy development, with all his pains, to make any contribution +to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in physical +research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the +new “mechanical philosophy” conceived—nothing less than +such a universal construction of human knowledge as would +bring Society and Man (at once the matter and maker of Society) +within the same principles of scientific explanation as were +found applicable to the world of Nature. The construction was, +of course, utterly premature, even supposing it were inherently +possible; but it is Hobbes’s distinction, in his century, to have +conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the scientific +workers with whom he associated to the rank of those philosophical +thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of +human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour +may be traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that +came within the sweep of his system, except mathematics and +physics, his thoughts have been productive of thought. When +the first storm of opposition from smaller men had begun to die +down, thinkers of real weight, beginning with Cumberland and +Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his analysis of the +moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the natural +springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it +may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of +that movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has +been carried on with such remarkable continuity in England. +In politics the revulsion from his <span class="correction" title="amended from particuar">particular</span> conclusions did not +prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing +the force of his supreme demonstration of the practical irresponsibility +of the sovereign power, wherever seated, in the state; and, +when in a later age the foundations of a positive theory of legislation +were laid in England, the school of Bentham—James Mill, +Grote, Molesworth—brought again into general notice the +writings of the great publicist of the 17th century, who, however +he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule of +one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to +the common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though +too undeveloped to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest +the attention of Locke, when essaying the scientific analysis of +knowledge, came in course of time (chiefly through James Mill) +to be connected with the theory of associationism developed +from within the school of Locke, in different ways, by Hartley +and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later associationists, +finding their principle more distinctly formulated in the earlier +thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into affiliating +themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical +theories see Ethics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sufficient information is given in the <i>Vitae Hobbianae auctarium</i> +(<i>L.W.</i> i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of Hobbes’s +separate works, and also concerning the works of those who wrote +against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th century, +after Clarke’s <i>Boyle Lectures</i> of 1704-1705, the opposition was less +express. In 1750 <i>The Moral and Political Works</i> were collected, with +life, &c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition, including in order, +<i>Human Nature</i>, <i>De corpore politico</i>, <i>Leviathan</i>, <i>Answer to Bramhall’s +Catching of the Leviathan</i>, <i>Narration concerning Heresy</i>, <i>Of Liberty +and Necessity</i>, <i>Behemoth</i>, <i>Dialogue of the Common Laws</i>, the Introduction +to the <i>Thucydides</i>, <i>Letter to Davenant and two others</i>, the Preface +to the <i>Homer</i>, <i>De mirabilibus Pecci</i> (with English translation), <i>Considerations +on the Reputation, &., of T. H.</i> In 1812 the <i>Human +Nature</i> and the <i>Liberty and Necessity</i> (with supplementary extracts +from the <i>Questions</i> of 1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250 +copies, with a meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedication +to Horne Tooke, by Philip Mallet. Molesworth’s edition (1839-1845), +dedicated to Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of +translations may be mentioned <i>Les Élémens philosophiques du +citoyen</i> (1649) and <i>Le Corps politique</i> (1652), both by S. de Sorbière, +conjoined with <i>Le Traité de la nature humaine</i>, by d’Holbach, in +1787, under the general title <i>Les Œuvres philosophiques et politiques de +Thomas Hobbes</i>; a translation of the first section, “Computatio sive +logica,” of the <i>De corpore</i>, included by Destutt de Tracy with his +<i>Élémens d’idéologie</i> (1804); a translation of <i>Leviathan</i> into Dutch in +1678, and another (anonymous) into German—<i>Des Engländers Thomas +Hobbes Leviathan oder der kirchliche und bürgerliche Staat</i> (Halle, 1794, +2 vols.); a translation of the <i>De cive</i> by J. H. v. Kirchmann—<i>T. +Hobbes: Abhandlung über den Bürger, &c.</i> (Leipzig, 1873). Important +later editions are those of Ferdinand Tönnies, <i>Behemoth</i> +(1889), on which see Croom Robertson’s <i>Philosophical Remains</i> (1894), +p. 451; <i>Elements of Law</i> (1889).</p> + +<p><i>Biographical and Critical Works.</i>—There are three accounts of +Hobbes’s life, first published together in 1681, two years after his +death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes’s admirer, +John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley +and others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth’s collection of the +<i>Latin Works</i>: (1) <i>T. H. Malmesb. vita</i> (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by +Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation; +(2) <i>Vitae Hobbianae auctarium</i> (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin from +Aubrey’s English; (3) <i>T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa</i> (pp. lxxxi.-xcix.), +written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first published +by itself in 1680). The <i>Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie</i>, printed +among the <i>Lives of Eminent Men</i>, in 1813, from Aubrey’s papers in +the Bodleian, &c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains some interesting +particulars not found in the <i>Auctarium</i>. All that is of any +importance for Hobbes’s life is contained in G. Croom Robertson’s +<i>Hobbes</i> (1886) in Blackwood’s Philosophical Classics, and Sir Leslie +Stephen’s <i>Hobbes</i> (1904) in the “English Men of Letters” series, +both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F. +Tönnies, <i>Hobbes Leben und Lehre</i> (1896), <i>Hobbes-Analekten</i> (1904 +foll.); G. Zart, <i>Einfluss der englischen Philosophie seit Bacon auf +die deutsche Philosophie des 18ten Jahrh.</i> (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt, +<i>Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie</i> (1895); G. Lyon, <i>La +Philos. de Hobbes</i> (1893); J. M. Robertson, <i>Pioneer Humanists</i> (1907); +J. Rickaby, <i>Free Will and Four English Philosophers</i> (1906), pp. 1-72; +J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> (1895); W. Graham, <i>English +Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine</i> (1899); W. J. H. Campion, +<i>Outlines of Lectures on Political Science</i> (1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. C. R.; X.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The translation, under the title <i>Eight Books of the Peloponnesian +War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus, interpreted with faith +and diligence immediately out of the Greek by Thomas Hobbes, secretary +to the late Earl of Devonshire</i>, appeared in 1628 (or 1629), after +the death of the earl, to whom touching reference is made in the +dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the date of the dedication +altered, as if then newly written. Though Hobbes claims to have +performed his work “with much more diligence than elegance,” +his version is remarkable as a piece of English writing, but is by no +means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in Molesworth’s collection +(11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes’s <i>English Works</i> (London, +Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this collection will here be +cited as E. W. Molesworth’s collection of the Latin <i>Opera philosophica</i> +(5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as <i>L.W.</i> The five hundred +and odd Latin hexameters under the title <i>De mirabilibus Pecci</i> +(<i>L.W.</i> v. 323-340), giving an account of a short excursion from +Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire Peak, +were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not published till +1636. It was a New Year’s present to his patron, who gave him +£5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English version +by another hand.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W. +iv. 316; <i>E.W.</i> vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon’s +writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler, +Harvey, and others (<i>De corpore</i>, ep. ded.), among the lights of the +century. The word “Induction,” which occurs in only three or four +passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is +never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import +assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but +scorn for experimental work in physics.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The free English abstract of Aristotle’s <i>Rhetoric</i>, published in +1681, after Hobbes’s death, as <i>The Whole Art of Rhetoric</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vi. +423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young +pupil. Among Hobbes’s papers preserved at Hardwick, where he +died, there remains the boy’s dictation-book, interspersed with +headings, examples, &c. in Hobbes’s hand.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of +the work, under the title <i>Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique</i>, +with the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes’s +own hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed +to the first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves, +under the title <i>Human Nature</i> in 1650.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams’s +library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto +size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards reproduced) +of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions, “Libertas,” +“Imperium,” “Religio.” The title <i>Elementorum philosophiae +sectio tertia, De Cive</i>, expresses its relation to the unwritten +sections, which also comes out in one or two back-references in +the text.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>L.W.</i> ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the title +was changed to <i>Elementa philosophica de cive</i>, the references in the +text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the dedication +to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to +1646.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Described as “nobilis Languedocianus” in <i>Vit.</i>; doubtless the +same with the “Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus,” to whom +was dedicated the <i>Exam. et emend. math. hod.</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv.) in 1660. +Du Verdus was one of Hobbes’s profoundest admirers and most +frequent correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters +among Hobbes’s papers at Hardwick.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>The Human Nature</i> corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first part +of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part +stand now as Part I. of the <i>De Corpore Politico</i>. Part II. of the +<i>D.C.P.</i> corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a +letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in answer +to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W. +Davenant’s heroic poem, <i>Gondibert</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 441-458). The letter +is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (<i>Survey of the +Leviathan</i>, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and finely +bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS. +1910).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive +from his patron a yearly pension of £80, and they remained in steady, +correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was +declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by submission +to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were sequestered +later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes’s friends at +this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William Harvey, +who left him a legacy of £10. According to Aubrey, Selden left him +an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey (not +Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory +epistle prefixed to the <i>De corpore</i>, among the founders, before +himself, of the new natural philosophy.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The treatise bore the date, “Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652,” but it +should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself +(<i>E.W.</i> v. 25).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> “The <i>Vit. auct.</i> refers to 1676, a ‘Letter to William duke of +Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with +Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.’ In that year there did appear +a (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes’s concluding +statement of his own ‘Opinion’ in the ‘Liberty and Necessity’ +of 1654 (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by +Hobbes on the subject” (G. Croom Robertson, <i>Hobbes</i>, p. 202).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> This translation, <i>Concerning Body</i>, though not made by Hobbes, +was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at +critical places (<i>e.g.</i> c. vi. § 2), quite misleading. Philosophical +citations from the <i>De corpore</i> should always be made in the original +Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of +1655, but from the modified edition of 1668—modified, in the +mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the +English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the +<i>Six Lessons</i>, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth +to the original Latin edition of 1655.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and +rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise +on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved +in Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication +to the marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (<i>E.W.</i> +vii. 467-471).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>L.W.</i> iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in +number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when +he republished the <i>Dialogues</i> in 1668, in the collected edition of his +Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted, +at p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first introduction +to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey quoted in an +earlier paragraph.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the +constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of the +originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued or +revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford after +the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received +appointments there.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The <i>Problemata physica</i> was at the same time put into English +(with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical appendix), +and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated in a +remarkable letter apologizing for <i>Leviathan</i>. In its English form, +as <i>Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of Geometry</i> +(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682, after Hobbes’s +death.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Wallis’s pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his +works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox +Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul. +White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>E.W.</i> vi. 161-418. Though <i>Behemoth</i> was kept back at the +king’s express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes’s leave, in +1679, before his death.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBBY,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a small horse, probably from early quotations, of +Irish breed, trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing. +The common use of the word is for a favourite pursuit or +occupation, with the idea either of excessive devotion or of +absence of ulterior motive or of profit, &c., outside the occupation +itself. This use is probably not derived from the easy ambling +gait of the Irish “hobby,” but from the “hobby-horse,” the +mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a painted wooden +horse’s head and tail, with a framework casing for an actor’s +body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the +“housings” of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse +is thus a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. <i>hobin</i>, or <i>hobi</i>, Mod. +<i>aubin</i>, and Ital. <i>ubina</i> are probably adaptations of the English, +according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>. The O. Fr. hober, to +move, which is often taken to be the origin of all these words, is +the source of a use of “hobby” for a small kind of falcon, <i>falco +subbuteo</i>, used in hawking.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1819-1904), +English judge, fourth son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent +under-secretary of state in the Home Office, was born at Hadspen, +Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819. Educated at Eton +and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1845, +and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and +equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the +Rolls Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the +charity commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests +to educational and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five +years’ term of service as legal member of the council of the +governor-general of India, his services being acknowledged by +a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed a member of the +judicial committee of the privy council, on which he served for +twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently +supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on +the 6th of December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject +of property were collected in 1880 under the title of <i>The Dead Hand</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBOKEN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the +Scheldt about 4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on +account of the shipbuilding yard which the Cockerill firm of +Seraing has established at Hoboken. Many wealthy Antwerp +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span> +merchants have villas here, and it is the headquarters of several +of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904) 12,816.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBOKEN,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on +the Hudson river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and +opposite New York city, with which it is connected by ferries +and by two subway lines through tunnels under the river. Pop. +(1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of whom 21,380 were foreign-born, +10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910 census) 70,324. +Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one or both +parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element. +The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna +& Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the +latter, and is connected by electric railway with the neighbouring +cities of north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of +the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands +American, the Scandinavian and the Phoenix steamship +lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1 sq. m. and lies +near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise both on the +W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface has +had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point, in +the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this +Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the +city, John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the +Stevens Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical +engineering endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of +John Stevens, opened in 1871, and having in 1909-1910 34 +instructors and 390 students. The institute owes much to its +first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a distinguished +scientist, whose aim was “to offer a course of instruction in +which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly +combined,” and who gave to the institute sums aggregating +$175,000 (see <i>Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute</i>, ed. +by Furman, 1905). In connexion with the institute there is a +preparatory department, the Stevens School (1870). The city +maintains a teachers’ training school. Among the city’s prominent +buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western +station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German +Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive +coal trade and numerous manufactures, among which are lead +pencils, leather goods, silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The +value of the manufactured product increased from $7,151,391 in +1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or 69.1%. The factory product +in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an increase of 34.3% over +that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally “Hobocanhackingh,” +the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about +1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings +except a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711 +title to the place was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York +merchant, who built on Castle Point his summer residence. +During the War of Independence his descendant, William +Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and his estate +confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John Stevens, +the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next +thirty-five years its “Elysian Fields” were a famous pleasure +resort of New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in +1849 and as a city in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves +of the North German Lloyd Steamship Company and three +of its ocean liners were almost completely destroyed by a fire, +which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over $5,000,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBSON’S CHOICE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> “this or nothing,” an expression that +arose from the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas +Hobson (1544-1630), refused, when letting his horses on hire, to +allow any animal to leave the stable out of its turn. Among +other bequests made by Hobson, and commemorated by Milton, +was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place, for which he +provided the perpetual maintenance. See <i>Spectator</i>, No. 509 +(14th of October 1712).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOBY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1530-1566), English diplomatist and +translator, son of William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530. +He entered St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547 +he went to Strassburg, where he was the guest of Martin Bucer, +whose <i>Gratulation ... unto the Church of Englande for the +restitution of Christes Religion</i> he translated into English. He +then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence and +Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was +summoned by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558), +then ambassador at the emperor’s court, to Augsburg. The +brothers returned to England at the end of the year, and Thomas +attached himself to the service of the marquis of Northampton, +whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to arrange a +marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth. +Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for +Paris, and in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of <i>The +Courtyer of Count Baldessar Castilio</i>. His work was probably +completed in 1554, and the freedom of the allusions to the +Roman church probably accounts for the fact that it was withheld +from publication until 1561. The <i>Cortegiano</i> of Baldassare +Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called “the best book that ever +was written upon good breeding,” is a book as entirely typical of +the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli’s <i>Prince</i> in another +direction. It exercised an immense influence on the standards +of chivalry throughout Europe, and was long the recognized +authority for the education of a nobleman. The accession of +Mary made it desirable for the Hobys to remain abroad, and they +were in Italy until the end of 1555. Thomas Hoby married in +1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, who +wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted in 1566 +by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador. +He died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was +buried in Bisham Church.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Sir Edward Hoby</span> (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth’s +favour, and he was employed on various confidential missions. +He was constable of Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died +on the 1st of March 1617. He took part in the religious controversies +of the time, publishing many pamphlets against Theophilus +Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He translated, from +the French of Mathieu Coignet, <i>Politique Discourses on Trueth and +Lying</i> (1586).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The authority for Thomas Hoby’s biography is a MS. “Booke of +the Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth +the noting.” This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by +Edgar Powell in 1902. Hoby’s translation of <i>The Courtyer</i> was edited +(1900) by Professor Walter Raleigh for the “Tudor Translations” +series.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOCHE, LAZARE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1768-1797), French general, was born +of poor parents near Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At +sixteen years of age he enlisted as a private soldier in the <i>Gardes +françaises</i>. He spent his entire leisure in earning extra pay by +civil work, his object being to provide himself with books, and +this love of study, which was combined with a strong sense of +duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion. When +the <i>Gardes françaises</i> were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal, +and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time +of his receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville +in that year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served +with credit in the operations of 1792-1793 on the northern +frontier of France. At the battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp +to General le Veneur, and when Dumouriez deserted +to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and others, fell +under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under arrest +and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence +of Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted +successively <i>chef de brigade</i>, general of brigade, and general of +division. In October 1793 he was provisionally appointed to +command the Army of the Moselle, and within a few weeks he +was in the field at the head of his army in Lorraine. His first +battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of November) +against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the +midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued +Hoche in his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their +eyes outweighed everything else, and Hoche soon showed that +he possessed these qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed +the lines of Fröschweiler, and the representatives of the Convention +with his army at once added the Army of the Rhine +to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December the French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span> +carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and Hoche +pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle +Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters. +Before the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaïde +Dechaux at Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later +he was suddenly arrested, charges of treason having been preferred +by Pichegru, the displaced commander of the Army +of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche escaped execution, +however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of Robespierre. +Shortly after his release he was appointed to command against +the Vendéans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work +of his predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye +(15th of February 1795), but soon afterwards the war was +renewed by the Royalists. Hoche showed himself equal to the +crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the Royalist cause by +defeating and capturing de Sombreuil’s expedition at Quiberon +and Penthièvre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means +of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he +succeeded before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of +the west, which had for more than three years been the scene +of a pitiless civil war. After this he was appointed to organize +and command the troops destined for the invasion of Ireland, +and he started on this enterprise in December 1796. A tempest, +however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after various +adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having +effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the +Rhine frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied +(April), though operations were soon afterwards brought to an +end by the Preliminaries of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was +minister of war for a short period, but in this position he was +surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and, finding himself +the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating the +constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his +command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly +worse, and he died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797 +of consumption. The belief was widely spread that he had been +poisoned, but the suspicion seems to have been without foundation. +He was buried by the side of his friend Marceau in a fort +on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army but of +all France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Privat, <i>Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et +militaire du général Hoche</i> (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, <i>Éloge du +général Hoche</i> (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche’s +funeral; Rousselin, <i>Vie de Lazare Hoche, général des armées de la +république française</i> (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the +public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, <i>Éloge +funèbre du général Hoche</i> (Paris, 1800); <i>Vie et pensées du général +Hoche</i> (Bern); Champrobert, <i>Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le +pacificateur de la Vendée</i> (Paris, 1840); Dourille, <i>Histoire de Lazare +Hoche</i> (Paris, 1844); Desprez, <i>Lazare Hoche d’après sa correspondance</i> +(Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, <i>Essai sur la vie +de Lazare Hoche</i> (1852); É. de Bonnechose, <i>Lazare Hoche</i> (1867); +H. Martin, <i>Hoche et Bonaparte</i> (1875); Dutemple, <i>Vie politique et +militaire du général Hoche</i> (1879); Escaude, <i>Hoche en Irlande</i> (1888); +Cunéo d’Ornano, <i>Hoche</i> (1892); A. Chuquet, <i>Hoche et la lutte pour +l’Alsace</i> (a volume of this author’s series on the campaigns of the +Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général Hoche</i> (1893); A. +Duruy, <i>Hoche et Marceau</i> (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOCHHEIM,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Hesse-Nassau, situated on an elevation not far from the +right bank of the Main, 3 m. above its influx into the Rhine and +3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main. +Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and a Roman +Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the +English word “Hock,” the generic term for Rhine wine, being +derived from its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles +as early as the 7th century. It is also memorable as the scene +of a victory gained here, on the 7th of November 1813 by the +Austrians over the French.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schüler, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main</i> (Hochheim, +1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖCHST,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau on the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main. +Pop. (1905) 14,121. It is a busy industrial town with large +dye-works and manufactures of machinery, snuff, tobacco, +waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits. Brewing is carried +on and there is a considerable river trade. The Roman Catholic +church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built in the +9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic +choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an +Evangelical church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck +by Alois Mayer. Höchst belonged formerly to the electors of +Mainz who had a palace here; this was destroyed in 1634 with +the exception of one fine tower which still remains. In 1622 +Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by Count +Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over +the French.</p> + +<p>Höchst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has +some manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine +monastery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖCHSTÄDT,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of +Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by +rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It has three Roman Catholic churches, +a castle flanked by walls and towers and some small industries, +including malting and brewing. Höchstädt, which came into +the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of battles. +Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for +Henry IV., was defeated by Henry’s rival, Hermann of Luxemburg, +in 1081; in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by +Marshal Villars in command of the French; in August 1704 +Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French and +Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria +and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of +Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here +between the Austrians and the French.</p> + +<p>There is another small town in Bavaria named Höchstadt. +Pop. 2000. This is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to +which bishopric it belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded +to Bavaria.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> +(1829-1884), Austrian geologist, was born at Esslingen, Würtemberg, +on the 30th of April 1829. He was the son of Christian +Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a clergyman and professor +at Brünn, who was also a botanist and mineralogist. Having +received his early education at the evangelical seminary at +Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tübingen; there +under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology +became permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor’s +degree and a travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff +of the Imperial Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged +until 1856 in parts of Bohemia, especially in the Böhmerwald, and +in the Fichtel and Karlsbad mountains. His excellent reports +established his reputation. Thus he came to be chosen as geologist +to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and made numerous +valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In 1859 +he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a +rapid geological survey of the islands. On his return he was +appointed in 1860 professor of mineralogy and geology at the +Imperial Polytechnic Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was +made superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum. +In these later years he explored portions of Turkey and eastern +Russia, and he published papers on a variety of geological, +palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He died at Vienna +on the 18th of July 1884.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>—<i>Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhältnisse und +seine Quellen</i> (1858); <i>Neu-Seeland</i> (1863); <i>Geological and Topographical +Atlas of New Zealand</i> (1864); <i>Leitfaden der Mineralogie +und Geologie</i> (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOCKEY<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (possibly derived from the “hooked” stick with +which it is played; cf. O. Fr. <i>hoquet</i>, shepherd’s crook), a game +played with a ball or some similar object by two opposing sides, +using hooked or bent sticks, with which each side attempts to +drive it into the other’s goal. In one or more of its variations +Hockey was known to most northern peoples in both Europe and +Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of similar nature. It +was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or the ice in +winter. In Scotland it was called “shinty,” and in Ireland +“hurley,” and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span> +with numerous players on each side. The rules were simple +and the play very rough.</p> + +<p>Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold +season on the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation +of “The Men’s Hockey Association” in England in 1875. +The rules drawn up by the Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain +in all essentials. Since 1895 “international” matches at hockey +have been played annually between England, Scotland, Ireland +and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played between England +and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890 Divisional +Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and +inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated, +and have since been played annually. County +matches are also now regularly played in England, twenty-six +counties competing in 1907. Of other hockey clubs playing +regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in the London +district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:330px; height:536px" src="images/img555a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Diagram of Hockey Field.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>G, Goal.</p> +<p>RB, Right Back.</p> +<p>LB, Left Back.</p> +<p>RH, Right Half.</p> +<p>CH, Centre Half.</p> +<p>LH, Left Half.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>RW, Right Wing.</p> +<p>RI, Inside Right.</p> +<p>CF, Centre Forward.</p> +<p>LI, Inside Left.</p> +<p>LW, Left Wing.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100 +yds. long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each +end-line, and consist of +two uprights 7 ft. high +surmounted by a horizontal +bar, enclosing a +space 12 ft. wide. In +front of each goal is +a space enclosed by a +curved line, its greatest +diameter from the goal-line +being 15 ft., called +the <i>striking-circle</i>. The +positions of the players +on each side may be +seen on the accompanying +diagram. Two +umpires, one on each +side of the centre-line, +officiate.</p> + +<p>The ball is an ordinary +cricket-ball painted +white. The stick has a +hard-wood curved head, +and a handle of cork +or wrapped cane. It +must not exceed 2 in. +in diameter nor 28 oz. +in weight. At the start +of the game, which +consists of two thirty +or thirty-five minute +periods, the two centre-forwards +“bully off” +the ball in the middle +of the field. In “bullying +off” each centre +must strike the ground +on his own side of the +ball three times with +his stick and strike his +opponent’s stick three +times alternately; after +which either may strike +the ball. Each side +then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling, +to drive the ball into its opponents’ goal. A player is “off +side” if he is nearer the enemy’s goal than one of his own side +who strikes the ball, and he may not strike the ball himself +until it has been touched by one of the opposing side. The ball +may be caught (but not held) or stopped by any part of the body, +but may not be picked up, carried, kicked, thrown or knocked +except with the stick. An opponent’s stick may be hooked, but not +an opponent’s person, which may not be obstructed in any way. +No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for infringing rules are of +two classes; “free hits” and “penalty bullies,” to be taken where +the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls penalty goals may also be +awarded. A “corner” occurs when the ball goes behind the goal-line, +but not into goal. If it is hit by the attacking side, or unintentionally +by the defenders, it must be brought out 25 yds., in a +direction at right angles to the goal-line from the point where it +crossed the line, and there “bullied.” But if the ball is driven from +within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind the goal-line by the +defenders, a member of the attacking side is given a free hit from a +point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the members of the defending side +remaining behind their goal-line. If the ball is hit intentionally behind +the goal-line by the attacking side, the free hit is taken from the point +where the ball went over. No goal can be scored from a free hit directly.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Ice Hockey</i> (or <i>Bandy</i>, to give it its original name) is far more +popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much +ice; in fact in America “Hockey” means Ice Hockey, while +the land game is called Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest +form of driving a ball across a given limit with a stick or club +has been played for centuries in northern Europe, attaining +its greatest popularity in the Low Countries, and there are many +16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which represent games +of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much like +a golf club.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In England Bandy is controlled by the “National Bandy Association.” +A team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the +proper space for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of +solid india-rubber, between 2¼ and 2¾ in. in diameter. The bandies +are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the +centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and +12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee +throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must not +be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the +ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into +the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it +went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across +the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the defenders +from the point where it went over, the opponents not being allowed +to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the hit is +made.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:515px; height:146px" src="images/img555b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hockey Stick.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In America the development of the modern game is due to the +Victoria Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About +1881 the secretary of the former club made the first efforts towards +drawing up a recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards +playing rules were agreed upon from time to time whenever an +important match was played, the chief teams being, besides those +already mentioned, the Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal +Hockey Clubs, the first general tournament taking place in 1884. +Three years later the “Amateur Hockey Association of Canada” +was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn up. Soon afterwards, +in consequence of exhibitions given by the best Canadian teams in +some of the larger cities of the United States, the new game was +taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic clubs, and became +nearly as popular in the northern states as in the Dominion. The +rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The rink must be +at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players form a side. +The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided with goal-nets. +Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is used, +made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in. +thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard +wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game +is played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission +of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when +a goal has been made, the puck is <i>faced</i>, <i>i.e.</i> it is placed in the middle +of the rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee +calls “play.” Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by +means of passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from +which a goal may be <i>shot</i>. The puck may be stopped by any part of +the person but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No +stick may be raised above the shoulder except when actually striking +the puck. When the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal, +or a foul has been made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the +rink. The goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.</p> + +<p>There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under +the jurisdiction of the “American Amateur Hockey League” in the +United States and the “Canadian Amateur Athletic League” in +Canada.</p> + +<p><i>Ice Polo</i>, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost exclusively +played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is used and +the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The radical difference +between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there is no strict +off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come from any and +often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute a team: +a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The rushers must +be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and good goal shots. +The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to them or trying +for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence and the goal-tend +the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.</p> + +<p><i>Ring Hockey</i> may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or +large room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span> +forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high +and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck, +is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in. opening +through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick is +a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about +¾ in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower +end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the +hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the +field counts one point, a goal from a foul ½ point. When a foul is +called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free +shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.</p> + +<p><i>Roller Polo</i>, played extensively during the winter months in the +United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of gymnasiums +and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing roller-skates. +The first professional league was organized in 1883.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOCK-TIDE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated +on the second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday +was an important term day, rents being then payable, +for with Michaelmas it divided the rural year into its winter and +summer halves. The derivation of the word is disputed: any +analogy with Ger. <i>hoch</i>, “high,” being generally denied. No +trace of the word is found in Old English, and “hock-day,” its +earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th century. +The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On +Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers +of the opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought +their release with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across +the highroads, and the passers were obliged to pay toll. The +money thus collected seems to have gone towards parish expenses. +Many entries are found in parish registers under “Hocktyde +money.” The hock-tide celebration became obsolete in the +beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a play +called “The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday.” This, +suppressed at the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder, +and revived as part of the festivities on Queen Elizabeth’s visit +to Kenilworth in July 1575, depicted the struggle between Saxons +and Danes, and has given colour to the suggestion that hock-tide +was originally a commemoration of the massacre of the Danes +on St Brice’s Day, the 13th of November <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1002, or of the +rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042 +and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries +do not bear this out.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOCUS,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a shortened form of “hocus pocus,” used in the 17th +century in the sense of “to play a trick on any one,” to “hoax,” +which is generally taken to be a derivative. “Hocus pocus” +appears to have been a mock Latin expression first used as the +name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus in Ady’s <i>Candle in the Dark</i> +(1655), quoted in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, “I will speak of +one man ... that went about in King James his time ... +who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent Hocus +Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every +Trick, he used to say, <i>Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter +jubeo</i>, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the +beholders, to make his Trick pass the more currantly without +discovery.” Tillotson’s guess (<i>Sermons</i>, xxvi.) that the phrase +was a corruption of <i>hoc est corpus</i> and alluded to the words of +the Eucharist, “in ridiculous imitation of the priests of the +Church of Rome in their trick of Transubstantiation,” has +frequently been accepted as a serious derivation, but has no +foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of Scandinavian +mythology, called “Ochus Bochus,” is equally unwarranted. +“Hocus” is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium, +&c., for a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning +of the 19th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODDEN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth +made of undyed wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry +of Scotland. It was usually made on small hand-looms by the +peasants themselves. Grey hodden was made by mixing black +and white fleeces together in the proportion of one to twelve +when weaving.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODDESDON,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary +division of Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N. +from London by the Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and +Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge line). Pop. (1901), 4711. +This is the northernmost of a series of populous townships +extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea valley as +far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to Hoddesdon. +They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous +coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house +is mentioned in Matthew Prior’s “Down Hall.” The Lea +has been a favourite resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish +in this part) from the time of Izaak Walton, in whose book +Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church of St Augustine, +Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work, and +contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with +enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the +site of a Romano-British village.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODEDA<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (<i>Hodeida</i>, <i>Hadeda</i>), a town in Arabia situated on the +Red Sea coast 14° 48′ N. and 42° 57′ E. It lies on a beach +of muddy sand exposed to the southerly and westerly winds. +Steamers anchor more than a mile from shore, and merchandize +has to be transhipped by means of <i>sambuks</i> or native boats. +But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the maritime trade +of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great port +of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of +stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except +on the sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated +at 33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and +the Turkish officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element, +Greeks, Indians and African traders from the opposite coast. +There are consulates of Great Britain, United States, France, +Germany, Italy and Greece. The steam tonnage entering and +clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700 tons, the highest +hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained with Aden, +and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large +dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers +from Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain. +The imports for 1904 amounted in value to £467,000, the chief +items being piece goods, food grains and sugar; the exports +amounted to £451,000, including coffee valued at £229,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODENING,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in +Wales, Kent, Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse’s skull or +a wooden imitation on a pole is carried round by a party of +youths, one of whom conceals himself under a white cloth to +simulate the horse’s body, holding a lighted candle in the skull. +They make a house-to-house visitation, begging gratuities. +The “Penitential” of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of +“any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with +the skins of cattle and carry heads of animals.” This, coupled +with the fact that among the primitive Scandinavians the horse +was often the sacrifice made at the winter solstice to Odin for +success in battle, has been thought to justify the theory that +hodening is a corruption of Odining.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODGE, CHARLES<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1797-1878), American theologian, was +born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December +1797. He graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) +in 1815, and in 1819 at the Princeton Theological seminary, +where he became an instructor in 1820, and the first professor +of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822. Meanwhile, in 1821, +he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister. From 1826 +to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and +Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and +Humboldt in Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of +exegetical and didactic theology, to which subjects that of +polemic theology was added in 1854, and this office he held until +his death. In 1825 he established the quarterly <i>Biblical Repertory</i>, +the title of which was changed to <i>Biblical Repertory and +Theological Review</i> in 1830 and to <i>Biblical Repertory and Princeton +Review</i> in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged the <i>Literary +and Theological Review</i> of New York, and in 1872 the American +Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming <i>Presbyterian +Quarterly and Princeton Review</i> in 1872 and <i>Princeton Review</i> +in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of the +Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued +its principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev. +Lyman H. Atwater became his colleague. His more important +essays were republished under the titles <i>Essays and Reviews</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +(1857), <i>Princeton Theological Essays, and Discussions in Church +Polity</i> (1878). He was moderator of the General Assembly +(O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise the <i>Book of +Discipline</i> of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and president of +the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870. The +24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his +professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between +400 and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was +raised for the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton +on the 19th of June 1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of +American theologians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides his articles in the <i>Princeton Review</i>, he published a +<i>Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans</i> (1835, abridged 1836, +rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), <i>Constitutional History +of the Presbyterian Church in the United States</i> (2 vols., 1839-1840); +<i>The Way of Life</i> (1841); <i>Commentaries on Ephesians</i> (1856); +1 <i>Corinthians</i> (1857); 2 <i>Corinthians</i> (1859); <i>Systematic Theology</i> (3 +vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern expositions +of Calvinistic dogmatic; and <i>What is Darwinism</i>? (1874), +in which he opposed “Atheistic Evolutionism.” After his death a +volume of <i>Conference Papers</i> (1879) was published. His life, by his +son, was published in 1880.</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Archibald Alexander Hodge</span> (1823-1886), also +famous as a Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on +the 18th of July 1823. He graduated at the College of New Jersey +in 1841, and at the Princeton Theological seminary in 1846, +and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was a missionary +at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of churches +successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855); +at Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barré, +Pennsylvania (1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor +of didactic and polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological +seminary at Allegheny, Pennsylvania, where he was also from +1866 to 1877 pastor of the North Church (Presbyterian). In +1878 he succeeded his father as professor of didactic theology +at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of November +1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the +author of <i>Outlines of Theology</i> (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged, +1879); <i>The Atonement</i> (1867); <i>Exposition of the Confession of +Faith</i> (1869); and <i>Popular Lectures on Theological Themes</i> (1887).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. A. Salmond’s <i>Charles and A. A. Hodge</i> (New York, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODGKIN, THOMAS<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1831-  ), British historian, son of +John Hodgkin (1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on +the 29th of July 1831. Having been educated as a member of +the Society of Friends and taken the degree of B.A. at London +University, he became a partner in the banking house of Hodgkin, +Barnett & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards amalgamated +with Lloyds’ Bank. While continuing in business as +a banker, Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical +study, and soon became a leading authority on the history of +the early middle ages, his books being indispensable to all +students of this period. His chief works are, <i>Italy and her +Invaders</i> (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); <i>The Dynasty of Theodosius</i> +(Oxford, 1889); <i>Theodoric the Goth</i> (London, 1891); and an +introduction to the <i>Letters</i> of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). +He also wrote a <i>Life of Charles the Great</i> (London, 1897); <i>Life +of George Fox</i> (Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of +Longman’s <i>Political History of England</i> (London, 1906).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODGKINSON, EATON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1789-1861), English engineer, the +son of a farmer, was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire, +on the 26th of February 1789. After attending school at Northwich, +he began to help his widowed mother on the farm, but to +escape from that uncongenial occupation he persuaded her in +1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking business. +There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those +inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work +of his life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an +important series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was +sought by Robert Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions +of the tubes for the Britannia bridge. A paper which he +communicated to the Royal Society on “Experimental Researches +on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and other Materials,” in +1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was also elected +a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the mechanical +principles of engineering in University College, London, and at +the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission +appointed to inquire into the application of iron to +railway structures. In 1848 he was chosen president of the +Manchester Philosophical Society, of which he had been a +member since 1826, and to which, both previously and subsequently, +he contributed many of the more important results of +his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the +discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was +elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield +House, near Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1800-1894), English administrator, +ethnologist and naturalist, was born at Lower +Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st of February 1800. His +father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country gentlemen, +and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of Manchester. +In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After +passing through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to +India in 1818, and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner +was in 1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at +Katmandu, the capital of Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship +in the foreign department at Calcutta, but his +health failed, and in 1824 he returned to Nepal, to which the +whole of his life, whether in or out of India, may be said to have +been thenceforth given. He devoted himself particularly to the +collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism, and hardly less +so to the natural history and antiquities of the country, and by +1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the <i>Transactions</i> +of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of the +ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In +1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy +years in conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was +accredited. He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory +treaty in 1839; but in 1842 his policy, which involved an +imperious attitude towards the native government, was upset by +the interference of Lord Ellenborough, but just arrived in India +and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble in Nepal during the +conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself to disobey +his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own mind +by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the governor-general +could hardly be expected to overlook. He was, nevertheless, +continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843, and +resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at +Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite +pursuits, becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist +religion and on the flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early +suggested the recruiting of Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who +influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend his assistance to the British +during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he returned to England, and +lived successively in Cheshire and Gloucestershire, occupied with +his studies to the last. He died at his seat at Alderley Grange in +the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894. No man has done +so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in Nepal, and +his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the East +India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British +Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He +wrote altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127 +scientific papers, as well as some valuable pamphlets on native +education, in which he took great interest. His principal work, +<i>Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of Buddhists</i> (1841), +was republished with the most important of his other writings +in 1872-1880.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Hungary, in the county +of Csongrád, 135 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) +60,824 of which about two-thirds are Protestants. The town, +situated on Lake Hód, not far from the right bank of the Tisza, +has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding country, of +which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly +fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats, +millet, maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons. +Extensive vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a></span> +red grapes, skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of +Hódmezö-Vásárhely have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are +also extensively reared. The commune is protected from inundations +of the Tisza by an enormous dike, but the town, nevertheless, +sometimes suffers considerable damage during the spring +floods.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:328px" src="images/img558.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">HODOGRAPH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hodos">ὁδός</span>, a way, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to write), a curve +of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a +moving particle. It appears to have been used by James +Bradley, but for its practical development we are mainly indebted +to Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who published an account of it +in the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, 1846. If a point +be in motion in any orbit and with any velocity, and if, at each +instant, a line be drawn from a fixed point parallel and equal to +the velocity of the moving point at that instant, the extremities +of these lines will lie on a curve called the hodograph. Let PP<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">2</span> +be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT<span class="su">1</span>, OT<span class="su">2</span>, be drawn +from the fixed point O parallel +and equal to the velocities at +P, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> respectively, then the +locus of T is the hodograph of the +orbits described by P (see figure). +From this definition we have +the following important fundamental +property which belongs +to all hodographs, viz. that at +any point the tangent to the +hodograph is parallel to the +direction, and the velocity in +the hodograph equal to the +magnitude of the resultant +acceleration at the corresponding +point of the orbit. This +will be evident if we consider +that, since radii vectores of the +hodograph represent velocities in the orbit, the elementary +arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the hodograph +represents the velocity which must be compounded +with the velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any +short interval of time to get the velocity at the end of that +interval, that is to say, represents the change of velocity for +that interval. Hence the elementary arc divided by the element of +time is the rate of change of velocity of the moving-point, or in +other words, the velocity in the hodograph is the acceleration in +the orbit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, <i>Nat. Phil.</i>):—Let x, y, z +be the coordinates of P in the orbit, ξ, η, ζ those of the corresponding +point T in the hodograph, then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ξ =</td> <td>dx</td> +<td rowspan="2">,   η =</td> <td>dy</td> +<td rowspan="2">,   ζ =</td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">therefore</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dξ</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dη</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dζ</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="denom">d²x/dt²</td> <td class="denom">d²y/dt²</td> +<td class="denom">d²z/dt²</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(1).</div> + +<p class="noind">Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>ds</td> +<td rowspan="2">= v = <span class="f150">√ [(</span></td> <td>dξ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dη</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dζ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td> </td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td> </td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td> </td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">√ [(</span></td> <td>d²x</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d²y</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d²z</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt²</td> +<td> </td> <td class="denom">dt²</td> +<td> </td> <td class="denom">dt²</td> +<td> </td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(2).</div> + +<p>Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel +to the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in +the hodograph is equal to the acceleration.</p> + +<p>Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every +hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is +possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other +circumstances of the motion.</p> + +<p>For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical +problems see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1821-1858), known +as “Hodson of Hodson’s Horse,” British leader of light cavalry +during the Indian Mutiny, third son of the Rev. George Hodson, +afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and canon of Lichfield, +was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore Court, near +Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and +accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age +for those days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal +Grenadiers he went through the first Sikh War, and was present +at the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one +of his letters home at this period he calls the campaign a “tissue +of mismanagement, blunders, errors, ignorance and arrogance”, +and outspoken criticism such as this brought him many bitter +enemies throughout his career, who made the most of undeniable +faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir Henry +Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides, +and in 1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with +the civil charge of Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty +demeanour to his equals made him many enemies. In 1855 two +separate charges were brought against him. The first was that +he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar +Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel +Mackeson. The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed +Hodson from his civil functions and remanded him to his regiment +on account of his lack of judgment. The second charge was +more serious, amounting to an accusation of malversation in +the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of inquiry, +who found that his conduct to natives had been “unjustifiable +and oppressive,” that he had used abusive language to his +native officers and personal violence to his men, and that his +system of accounts was “calculated to screen peculation and +fraud.” Subsequently another inquiry was carried out by +Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt simply with Hodson’s accounts +and found them to be “an honest and correct record ... +irregularly kept.” At this time the Guides were split up into +numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances +which made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of +the two inquiries may be set against each other, and this particular +charge declared “not proven.” It is possible that Hodson was +careless and extravagant in money matters rather than actually +dishonest; but there were several similar charges against him. +During a tour through Kashmir with Sir Henry Lawrence he +kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an account +from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of +embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli; +while Sir Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the +third brother, Lord Lawrence, “I am bound to say that Lord +Lawrence had no opinion of Hodson’s integrity in money matters. +He has often discussed Hodson’s character in talking to me, +and it was to him a regret that a man possessing so many fine +gifts should have been wanting in a moral quality which made +him untrustworthy.” Finally, on one occasion Hodson spent +£500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of +exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker +through one of his officers named Bisharat Ali.</p> + +<p>It was just at the time when Hodson’s career seemed ruined +that the Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity +of rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the +campaign he made his name by riding with despatches from +General Anson at Karnal to Meerut and back again, a distance +of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours, through a country swarming +with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased the commander-in-chief +that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000 +irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson’s +Horse, and placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department. +In his double rôle of cavalry leader and intelligence +officer, Hodson played a large part in the reduction of Delhi +and consequently in saving India for the British empire. He +was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed that +daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership +against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he +never received the Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was +because he earned it every day of his life. But he also had +the defects of his qualities, and could display on occasion a +certain cruelty and callousness of disposition. Reference has +already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson money. +During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy +of Bisharat Ali’s, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span> +and had just reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson +thereupon took out a body of his sowars, attacked the village, +and shot Bisharat Ali and several of his relatives. General +Crawford Chamberlain states that this was Hodson’s way of +wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi, Hodson +obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty +horsemen to Humayun’s tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring +in Bahadur Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with +safety in the face of a large and threatening crowd, and thus +dealt the mutineers a heavy blow. On the following day with +100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and obtained the +unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been +left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons +gathered, and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them +to disarm, which they proceeded to do. He sent the princes on +with an escort of ten men, while with the remaining ninety +he collected the arms of the crowd. On galloping after the +princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the escort +and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable +to bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own +hand. This is the most bitterly criticized action in his career, +but no one but the man on the spot can judge how it is necessary +to handle a crowd; and in addition one of the princes, Abu +Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had made himself notorious +for cutting off the arms and legs of English children and pouring +the blood into their mothers’ mouths. Considering the circumstances +of the moment, Hodson’s act at the worst was one of +irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is +that he gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen +by Sir Donald Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably +for a bribe; and he took an armlet and rings from the bodies +of the princes. He was freely accused of looting at the time, +and though this charge, like that of peculation, is matter for +controversy, it is very strongly supported. General Pelham +Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson’s boxes when he accompanied +him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow, +and Sir Henry Daly said that he found “loads of loot” in +Hodson’s boxes after his death, and also a file of documents +relating to the Guides case, which had been stolen from him +and of which Hodson denied all knowledge. On the other hand +the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that he obtained the +inventory of his brother’s possessions made by the Committee +of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir +Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this +evidence. This statement is totally incompatible with Sir +Henry Daly’s and is only one of many contradictions in the +case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his personal knowledge +Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta which +could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand, +again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for £170, +his widow was dependent on charity for her passage home, +was given apartments by the queen at Hampton Court, and +left only £400 at her death.</p> + +<p>Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on +the Begum Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot +and met a man going to fetch powder to blow in a door; instead +Hodson, with his usual recklessness, rushed into the doorway +and was shot. On the whole, it can hardly be doubted that he +was somewhat unscrupulous in his private character, but he was +a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable services to the +empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The controversy relating to Hodson’s moral character is very +complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson’s side see Rev. G. +Hodson, <i>Hodson of Hodson’s Horse</i> (1883), and L. J. Trotter, <i>A +Leader of Light Horse</i> (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, <i>Life +of Lord Lawrence</i>, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E. +Holmes, <i>History of the Indian Mutiny</i>, appendix N to the 5th edition +of 1898, and <i>Four Famous Soldiers</i> by the same author, 1889; and +General Sir Crawford Chamberlain, <i>Remarks on Captain Trotter’s +Biography of Major W. S. R. Hodson</i> (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HODY, HUMPHREY<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1659-1707), English divine, was born +at Odcombe in Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered +Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became fellow in 1685. +In 1684 he published <i>Contra historiam Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus +dissertatio</i>, in which he showed that the so-called letter +of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of the +Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally +circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation +was generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius +published an angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix +to his edition of Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the +<i>Prolegomena</i> to the Greek chronicle of John Malalas, published +at Oxford in 1691. The following year he became chaplain +to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, and for his support +of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry Dodwell regarding +the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to Archbishop +Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under Tenison. +In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford, +and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he +published <i>A History of English Councils and Convocations</i>, and +in 1703 in four volumes <i>De Bibliorum textis originalibus</i>, in +which he included a revision of his work on the Septuagint, and +published a reply to Vossius. He died on the 20th of January +1707.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A work, <i>De Graecis Illustribus</i>, which he left in manuscript, was +published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of +the author.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOE, RICHARD MARCH<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1812-1886), American inventor, +was born in New York City on the 12th of September 1812. He +was the son of Robert Hoe (1784-1833), an English-born American +mechanic, who with his brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew +Smith, established in New York City a manufactory of printing +presses, and used steam to run his machinery. Richard entered +his father’s manufactory at the age of fifteen and became head of +the firm (Robert Hoe & Company) on his father’s death. He had +considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater +speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model +and placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later +developed into the well-known Hoe rotary or “lightning” +press, patented in 1846, and further improved under the name +of the Hoe web perfecting press (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Printing</a></span>). He died in +Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A Short History of the Printing Press</i> (New York, 1902) by his +nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further +improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support +of the New York Metropolitan Museum.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>houe</i> from O.H.G. <i>houwâ</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Haue</i>; +the root is seen in “hew,” to cut, cleave; the word must be +distinguished from “hoe,” promontory, tongue of land, seen in +place names, <i>e.g.</i> Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c.; +this is the same as Northern English “heugh” and is connected +with “hang”), an agricultural and gardening implement used +for extirpating weeds, for stirring the surface-soil in order to +break the capillary channels and so prevent the evaporation of +moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops and +similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary +garden-hoe (numbered <i>1</i> in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade +set transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe +(<i>2</i>), which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion +of a spade; and the swan-neck hoe (<i>3</i>), the best manual hoe +for agricultural purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach +the blade to the handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is +thus avoided and a longer stroke obtained. Several types of +horse-drawn hoe capable of working one or more rows at a time +are used among root and grain crops. The illustrations show +two forms of the implement, the blades of which differ in shape +from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use for hoeing +between two lines of beans or turnips or other “roots.” Fig. 3 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span> +is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible +into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used +in grain crops, the blades may be raised and lowered by means +of a lever. The horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles +in the rear, but its successful working depends on accurate +drilling of the seed, because unless the rows are parallel the roots +of the plants are liable to be cut and the foliage injured. Thus +Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose name the beginning of +the practice of horse-hoeing is principally connected, used the +drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in the so-called +“Horse-hoeing Husbandry” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:113px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Three Forms of Manual Hoe.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:245px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Martin’s One-Row Horse Hoe.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:346px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Martin’s General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOEFNAGEL, JORIS<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver, +the son of a diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He +travelled abroad, making drawings from archaeological subjects, +and was a pupil of Jan Bol at Mechlin. He was afterwards +patronized by the elector of Bavaria at Munich, where he stayed +eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at Prague. He died +at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work, especially +on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted +animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history; +and his engravings (especially for Braun’s <i>Civitates orbis +terrarum</i>, 1572, and Ortelius’s <i>Theatrum orbis terrarum</i>, 1570) +give him an interesting place among early topographical +draughtsmen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOF,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper +Franconia, beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern +spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig +on the main line of railway to Regensburg and Munich. Pop. +(1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one Roman Catholic +and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of St +Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a +gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school +and a hospital founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing +industries, notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute +weaving, and the manufacture of cotton and half-woollen +fabrics. It has also dye-works, flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries, +iron-works, and manufactures of machinery, iron and tin wares, +chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood there are large +marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof, originally +called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some +time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves +of Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into +it in the 15th century, and the manufacture of veils begun +in the 16th century, greatly promoted its prosperity, but it +suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite wars as well +as in the Thirty Years’ War. In 1792 it came into the possession +of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was incorporated +with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town +was destroyed by fire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ernst, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt +Hof</i> (1866); Tillmann, <i>Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung</i> (Hof, +1899), and C. Meyer, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof</i> (1894-1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFER, ANDREAS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born +on the 22nd of November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier +valley. There his father kept an inn known as “am Sand,” +which Hofer inherited, and on that account he was popularly +known as the “Sandwirth.” In addition to this he carried on +a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy, acquiring +a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars +against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a +sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the +treaty of Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria +to Bavaria, and Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to +the Austrian house, became conspicuous as a leader of the +agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808 he formed one of a +deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of the archduke +John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the +Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the +contingent from his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming +defeat on the Bavarians at Sterzing (April 11). This victory, +which resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck +by the Austrians, made Hofer the most conspicuous of the +insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon, indeed, +and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke +Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians, +who reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of +the troops, however, gave the Tirolese their chance again; +after two battles fought on the Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the +Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer +entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of the +emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be +concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the +Austrian monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished, +returned to his home. Then came the news of the armistice +of Znaim (July 12), by which Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered +by Austria unconditionally and given up to the vengeance +of the French. The country was now again invaded by +40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but +the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French +“atheists and freemasons,” and, after a temporary hesitation, +Hofer—on whose head a price had been placed—threw himself +into the movement. On the 13th of August, in another battle +on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal Lefebvre were routed +by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more entered Innsbruck, +which he had some difficulty in saving from sack. Hofer was +now elected <i>Oberkommandant</i> of Tirol, took up his quarters in +the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country +in the emperor’s name. He preserved the habits of a simple +peasant, and his administration was characterized in part by +the peasant’s shrewd common sense, but yet more by a pious +solicitude for the minutest details of faith and morals. On the +29th of September Hofer received from the emperor a chain and +medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief that Austria +did not intend again to desert him; the news of the conclusion +of the treaty of Schönbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was +again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming +surprise. The French in overpowering force at once pushed +into the country, and, an amnesty having been stipulated in +the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation, +gave in their submission. On the 12th of November, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span> +urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant leaders and +deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again +issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The +summons met with little response; the enemy advanced in +irresistible force, and Hofer, a price once more set on his head, +had to take refuge in the mountains. His hiding-place was +betrayed by one of his neighbours, named Josef Raffl, and on +the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian troops +and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by court-martial, +and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four +hours after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed +to be due to Napoleon’s direct orders, caused an immense +sensation throughout Germany and did much to inflame popular +sentiment against the French. At the court of Austria, too, +which was accused of having cynically sacrificed the hero, it +produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he visited +Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie +Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the +emperor. Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the +execution had been carried out against his wishes, having been +hurried on by the zeal of his generals. In 1823 Hofer’s remains +were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were +interred in the Franciscan church, and in 1834 a marble statue +was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue of him +was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds +of heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually +in the open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon +him by the Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his +family.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs +Andr. Hofer</i> (Berlin, 1810); <i>Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection +im Jahre 1809</i> (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, <i>Geschichte Andr. +Hofer’s Sandwirths auf Passeyr</i> (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, <i>Das Thal +Passeyr und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Andreas +Hofer und das Jahr 1809</i> (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, <i>Tirol im Jahr +1809</i> (Innsbruck, 1852); Weidinger, <i>Andreas Hofer und seine +Kampfgenossen</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, <i>Andreas Hofer</i> +(Munich, 1874); Stampfer, <i>Sandwirt Andreas Hofer</i> (Freiburg, 1874); +Schmölze, <i>Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen</i> (Innsbruck, 1900). +His history has supplied the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach +and Immermann, and for numerous ballads, of which some remain +very popular in Germany (see Franke, <i>Andreas Hofer im Liede</i>, +Innsbruck, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖFFDING, HARALD<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1843-  ), Danish philosopher, +was born and educated in Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster, +and ultimately in 1883 professor in the university of +Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Sören Kierkegaard +in the early development of his thought, but later became a +positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit +and method of practical psychology and the critical school. +His best-known work is perhaps his <i>Den nyere Filosofis Historie</i> +(1894), translated into English from the German edition (1895) +by B. E. Meyer as <i>History of Modern Philosophy</i> (2 vols., 1900), +a work intended by him to supplement and correct that of +Hans Bröchner, to whom it is dedicated. His <i>Psychology, the +Problems of Philosophy</i> (1905) and <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> (1906) +also have appeared in English.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among Höffding’s other writings, practically all of which have +been translated into German, are: <i>Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid</i> +(1874); <i>Etik</i> (1876; ed. 1879); <i>Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag +of Erfaring</i> (ed. 1892); <i>Psykologiske Undersogelser</i> (1889); <i>Charles +Darwin</i> (1889); <i>Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang</i> +(1893); <i>Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme</i> (1899); +<i>Rousseau und seine Philosophie</i> (1901); <i>Mindre Arbejder</i> (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1798-1874), known as +<span class="sc">Hoffmann von Fallersleben</span>, German poet, philologist and +historian of literature, was born at Fallersleben in the duchy +of Lüneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of April 1798, the son of the +mayor of the town. He was educated at the classical schools +of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the universities +of Göttingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study +theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature. +In 1823 he was appointed custodian of the university library +at Breslau, a post which he held till 1838. He was also made +extraordinary professor of the German language and literature +at that university in 1830, and ordinary professor in 1835; +but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in consequence of his +<i>Unpolitische Lieder</i> (1840-1841), which gave much offence to +the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany, +Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in +Mecklenburg, of which he became a naturalized citizen. After +the revolution of 1848 he was enabled to return to Prussia, where +he was restored to his rights, and received the <i>Wartegeld</i>—the +salary attached to a promised office not yet vacant. He married +in 1849, and during the next ten years lived first in Bingerbrück, +afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar, where together +with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the <i>Weimarische +Jahrbuch</i> (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to +the Duke of Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near +Höxter on the Weser, where he died on the 19th of January +1874. Fallersleben was one of the best popular poets of modern +Germany. In politics he ardently sympathized with the progressive +tendencies of his time, and he was among the earliest +and most effective of the political poets who prepared the way +for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he acquired +distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with which +he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life. +Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he +composed melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable +number of them are sung by all classes in every part of Germany. +Among the best known is the patriotic <i>Deutschland, Deutschland +über Alles</i>, composed in 1841 on the island of Heligoland, where +a monument was erected in 1891 to his memory (subsequently +destroyed).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best of his poetical writings is his <i>Gedichte</i> (1827; 9th ed., +Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his <i>Alemannische +Lieder</i> (1826; 5th ed., 1843), <i>Soldatenlieder</i> (1851), <i>Soldatenleben</i> +(1852), <i>Rheinleben</i> (1865), and in his <i>Fünfzig Kinderlieder</i>, <i>Fünfzig +neue Kinderlieder</i>, and <i>Alte und neue Kinderlieder</i>. His <i>Unpolitische +Lieder</i>, <i>Deutsche Lieder aus der Schweiz</i> and <i>Streiflichter</i> are not +without poetical value, but they are mainly interesting in relation to +the movements of the age in which they were written. As a student +of ancient Teutonic literature Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks +among the most persevering and cultivated of German scholars, +some of the chief results of his labours being embodied in his <i>Horae +Belgicae</i>, <i>Fundgruben für Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur</i>, +<i>Altdeutsche Blätter</i>, <i>Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte</i> and +<i>Findlinge</i>. Among his editions of particular works may be named +<i>Reineke Vos</i>, <i>Monumenta Elnonensia</i> and <i>Theophilus</i>. <i>Die deutsche +Philologie im Grundriss</i> (1836) was at the time of its publication a +valuable contribution to philological research, and historians of +German literature still attach importance to his <i>Geschichte des +deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luther</i> (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), <i>Unsere +volkstümlichen Lieder</i> (3rd ed., 1869) and <i>Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder +des 16. und 17. Jahrh.</i> (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870 +Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an autobiography, <i>Mein Leben: +Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen</i> (an abbreviated ed. in 2 vols., +1894). His <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were edited by H. Gerstenberg in +8 vols. (1891-1894); his <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i> by H. Benzmann +(1905, 4 vols.). See also <i>Briefe von Hoffmann von Fallersleben und +Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf</i> (1874); J. M. Wagner, <i>Hoffmann +von Fallersleben, 1818-1868</i> (1869-1870), and R. von Gottschall, +<i>Porträts und Studien</i> (vol. v., 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1776-1822), +German romance-writer, was born at Königsberg on the 24th +of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he himself substituted +Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived unhappily +together, and when the child was only three they separated. +His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding +nor sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament. +Hoffmann showed more talent for music and drawing than for +books. In 1792, when little over sixteen years old, he entered +the university of Königsberg, with a view to preparing himself +for a legal career. The chief features of interest in his student +years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb von +Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an +unhappy passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons; +the latter found its outlet, not merely in music, but also in two +novels, neither of which he was able to have published. In the +summer of 1795 he began his practical career as a jurist in +Königsberg, but his mother’s death and the complications in +which his love-affair threatened to involve him made him decide +to leave his native town and continue his legal apprenticeship +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> +in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to Berlin, +where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in +the air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart, +and the Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.</p> + +<p>In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he +gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately, +however, his brilliant powers of caricature brought him +into ill odour, and instead of receiving the hoped-for preferment +in Posen itself, he found himself virtually banished to the little +town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before leaving Posen he married, +and his domestic happiness alleviated to some extent the +monotony of the two years’ exile. His leisure was spent in +literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was +transferred to Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849), +he was introduced to Zacharias Werner, and began to take +an interest in the later Romantic literature; now, for the first +time, he discovered how writers like Novalis, Tieck, and especially +Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own heart. But in spite +of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was mainly +occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano’s <i>Lustige +Musikanten</i> and Werner’s <i>Kreuz an der Ostsee</i>, and also an opera +<i>Liebe und Eifersucht</i>, based on Calderón’s drama <i>La Banda +y la Flor</i>.</p> + +<p>The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent +political changes put an end to Hoffmann’s congenial life there, +and a time of tribulation followed. A position which he obtained +in 1808 as musical director of a new theatre in Bamberg availed +him little, as within a very short time the theatre was bankrupt +and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But these misfortunes +induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out +the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving +music lessons. The editor of the <i>Allgemeine musikalische +Zeitung</i> expressed his willingness to accept contributions from +Hoffmann, and here appeared for the first time some of the +musical sketches which ultimately passed over into the <i>Phantasiestücke +in Callots Manier</i>. This work appeared in four volumes in +1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer. Meanwhile, +Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the capacity +of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose headquarters +were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity +that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin, +and two years later he was appointed councillor of the Court +of Appeal (<i>Kammergericht</i>). Hoffmann had the reputation of +being an excellent jurist and a conscientious official; he had +leisure for literary pursuits and was on the best of terms with +the circle of Romantic poets and novelists who gathered round +Fouqué, Chamisso and his old friend Hitzig. Unfortunately, +however, the habits of intemperance which, in earlier years, +had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his +health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the +wine-house, in company unworthy of him. He was struck down +by locomotor ataxy, and died on the 24th of July 1822.</p> + +<p>The <i>Phantasiestücke</i>, which had been published with a +commendatory preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816 +by the gruesome novel—to some extent inspired by Lewis’s +<i>Monk—Die Elixiere des Teufels</i>, and the even more gruesome +and grotesque stories which make up the <i>Nachtstücke</i> (1817, +2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann’s powers is first clearly +displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols., 1819-1821) <i>Die +Serapionsbrüder</i>, this being the name of a small club of Hoffmann’s +more intimate literary friends. <i>Die Serapionsbrüder</i> includes not +merely stories in which Hoffmann’s love for the mysterious +and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws +on his own early reminiscences (<i>Rat Krespel</i>, <i>Fermate</i>), finely +outlined pictures of old German life (<i>Der Artushof</i>, <i>Meister +Martin der Küfner und seine Gesellen</i>), and vivid and picturesque +incidents from Italian and French history (<i>Doge und Dogaressa</i>, +the story of Marino Faliero, and <i>Das Fräulein von Scuderi</i>). +The last-mentioned story is usually regarded as Hoffmann’s +masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to Hoffmann’s +later years and display to advantage his powers as a humorist; +these are <i>Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober</i> (1819), and <i>Lebensansichten +des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des +Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler</i> (1821-1822).</p> + +<p>Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic +movement in Germany. He combined with a humour that +reminds us of Jean Paul the warm sympathy for the artist’s +standpoint towards life, which was enunciated by early Romantic +leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was superior to +all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His +works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes—in this respect +they mark a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school; +but the gruesome was only one outlet for Hoffmann’s genius, +and even here the secret of his power lay not in his choice of +subjects, but in the wonderfully vivid and realistic presentation +of them. Every line he wrote leaves the impression behind it +that it expresses something felt or experienced; every scene, +vision or character he described seems to have been real and +living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word, +that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary +a power over his contemporaries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first collected edition of Hoffmann’s works appeared in ten +volumes (<i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i>, 1827-1828); to these his widow +added five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E. +Hitzig’s <i>Aus Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass</i>, 1823). Other editions +of his works appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and, +most complete of all, <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15 +vols. (1900). There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap +reprints of the more popular stories. All Hoffmann’s important +works—except <i>Klein Zaches</i> and <i>Kater Murr</i>—have been translated +into English: <i>The Devil’s Elixir</i> (1824), <i>The Golden Pot</i> by Carlyle +(in <i>German Romance</i>, 1827), <i>The Serapion Brethren</i> by A. Ewing +(1886-1892), &c. In France Hoffmann was even more popular than +in England. Cp. G. Thurau, <i>Hoffmanns Erzählungen in Frankreich</i> +(1896). An edition of his <i>Œuvres complètes</i> appeared in 12 vols. in +Paris in 1830. The best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger, +<i>E. T. A. Hoffmann</i> (1894); see also O. Klinke, <i>Hoffmanns Leben und +Werke vom Standpunkte eines Irrenarztes</i> (1903); and the exhaustive +bibliography in Goedeke’s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen +Dichtung</i>, 2nd ed., vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1760-1828), French +dramatist and critic, was born at Nancy on the 11th of July +1760. He studied law at the university of Strassburg, but a +slight hesitation in his speech precluded success at the bar, and +he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served, however, +for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some +poems which brought him into notice at the little court of +Lunéville over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided. +In 1784 he went to Paris, and two years later produced the opera +<i>Phèdre</i>. His opera <i>Adrien</i> (1792) was objected to by the government +on political grounds, and Hoffmann, who refused to +make the changes proposed to him, ran considerable risk under +the revolutionary government. His later operas, which were +numerous, were produced at the Opéra Comique. In 1807 he +was invited by Étienne to contribute to the <i>Journal de l’Empire</i> +(afterwards the <i>Journal des débats</i>). Hoffmann’s wide reading +qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, +apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine +to violent attacks on the Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand’s +<i>Martyrs</i> led the author to make some changes in a later +edition. He had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious +and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide +influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April 1828. +Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent +one-act comedy, <i>Le Roman d’une heure</i> (1803), and an amusing +one-act opera <i>Les Rendez-vous bourgeois</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sainte-Beuve, “M. de Feletz et la critique littéraire sous +l’Empire” in <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1660-1742), German physician, +a member of a family that had been connected with medicine +for 200 years before him, was born at Halle on the 19th of +February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native town he +acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he +attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen +he went to study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed +to Erfurt, in order to attend Kasper Cramer’s lectures on +chemistry. Next year, returning to Jena, he received his +doctor’s diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, was permitted to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span> +teach. Constant study then began to tell on his health, and in +1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded to +Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a +relative who held a high position in that town. After practising +at Minden for two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland +and England, where he formed the acquaintance of many +illustrious chemists and physicians. Towards the end of 1684 +he returned to Minden, and during the next three years he +received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed +to the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title +of physician to the principality of Halberstadt; and on the +founding of Halle university in 1693, his reputation, which had +been steadily increasing, procured for him the primarius chair +of medicine, while at the same time he was charged with the +responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new medical +faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With +the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at +Berlin in the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the +rest of his life at Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted +now and again by visits to different courts of Germany, +where his services procured him honours and rewards. His +fame became European. He was enrolled a member of many +learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his own +he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of +November 1742.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller’s +<i>Bibliotheca medicinae practicae</i>. The chief is <i>Medicina rationalis +systematica</i>, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in +1730. It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of +<i>Médecine raisonnée d’Hoffmann</i>. A complete edition of Hoffmann’s +works, with a life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740, +to which supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared +also at Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medicine</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1805-1878), German +scholar, was born at Würzburg on the 16th of February 1805. +After studying at Würzburg he went on the stage in 1825; but +owing to an accidental meeting with the German traveller, +Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July 1830, his +interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold +he acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take +advantage of the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese +teacher whom Siebold had brought home with him, he made +himself acquainted with Malay, the only language except +Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few years +he was able to supply the translations for Siebold’s <i>Nippon</i>; +and the high character of his work soon attracted the attention +of older scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and +he would probably have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement +had broken out between him and Siebold, had not M. +Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed him Japanese +translator with a salary of 1800 florins (£150). The Dutch +authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and +he was too modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It +was not till after he had received the offer of the professorship +of Chinese in King’s College, London, that the authorities made +him professor at Leiden and the king allowed him a yearly +pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the order of the +Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding +member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the +23rd of January 1878.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hoffmann’s chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary, +begun in 1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at +first to procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of +punches, and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to +act as his own compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned. +His Japanese grammar (<i>Japanische <span class="correction" title="amended from Sprechlehre">Sprachlehre</span></i>) was +published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in English and German +in 1876. Of his miscellaneous productions it is enough to mention +“Japans Bezüge mit der koraischen Halbinsel und mit Schina” in +<i>Nippon</i>, vii.; <i>Yo-San-fi-Rok</i>, <i>L’Art d’élever les vers à soie au Japon, +par Ouckaki Mourikouni</i> (Paris, 1848); “Die Heilkunde in Japan” +in <i>Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. für Natur- und Völkerk. Ost-Asiens</i> +(1873-1874); and <i>Japanische Studien</i> (1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1818-1892), German +chemist, was born at Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not +intending originally to devote himself to physical science, he +first took up the study of law and philology at Göttingen, and +the general culture he thus gained stood him in good stead +when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began under +Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was +started in London, under the style of the Royal College of +Chemistry, Hofmann, largely through the influence of the Prince +Consort, was appointed its first director. It was with some +natural hesitation that he, then a <i>Privatdozent</i> at Bonn, accepted +the position, which may well have seemed rather a precarious +one; but the difficulty was removed by his appointment as +extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence for two +years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his +English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college +was more or less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm +and energy, and many of the men who were trained there subsequently +made their mark in chemical history. But in 1864 +he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he was selected +to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and director +of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England, +of which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann +was probably influenced by a combination of causes. The public +support extended to the college of chemistry had been dwindling +for some years, and before he left it had ceased to have an +independent existence and had been absorbed into the School +of Mines. This event he must have looked upon as a curtailment +of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition, there is only +too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the +general apathy with which his science was regarded in England. +No man ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent +on the advance of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a +country’s material prosperity, and no single chemist ever +exercised a greater or more direct influence upon industrial +development. In England, however, people cared for none +of these things, and were blind to the commercial potentialities +of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann devoted +nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the coal-tar +industry, which was really brought into existence by his +work and that of his pupils under his direction at that college, +and which with a little intelligent forethought might have been +retained in England, was allowed to slip into the hands of +Germany, where it is now worth millions of pounds annually; +and Hofmann himself was compelled to return to his native +land to find due appreciation as one of the foremost chemists +of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin, and there +he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a permanent +memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the +German Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which +was formally opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an +account of that great triumph of German chemical enterprise, +the industrial manufacture of synthetical indigo.</p> + +<p>Hofmann’s work covered a wide range of organic chemistry, +though with inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research, +carried out in Liebig’s laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar, +and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha +established the nature of aniline. This substance he used to +refer to as his first love, and it was a love to which he remained +faithful throughout his life. His perception of the analogy between +it and ammonia led to his famous work on the amines and +ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus compounds, +while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared in 1858, +formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring matters +which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition +to these and numberless other investigations for which he was +responsible the influence he exercised through his pupils must +also be taken into account. As a teacher, besides the power of +accurately gauging the character and capabilities of those who +studied under him, he had the faculty of infecting them with +his own enthusiasm, and thus of stimulating them to put forward +their best efforts. In the lecture-room he laid great stress on +the importance of experimental demonstrations, paying particular +attention to their selection and arrangement, though, since he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> +himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual +exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was +the possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style, +which showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary +notices or encomiums (collected and published in three volumes +<i>Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde</i>, 1888). He also +excelled as a speaker, particularly at gatherings of an international +character, for in addition to his native German he could speak +English, French and Italian with fluency.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society, 1893-1900</i> +(London, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1810-1877), +Lutheran theologian and historian, was born on the 21st +of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and studied theology and +history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he went to +Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke +and Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an +appointment to teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of +Erlangen. In 1835 he became <i>Repetent</i>, in 1838 <i>Privatdozent</i> +and in 1841 <i>professor extraordinarius</i> in the theological faculty +at Erlangen. In 1842 he became <i>professor ordinarius</i> at Rostock, +but in 1845 returned once more to Erlangen as the successor of +Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless (1806-1879), founder of +the <i>Zeitschrift für Protestantismus und Kirche</i>, of which Hofmann +became one of the editors in 1846, J. F. Höfling (1802-1853) and +Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his collaborators. He +was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic adherent of +the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for Erlangen +and Fürth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868. +He died on the 20th of December 1877.</p> + +<p>He wrote <i>Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen +des Daniel</i> (1836); <i>Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen</i> +(1837); <i>Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte für Gymnasien</i> (1839), which +became a text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria; +<i>Weissagung u. Erfüllung im alten u. neuen Testamente</i> (1841-1844; +2nd ed., 1857-1860); <i>Der Schriftbeweis</i> (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); +<i>Die heilige Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhängend +untersucht</i> (1862-1875); <i>Schutzschriften</i> (1856-1859), in which he +defends himself against the charge of denying the Atonement; +and <i>Theologische Ethik</i> (1878). His most important works are +the five last named. In theology, as in ecclesiastical polity, +Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type, although the +strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him +open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head +of what has been called the Erlangen School, and “in his day +he was unquestionably the chief glory of the University of +Erlangen” (Lichtenberger).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> and the +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, <i>History +of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889) pp. 446-458.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, MELCHIOR<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was +born at Hall, in Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498). +His biographers usually give his surname as above; in his printed +works it is Hoffman, in his manuscripts Hoffmann. He was +without scholarly training, and first appears as a furrier at +Livland. Attracted by Luther’s doctrine, he came forward +as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious +mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or +furrier, and a religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden. +Joined by Bernard Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm +in the autumn of 1524. Their fervid attacks on image worship +led to their expulsion. By way of Livonia, Hofmann arrived +at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven thence in the +following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to +Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the +22nd of June 1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year. +He was again at Dorpat in May 1526; later at Magdeburg. +Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly received; he wrote +there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing to Holstein, +he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and +was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel. +He was extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian +view of the Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of +preachers in Flensburg (8th April 1529) Hofmann, John +Campanus and others were put on their defence. Hofmann +maintained (against the “magic” of the Lutherans) that the +function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal +for spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was +banished. At Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well +received (1529) till his anabaptist development became apparent. +He was in relations with Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but +assumed a prophetic rôle of his own. Journeying to East +Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden (1532), +securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of +John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him “six months” in +prison, he returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where +we hear of his wife and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse +a vision of “resurrections” of apostolic Christianity, first +under John Hus, and now under himself. The year 1533 was +to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the seat of +the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested. +Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause +with the anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness +of the Most High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to +him by the provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an +anabaptist, were detained in prison, a measure due to the terror +excited by the Münster episode of 1533-1534. The synod, in +1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The last notice of his +imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he probably +died soon after.</p> + +<p>Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy +as having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris +(<i>Weissagung vsz heiliger götlicher geschrifft</i>, and <i>Prophecey oder +Weissagung vsz warer heiliger götlicher schrifft</i>). Bock treats +him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds which Wallace rightly +deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel includes him +among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His +Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation, +only the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin +after regeneration sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot +be saved. His followers were known as Hofmannites or +Melchiorites.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Herrmann, <i>Essai sur la vie et les écrits de M. Hofmann</i> +(1852); F. O. zur Linden, <i>M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertäufer</i> +(1885); H. Holtzmann, in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (1880); +Hegler in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1900); Bock, <i>Hist. Antitrin.</i> +(1776), ii.; Wallace, <i>Antitrin. Biography</i> (1850) iii., app. iii.; +Trechsel, <i>Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin</i> (1839) i.; Barclay, <i>Inner +Life of Rel. Societies</i> (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving +of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, <i>Pansebeia</i> +(1655).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1824-1877), +German botanist, was born at Leipzig on the 18th of +May 1824. He came of a family engaged in trade, and after +being educated at the <i>Realschule</i> of Leipzig he entered business +as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done while +he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without +intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence +he was transferred in 1872 to Tübingen, in succession to H. von +Mohl. His first work was on the distribution of the Coniferae +in the Himalaya, but his attention was very soon devoted to +studying the sexuality and origin of the embryo of Phanerogams. +His contributions on this subject extended from 1847 till 1860, +and they finally settled the question of the origin of the embryo +from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory of +M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not +itself produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already +present in the ovule. He soon turned his attention to the +embryology of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, and gave continuous +accounts of the germination of the spores and fertilization +in <i>Pilularia</i>, <i>Salvinia</i>, <i>Selaginella</i>. Some of the main facts of the +life of ferns and mosses were already known; these, together with +his own wider observations, were worked into that great general +pronouncement published in 1851 under the title, <i>Vergleichende +Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung +köherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +This work will always stand in the first rank of botanical books. +It antedated the <i>Origin of Species</i> by eight years, but contained +facts and comparisons which could only become intelligible on +some theory of descent. The plan of life-story common to them +all, involving two alternating generations, was demonstrated +for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps, Lycopodiaceae, +and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty +which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature +of the author’s time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in +their broad outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired +details. In the light of the theory of descent the +common plan of life-history in plants apparently so diverse as +those named acquires a special significance; but it is one of the +remarkable features of this great work that the writer himself +does not theorize—with an unerring insight he points out his +comparisons and states his homologies, but does not indulge in +explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age +of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote +occasionally on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap, +and curvatures of growing parts, but it was in morphology that +he found his natural sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with +other botanists, a plan was drawn up of a handbook of physiological +botany, of which Hofmeister was to be editor. Though +the original scheme was never completed, the editor himself +contributed two notable parts, <i>Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle</i> +(1867) and <i>Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewächse</i> (1868). The +former gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations +of the vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify +current views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the +spiral theory of leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F. +Schimper and A. Braun. Hofmeister transferred the discussion +from the mere study of mature form to the observation of the +development of the parts, and substituted for the “spiral +tendency” a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact +that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist +between next older branchings of like nature. With this important +work Hofmeister’s period of active production closed; +he fell into ill-health, and retired from his academic duties some +time before his death at Lindenau, near Leipzig, on the 12th of +January 1877.</p> +<div class="author">(F. O. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1845-1909), South African +politician, was born at Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845. +He was educated at the South African College, and at an early +age turned his attention to politics, first as a journalist. He +was editor of the <i>Zuid Afrikaan</i> till its incorporation with <i>Ons +Land</i>, and of the <i>Zuid Afrikaansche <span class="correction" title="amended from Tidjschrift">Tijdschrift</span></i>. By birth, +education and sympathies a typical Dutch Afrikander, he set +himself to organize the political power of his fellow-countrymen. +This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he entered the +Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the +real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six +months—as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry +from May to November 1881. He held no subsequent official +post in the colony, though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington +and Sir Charles Mills the honour of representing the Cape at +the intercolonial conference of 1887. Here he supported the +proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon’s Town to Cape +Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the +imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage, +and moved a resolution in favour of an imperial customs union. +At the colonial conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one +of the Cape representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a +member of the South African customs conference.</p> + +<p>His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived +from his power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control +of the Afrikander Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the +“Farmers’ Association,” and as the Cape farmers were almost +entirely Dutch the Association became a centre of Dutch influence. +When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely +political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it, +and in 1883 amalgamated the Farmers’ Association with it. +Under his direction the constitution of the Bond was modified +by the elimination of the provisions inconsistent with loyalty +to the British crown. But it remained an organization for +obtaining the political supremacy of the Cape Dutch. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) His control over the Bond enabled +him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of office, +to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him +the name of “Cabinet-maker of South Africa.” Although +officially the term “Afrikander” was explained by Hofmeyr +to include white men of whatever race, yet in practice the +influence of the Bond was always exerted in favour of the Dutch, +and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of Cape Colony. +The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with +the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South +Africa; and Hofmeyr’s position might in many respects be +compared with that of Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist +party in Great Britain. In the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884 +Hofmeyr threw all the influence of the Bond into the scale in +favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of the next few years +he began to drift away from President Kruger. He resented +the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger’s +fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden +leap into prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might +overshadow all other Dutch influences in South Africa; above +all he was convinced, as he showed by his action at the London +conference, that the protection of the British navy was indispensable +to South Africa, and he set his face against Kruger’s +intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of acquiring +an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign +powers.</p> + +<p>In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became +premier of Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr’s +influence was a powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland +convention of 1890, as well as in stopping the “trek” to Banyailand +(Rhodesia) in 1891—a notable reversal of the policy he +had pursued seven years before. But the reactionary elements +in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes’s imperialism, and in 1895 +Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the presidency +of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake +there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British +feeling such as had not been known since the days of Majuba. +(The proclamation issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing +Jameson was suggested by Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up +its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became president of the Bond. +By an alteration of the provincial constitution, all power in the +Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a vigilance +committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were +two. As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested +against such abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal, +and urged Kruger even at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable +concessions rather than plunge into a war that might involve +Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a common ruin. In +July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported the +proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited +representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in +September urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed +joint inquiry. During the negotiations of 1899, and after the +outbreak of war, the official organ of the Bond, <i>Ons Land</i>, was +conspicuous for its anti-British attitude, and its violence forced +Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony district under +martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly with +the opinions expressed by <i>Ons Land</i>, but neither did he repudiate +them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters +made his position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the +outbreak of war he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as +a member of the “Conciliation Committee” which came to +England in 1901 in the interests of the Boer republics.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa +and organized the Bond forces for the general election held in +Cape Colony at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the +defeat of the Bond party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy +over the Cape Dutch, but now began to find himself somewhat +out of sympathy with the larger outlook on South African +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> +affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in the Transvaal. +During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the Bond +by some criticisms of the <i>taal</i> and his use of English in public +speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still +largely under his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but +Hofmeyr himself was not a candidate. In the renewed movement +for the closer union of the South African colonies he +advocated federation as opposed to unification. When, however, +the unification proposals were ratified by the Cape parliament, +Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape delegates +to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of +union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences +with the officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of +the draft act, and after the bill had become law went to Germany +for a “cure.” He returned to London in October 1909, where +he died on the 16th of that month. His body was taken to +Cape Town for burial.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1802-1886), Dutch +theologian, was born at Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the +8th of October 1802, and was educated at the Gymnasium and +university of Groningen. For three years (1826-1829) he was +pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then entered upon +his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen. With +his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling +he edited from 1837 to 1872 the <i>Waarheid in Liefde</i>. In this +review and in his numerous books he vigorously upheld the +orthodox faith against the Dutch “modern theology” movement. +Many of his works were written in Latin, including +<i>Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis comparatur</i> +(1826), <i>Institutiones historiae ecclesiae</i> (1835), <i>Institutio theologiae +naturalis</i> (1842), <i>Encyclopaedia theologi christiani</i> (1844). Others, +in Dutch, were: <i>The Divine Education of Humanity up to the +Coming of Jesus Christ</i> (3 vols., 1846), <i>The Nature of the Gospel +Ministry</i> (1858), <i>The “Modern Theology” of the Netherlands</i> +(1869), <i>The Old Catholic Movement</i> (1877). He became professor +emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December +1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOGARTH, WILLIAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1697-1764), the great English +painter and pictorial satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close +in London on the 10th of November 1697, and baptized on the +28th in the church of St Bartholomew the Great. He had two +younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born in 1701. +His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a schoolmaster +and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to +seek that fortune which had been denied to him in his native +Westmorland. The son seems to have been early distinguished +by a talent for drawing and an active perceptive faculty rather +than by any close attention to the learning which he was soon +shrewd enough to see had not made his parent prosper. “Shows +of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant,” he +says, “and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in +me.... My exercises when at school were more remarkable for +the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself.” +This being the case, it is no wonder that, by his own desire, +he was apprenticed to a silver-plate engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble, +at the sign of the “Golden Angel” in Cranbourne Street or +Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he engraved a shop-card +which is still extant. When his apprenticeship began is +not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the +beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have +set up as engraver on his own account. His desires, however, +were not limited to silver-plate engraving. “Engraving on +copper was, at twenty years of age, my utmost ambition.” +For this he lacked the needful skill as a draughtsman; and his +account of the means which he took to supply this want, without +too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly characteristic, +though it can scarcely be recommended as an example. +“Laying it down,” he says, “first as an axiom, that he who +could by any means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect +ideas of the subjects he meant to draw, would have as clear a +knowledge of the figure as a man who can write freely hath +of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and their infinite +combinations (each of these being composed of lines), and would +consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore endeavoured +to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical +memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which +objects were composed, I could by degrees combine and put +them down with my pencil.” This account, it is possible, has +something of the complacency of the old age in which it was +written; but there is little doubt that his marvellous power +of seizing expression owed less to patient academical study +than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor +detail. But he was not entirely without technical training, +since, by his own showing, he occasionally “took the life” to +correct his memories, and is known to have studied at Sir James +Thornhill’s then recently opened art school.</p> + +<p>“His first employment” (<i>i.e.</i> after he set up for himself) +“seems,” says John Nichols, in his <i>Anecdotes</i>, “to have been +the engraving of arms and shop bills.” After this he was +employed in designing “plates for booksellers.” Of these early +and mostly insignificant works we may pass over “The Lottery, +an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme,” and some book +illustrations, to pause at “Masquerades and Operas” (1724), +the first plate he published on his own account. This is a +clever little satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades +of the Swiss adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian +opera-singers, Rich’s pantomimes at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and +last, but by no means least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord +Burlington’s protégé, the architect painter William Kent, who +is here represented on the summit of Burlington Gate, with +Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This worthy, +Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school +of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of +Hogarth’s important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being +that memorable burlesque of the unfortunate altarpiece designed +by the latter for St Clement Danes, which, in deference to the +ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop Gibson took down in 1725. +Hogarth’s squib, which appeared subsequently, exhibits it as +a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726 he +prepared twelve large engravings for Butler’s <i>Hudibras</i>. These +he himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book +illustrations. But he was far too individual to be the patient +interpreter of other men’s thoughts, and it is not in this direction +that his successes are to be sought.</p> + +<p>To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which +have survived as contributions to his biography. He was +engaged by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a +design for the “Element of Earth.” Morris, however, having +heard that he was “an engraver, and no painter,” declined +the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him +for the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of +May 1728, the case was decided in his (Hogarth’s) favour. It +may have been the aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a +painter (coupled perhaps with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling, +owing to the uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies) +that induced him about this time to turn his attention to the +production of “small conversation pieces” (<i>i.e.</i> groups in oil +of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high), many of which +are still preserved in different collections. “This,” he says, +“having novelty, succeeded for a few years.” Among his +other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were “The Wanstead +Conversation,” “The House of Commons examining Bambridge,” +an infamous warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the +chief actors in Gay’s popular <i>Beggar’s Opera</i>.</p> + +<p>On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington +church to Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent’s rival +above mentioned. The match was a clandestine one, although +Lady Thornhill appears to have favoured it. We next hear of +him in “lodgings at South Lambeth,” where he rendered some +assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who opened +Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a <i>ridotto al +fresco</i>. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of +Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman +to make copies of the later series of the “Four Times of the Day.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> +In return, the grateful Tyers presented him with a gold pass +ticket “<i>In perpetuam Beneficii Memoriam</i>.” It was long thought +that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr Warwick Wroth (<i>Numismatic +Chronicle</i>, vol. xviii.) doubts this, although he thinks it +probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver Vauxhall +passes which are figured in Wilkinson’s <i>Londina illustrata</i>. The +only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred +to are the “Large Masquerade Ticket” (1727), another satire +on masquerades, and the print of “Burlington Gate” (1731), +evoked by Pope’s <i>Epistle to Lord Burlington</i>, and defending +Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great +offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.</p> + +<p>By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the +series of moral works which first gave him his position as a great +and original genius. This was “A Harlot’s Progress,” the +paintings for which, if we may trust the date in the last of the +pictures, were finished in that year. Almost immediately afterwards +he must have begun to engrave them—a task he had at +first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in +the <i>Country Journal; or, the Craftsman</i>, 29th of January 1732, +the pictures were then being engraved, and from later announcements +it seems clear that they were delivered to the subscribers +early in the following April, on the 21st of which month an +unauthorized prose description of them was published. We have +no record of the particular train of thought which prompted +these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly assumed +that the necessity for creating some link of interest between +the personages of the little “conversation pieces” above referred +to, led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes +so as to form a sequent narrative. “I wished,” says Hogarth, +“to compose pictures on canvas, similar to representations on +the stage.” “I have endeavoured,” he says again, “to treat +my subject as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, and +men and women my players, who by means of certain actions +and gestures are to exhibit <i>a dumb show</i>.” There was never a +more eloquent dumb show than this of the “Harlot’s Progress.” +In six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is +traced out remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its +shameful and degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened +or abated; the whole is acted out <i>coram populo</i>, with the hard, +uncompassionate morality of the age the painter lived in, while +the introduction here and there of one or two well-known +characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice Gonson give a +vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success. To +say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely +reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto +refused to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of +subscribers to the engravings were entered in the artist’s book. +On the appearance of plate iii. the lords of the treasury trooped +to the print shop for Sir John Gonson’s portrait which it contained. +The story was made into a pantomime by Theophilus Cibber, +and by some one else into a ballad opera; and it gave rise to +numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted on fan-mounts +and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely +pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.</p> + +<p>From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum +(Add. MSS. 23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the +plates, Hogarth was domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James +Thornhill, in the Middle Piazza, Covent Garden (the “second +house eastward from James Street”), and it must have been +thence that set out the historical expedition from London to +Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the British +Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled <i>An Account +of what seem’d most Remarkable in the Five Days’ Peregrination +of the Five Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott, +Hogarth, Thornhill and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th +1732 and Finish’d On the 31st of the Same Month. Abi tu et +fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College Porch</i>. The journal, +which is written by Ebenezer, the father of Garrick’s friend +Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a “frisk”—as +Johnson called it—was in those days, while the illustrations +were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter. +John Thornhill, Sir James’s son, made the map. This version +(in prose) was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth’s +friends, the Rev. Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the +artist’s death both versions were published. In the absence +of other biographical detail, they are of considerable interest +to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved into the +“Golden Head” in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional +absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death. +By December of this year he was already engaged upon the +engravings of a second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as +successful as its predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of +six. The story is unequal; but there is nothing finer than the +figure of the desperate hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house, +or the admirable scenes in the Fleet prison and Bedlam, where +at last his headlong career comes to its tragic termination. The +plates abound with allusive suggestion and covert humour; +but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description of them +here.</p> + +<p>“A Rake’s Progress” was dated June 25, 1735, and the +engravings bear the words “according to Act of Parliament.” +This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap. 13) which Hogarth had been +instrumental in obtaining from the legislature, being stirred +thereto by the shameless piracies of rival printsellers. Although +loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the painter commemorated +his success by a long inscription on the plate entitled +“Crowns, Mitres, &c.,” afterwards used as a subscription ticket to +the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings, +let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the +artist’s productions. That to the “Harlot’s Progress” was +entitled “Boys peeping at Nature,” while the Rake’s Progress +was heralded by the delightful etching known as “A Pleased +Audience at a Play, or The Laughing Audience.”</p> + +<p>We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the +two Progresses, noting first “A Modern Midnight Conversation,” +an admirable drinking scene which comes between them in 1733, +and the bright little plate of “Southwark Fair,” which, although +dated 1733, was published with “A Rake’s Progress” in 1735. +Between these and “Marriage <i>à la mode</i>,” upon the pictures of +which the painter must have been not long after at work, come the +small prints of the “Consultation of Physicians” and “Sleeping +Congregation” (1736), the “Scholars at a Lecture” (1737); the +“Four Times of the Day” (1738), a series of pictures of 18th +century life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred +to; the “Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn” (1738), which +Walpole held to be, “for wit and imagination, without any +other end, the best of all the painter’s works”; and finally the +admirable plates of the Distrest Poet painfully composing a +poem on “Riches” in a garret, and the Enraged Musician +fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra +of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the +pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741. +To this period also (<i>i.e.</i> the period preceding the production +of the plates of “Marriage <i>à la mode</i>”) belong two of those +history pictures to which, in emulation of the Haymans and +Thornhills, the artist was continually attracted. “The Pool of +Bethesda” and the “Good Samaritan,” “with figures seven feet +high,” were painted <i>circa</i> 1736, and presented by the artist to +St Bartholomew’s Hospital, where they remain. They were not +masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion +with Captain Coram’s recently established Foundling Hospital +(1739), which he aided with his money, his graver and his brush, +and for which he painted that admirable portrait of the good +old philanthropist which is still, and deservedly, one of its chief +ornaments.</p> + +<p>In “A Harlot’s Progress” Hogarth had not strayed much +beyond the lower walks of society, and although, in “A Rake’s +Progress,” his hero was taken from the middle classes, he can +scarcely be said to have quitted those fields of observation which +are common to every spectator. It is therefore more remarkable, +looking to his education and antecedents, that his masterpiece, +“Marriage <i>à la mode</i>,” should successfully depict, as the advertisement +has it, “a variety of modern occurrences in high life.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span> +Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century +society, his “Marriage <i>à la mode</i>” has never, we believe, been +seriously assailed. The countess’s bedroom, the earl’s apartment +with its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with +its marble pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to +nature as the frowsy chamber in the “Turk’s Head Bagnio,” +the quack-doctor’s museum in St Martin’s Lane, or the mean +opulence of the merchant’s house in the city. And what story +could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more powerfully told +than this godless alliance of <i>sacs et parchemins</i>—this miserable +tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of invention, +no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has +the merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional +advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the +narrative; and it is matter for congratulation that it is still to +be seen by all the world in the National Gallery in London, +where it can tell its own tale better than pages of commentary. +The engravings of “Marriage <i>à la mode</i>” were dated April 1745. +Although by this time the painter found a ready market for his +engravings, he does not appear to have been equally successful +in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but the +richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures +were wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers +of “old masters.” In February 1745 the original oil paintings +of the two Progresses, the “Four Times of the Day” and the +“Strolling Actresses” were still unsold. On the last day of +that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised kind of +auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols’s <i>Anecdotes</i>, +for the paltry sum of £427, 7s. No better fate attended “Marriage +<i>à la mode</i>,” which six years later became the property of Mr Lane +of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames +which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this +was no doubt due to Hogarth’s impracticable arrangements, +but the fact shows conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries +were to his merits as a painter, and how hopelessly +in bondage to the all-powerful picture-dealers. Of these latter +the painter himself gave a graphic picture in a letter addressed +by him under the pseudonym of “Britophil” to the <i>St James’s +Evening Post</i>, in June 1737.</p> + +<p>But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas, +he occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity +of portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick +as Richard III. he was paid £200, “which was more,” says he, +“than any English artist ever received for a single portrait.” +In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards +beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success.</p> + +<p>We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the +most important of his remaining works. These are “The Stage +Coach or Country Inn Yard” (1747); the series of twelve plates +entitled “Industry and Idleness” (1747), depicting the career +of two London apprentices; the “Gate of Calais” (1749), +which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid to France +by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the “March +to Finchley” (1750); “Beer Street,” “Gin Lane” and the “Four +Stages of Cruelty” (1751); the admirable representations of +election humours in the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled +“Four Prints of an Election” (1755-1758); and the plate of +“Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a Medley” (1762), +adapted from an earlier unpublished design called “Enthusiasm +Delineated.” Besides these must be chronicled three more +essays in the “great style of history painting,” viz. “Paul +before Felix,” “Moses brought to Pharaoh’s Daughter” and the +Altarpiece for St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were +engraved in 1751-1752, the last in 1794. A subscription ticket to +the earlier pictures, entitled “Paul before Felix Burlesqued,” had +a popularity far greater than that of the prints themselves.</p> + +<p>In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself +with his dog Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In +a corner of this he had drawn on a palette a serpentine curve +with the words “The Line of Beauty.” Much inquiry ensued +as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and in an unpropitious +hour the painter resolved to explain himself in writing. The +result was the well-known <i>Analysis of Beauty</i> (1753), a treatise +to fix “the fluctuating ideas of Taste,” otherwise a desultory +essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo +that a figure should be always “Pyramidall, Serpent like and +multiplied by one two and three.” The fate of the book was +what might have been expected. By the painter’s adherents +it was praised as a final deliverance upon aesthetics; by his +enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and the minor +errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of literary +friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of +endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author’s +fame, and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook +it. Moreover, there were further humiliations in store for him. +In 1759 the success of a little picture called “The Lady’s Last +Stake,” painted for Lord Charlemont, procured him a commission +from Sir Richard Grosvenor to paint another picture “upon +the same terms.” Unhappily on this occasion he deserted his +own field of genre and social satire, to select the story from +Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the +heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a +picture in Sir Luke Schaub’s collection by Furini which had +recently been sold for £400. The picture, over which he spent +much time and patience, was not regarded as a success; and +Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his bargain upon the +plea that “the constantly having it before one’s eyes, would be +too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one’s mind.” +Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist’s mortification, and +the delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by +her husband’s desire, his widow valued it at £500, it found no +purchaser until after her death, when the Boydells bought it +for 56 guineas. It was exhibited, with others of Hogarth’s +pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of 1761, for the +catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a Tail-piece +which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by +the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the +National Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and +a repulsive theme, it still commands admiration for its colour, +drawing and expression.</p> + +<p>In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but +three years more to live. These three years were embittered +by an unhappy quarrel with his quondam friends, John Wilkes +and Churchill the poet, over which most of his biographers are +contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded John Thornhill +in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was reappointed +at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted him +in 1762 to do some “timed” thing in the ministerial interest, and +he accordingly published the indifferent satire of “The Times, +plate i.” This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes +and Churchill, and the immediate result was a violent attack +upon him, both as a man and an artist, in the opposition <i>North +Briton</i>, No. 17. The alleged decay of his powers, the miscarriage +of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of the <i>Analysis</i>, were +all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those who had known +his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old artist +was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the +next year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which +will for ever carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill +retaliated in July by a savage <i>Epistle to William Hogarth</i>, to which +the artist rejoined by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands +and ruffles, not the most successful of his works. “The pleasure, +and pecuniary advantage,” writes Hogarth manfully, “which +I derived from these two engravings” (of Wilkes and Churchill), +“together with occasionally riding on horseback, restored me +to as much health as can be expected at my time of life.” He +produced but one more print, that of “Finis, or The Bathos,” +March 1764, a strange jumble of “fag ends,” intended as a +tail-piece to his collected prints; and on the 26th October of +the same year he died of an aneurism at his house in Leicester +Square. His wife, to whom he left his plates as a chief source +of income, survived him until 1789. He was buried in Chiswick +churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his friends +in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian +villa in which from September 1749 until his death he spent +the summer seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of +ownership it was purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway +of Chiswick, who turned it into a Hogarth museum and preserved +it to the nation.</p> + +<p>From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have +been much what from his portrait one might suppose him to +have been—a blue-eyed, honest, combative little man, thoroughly +insular in his prejudices and antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive +like most satirists, a good friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious, +as he somewhere says, in all things to be singular, and not always +accurately estimating the extent of his powers. With the art +connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at war, because, as he +believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the expense of native +talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably, as he +admits, often come “to utter blasphemous expressions against +the divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo.” +But it was rather against the third-rate copies of +third-rate artists—the “ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy +Families and Madonnas”—that his indignation was directed; +and in speaking of his attitude with regard to the great masters +of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs Piozzi:—“The +connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I hate +<i>them</i>, they think I hate <i>Titian</i>—and let them!”</p> + +<p>But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude +of his towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries +failed to recognize adequately his merits as a painter, +and persisted in regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone. +Time has reversed that unjust sentence. He is now held to have +been a splendid painter, pure and harmonious in his colouring, +wonderfully dexterous and direct in his handling, and in his +composition leaving little or nothing to be desired. As an engraver +his work is more conspicuous for its vigour, spirit and +intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He desired that +it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct impress of +his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a +draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work +at times undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness. +If, however, he is judged by his best instead of his worst, he +will not be found wanting in this respect. But it is not after +all as a draughtsman, an engraver or a painter that he claims +his unique position among English artists—it is as a humorist +and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in this light he has never +been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism and dramatic +power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his story, +or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness. +If we regard him—as he loved to regard himself—as “author” +rather than “artist,” his place is with the great masters of +literature—with the Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes +and Molières.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found +in the autobiographical <i>Memoranda</i> published by John Ireland in +1798, and in the successive <i>Anecdotes</i> of the antiquary John Nichols. +Much minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens’s +<i>Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British Museum</i>. +But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &c., relating to +Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and +prints, will be found in the <i>Memoir</i> of Hogarth by Austin Dobson. +First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897, +1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections +are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old +Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works +have permanent homes in public galleries. “Marriage <i>à la mode</i>.” +“Sigismunda,” “Lavinia Fenton,” the “Shrimp Girl,” the “Gate +of Calais,” the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are +all in the National Gallery; the “Rake’s Progress” and the Election +Series, in the Soane Museum; and the “March to Finchley” and +“Captain Coram” in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in +the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait +Gallery. At the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a +very interesting set of sixteen designs for the series called “Industry +and Idleness,” the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace +Walpole.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOGG, JAMES<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the +“Ettrick Shepherd,” was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire +on the 9th of December 1770. His ancestors had been shepherds +for centuries. He received hardly any school training, and +seems to have had difficulty in getting books to read. After +spending his early years herding sheep for different masters, he +was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse, +in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated +with great kindness, and had access to a large collection of +books. When this was exhausted he subscribed to a circulating +library in Peebles. While attending to his flock, he spent a +great deal of time in reading. He profited by the company of +his master’s sons, of whom William Laidlaw is known as the +friend of Scott and the author of <i>Lucy’s Flittin’</i>. Hogg’s first +printed piece was “The Mistakes of a Night” in the <i>Scots +Magazine</i> for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his <i>Scottish +Pastorals</i>. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter +Scott, who was then collecting materials for his <i>Border Minstrelsy</i>. +On Scott’s recommendation Constable published Hogg’s miscellaneous +poems (<i>The Mountain Bard</i>) in 1807. By this work, +and by <i>The Shepherd’s Guide, being a Practical Treatise on the +Diseases of Sheep</i>, Hogg realized about £300. With this money +he unfortunately embarked in farming in Dumfriesshire, and +in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon all his +effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find +that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so +he set off in February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh +as a literary adventurer. In the same year he published a collection +of songs, <i>The Forest Minstrel</i>, to which he was the largest +contributor. This book, being dedicated to the countess of +Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch), and recommended +to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of 100 +guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, <i>The Spy</i>, which +he continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The +appearance of <i>The Queen’s Wake</i> in 1813 established Hogg’s +reputation as a poet; Byron recommended it to John Murray, +who brought out an English edition. The scene of the poem +is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the “wake” +provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival +bards. It was followed by the <i>Pilgrims of the Sun</i> (1815), and +<i>Mador of the Moor</i> (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her +death-bed (1814), had asked her husband to do something for +the Ettrick bard; and the duke gave him a lease for life of the +farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting of about 70 acres of moorland, +on which the poet built a house and spent the last years +of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm Hogg +asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which +should be a kind of poetic “benefit” for himself. Failing in +his applications he wrote a volume of parodies, published in +1816, as <i>The Poetic Mirror, or the Living Bards of Great Britain</i>. +He took possession of his farm in 1817; but his literary exertions +were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had written the prose tales +of <i>The Brownie of Bodsbeck</i> (1818) and two volumes of <i>Winter +Evening Tales</i> (1820), besides collecting, editing and writing +part of two volumes of <i>The Jacobite Relics of Scotland</i> (1819-1821), +and contributing largely to <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>. “The +Chaldee MS.,” which appeared in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> (October +1817), and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn, +was largely Hogg’s work.</p> + +<p>In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale +family, and found himself possessed of about £1000, a +good house and a well-stocked farm. Hogg’s connexion with +<i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> kept him continually before the public; +his contributions, which include the best of his prose works, +were collected in the <i>Shepherd’s Calendar</i> (1829). The wit and +mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his name +as the “Shepherd” of the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>, and represented +him in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the +whole was favourable to his popularity. “Whatever may be +the merits of the picture of the Shepherd [in the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>]—and +no one will deny its power and genius,” writes +Professor Veitch—“it is true, all the same, that this Shepherd +was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James Hogg. He +was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> +with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the +characteristic humour and coarseness of the other.” <i>The Three +Perils of Woman</i> (1820), and <i>The Three Perils of Man</i> (1822), +were followed in 1825 by an epic poem, <i>Queen Hynde</i>, which +was unfavourably received. He visited London in 1832, and was +much lionized. On his return a public dinner was given to him +in Peebles,—Professor Wilson in the chair,—and he acknowledged +that he had at last “found fame.” His health, however, +was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last, +Hogg in 1834 published a volume of <i>Lay Sermons</i>, and <i>The +Domestic Manners and Private Life of Sir Walter Scott</i>, a book +which Lockhart regarded as an infringement on his rights. +In 1835 appeared three volumes of <i>Tales of the Wars of Montrose</i>. +Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was buried in +the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had +seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close; +his presence was associated with all the border sports and +festivities; and as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous +and charitable. It is mainly as a great peasant poet that he +lives in literature. Some of his lyrics and minor poems—his +“Skylark,” “When the Kye comes Hame,” his verses on the +“Comet” and “Evening Star,” and his “Address to Lady +Ann Scott”—are exquisite. <i>The Queen’s Wake</i> unites his +characteristic excellences—his command of the old romantic +ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology and his aerial flights +of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in this work +Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the +ideal and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate +inspiration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hogg’s “Memoir of the Author’s Life, written by himself,” +prefixed to the 3rd edition (1821) of <i>The Mountain Bard</i>, also +<i>Memorials of James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd</i>, edited by his daughter, +Mrs M. G. Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch, +1903), and Sir G. B. S. Douglas, <i>James Hogg</i> (1899) in the “Famous +Scots” series; also <i>The Poems of James Hogg</i>, selected by William +Wallace (1903). John Wilson (“Christopher North”) had a real +affection for Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the +materials placed in his hands for a biography of the poet. The +memoir mentioned on the title-page of the <i>Works</i> (1838-1840) never +appeared, and the memoir prefixed to the edition of Hogg’s works +published by Blackie & Co. (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas +Thompson. See also Wilson’s <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>; Mrs Oliphant’s +<i>Annals of a Publishing House</i>, vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan’s <i>First +Gallery of Literary Portraits</i>; Cunningham’s <i>Biog. and Crit. Hist. of +Lit.</i>; and the general index to <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>. A collected +edition of Hogg’s Tales appeared in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in +1851; his <i>Poetical Works</i> were published in 1822, 1838-1840 and +1865-1866. For an admirable account of the social entertainments +Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see <i>Memoir of Robert Chambers</i> +(1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp. 263-270.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1792-1862), English man of +letters, was born at Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792. +He was educated at Durham grammar school and at University +College, Oxford. Here he became the intimate friend of the +poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled from the +university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the authorship +of the pamphlet <i>The Necessity for Atheism</i>. He was then +sent to study law at York, where he remained for six months. +Hogg’s behaviour to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations +with her husband for some time, but in 1813 the friendship +was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was called to the bar, +and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he inherited +£2000 under Shelley’s will, and in 1855, in accordance with +the wishes of the poet’s family, began to write Shelley’s +biography. The first two volumes of it were published in 1858, +but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a +biography, and Shelley’s representatives refused Hogg further +access to the materials necessary for its completion. Hogg died +on the 27th of August 1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOGMANAY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the name in Scotland and some parts of the +north of England for New Year’s Eve, as also for the cake then +given to the children. On the morning of the 31st of December +the children in small bands go from door to door singing:</p> + +<p class="center f90"> + “Hogmanay<br /> + Trollolay<br /> +Gie’s o’ your white bread and nane o’ your grey”;</p> + +<p class="noind">and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the +form of an oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been +much disputed. Cotgrave (1611) says: “It is the voice of +the country folks begging small presents or New Year’s gifts +... an ancient term of rejoicing derived from the Druids, +who were wont the first of each January to go into the woods, +where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered +mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and +most soverayne against all poyson.” And he connects the word, +through such Norman French forms as <i>hoguinané</i>, with the old +French <i>aguilanneuf</i>, which he explains as <i>au gui-l’an-neuf</i>, “to +the mistletoe! the New Year!”—this being (on his interpretation) +the Druidical salutation to the coming year as the revellers +issued from the woods armed with boughs of mistletoe. But +though this explanation may be accepted as containing the +truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave’s +detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, +and the identical French <i>aguilanneuf</i> remains, like it, in +obscurity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOGSHEAD,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a cask for holding liquor or other commodities, +such as tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure +of capacity, varying with the contents. As a measure for beer, +cider, &c., it equals 54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483) +fixed the hogshead of wine at 63 wine-gallons, <i>i.e.</i> 52½ imperial +gallons. The etymology of the word has been much discussed. +According to Skeat, the origin is to be found in the name for a +cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several +Teutonic languages, in Dutch <i>oxhooft</i> (modern <i>okshoofd</i>), Dan. +<i>oxehoved</i>, O. Swed. <i>oxhufvod</i>, &c. The word should therefore +be “oxhead,” and “hogshead” is a mere corruption. It has +been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such +a measure with the head of an ox (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series +iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman). The <i>New English Dictionary</i> +does not attempt any explanation of the term, and takes +“hogshead” as the original form, from which the forms in other +languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms +<i>hukeshovet</i> and <i>hoekshoot</i> are nearer to the English form, and, +further, the Dutch for “ox” is os.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENASPERG,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> an ancient fortress of Germany, in the +kingdom of Württemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated +on a conical hill, 1100 ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg. +It was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison +of the kingdom of Württemberg. Among the many who have +been interned here may be mentioned the notorious Jew financier, +Joseph Süss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the poet C. F. D. +Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg +originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to +the counts palatine of Tübingen and from them was acquired +in 1308 by Württemberg. In 1535 the fortifications were +extended and strengthened, and in 1635 the town was taken +by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schön, <i>Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg</i> (Stuttgart, 1899); +and Biffart, <i>Geschichte der Württembergischen Feste Hohenasperg</i> +(Stuttgart, 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENFRIEDBERG,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hohenfriedeberg</span>, a village of +Silesia, about 6 m. from the small town of Striegau. It gives +its name to a battle (also called the battle of Striegau) in the +War of the Austrian Succession, fought on the 3rd of June 1745 +between the Prussians under Frederick the Great and the +Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine. +In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter +quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about +Neisse whence he could manœuvre against the Austrians, +whether they invaded Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined +their allies (who, under the duke of Weissenfels, were on the +upper Elbe), and made their advance on Schweidnitz, Breslau +or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards the Elbe, +Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the +edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was +near Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing +(very slowly owing to the poorness of the roads and +the dilatoriness of the Saxon artillery train) from Waldenburg +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> +and Landshut through the mountains, heading for Striegau. +After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May, Frederick had +made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of the +Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian +army was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only +selected officers and patrols watched the debouches of the +mountains. On the other hand the Allies had no intention of +delivering battle, but meant only, on emerging from the +mountains, to take up a suitable camping position and thence +to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing that “the +king was at his wits’ end, and, once the army really began its +retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in +its ranks.” But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed, +the Prussian army was in excellent spirits and eager for the +“decisive affair” promised by the king. On the 3rd of June, +watched by the invisible patrols, the Austrians and Saxons +emerged from the hills at Hohenfriedberg with bands playing +and colours flying. Their advanced guard of infantry and +cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a line of hills +spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to +encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince +Charles and Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of +the line of hills till the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore +in two separate wings, the Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments) +between Günthersdorf and Pilgramshain, the Austrians near +Hausdorf. They were about 70,000 strong, Frederick 65,000.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:573px; height:477px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img571.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by +the enemy’s slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders +to move. About 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk +towards Striegau, the guns on the road, the infantry +and cavalry, in long open columns of companies and squadrons, +over the fields on either side—a night march well remembered +by contrast with others as having been executed in perfect +order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an +advanced detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke +camp silently and moved into position below the hill north-west +of Striegau, which was found to be occupied by Saxon light +infantry outposts. The king’s orders were for Dumoulin and +the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance towards +Häslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to +prolong the line from the marsh to Günthersdorf, covered by +the left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On +the side of the Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have +noticed and reported the king’s movement, for the night was +clear and starlit, but their report, if made, was ignored.</p> + +<p>At 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting +the fire of the Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon +this promptly retired in order to avoid being surrounded. +Dumoulin then posted artillery on the slope of the hill and +deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the village. The +leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on +Dumoulin’s left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the +duke of Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting +his infantry in the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain, +and his cavalry, partly in front of Pilgramshain and partly on +the intervening space, opposite that of the Prussians. But +before the marshy ground was effectively occupied by the duke’s +infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of +Dumoulin’s guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that +was brought up on to the Gräbener Fuchsberg, and then charged +by the Prussian right-wing cavalry, and in the mêlée the Allies +were gradually driven in confusion off the battlefield. The +cavalry battle was ended by 6.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by which time Dumoulin’s +grenadiers, stiffened by the line regiment Anhalt (the “Old +Dessauer’s” own), were vigorously attacking the garden hedges +and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian infantry +in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau +with the right wing of the king’s infantry. The line infantry +of those days, however, did not work easily in bad ground, +and the Saxons were steady and well drilled. After an +hour’s fight, well supported by the guns and continually +reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the prince +expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin +drove the light troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the +Saxons, forming the left wing of the allied army, were in +full retreat.</p> + +<p>While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of +Lorraine had done nothing, believing that the cannonade +was merely an outpost affair for the possession of the +Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out their +respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south +of Günthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but +they had no authority to advance without orders, and +stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the Prussian columns +were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of +the king’s advance was the most delicate of all, and the +moment that he heard from Prince Dietrich that the +marsh was captured he stopped the northward flow of his +battalions and swung them westward, the left wing cavalry +having to cover their deployment. But when one-third +of this cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge +broke. For a time the advanced squadrons were in great +danger. But they charged boldly, and a disjointed cavalry +battle began, during which (Ziethen’s hussars having discovered +a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to +cross. At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von +Nassau charged and drove the Austrians in disorder towards +Hohenfriedberg. This action was the more creditable to the +victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate fractions defeated a +mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to meet them.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and +left had crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and +by 8.30 they were advancing on Günthersdorf and the Austrian +infantry south of that place. Frederick’s purpose was to roll +up the enemy from their inner flank, and while Prince Dietrich, +with most of the troops that had forced the Saxons out of the +marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and one of +Dumoulin’s were brought over to the left wing and sent against +the north side of Günthersdorf. In the course of the general +forward movement, which was made in what was for those +days a very irregular line, a wide gap opened up between the +centre and left, behind which 10 squadrons of the Bayreuth +dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von Gessler, took up +their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers on the +extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the +Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south. +Then Günthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated +by the enemy. But although Frederick rode back from the +front saying “the battle is won,” the Prussian infantry, in spite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span> +of its superior fire discipline, failed for some time to master the +defence, and suffered heavily from the eight close-range volleys +they received, one or two regiments losing 40 and 50% of their +strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still more; feeling +themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy, they +began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and +the Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and “broke +the equilibrium.” These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions +of the enemy and brought in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian +colours, and in this astounding charge they themselves lost no +more than 94 men. By nine o’clock the battle was over, and +the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the +mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night, +were too far spent to pursue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded, +and 7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours. +The Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENHEIM,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the kingdom of +Württemberg, 7 m. S. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came +in 1768 from the counts of Hohenheim to the dukes of Württemberg, +and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built a country house here. +This house with grounds is now the seat of the most important +agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817, was +raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks +as a technical high school with university status.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fröhlich, <i>Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim</i> (Stuttgart, +1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENLIMBURG,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in +the Prussian prov. of Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund. +Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has two Evangelical churches, a Roman +Catholic church and a synagogue. The town is the seat of various +iron and metal industries, while dyeing, cloth-making and linen-weaving +are also carried on here. It is the chief town of the +county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of +Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it +passed to the counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of +Hohenlimburg, which overlooks the town, is now the residence +of Prince Adolf of Bentheim-Tecklenburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENLOHE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a German princely family which took its name +from the district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship, +its two branches were raised to the rank of principalities +of the Empire in 1744 and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they +lost their independence and their lands now form part of the +kingdoms of Bavaria and of Württemberg. At the time of +the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and its +estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned +in the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or +Hohenlohe, near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible +in several of the Franconian valleys, including those of the +Kocher, the Jagst and the Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the +first to take the title of count of Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his +grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters of the emperor +Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe and +Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles. +The latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to +Brandenburg, while the former was divided into several branches, +only two of which, however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and +Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need be mentioned here. +Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I. +(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took +place after the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551 +being specially important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein +and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the +sons of Count George. Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of +Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had become extinct, and its +lands had passed through the marriages of its heiresses into +other families.</p> + +<p>The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended +from the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, +established in 1551. The former of these became Protestant, +while the latter remained Catholic. Of the family +of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several partitions +and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became extinct +in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into three +branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg. +Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of +Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still +alive, the latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen +and Hohenlohe-Öhringen. The Roman Catholic +family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg was soon divided into three +branches, but two of these had died out by 1729. The surviving +branch, that of Schillingsfürst, was divided into the lines of +Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other +divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of +the family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfürst, Jagstberg +and Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst possesses +the duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.</p> + +<p>The principal members of the family are dealt with below.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">I. Friedrich Ludwig</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen +(1746-1818), Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince +Johann Friedrich (d. 1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began +his military career as a boy, serving against the Prussians in the +last years of the Seven Years’ War. Entering the Prussian army +after the peace (1768), he was on account of his rank at once +made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel; in 1778 +he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about +the same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death +of Frederick the Great he was promoted to the rank of major-general +and appointed chief of a regiment. For some years the +prince did garrison duty at Breslau, until in 1791 he was made +governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a corps in the +Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself greatly +in many engagements, particularly in the battle of Kaiserslautern +on the 20th of September. He was at this time the +most popular soldier in the Prussian army. Blücher wrote of +him that “he was a leader of whom the Prussian army might +well be proud.” He succeeded his father in the principality, +and acquired additional lands by his marriage with a daughter +of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a general of +infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the +Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince +Louis Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had +been that of a prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he +allowed his quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence +him unduly. Disputes soon broke out between Hohenlohe and +the commander-in-chief, the duke of Brunswick, the armies +marched hither and thither without effective results, and finally +Hohenlohe’s army was almost destroyed by Napoleon at Jena +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). The prince displayed his usual +personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion +of his corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But +the pursuers followed him up closely, and, still acting under +Massenbach’s advice, he surrendered the remnant of his army +at Prenzlau on the 28th of October, a fortnight after Jena and +three weeks after the beginning of hostilities. Hohenlohe’s +former popularity and influence in the army had now the worst +possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons everywhere +lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as +a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates, +living in self-imposed obscurity until his death on the 15th of +February 1818. He had, in August 1806, just before the outbreak +of the French War, resigned the principality to his eldest +son, not being willing to become a “mediatized” ruler under +Württemberg suzerainty.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">II. Ludwig Aloysius</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein +(1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born +on the 18th of August 1765. In 1784 he entered the service of +the Palatinate, which he quitted in 1792 in order to take the +command of a regiment raised by his father for the service +of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly distinguished +himself under Condé in the campaigns of 1792-1793, especially +at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he +entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded +by the army of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat +from the island of Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +colonel in the Austrian campaigns; in 1799 he was named +major-general by the archduke Charles; and after obtaining the +rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by the emperor +governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to +him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation +of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to +Württemberg. After Napoleon’s fall in 1814 he entered the +French service, and in 1815 he held the command of a regiment +raised by himself, with which he took part in the Spanish +campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and peer +of France. He died at Lunéville on the 30th of May 1829.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">III. Alexander Leopold Franz Emmerich</span>, prince of +Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (1794-1849), priest +and reputed miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near +Waldenburg, on the 17th of August 1794. By his mother, the +daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he was from infancy +destined for the church; and she entrusted his early education +to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the “Theresianum” +at Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archiepiscopal +seminary at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at +Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was ordained priest in 1815, and +in the following year he went to Rome, where he entered the +society of the “Fathers of the Sacred Heart.” Subsequently, +at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and obscurantist +tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation +as a preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected, +in conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of +Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Immediately +he acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous +cures that multitudes from various countries flocked to partake +of the beneficial influence of his supposed supernatural gifts. +Ultimately, on account of the interference of the authorities +with his operations, he went in 1821 to Vienna and then to +Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in 1844 +titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Vöslau near Vienna on +the 17th of November 1849. He was the author of a number +of ascetic and controversial writings, which were collected and +published in one edition by S. Brunner in 1851.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">IV. Kraft</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892), +soldier and military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen +(1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper +Silesia. He was a nephew of the Prince Hohenlohe noticed +above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena. Educated with +great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family estates +during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian +army, and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive +arm of the service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in +1845, and it was soon discovered that he had unusual aptitudes +as an artillery officer. For a time his brother officers resented +the presence of a prince, until it was found that he made no +attempt to use his social position to secure advancement. After +serving as a military attaché in Vienna and on the Transylvanian +frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on the +general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king, +remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864, +having become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-colonel, +he resigned the staff appointments to become commander +of the new Guard Field Artillery regiment and in the following +year he became colonel. In 1866 he saw his first real active +service. In the bold advance of the Guard corps on the Austrian +right wing at Königgratz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Weeks’ War</a></span>), he led the +Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and success, and +after the short war ended he turned his energies, now fortified +by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian +artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned +to command the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he +gained great distinction during the Franco-German war and +especially at Gravelotte and Sedan; he was in control of the +artillery attack on the fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was +placed in command of an infantry division, and three years +later was promoted lieutenant-general. He retired in 1879, +was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of artillery +in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst +them several have become classics. These are <i>Briefe über +Artillerie</i> (Eng. trans. <i>Letters on Artillery</i>, 1887); <i>Briefe über +Strategie</i> (1877; Eng. trans. <i>Letters on Strategy</i>, 1898); and +<i>Gespräche über Reiterei</i> (1887; Eng. trans. <i>Conversations on +Cavalry</i>). The <i>Briefe über Infanterie</i> and <i>Briefe über Kavallerie</i> +(translated into English, <i>Letters on Infantry</i>, <i>Letters on Cavalry</i>, +1889) are of less importance, though interesting as a reflection +of prevailing German ideas. His memoirs (<i>Aus meinem Leben</i>) +were prepared in retirement near Dresden, and the first volume +(1897) created such a sensation that eight years were allowed +to elapse before the publication was continued. Prince Kraft +died near Dresden on the 16th of January 1892.</p> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">V. Chlodwig Karl Victor</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst +(1819-1901), statesman, was born on the 31st of March +1819 at Schillingsfürst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz +Joseph (1787-1841), was a Catholic, his mother, Princess +Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, a Protestant. In accordance +with the compromise customary at the time, Prince Chlodwig +and his brothers were brought up in the religion of their father, +while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite of the +difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to +the spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his +liberal and tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an +important influence on his <span class="correction" title="amended from politcal">political</span> activity. As the younger +son of a cadet line of his house it was necessary for Prince +Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while he thought of +obtaining a commission in the British army through the influence +of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg +(<i>née</i> princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria’s half-sister. He +decided, however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service. +His application to be excused the preliminary steps, which +involved several years’ work in subordinate positions in the +Prussian civil service, was refused by Frederick William IV., +and the prince, with great good sense, decided to sacrifice his +pride of rank and to accept the king’s conditions. As auscultator +in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for jurisprudence, +became a <i>Referendar</i> in September 1843, and after some months +of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam +as a civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were +invaluable, not only as giving him experience of practical affairs +but as affording him an insight into the strength and weakness +of the Prussian system. The immediate result was to confirm +his Liberalism. The Prussian principle of “propagating enlightenment +with a stick” did not appeal to him; he “recognized +the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest circles,” +the tendency to make agreement with the views of the government +the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his +journal (June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of ’48, +“a slight cause and we shall have a rising.” “The free press,” +he notes on another occasion, “is a necessity, progress the +condition of the existence of a state.” If he was an ardent +advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia the instrument +for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the “Prussification” +of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the +unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the +principle of union with the North German states and at the +same time on the preservation of the individuality of the states +of the South.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus +of Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes +Viktor and Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy +of Ratibor in Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia, +and the lordship of Treffurt in the Prussian governmental +district of Erfurt. On the death of Prince Franz Joseph on the +14th of January 1841 it was decided that the principality of +Schillingsfürst should pass to the third brother, Philipp Ernst, +as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided for +already under their uncle’s will, the one with the duchy of +Ratibor, the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest +son, Gustav (b. February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was +destined for the Church. On the death of Prince Philipp Ernst +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +(May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was made: Prince Chlodwig +became prince of Schillingsfürst, while Corvey was assigned to +the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by Prince +Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen. +This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig’s career. +His new position as a “reigning” prince and hereditary member +of the Bavarian Upper House was incompatible with that of a +Prussian official. On the 18th of April 1846 he took his seat +as a member of the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i>, and on the 26th of +June received his formal discharge from the Prussian service.</p> + +<p>Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince +Hohenlohe was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During +the revolutionary years his sympathies were with the Liberal +idea of a united Germany, and he compromised his chances of +favour from the king of Bavaria by accepting the task (November +1, 1848) of announcing to the courts of Rome, Florence and +Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John of Austria +as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to +hope much from a national parliament which “wasted time in +idle babble,” or from a democratic victory which had stunned +but not destroyed the German military powers. On the 16th of +February 1847 he had married the Princess Marie of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, +the heiress to vast estates in Russia.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in Lithuania (1851-1853) +in connexion with the management of the property, a visit +repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe’s life +was occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions +of the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i> and in travels. In 1856 he visited +Rome, during which he noted the baneful influence of the +Jesuits. In 1859 he was studying the political situation at +Berlin, and in the same year he paid a visit to England. The +marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to another princess +of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent visits to +Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch +with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time, +during this period (1850-1866) he was endeavouring to get +into relations with the Bavarian government, with a view to +taking a more active part in affairs. Towards the German +question his attitude at this time was tentative. He had little +hope of a practical realization of a united Germany, and +inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria, Prussia +and Bavaria—the so-called “Trias.” He attended the <i>Fürstentag</i> +at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question +was a supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this +time that, at the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her +regular reports on the political condition of Germany.</p> + +<p>Prince Hohenlohe’s importance in history, however, begins +with the year 1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It +had demonstrated the insignificance of the small and middle +states, “a misfortune for the dynasties”—with whose feelings +a mediatized prince could scarcely be expected to be over-sympathetic—but +the best possible good fortune for the German +nation. In the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i> Hohenlohe now began to +make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia; +clearly, if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every +way best fitted to prepare the way for it. One of the main +obstacles in the way was the temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria, +whose ideas of kingship were very remote from those of the +Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any concession to +Prussian superiority, and who—even during the crisis of 1866—was +more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately +Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and +equally fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of +appreciating “the master’s” genius. It was Wagner, apparently, +who persuaded the king to place Hohenlohe at the head of his +government (<i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>, i. 178, 211), and on the +31st of December 1866 the prince was duly appointed minister +of the royal house and of foreign affairs and president of the +council of ministers.</p> + +<p>As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe’s principal +task was to discover some basis for an effective union of the +South German states with the North German Confederation, +and during the three critical years of his tenure of office he was, +next to Bismarck, the most important statesman in Germany. +He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian army on +the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the +southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of +the customs parliament (<i>Zollparlament</i>), of which on the 28th +of April 1868 he was elected a vice-president. During the +agitation that arose in connexion with the summoning of the +Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude of strong opposition +to the ultramontane position. In common with his brothers, +the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the +policy of Pius IX.—inspired by the Jesuits (that “devil’s +society,” as he once called it)—of setting the Church in opposition +to the modern State would prove ruinous to both, and that the +definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, by raising the +pronouncements of the Syllabus of 1864 into articles of faith, +would commit the Church to this policy irrevocably. This +view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic powers +(April 9, 1869), drawn up by Döllinger, inviting them to exercise +the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine +to prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers, +however, were for one reason or another unwilling to intervene, +and the only practical outcome of Hohenlohe’s action was that +in Bavaria the powerful ultramontane party combined against +him with the Bavarian “patriots” who accused him of bartering +away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The combination +was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for curbing +the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the +elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued +support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870).</p> + +<p>Though out of office, his personal influence continued very +great both at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with +favourable terms of the treaty of the North German Confederation +with Bavaria, which embodied his views, and with its +acceptance by the Bavarian parliament.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Elected a member +of the German Reichstag, he was on the 23rd of March 1871 +chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was instrumental in founding +the new groups which took the name of the Liberal Imperial +party (<i>Liberale Reichspartei</i>), the objects of which were to support +the new empire, to secure its internal development on Liberal +lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the +Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was +from the first a strenuous supporter of Bismarck’s anti-papal +policy, the main lines of which (prohibition of the Society of +Jesus, &c.) he himself suggested. Though sympathizing with +the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he realized that they +were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did not join +them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church +lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In +1872 Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe +Prussian envoy at the Vatican, but his views were too much +in harmony with those of his family, and the pope refused to +receive him in this capacity.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count +Harry Arnim as ambassador in Paris, where he remained for +seven years. In 1878 he attended the congress of Berlin as +third German representative, and in 1880, on the death of +Bernhardt Ernst von Bülow (October 20), secretary of state for +foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head of +the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span> +absence through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed +Manteuffel as governor of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity +he had to carry out the coercive measures introduced by the +chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely disapproved of them;<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +his conciliatory disposition, however, did much to reconcile +the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at Strassburg +till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the emperor, +he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the +chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his +chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.); +as regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs +has very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed +comments which the prince left behind him. In general, during +his term of office, the personality of the chancellor was less +conspicuous in public affairs than in the ease of either of his +predecessors. His appearances in the Prussian and German +parliaments were rare, and great independence was left to the +secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience +of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful +will and impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be +generally known.</p> + +<p>Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the 17th of +October 1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901. +On the 16th of February 1897 he had celebrated his golden +wedding; on the 21st of December of the same year the princess +died. There were six children of the marriage: Elizabeth +(b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst, reigning prince +of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (b. 1853), who married Princess +Charielée Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander, +twins (b. 1862).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been +superseded by the <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig, +1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full +and outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany +and bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for +their publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only +the record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to +the historian for the wealth of material they contain and for appreciations +of men and events by an observer who had the best opportunities +for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal not only as +a capable man of affairs, though falling short of greatness, but as a +personality of singular charm, tenacious of his principles, tolerant, +broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure of the saving grace +of humour.</p> + +<p>See generally A. F. Fischer, <i>Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe</i> (1866-1871); +K. Weller, <i>Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch</i>, 1153-1350 (Stuttgart, +1899-1901), and <i>Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe</i> (Stuttgart, +1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.; C. F. A.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Through her mother, <i>née</i> Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832). +Before Prince Wittgenstein’s death (1887) a new law had forbidden +foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears, +however, to have sold one of his wife’s estates and to have secured +certain privileges from the Russian court for the rest.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Speech of December 30, 1870, in the <i>Reichsrath</i>. <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>, +ii. 36.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> “If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous +occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede +while studying Church history,” <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 92.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic +leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and +supplied historical and theological material to the opposition bishops.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a +war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter +to Wilmowski, <i>Denkw.</i> ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full +responsibility consented to retain office.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENSTAUFEN,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the name of a village and ruined castle +near Lorsch in Swabia, now in the kingdom of Württemberg, +which gave its name to a celebrated Swabian family, members +of which were emperors or German kings from 1138 to 1208, +and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known ancestor +was Frederick, count of Büren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick +built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself +by this name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry +IV., who rewarded his fidelity by granting him the dukedom +of Swabia in 1079, and giving him his daughter Agnes in +marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as Henry’s representative, +but only secured possession of Swabia after a struggle +lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his +son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his +brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III., +held south-west Germany for their uncle the emperor Henry V. +Frederick inherited the estates of Henry V. in 1125, but failed +to secure the throne, and took up an attitude of hostility towards +the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who claimed some of the +estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war broke +out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at +Bamberg. He retained, however, his dukedom and estates. +In 1138 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was elected German king, +and was succeeded in 1152, not by his son but by his nephew +Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother Frederick (d. 1147). +Conrad’s son Frederick inherited the duchy of Franconia which +his father had received in 1115, and this was retained by the +Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1196. In +1152 Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin +the German king Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed +successively to Frederick’s three sons Frederick, Conrad and +Philip. The second Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick +Barbarossa’s son, Henry VI., after whose death a struggle for +the throne took place between Henry’s brother Philip, duke +of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor +Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry’s son, +Frederick II., in 1214, the German kingdom passed to his son, +Conrad IV., and when Conrad’s son Conradin was beheaded in +Italy in 1268, the male line of the Hohenstaufen became extinct. +Daughters of Philip of Swabia married Ferdinand III., king of +Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of Brabant, and a daughter +of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I., married into the +family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was destroyed +in the 16th century during the Peasants’ War, and only a few +fragments now remain.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. von Raumer, <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit</i> +(Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen</i> +(Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, <i>Die +letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, 1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENSTEIN<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany, +in the kingdom of Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and +on the railway Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau. +Pop. (1905) 13,903. Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical +churches, a town hall, restored in 1876, and several monuments +to famous men. The principal industries are the +spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of machines, +stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton +printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also +employed in the neighbouring copper and arsenic mines. +Not far from Hohenstein there is a mineral spring, connected +with which there are various kinds of baths. Hohenstein +is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert +and of C. G. Schröter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the +pianoforte. Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein +and Ernstthal, which were united in 1898.</p> + +<p>Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia. +Pop. (1900) 2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the +Teutonic Order in 1359, has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical +church, a synagogue and several educational establishments.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOHENZOLLERN,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> the name of a castle which stood on the +hill of Zollern about 1½ m. south of Hechingen, and gave its +name to the family to which the present German emperor +belongs. A vague tradition connects the house with the Colonna +family of Rome, or the Colalto family of Lombardy; but one +more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the Burkhardingers, +who were counts in Raetia during the early part of the 10th +century, and two of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo, +a member of this family, is said to have built a castle at Zollern +early in the 9th century; but the first historical mention of +the name is in the <i>Chronicon</i> of a certain Berthold (d. 1088), +who refers to Burkhard and Wezil, or Werner, of Zollern, or +Zolorin. These men appear to have been counts of Zollern, and +to have met their death in 1061. The family of Wezil died out +in 1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns are +descended from Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest +son, Frederick II., was in great favour with the German kings, +Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. Frederick II. died about +1145, and his son and successor, Frederick III., was a constant +supporter of the Hohenstaufen. This count married Sophia, +daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, and +about 1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave, obtaining +also some lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1200, +and his sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled their lands in common +until 1227, when an important division took place. Conrad +became burgrave of Nuremberg, and, receiving the lands which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +had come into the family through his mother, founded the +Franconian branch of the family, which became the more important +of the two; while Frederick, receiving the county of +Zollern and the older possessions of the family, was the ancestor +of the Swabian branch.</p> + +<p>Early in the 12th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick +I., secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained +in the possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count +Sigismund in 1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of +Count Albert II. (d. 1298), played an unimportant part in German +history. Albert, who was a Minnesinger, was loyal to the +declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen, and afterwards supported +his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his efforts to obtain +the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of Rudolph +and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph +of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.). +When this family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to +the Habsburgs.</p> + +<p>The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented +in 1227 by Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor +Frederick II. appointed guardian of his son Henry, and administrator +of Austria. After a short apostasy, during which +he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, Conrad +returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV. +He died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave +Frederick III., had already obtained Bayreuth through his +marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234). +Frederick took a leading part in German affairs, and it is interesting +to note that he had a considerable share in securing the +election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as German king +in 1273. He died in 1297 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick +IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia, +and supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for +his son John; but in 1314, forsaking his father’s policy, he +favoured Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his +struggle with Frederick, duke of Austria, and by his conduct +at the battle of Mühldorf in 1322 and elsewhere earned the +designation of “saviour of the empire.” Frederick, however, +did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the +maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate +privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection. +His services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using +part of his wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought +the town and district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332, +Frederick was succeeded by his son, John II., who, after one of +his brothers had died and two others had entered the church, +ruled his lands in common with his brother Albert. About +1338 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on the strength +of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many robber-fortresses +and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In +general he continued his father’s policy, and when he died in +1357 was succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death +of his uncle Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg, +Ansbach and Bayreuth. Frederick lived in close friendship +with the emperor Charles IV., who formally invested him with +Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of the empire +in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived, +Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system +of public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories +between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following +year. His elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a +daughter of the emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the +company of his brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus +and Sigismund. He died without sons in 1420.</p> + +<p>Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held +by John’s brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg +from King Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg +as Frederick I. (q.v.). On his brother’s death in 1420 he reunited +the lands of his branch of the family, but in 1427 he sold his +rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg. The subsequent +history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is identified with +that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of Prussia +since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick III. +became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king, +took the title of German emperor. While the electorate of +Brandenburg passed according to the rule of primogeniture, +the Franconian possessions of the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and +Bayreuth, were given as appanages to younger sons, an arrangement +which was confirmed by the <i>dispositio Achillea</i> of 1473. +These principalities were ruled by the sons and descendants of +the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after +reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants +of the elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince +Charles Alexander (d. 1806), who had inherited both districts, +sold his lands to Prussia.</p> + +<p>The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns +was weakened by several partitions of its lands; but early in +the 16th century it rose to some eminence through Count Eitel +Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend and adviser of the emperor +Maximilian I. Eitel received from this emperor the district of +Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d. 1576) was +granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vöhringen by the +emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their +lands, and founded three branches of the family, one of which +is still flourishing. Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with +the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen +and Vöhringen and the title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; +and Christopher took Haigerloch. Christopher’s family died +out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of some importance. +Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a +prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon +received the same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the +family entered conjointly into an agreement with Brandenburg, +which provided that, in case of the extinction of either of the +Swabian branches, the remaining branch should inherit its +lands; and if both branches became extinct the principalities +should revert to Brandenburg. During the 17th and 18th +centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the +history of these lands was very similar to that of the other +small estates of Germany. In consequence of the political +troubles of 1848 Princes Frederick William of Hohenzollern-Hechingen +and Charles Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen +resigned their principalities, and accordingly these fell to the +king of Prussia, who took possession on the 12th of March 1850. +By a royal decree of the 20th of May following the title of “highness,” +with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house, +was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince +Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish +throne in 1870 was the immediate cause of the war between +France and Germany. In 1908 the head of this branch of the +Hohenzollerns, the only one existing besides the imperial house, +was Leopold’s son William (b. 1864), who, owing to the extinction +of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869, was called +simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of +Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania, +becoming king in 1881.</p> + +<p>The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long, +narrow strip of territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and +in other directions by Württemberg. It was divided into two +principalities, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen, +until 1850, when these were united. They now +form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.).</p> + +<p>The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has +been restored several times. Some remains of the old building +may still be seen adjoining the present castle, which was built +by King Frederick William IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Monumenta Zollerana</i>, edited by R. von Stillfried and T. +Märker (Berlin, 1852-1890); <i>Quellen und Untersuchungen zur +Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern</i>, edited by E. Berner (Berlin, +1901 fol.); R. von Stillfried, <i>Altertümer und Kunstdenkmale des +erlauchten Hauses von Hohenzollern</i> (Berlin, 1852-1867) and +<i>Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses Hohenzollern</i> (Berlin, 1869); L. +Schmid, <i>Die älteste Geschichte des erlauchten Gesamthauses der +königlichen und fürstlichen Hohenzollern</i> (Tübingen, 1884-1888); +E. Schwartz, <i>Stammtafel des preussischen Königshauses</i> (Breslau +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> +1898); <i>Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch für die Geschichte der +Hohenzollern</i>, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin, 1891-1902); <i>Hohenzollern +Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur Geschichte der Hohenzollern +in Brandenburg-Freussen</i>, edited by Seidel (Leipzig, 1897-1903), +and T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i> (London, 1872-1873).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOKKAIDO,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> the Japanese name for the northern division +of the empire (<i>Hoku</i> = north, <i>kai</i> = sea, and <i>do</i> = road), including +Yezo, the Kuriles and their adjacent islets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOKUSAI<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters +of the Popular School (<i>Ukiyo-ye</i>), was born at Yedo (Tōkyō) +in the 9th month of the 10th year of the period Horeki, <i>i.e.</i> +October-November 1760. He came of an artisan family, his +father having been a mirror-maker, Nakajima Issai. After +some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of eighteen, +entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunshō, a painter and +designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His disregard +for the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion +in 1785; and thereafter—although from time to time +Hokusai studied various styles, including especially that of +Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some fragmentary knowledge +of European methods—he kept his personal independence. +For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he must +have gained sums for his work which might have secured him +comfort, he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly +described himself as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers +of books, of which the world-famous <i>Mangwa</i>, a pictorial encyclopaedia +of Japanese life, appeared in fifteen volumes from +1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the “Thirty-six Views of +Mount Fuji” (the whole set consisting of forty-six prints) were +made between 1823 and 1829; “Views of Famous Bridges” +(11), “Waterfalls” (8), and “Views of the Lu-chu Islands” +(8), are the best known of those issued in series; but Hokusai +also designed some superb broadsheets published separately, +and his <i>surimono</i> (small prints made for special occasions and +ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and beauty. The +“Hundred Views of Mount Fuji” (1834-1835), 3 vols., in +monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety. +As a painter and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese +critics to be of the first rank, but this verdict has never been +accepted by Europeans, who place him among the greatest +artists of the world. He possessed great powers of observation +and characterization, a singular technical skill, an unfailing +gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager +student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said, +“If Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have +become a great painter.” He died on the 10th of May 1849.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. de Goncourt, <i>Hokousaï</i> (1896); M. Revon, <i>Étude sur +Hokusaï</i> (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, <i>Catalogue of the Exhibition of +Paintings by Hokusai at Tōkyō</i> (1901); E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron d’</span> (1723-1789), +French philosopher and man of letters, of German origin, +was born at Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family +little is known; according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a +rich parvenu, who brought his son at an early age to Paris, +where the latter spent most of his life. Much of Holbach’s fame +is due to his intimate connexion with the brilliant coterie of +bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the new philosophy, +is concentrated in the famous <i>Encyclopédie</i>. Possessed of easy +means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house +for Helvétius, D’Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon, +Grimm, Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J. +Rousseau, guests who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure +of their host’s conversation, were not insensible to his excellent +cuisine and costly wines. For the <i>Encyclopédie</i> he compiled +and translated a large number of articles on chemistry and +mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He attracted more +attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In 1767 +<i>Christianisme dévoilé</i> appeared, in which he attacked Christianity +and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed +up by other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in +his most famous book, <i>Le Système de la nature</i>, in which it +is probable he was assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence +of a deity, and refusing to admit as evidence all a priori arguments, +Holbach saw in the universe nothing save matter in spontaneous +movement. What men call their souls become extinct when +the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. “It would +be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man’s being virtuous +if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice +renders him happy, he should love vice.” The restraints of +religion were to be replaced by an education developing an +enlightened self-interest. The study of science was to bring +human desires into line with their natural surroundings. Not +less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political government, +which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like the +first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the +logical consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists. +Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the +Système in the article “Dieu” in his <i>Dictionnaire philosophique</i>, +while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it. Though +vigorous in thought and in some passages clear and eloquent, +the style of the Système is diffuse and declamatory, and asserts +rather than proves its statements. Its principles are summed +up in a more popular form in <i>Bon Sens, ou idées naturelles +opposées aux idées surnaturelles</i> (Amsterdam, 1772). In the +Système social (1773), the <i>Politique naturelle</i> (1773-1774) and +the <i>Morale universelle</i> (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system +of morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but +these later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence +of his earlier work. He published his books either anonymously +or under borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed +out of France. The uprightness and sincerity of his character +won the friendship of many to whom his philosophy was repugnant. +J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have drawn his portrait +in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the <i>Nouvelle Héloïse</i>. He +died on the 21st of January 1789.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Holbach is also the author of the following and other works: +<i>Esprit du clergé</i> (1767); <i>De l’imposture sacerdotale</i> (1767); <i>Prêtres +démasqués</i> (1768); <i>Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St +Paul</i> (1770); <i>Histoire critique de Jésus-Christ</i> (1770), and <i>Ethocratie</i> +(1776). For further particulars as to his life and doctrines +see Grimm’s <i>Correspondance littéraire</i>, &c. (1813); Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i>; +Morellet’s <i>Mémoires</i> (1821); Madame de Genlis, <i>Les Dîners +du Baron Holbach</i>; Madame d’Épinay’s <i>Mémoires</i>; Avezac-Lavigne, +<i>Diderot et la société du Baron d’Holbach</i> (1875), and Morley’s <i>Diderot</i> +(1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLBEACH,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a market town in the Holland or Spalding +parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the +Midland and Great Northern joint railway, 23½ m. N.E. of +Peterborough. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4755. All Saints’ +Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen of late Decorated +work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a building +erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly +rooms and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have +been found, and the market dates from the 13th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLBEIN, HANS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> the elder (<i>c.</i> 1460-1524), belonged to a +celebrated family of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel +from the close of the 15th to the middle of the 16th century. +Though closely connected with Venice by her commercial +relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to Flanders, +Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the +fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools +of Bruges and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in +many cities about the headwaters of the Rhine. It was not +till after the opening of the 16th century, and between that +and the era of the Reformation, that Italian example mitigated +to some extent the asperity of South German painting. Flemish +and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at +Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at +Augsburg as partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived +him and died in 1540 at Berne. Sigismund is described as a +painter, but his works have not come down to us. Hans had +the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed all the +pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schöngauer, +and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +akin to that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of +Brussels and Bruges, but he probably modified the systems +of those schools by studying the works of the masters of Cologne. +As these early impressions waned, they were replaced by others +less favourable to the expansion of the master’s fame; and as +his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we find him relying +less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere observation +and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays. +Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and +in these he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow +stage effect of the plays, copying their artificial system of grouping, +careless to some extent of proportion in the human shape, +heedless of any but the coarser forms of expression, and technically +satisfied with the simplest methods of execution. If in any +branch of his art he can be said to have had a conscience at this +period, we should say that he showed it in his portrait drawings. +It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy of the name. +The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the galleries +of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness +and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing +character; and this happily is one of the features which Holbein +bequeathed to his more famous son, Hans the younger. It is +between 1512 and 1522 that Holbein tempered the German +quality of his style with some North Italian elements. A purer +taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which in drapery, +dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in +respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully +rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are +applied with some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here, +too, advantage accrued to Hans the younger, whose independent +career about this time began.</p> + +<p>The date of the elder Holbein’s birth is unknown. But his +name appears in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg +in 1494, superseding that of Michael Holbein, who is supposed +to have been his father. Previous to that date, and as early as +1493, he was a painter of name, and he executed in that year, +it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the wings of an altarpiece +representing Joachim’s Offering, the Nativity of the Virgin, +Mary’s Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of +Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of +Augsburg. In these pieces and others of the same period, +for instance in two Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle +of Nuremberg, we mark the clear impress of the schools of Van +der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later works, such as the +Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of Augsburg, the wane of +Flemish influence is apparent. But this altarpiece, with its +quaint illustrations of St Paul’s life and martyrdom, is not alone +of interest because its execution is characteristic of old Holbein. +It is equally so because it contains portraits of the master himself, +accompanied by his two sons, the painters Ambrose (<i>c.</i> 1494-<i>c.</i> 1519) +and Hans the younger. Later pictures, such as the +Passion series in the Fürstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen, or +the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek, +contain similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found +in old Holbein’s sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like +those possessed by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of +these fails to give us an insight into the character, or a reflex +of the features, of the members of this celebrated family. Old +Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing his hair and beard +to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the younger +is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his +finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy.</p> + +<p>After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter +in the registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he +willingly accepts commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace, +where Grünewald was employed in 1516, old Holbein also finds +patrons, and contracts to complete an altarpiece. But misfortune +or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves Issenheim, abandoning +his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he wanders to +Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother Sigismund +and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of +Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece, +of which two wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of +Carlsruhe, is uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown. +He slinks from ken at the close of a long life, and disappears +at last heeded by none but his own son, who claims his brushes +and paints from the monks of Issenheim without much chance +of obtaining them. His name is struck off the books of the +Augsburg gild in 1524.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures +behind him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned, +is the Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces, +in the Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion, +with the root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved +in the Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It +was executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished +after 1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a +conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the +galleries of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An +altarpiece of the same class, commissioned for the monastery of +St Moritz at Augsburg in 1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost. +1512 is the date of a Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long +assigned, in consequence of a forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the +younger. A diptych, with a Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an +old man, dated 1513, came in separate parts into the collections of +Mr Posonyi and Count Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books +of Berlin, Copenhagen and Augsburg give a lively picture of the +forms and dress of Augsburg residents at the beginning of the 16th +century. They comprise portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the +future Charles V., Kunz von der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the +Fuggers, friars, merchants, and at rare intervals ladies.</p> + +<p>See also the biography by Stödtner (Berlin, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLBEIN, HANS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the younger (1497-1543), German painter, +favourite son of Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at +Augsburg about the year 1497. Though Sandrart and Van +Mander declare that they do not know who gave him the first +lessons, he doubtless received an artist’s education from his +father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder +brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel. +His first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly +after his arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an +edition of the <i>Encomium Moriae</i>, now in the museum of Basel. +But his chief occupation was that of drawing titlepage-blocks +and initials for new editions of the Bible and classics issued +from the presses of Froben and other publishers. His leisure +hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the production of rough +painter’s work, a schoolmaster’s sign in the Basel collection, +a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the university +at Zürich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the portraits +of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which +purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workmanship. +It has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such +excellent creations to Holbein’s nineteenth year; and it is +hardly credible that he should have been asked to do things +of this kind so early, especially when it is remembered that +neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed to matriculate +in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose +life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans, +not overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland, +where (1517) he was employed to paint in the house of Jacob +Hertenstein at Lucerne. In 1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel, +where he matriculated and, there is every reason to think, +married. Whether, previous to this time, he took advantage of +his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is uncertain. +Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large +wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the +series of his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might +lead to the belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The +spirit of Holbein’s compositions for the Basel town hall, the +scenery and architecture of his numerous drawings, and the cast +of form in some of his imaginative portraits, make it more +likely that he should have felt the direct influence of North +Italian painting than that he should have taken Italian elements +from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period +wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or +imperial armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took +may have been followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission. +He shows himself at all events familiar with Italian examples +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span> +at various periods of his career; and if we accept as early works the +“Flagellation,” and the “Last Supper” at Basel, coarse as they +are, they show some acquaintance with Lombard methods of +painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series of the Passion in +oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein the elder are +agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said Italian, +polish. Again, looking at the “Virgin” and “Man of Sorrows” +in the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic +style akin to that of the Ferrarese; and the “Lais” or the “Venus +and Amor” of the same collection reminds us of the Leonardesques +of the school of Milan. When Holbein settled down to an +extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he decorated the walls of +the house “Zum Tanz” with simulated architectural features +of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and his +wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them +by copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian +composition, distribution, action, gesture and expression. In +his drawings too, particularly in a set representing the Passion +at Basel, the arrangement, and also the perspective, form and +decorative ornament, are in the spirit of the school of Mantegna. +Contemporary with these, however, and almost inexplicably +in contrast with them as regards handling, are portrait-drawings +such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer, and his wife, which are +finished with German delicacy, and with a power and subtlety +of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough, the +same contrast may be observed between painted compositions +and painted portraits. The “Bonifacius Amerbach” of 1519 at +Basel is acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples +of smooth and transparent handling that Holbein ever executed. +His versatility at this period is shown by a dead Christ (1521), +a corpse in profile on a dissecting table, and a set of figures in +couples; the “Madonna and St Pantalus,” and “Kaiser Henry +with the Empress Kunigunde” (1522), originally composed for +the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in the Basel museum. +Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though injured, is +the “Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas” (not +St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn. +This remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been +ordered for an altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by +Nicholas Conrad, a captain and statesman of the 16th century, +whose family allowed the precious heirloom to fall into decay +in a chapel of the neighbouring village of Grenchen. Numerous +drawings in the spirit of this picture, and probably of the same +period in his career, might have led Holbein’s contemporaries +to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of Basel +as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for +pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave +at this time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship +that gave him facility to deal with any subject. Though +a realist, he was sensible of the dignity and severity of religious +painting. His colour had almost all the richness and sweetness +of the Venetians. But he had fallen on evil times, as the next +few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the portraits which +he executed in these years are those of Froben, the publisher, +known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus, +who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions, +showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin, +Parma, the Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre +or at Hampton Court. Besides these, Holbein made designs +for glass windows, and for woodcuts, including subjects of every +sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints of the old time to +the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted from +Luther’s Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of indulgences +and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this +way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation, +in which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious +painting were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial +elements which Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial +purposes.</p> + +<p>Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the “Lais” +and “Venus and Amor,” did Holbein with impartial spirit give +his services and pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgomaster +Meyer, whose patronage he had already enjoyed, now +asked him to represent himself and his wives and children in +prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced the celebrated +altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse at +Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to +all the world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings +for this masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the +museum of Basel. The time now came when art began to suffer +from unavoidable depression in all countries north of the Alps. +Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to accept the smallest commissions—even +for scutcheons. Then he saw that his chances were +dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution, armed with +letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the +Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait +painting he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven +drawings by Holbein in Windsor Castle, containing an equal +number of portraits, of persons chiefly of high quality, testify +to his industry in the years which divide 1528 from 1543. They +are all originals of pictures that are still extant, or sketches +for pictures that were lost or never carried out. Sir Thomas +More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly connexion, +sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of his +head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see +More surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in +the gallery of Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it +prove how popular the lost original must once have been. At +the same period were executed the portraits of Warham (Lambeth +and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry Guildford and his +wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer Nicholas +Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan +Tuke (Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned +to Basel, taking to Erasmus the sketch of More’s family. With +money which he brought from London he purchased a house +at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and children, whose portraits +he now painted with all the care of a husband and father (1528). +He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury of the +iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious +pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should +suffer again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him +to finish the frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these +lost pictures are still before us to show that he had not lost the +spirit of his earlier days, and was still capable as a composer. His +“Rehoboam receiving the Israelite Envoys,” and “Saul at the +Head of his Array meeting Samuel,” testify to Holbein’s power +and his will, also proved at a later period by the “Triumphs of +Riches and Poverty,” executed for the Steelyard in London +(but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to that +of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained +unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of +Melanchthon (Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein +found little to do at Basel. The year 1530, therefore, saw him +again on the move, and he landed in England for the second +time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes. Here indeed +political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The +circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants +of the Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the +long and important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout +the galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and +bear date after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice +in more fashionable circles. In 1533 the “Ambassadors” +(National Gallery), and the “Triumphs of Wealth and Poverty” +were executed, then the portraits of Leland and Wyatt (Longford), +and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. Through Cromwell +Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of +which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time +onwards he was connected with all that was highest in the +society of London. Henry VIII. invited him to make a family +picture of himself, his father and family, which obtained a +post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful cartoon of a part +of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to gauge its +beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the 17th century. +Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span> +some English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague, +Sion House and Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the +Uffizi (copy at the Louvre), the jeweller Morett at Dresden, +and last, not least, Christine of Denmark, who gave sittings at +Brussels in 1538. During the journey which this work involved +Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel, where he made +his appearance in silk and satin, and <i>pro forma</i> only accepted +the office of town painter. He had been living long and continuously +away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity +to his wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the +duties of keeping her in comfort. His return to London in +autumn enabled him to do homage to the king in the way +familiar to artists. He presented to Henry at Christmas a +portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of +1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves, +at Düren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the +great picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features +of his sitter without flattery is plain from this one example. +Indeed, habitual flattery was contrary to his habits. His +portraits up to this time all display that uncommon facility for +seizing character which his father enjoyed before him, and +which he had inherited in an expanded form. No amount of +labour, no laboriousness of finish—and of both he was ever +prodigal—betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression. +No painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy, +and it may be observed that in none of his faces, as +indeed in none of the faces one sees in nature, are the two sides +alike. Yet he was not a child of the 16th century, as the +Venetians were, in substituting touch for line. We must not +look in his works for modulations of surface or subtle contrasts +of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very last +delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old +school.</p> + +<p>Amongst the more important creations of Holbein’s later time +we should note his “Duke of Norfolk” at Windsor, the hands +of which are so perfectly preserved as to compensate for the +shrivel that now disfigures the head. Two other portraits of +1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer at the Hague, and John +Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of portrait +art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses +of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant—one +particularly good at Fähna, the seat of the Stackelberg family +near Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein +appears to us as a man of regular features, with hair just turning +grey, but healthy in colour and shape, and evidently well to +do in the world. Yet a few months only separated him then +from his death-bed. He was busy painting a picture of Henry +the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber Surgeons +(Lincoln’s Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died +after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have +been seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in +Germany, he would not have changed the current which decided +the fate of painting in that country; he would but have shared +the fate of Dürer and others who merely prolonged the agony +of art amidst the troubles of the Reformation.</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The early authorities are Karel Van Mander’s <i>Het Schilder Boek</i> +(1604), and J. von Sandrart, <i>Accademia Todesca</i> (1675). See also +R. N. Wornum, <i>Life and Work of Holbein</i> (1867); H. Knackfuss, +<i>Holbein</i> (1899); G. S. Davies, <i>Holbein</i> (1903); A. F. G. A. Woltmann, +<i>Holbein und seine Zeit</i> (1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1684-1754), the +great Scandinavian writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on +the 3rd of December 1684. Both Holberg’s parents died in +his childhood, his father first, leaving a considerable property; +and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also. Before the +latter event, however, the family had been seriously impoverished +by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable +buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of +her six children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg +was taken into the house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him +to the Latin school, and prepared him for the profession of a +soldier; but soon after this he was adopted by his cousin Otto +Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains. His great +desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family to +send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained, +eagerly studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in +1702, when he was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But +he soon exhausted his resources, and, having nothing to live +upon, was glad to hurry back to Norway, where he accepted +the position of tutor in the house of a rural dean at Voss. He +soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1704 he took his degree, +and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had +to gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor +once more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of +Bergen. The good doctor had travelled much, and the reading +of his itineraries and note-books awakened such a longing for +travel in the young Holberg that at last, at the close of 1704, +having scraped together 60 dollars, he went on board a ship +bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as Aix-la-Chapelle, +where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much from weakness +and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam, and +came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen, +he stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter, +supporting himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring +of 1706 he travelled, in company with a student named Brix, +through London to Oxford, where he studied for two years, +gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the violin and the flute. +He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable libraries of Oxford, +and it is pleasant to record that it was while he was there that +it first occurred to him, as he says, “how splendid and glorious a +thing it would be to take a place among the authors.” Through +London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and +began to lecture at the university; his lectures were attended, +but he got no money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich +young gentleman to Dresden, and on his return journey he +lectured at Leipzig, Halle and Hamburg. Once more in Copenhagen, +he undertook to teach the children of Admiral Gedde. +Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in 1710, +where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, <i>An Introduction +to the History of the Nations of Europe</i>, and was permitted +to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on +Christian IV. and Frederick III. The king soon after presented +him with the title of Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant +of 100 dollars for four years, the holder of which was expected +to travel. Holberg accordingly started in 1714, and visited, chiefly +on foot, a great portion of Europe. From Amsterdam he walked +through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to Brussels, and on +foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he proceeded +in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa. +On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly +died in that city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia +and Rome. When the spring had come, being still very poor +and in feeble health, he started homewards on foot by Florence, +across the Apennines, through Bologna, Parma, Piacenza, Turin, +over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphiné to Lyons, and +finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After +spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took +sail to Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He +spent the next two years in extreme poverty, and published his +<i>Introduction to Natural and Popular Law</i>. But at last, in 1718, +his talents were recognized by his appointment as professor +of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen; and in 1720 +he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence, +which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles +were now at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law, +history and philology, although in a Latin controversy with +the jurist Andreas Hojer of Flensborg his satirical genius had +flashed out. But now, and until 1728, he created an entirely +new class of humorous literature under the pseudonym of Hans +Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of <i>Peder Paars</i>, the earliest +of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared In 1719. +This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and +enjoyed an extraordinary success. But the author had offended +in it several powerful persons who threatened his life, and if +Count Danneskjold had not personally interested the king in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> +him, Holberg’s career might have had an untimely close. During +the next two years he published five shorter satires, all of which +were well received by the public. The great event of 1721 was +the erection of the first Danish theatre in Grönnegade, Copenhagen; +Holberg took the direction of this house, in which was +played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L’Avare. +Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in +French and German, but Holberg now determined to use his +talent in the construction of Danish comedy. The first of his +original pieces performed was <i>Den politiske Kandestöber</i> (The +Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other comedies with +miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had been +performed in succession, and with immense success, <i>Den Vaegelsindede</i> +(The Waverer), <i>Jean de France</i>, <i>Jeppe paa Bjerget</i>, and +<i>Gert the Westphalian</i>. Of these five plays, four at least are +masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by +others. Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723 +the comedies of <i>Barselstuen</i> (The Lying-in Room), <i>The Eleventh +of July</i>, <i>Jakob von Thyboe</i>, <i>Den Bundeslöse</i> (The Fidget), <i>Erasmus +Montanus</i>, <i>Don Ranudo</i>, <i>Ulysses of Ithaca</i>, <i>Without Head or Tail</i>, +<i>Witchcraft</i> and <i>Melampe</i> had all been written, and some of them +acted. In 1724 the most famous comedy that Holberg produced +was <i>Henrik and Pernille</i>. But in spite of this unprecedented +blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell into pecuniary difficulties, +and had to be closed, Holberg composing for the last night’s +performance, in February 1727, a <i>Funeral of Danish Comedy</i>. +All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the great +poet’s health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths +at Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered +through Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the +spring he returned to Copenhagen with recovered health and +spirits, and worked quietly at his protean literary labours until +the great fire of 1728. In the period of national poverty and +depression that followed this event, a puritanical spirit came +into vogue which was little in sympathy with Holberg’s dramatic +or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as a dramatic +poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the addition +of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage. +With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of +the new age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with +historical, philosophical and statistical writings. During this +period he published his poetical satire called <i>Metamorphosis</i> +(1726), his <i>Epistolae ad virum perillustrem</i> (1727), his <i>Description +of Denmark and Norway</i> (1729), <i>History of Denmark</i>, <i>Universal +Church History</i>, <i>Biographies of Famous Men</i>, <i>Moral Reflections</i>, +<i>Description of Bergen</i> (1737), <i>A History of the Jews</i>, and other +learned and laborious compilations. The only poem he published +at this time was the famous <i>Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum</i> +(1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen. When +Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre +was reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon +resigned this arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his +old age did not add to his reputation. His last published work +was his <i>Epistles</i>, in 5 vols. the last of them posthumous (1754). +In 1747 he was created by the new king Baron of Holberg. In +August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at Copenhagen +on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his age. +He was buried at Sorö, in Zealand. He had never married, and +he bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Sorö +College.</p> + +<p>Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the +greatest of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of +Voltaire, the first writer in Europe during his own generation. +Neither Pope nor Swift, who perhaps excelled him in particular +branches of literary production, approached him in range of +genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility. Holberg found Denmark +provided with no books, and he wrote a library for her. When +he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard +in a gentleman’s house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a +man wrote Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies, +called his dogs in German, and only used Danish to swear at +his servants. The single genius of Holberg revolutionized this +system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a language hitherto +employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a theatre, +and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled the +shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history, +law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in +a true and manly style, and representing the extreme attainment +of European culture at the moment. Perhaps no author +who ever lived has had so vast an influence over his countrymen, +an influence that is still at work after 200 years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The editions of Holberg’s works are legion. Complete editions of +the <i>Comedies</i> are too numerous to be quoted; the best is that brought +out in 3 vols. by F. I. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of <i>Peder Paars</i> there +exist at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch, +German and Swedish. The <i>Iter subterraneum</i> has been three several +times translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice into +Swedish, thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French, +twice into Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg +was written by Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884. +Among works on his genius by foreigners may be mentioned an +exhaustive study by Robert Prutz (1857), and <i>Holberg considéré +comme imitateur de Molière</i>, by A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLBORN,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a central metropolitan borough of London, +England, bounded N.W. by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury, +S.E. by the City of London, S. and W. by the City of Westminster +and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area 405.1 acres. +Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the +names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford +Street.</p> + +<p>The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne, +a tributary of the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where +Holborn Viaduct crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence +of this tributary, however, there is no evidence, and the origin +of the name is found in <i>Hole-bourne</i>, the stream in the hollow, +in allusion to the Fleet itself. The fall and rise of the road across +the valley before the construction of the viaduct (1869) was +abrupt and inconvenient. In earlier times a bridge here crossed +the Fleet, leading from Newgate, while a quarter of a mile west +of the viaduct is the site of Holborn Bars, at the entrance to +the City, where tolls were levied. The better residential district +of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road in the +borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George, +Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived +from William Blemund, a lord of the manor in the 15th century. +A dyke called Blemund’s Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded +it on the south, where the land was marshy. During the 18th +century Bloomsbury was a fashionable and wealthy residential +quarter. The reputation of the district immediately to the +south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, was far +different. From the 17th century until modern times this was +notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some +of the earliest cases of the plague which spread over London +in 1664-1665. The opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford +Street (1840) and Shaftesbury Avenue (1855) by no means +wholly destroyed the character of the district. The circus +of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords a typical +name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London. +A similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern +confines of the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbouring +thoroughfare of Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn +Circus, is a centre of the diamond trade.</p> + +<p>Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first +interest is the chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening +from Holborn Circus. Ely Place takes its name from a palace +of the bishops of Ely, who held land here as early as the 13th +century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The property was +acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under +Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though +the bishopric kept some hold upon it until the 18th century. +The chapel, the only remnant of the palace, is a beautiful +Decorated structure with a vaulted crypt, itself above ground-level. +Both are used for worship by Roman Catholics, by whom +the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years later +after careful restoration. The present parish church of St +Giles in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span> +Oxford Street, dates from 1734, but here was situated a leper’s +hospital founded by Matilda, wife of Henry I., in 1101. Its +chapel became the parish church on the suppression of the +monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of which +extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by +Wren, but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the +tower. Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and +Thomas Chatterton (1770) was interred in the adjacent burial +ground, no longer extant, of Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register +recording his Christian name as William. Close to this church +Is the City Temple (Congregational).</p> + +<p>Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln’s Inn and Gray’s +Inn, lie within the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway +opens upon Chancery Lane. The chapel, hall and residential +buildings surrounding the squares within, are picturesque, but +of later date. To the west lie the fine square, with public gardens, +still called, from its original character, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. +Gray’s Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald’s Road, and +west of Gray’s Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric +of the small chapel is apparently of the 14th century, and may +have been attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at +that period by the Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns +of Chancery attached to these Inns of Court the most noteworthy +buildings remaining are those of Staple Inn, of which +the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High Holborn +is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare; +and of Barnard’s Inn, occupied by the Mercer’s School. Both +these were attached to Gray’s Inn. Of Furnival’s and Thavies +Inns, attached to Lincoln’s Inn, only the names remain. The +site of the first is covered by the fine red brick buildings of the +Prudential Assurance Company, Holborn Viaduct. Among +other institutions in Holborn, the British Museum, north of +New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied collections +of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln’s Inn +Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also +be mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn +Fields, with museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of +Veterinary Surgeons, the College of Preceptors, the Jews’ +College, and the Metropolitan School of Shorthand. Among +hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the National for +the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children with +hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling +Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in +1739.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLCROFT, THOMAS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1745-1809), English dramatist and +miscellaneous writer, was born on the 10th of December 1745 +(old style) in Orange Court, Leicester Fields, London. His +father, besides having a shoemaker’s shop, kept riding horses for +hire; but having fallen into difficulties was reduced ultimately +to the necessity of hawking pedlary. The son accompanied +his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in procuring the +situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his evenings +chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music. +Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and +Italian. At the end of his term of engagement as stable boy he +returned to assist his father, who had again resumed his trade +of shoemaker in London; but after marrying in 1765, he became +a teacher in a small school in Liverpool. He failed in an attempt +to set up a private school, and became prompter in a Dublin +theatre. He acted in various strolling companies until 1778, +when he produced <i>The Crisis; or, Love and Famine</i>, at Drury +Lane. <i>Duplicity</i> followed in 1781. Two years later he went +to Paris as correspondent of the <i>Morning Herald</i>. Here he +attended the performances of Beaumarchais’s <i>Mariage de Figaro</i> +until he had memorized the whole. The translation of it, with +the title <i>The Follies of the Day</i>, was produced at Drury Lane +in 1784. <i>The Road to Ruin</i>, his most successful melodrama, +was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran for 118 nights. +Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member +of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that +account was, in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged +without a trial. Among his novels may be mentioned <i>Alwyn</i> +(1780), an account, largely autobiographical, of a strolling +comedian, and <i>Hugh Trevor</i> (1794-1797). He also was the author +of <i>Travels from Hamburg through Westphalia, Holland and the +Netherlands to Paris</i>, of some volumes of verse and of translations +from the French and German.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of +his Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers</i>, by William Hazlitt, +appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in +1852.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1822-1896), English classical +scholar, came of an old Staffordshire family. He was educated +at King Edward’s school, Birmingham, and Trinity College, +Cambridge (senior classic, 1845; fellow, 1847). He was vice-principal +of Cheltenham College (1853-1858), and headmaster +of Queen Elizabeth’s school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died +in London on the 1st of December 1896. In addition to several +school editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon +and Plutarch, he published an expurgated text of Aristophanes +with a useful onomasticon (re-issued separately, 1902) and larger +editions of Cicero’s <i>De officiis</i> (revised ed., 1898) and of the +<i>Octavius</i> of Minucius Felix (1853). His chief works, however, +were his <i>Foliorum silvula</i> (1852), a collection of English extracts +for translation into Greek and Latin verse; <i>Folia silvulae</i> +(translations of the same); and <i>Foliorum centuriae</i>, a companion +volume of extracts for Latin prose translation. In English +schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of +Latin and Greek composition.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1807-1897), English inventor +and manufacturer, was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of +Cumberland, and was born at Hurlet, a village between Paisley +and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807. His early life was passed +in very straitened circumstances, but his father spared no pains +to give him as much elementary education as possible. At the +age of ten he began to work as weaver’s draw-boy, and afterwards +was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education +was continued at the night schools, and from time to time, +as funds allowed, he was taken from work and sent to the +grammar-school, to which he at last went regularly for a year +or two until he was fifteen, when his father removed to Paisley +and apprenticed him to an uncle, a shawl-weaver there. This +proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he became assistant +teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was appointed +mathematical teacher in the Queen’s Square Academy, Leeds. +At the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard’s grammar +school, near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became +classical master at Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here +that in 1829 he invented a lucifer match by adopting sulphur +as the medium between the explosive material and the wood, +but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830 his health +again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow +friend set up a school for him. After six months, however, +he was recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs. +Townend Brothers, worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth, +where his interest in machinery soon led to his transfer from +the counting-house to the mill. There his experiments led him +to the invention of his square motion wool-comber and of a +process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken +out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham) +in 1847. The firm of Lister & Holden, which established a +factory near Paris in 1848, carried on a successful business, and +in 1859, when Lister retired, was succeeded by Isaac Holden +and Sons, which became the largest wool-combing business in +the world, employing upwards of 4000 workpeople. In 1865 +Holden’s medical advisers insisted on complete change of +occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for +Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat, +but in the latter year he was elected for the northern division +of the West Riding, and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created +a baronet in 1893, and died suddenly at Oakworth House, +near Keighley, on the 13th of August 1897.</p> + +<p>His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a +peer with the title of Baron Holden of Alston.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1770-1843), +German poet, was born on the 20th of March 1770, at +Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother removing, after a second +marriage, to Nürtingen, he began his education at the classical +school there. He was destined by his relations for the church, +and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at +Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered +as a student of theology the university of Tübingen, where he +remained till 1793. He was already the writer of occasional +verses, and had begun to sketch his novel <i>Hyperion</i>, when he +was introduced in this year to Schiller, and obtained through +him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von Kalb. +A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte’s lectures, +and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the +young poet something of his own genius, and encouraged him +by publishing some of his early writings in his periodicals <i>Die +neue Thalia</i> and <i>Die Horen</i>. In 1796 Hölderlin obtained the +post of tutor in the family of the banker J. F. Gontard in Frankfort-on-Main. +For Gontard’s beautiful and gifted wife, Susette, +the “Diotima” of his <i>Hyperion</i>, he conceived a violent passion; +and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the +end of two years, during which time the first volume of <i>Hyperion</i> +was published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their +relations, for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite +of ill-health, he now completed <i>Hyperion</i>, the second volume of +which appeared in 1799, and began a tragedy, <i>Der Tod des +Empedokles</i>, a fragment of which is published among his works. +His friends became alarmed at the alternate depression and +nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was induced +to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There +his health improved; and several of his poems, among which +are <i>Der blinde Sänger</i>, <i>An die Hoffnung</i> and <i>Dichtermut</i>, were +written at this time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for +the publication of a volume of his poems; but, on the failure +of this enterprise, he was obliged to accept a tutorship at +Bordeaux. “Diotima” died a year later, in June 1802, and the +news is supposed to have reached Hölderlin shortly afterwards, +for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and +travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at +Nürtingen destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually +alleviated his condition, and in lucid intervals he occupied himself +by writing verses and translating Greek plays. Two of these +translations—the <i>Antigone</i> and <i>Oedipus rex</i> of Sophocles—appeared +in 1804, and several of his short poems were published +by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his <i>Musenalmanach</i>, 1807 +and 1808. In 1804 Hölderlin obtained the sinecure post of +librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg, +and went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends; +but two years later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane, +he was taken in the summer of 1807 to Tübingen, where he +remained till his death on the 7th of June 1843.</p> + +<p>Hölderlin’s writings are the production of a beautiful and +sensitive mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, subjective, +and they lack real human strength. Perhaps his strongest +characteristic was his passion for Greece, the result of which +was that he almost entirely discarded rhyme in favour of the +ancient verse measures. His poems are all short pieces; of +his tragedy only a fragment was written. <i>Hyperion, oder der +Eremit in Griechenland</i> (1797-1799), is a romance in letters, in +which the stormy fervour of the “Sturm und Drang” is combined +with a romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest +centres not in the story, for the novel has little or none—Hyperion +is a young Greek who takes part in the rising of his +people against the Turks in 1770—but in its lyric subjectivity +and the dithyrambic beauty of its language.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hölderlin’s lyrics, <i>Lyrische Gedichte</i>, were edited by L. Uhland and +G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, <i>Sämtliche +Werke</i>, with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also +<i>Dichtungen</i> by K. Köstlin (Tübingen, 1884), and (the best edition) +<i>Gesammelte Dichtungen</i> by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897). +For biography and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, <i>F. Hölderlins +Leben</i> (Berlin, 1890), A. Wilbrandt, <i>Hölderlin</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891), +and C. Müller, <i>Friedrich Hölderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten</i> +(Bremen, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> an English title borne by Sir +John Ramsay and later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay +(<i>c.</i> 1580-1626), a member of the Scottish family of Ramsay of +Dalhousie, was knighted for his share in rescuing James VI. +from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in August +1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and +Lord Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer +as earl of Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue +in February 1626, when his titles became extinct. In 1644 +Charles I. created his nephew, Prince Rupert, earl of Holdernesse, +but when the prince died unmarried in November 1682 the +earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy (1599-1689), +who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days after +the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy, +Lord Darcy and Conyers (<i>c.</i> 1571-1654), and succeeded his +father in these baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd +earl by his only son Conyers (<i>c.</i> 1620-1692), who was member +of parliament for Yorkshire during the reign of Charles II. In +his turn he was succeeded by his grandson Robert (1681-1722). +Robert’s only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl of Holdernesse (1718-1778), +was a diplomatist and a politician. From 1744 to 1746 he +was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he represented +his country at the Hague. In 1751 he became one of the secretaries +of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when he +was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as +governor to two of the king’s sons, a “solemn phantom” as +Horace Walpole calls him. He left no sons, and all his titles +became extinct except the barony of Conyers, which had been +created by writ in 1509 in favour of his ancestor Sir William +Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only daughter Amelia +(1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th duke of +Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to +his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling +into abeyance on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now +the principal seat of the dukes of Leeds, came to them through +marriage of the 5th duke with the heiress of the families of +Conyers and of Darcy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader +of reform in the German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806 +and died in Berlin in 1860. In 1836 he was appointed rabbi +at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was transferred to the +rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became prominent +as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much +trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the +other of reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical +conferences were held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main +(1845) and Breslau (1846). At all of these Holdheim was +a strong supporter of the policy of modifying ritual (especially +with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage laws and liturgical +customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new Berlin +congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the +course of Jewish reform.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See I. H. Ritter in the <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, i. 202. The +same authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his +<i>Geschichte der jüdischen Reformation</i> (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in +his <i>History</i> passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and +there were admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim’s +attitude. A moderate criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson’s +<i>History of the Reform Movement</i> in Judaism (London, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLGUÍN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a town of the high plateau country in the interior +of Oriente province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de +Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592. The town is near the Marañon and +Jigüé rivers, on a plain from which hills rise on all sides except +the E., on which side it is open to the winds of the plateau. +Holguín was long the principal acclimatization station for +Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches +built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holguín has trade in +cabinet woods, tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which +it exports through its port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with +which it is connected by railway. Holguín was settled about +1720 and became a <i>ciudad</i> (city) in 1751. In the Ten Years’ +War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguín was +an insurgent centre.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLIDAY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> originally the “holy day,” a festival set apart +for religious observances as a memorial of some sacred event +or sacred person; hence a day on which the ordinary work or +business ceases. For the religious sense see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feasts and +Festivals</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sunday</a></span>. Apart from the use of the term for +a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the +plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, &c.) of +absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what +may be regarded as private holidays, which are matters of +agreement between employer and employed or between the +authorities of this or that institution and those who attend it. +In recent years there has been a notable tendency in most +occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and make holidays +more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public holidays, +the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one +respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints’ days are +no longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government +offices in England, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th +century. But while the influence of religion in determining +such holidays has waned, the importance of making some compulsory +provision for social recreation has made itself felt. In +England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.), are set apart +by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the sovereign +may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed. +Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional +days recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day +(May 24th), Arbor Day, &c. In the British colonies there is +no uniform practice. In Canada eight days are generally observed +as public holidays: New Year’s Day, Good Friday, +Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the sovereign, +Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the +provinces have followed the American example by adding an +Arbor Day. Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday. +In Quebec, where the majority of the population is Roman +Catholic, the holy days are also holidays, namely, the Festival +of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Easter Monday, +the Ascension, All Saint’s Day, Conception Day, Christmas +Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales, +the 1st of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday, +the birthday of the sovereign, the 1st of August, the birthday +of the prince of Wales, Christmas Day and the 26th of December, +are observed as holidays. In Victoria there are thirteen public +holidays during the year, and in Queensland fourteen. In New +Zealand the public holidays are confined to four, Christmas +Day, New Year’s Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most +of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays +is from six to eight.</p> + +<p>In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of +the English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon +state and territorial legislation. It is usual for the president +to proclaim the last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving; +this makes it only a legal holiday in the District of +Columbia, and in the territories, but most states make it a +general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and Labour Day +(first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most states. +There are other days which, in connexion with particular events +or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal +holidays by particular states. For example, Lincoln’s birthday, +Washington’s birthday, Memorial Day (May 30th), Patriots’ Day +(April 19th, Maine and Mass.), R. E. Lee’s birthday (Jan. 19th, +Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.), Pioneers’ Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado +Day (Aug. 1st), Battle of New Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Bennington +Battle Day (Aug. 16th, Vt.), Defender’s Day (Sept, 12th, Md.), +Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska; second Friday in May R.I., +&c.), Admission Day (September 9th, Cal.; Oct. 31st, Nev.), Confederate +Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Miss., May +10th, N. & S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M‘Curdy, <i>Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays</i> (Boston, +1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLINSHED<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Hollingshead</span>), <b>RAPHAEL</b> (d. <i>c.</i> 1580), +English chronicler, belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and +according to Anthony Wood was educated at one of the English +universities, afterwards becoming a “minister of God’s Word.” +The authenticity of these facts is doubtful, although it is possible +that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated from Christ’s +College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London +and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe, +to whom he says he was “singularly beholden.” Wolfe was +already engaged in the preparation of a universal history, and +Holinshed worked for some years on this undertaking; but +after Wolfe’s death in 1573 the scope of the work was abridged, +and it appeared in 1578 as the <i>Chronicles of England, Scotland, +and Ireland</i>. The work was in two volumes, which were illustrated, +and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he +received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593) +and others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland +is mainly a translation of Hector Boece’s <i>Scotorum historiae</i>. +Afterwards, as is shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to +Thomas Burdet of Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A second edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, enlarged and improved but +without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements +which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and immediately +after publication some of the pages were excised by order +of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in +1723. An edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, in accordance with the original +text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a +large amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men +of great industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was +largely used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists; +Shakespeare, who probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from +the <i>Chronicles</i> material for most of his historical plays, and also for +<i>Macbeth</i>, <i>King Lear</i> and part of <i>Cymbeline</i>. A single manuscript by +Holinshed is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence +of Worcester, and is in the British Museum. See W. G. Boswell-Stone, +<i>Shakspere’s Holinshed</i>. <i>The Chronicle and the historical plays +compared</i> (London, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLKAR,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore +(q.v.), which has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termination -<i>kar</i> +implies that the founder of the family came from the +village of Hol near Poona.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLL, FRANK<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1845-1888), English painter, was born in +London on the 4th of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at +University College School. He was a grandson of William +Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of Francis Holl, A.R.A., +another engraver, whose profession he originally intended to +follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer +in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and +gold medals, and making his début as an exhibitor in 1864 with +“A Portrait,” and “Turned out of Church,” a subject picture. +“A Fern Gatherer” (1865); “The Ordeal” (1866); “Convalescent” +(the somewhat grim pathos of which attracted +much attention), and “Faces in the Fire” (1867), succeeded. +Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful +work was characteristic of the young painter’s mood, being +“The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away.” His insatiable +zeal for work of all kinds began early to undermine the artist’s +health, but his position was assured by the studentship picture, +which created a sort of <i>furore</i>, although, as with most of his +works, the blackness of its coloration, probably due to his +training as an engraver, was even more decidedly against it +than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting exhibited +nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever +attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere +vein of pathos. Holl was much below Millais In portraiture, +and far inferior In all the higher ways of design; in technical +resources, relatively speaking, he was but scantily provided. +The range of his studies and the manner of his painting were +narrower than those of Josef Israels, with whom, except as a +portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with Millais. +In 1870 he painted “Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is, +than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith”; “No Tidings from +the Sea,” a scene in a fisherman’s cottage, in 1871—a story told +with breath-catching pathos and power; “I am the Resurrection +and the Life” (1872); “Leaving Home” (1873), “Deserted” +(1874), both of which had great success; “Her First-born,” +girls carrying a baby to the grave (1876); and “Going Home” +(1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures “Hush” and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span> +“Hushed.” “Newgate, Committed for Trial,” a very sad and +telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter’s +health in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited +“The Gifts of the Fairies,” “The Daughter of the House,” +“Absconded,” and a very fine portrait of Samuel Cousins, the +mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is a masterpiece, and +deserved the success which attended the print engraved from +it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would +not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution +which was never strong were more or less, though unequally, +manifest in “Ordered to the Front,” a soldier’s departure +(1880); “Home Again,” its sequel, in 1883 (after which he +was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a portrait of Millais +as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined and he +died at Hampstead, on the 31st of July 1888. Holl’s better +portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the commanding +position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly +followed. They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted +for queen Victoria (1882); the prince of Wales, Lord +Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland (1885); Lord Overstone, +Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J. Tenniel, Earl +Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other important +subjects.</p> +<div class="author">(F. G. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, CHARLES<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1733-1769), English actor, was born +in Chiswick, the son of a baker. He made his first appearance +on the stage in the title rôle of <i>Oroonoko</i> at Drury Lane in 1755, +John Palmer, Richard Yates and Mrs Cibber being in the cast. +He played under Garrick, and was the original Florizel in the +latter’s adaptation of Shakespeare’s <i>Winter’s Tale</i>. Garrick +thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for his +monument in Chiswick church.</p> + +<p>His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor, +who played with Mrs Siddons and Kean.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, SIR HENRY,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1788-1873), English +physician and author, was born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the +27th of October 1788. His maternal grandmother was the +sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was Charles Darwin; +and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell. After +spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was +sent to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years +he was transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin’s school near Bristol. +There he at once took the position of head boy, in succession to +John Cam Hobhouse, afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour +which required to be maintained by physical prowess. On +leaving school he became articled clerk to a mercantile firm +in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him of passing +two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his second +session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the +study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he +graduated in 1811. After several years spent in foreign travel, +he began practice in 1816 as a physician in London—according +to his own statement, “with a fair augury of success speedily +and completely fulfilled.” This “success,” he adds, “was +materially aided by visits for four successive years to Spa, at +the close of that which is called the London season.” It must +also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy +temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist—qualities +the influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to +his class of practice, is often of more importance than direct +medical treatment. In 1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in +1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in ordinary to Prince +Albert in 1840, and was appointed in 1852 physician in ordinary +to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was +also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned +societies of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife +being a daughter of Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary +talent, who published a biography of her father. Sir Henry +Holland at an early period of his practice resolved to devote +to his professional duties no more of his time than was necessary +to secure an income of £5000 a year, and also to spend two +months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former +resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with +general literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation +of several branches of science; and the latter enabled him, +besides visiting, “and most of them repeatedly, every country +of Europe,” to make extensive tours in the other three continents, +journeying often to places little frequented by European +travellers. As, moreover, he procured an introduction to nearly +all the eminent personages in his line of travel, and knew many +of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance with +“men and cities” was of a species without a parallel. The +<i>London Medical Record</i>, in noticing his death, which took place +on his eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that +it “had occurred under circumstances highly characteristic +of his remarkable career.” On his return from a journey in +Russia he was present, on Friday, October 24th, at the trial of +Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the judges in +the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill +the following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sir Henry Holland was the author of <i>General View of the Agriculture +of Cheshire</i> (1807); <i>Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania, +Thessaly and Greece</i> (1812-1813, 2nd ed., 1819); <i>Medical Notes and +Reflections</i> (1839); <i>Chapters on Mental Physiology</i> (1852); <i>Essays on +Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and Quarterly +Reviews</i> (1862); and <i>Recollections of Past Life</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY FOX,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1705-1774), English +statesman, second son of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the +28th of September 1705. Inheriting a large share of the riches +which his father had accumulated, he squandered it soon after +attaining his majority, and went to the Continent to escape from +his creditors. There he made the acquaintance of a countrywoman +of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish +with her purse that, after several years’ absence, he was in a +position to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as +member for Hindon in Wiltshire. He became the favourite +pupil and devoted supporter of Sir Robert Walpole, achieving +unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the worst political +arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent +and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in +exposition or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt +himself. Thus he made himself a power in the House of Commons +and an indispensable member of several administrations. He +was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to 1742, was member +for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in 1743, +secretary at war and member of the privy council in 1746, and +in 1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary +of state and a member of the cabinet under the duke of Newcastle. +In 1757, in the rearrangements of the government, +Fox was ultimately excluded from the cabinet, and given the +post of paymaster of the forces. During the war, which Pitt +conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation +was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to +accumulating a vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the +leadership of the House, with a seat in the cabinet, under the +earl of Bute, and exercised his skill in cajolery and corruption +to induce the House of Commons to approve of the treaty of +Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised to the House of +Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley, Wiltshire, +on the 16th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign the +paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the +livery of the city of London against the ministers referred to +him as “the public defaulter of unaccounted millions.” The +proceedings brought against him in the court of exchequer +were stayed by a royal warrant; and in a statement published +by him he proved that in the delays in making up the accounts +of his office he had transgressed neither the law nor the custom +of the time. From the interest on the outstanding balances +he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove, +but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a +dignity upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland +House, Kensington, on the 1st of July 1774, a sorely disappointed +man, with a reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness +which cannot easily be matched, and with an unpopularity +which justifies the conclusion that he was the most thoroughly +hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married in 1744 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> +Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of +Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland, +Lincolnshire, in 1762. There were four sons of the marriage: +Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland (d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant); +Charles James (the celebrated statesman); and Henry Edward +(1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Walpole’s and other memoirs of the time, also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fox, +Charles James</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY RICH,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1590-1649), 2nd +son of Robert, 1st earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip +Sidney’s “Stella,” daughter of Walter Devereux, 1st earl of +Essex, was baptized on the 19th of August 1590, educated at +Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the 3rd of June +1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and 1614. +In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were +showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of +the bedchamber to Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the +yeomen of the guard; and on the 8th of March 1623 he was +raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington. In 1624 he was +sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between Charles +and Henrietta Maria. On the 15th of September he was created +earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions, +first to Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII. and the +Huguenots, and later to the Netherlands in company with +Buckingham. In October 1627 he was given command of the +troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhé, but through +delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return. +He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University; +was master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed +constable of Windsor and high steward to the queen in 1629. +He interested himself, like his elder brother, Lord Warwick, +in the plantations; and was the first governor of the Providence +company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of Newfoundland +in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of +the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular +revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against +Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the +greatest contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining +the great office of lord high admiral, but was made instead +groom of the stole. In 1639 he was appointed general of the +horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by the fiasco at Kelso. +In the second war against the Scots he was superseded in favour +of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short Parliament, +joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and +gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back +to the king’s side by the queen, and on the 16th of April 1641 +made captain general north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however, +with Charles’s refusal to grant him the nomination of a new +baron, he again abandoned him, refused the summons to York, +and was deprived of his office as groom of the stole at the instance +of the queen, who greatly resented his ingratitude. He was +chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to communicate +its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his indignation, +with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the committee +of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the +parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex’s +army at Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to +avoid a battle. In 1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after +failing to bring over Essex, he returned to the king. His reception, +however, was not a cordial one, and he was not reinstated +in his office of groom of the stole. After, therefore, accompanying +the king to Gloucester and taking part in the first battle of +Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament, declaring +that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities, +and the influence of the “papists” too strong for his patriotism. +He was restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the +Lords to exclude him from the upper house, and his petition +in 1645 for compensation for his losses and for a pension was +refused. His hopes being in this quarter also disappointed, he +once again renewed his allegiance to the king’s cause; and +after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for peace in +1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received +a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men +at Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured +at St Neots shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick +Castle. He was tried before a “high court of justice” on the +3rd of February 1649, and in spite of his plea that he had received +quarter was sentenced to death. He was executed together with +Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March. Clarendon styles +him “a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good times.”<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of ability, +raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great +times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth, +daughter and heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and, +besides several daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest, +Robert, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Holland, and inherited +the earldom of Warwick in 1673.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, xi. 263.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Baron</span> +(1773-1840), was the son of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland, +his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick, being the daughter of the +earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at Winterslow House in +Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his father died +in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ +Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of +Hookham Frere, and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland +did not take the same political side as his friends in the conflicts +of the revolutionary epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply +attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox, and remained steadily loyal +to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris and became acquainted +with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he again +went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he +met with Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart., +who left her husband for him. She was by birth Elizabeth +Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of Richard Vassall, a planter +in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular union, a Charles +Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the navy +entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector +of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum +of Berlin when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence, +a daughter of William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey +Webster having obtained a divorce, Lord Holland was enabled +to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He had taken his seat in +the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796. During several +years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig party +in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the +Tory ministers were collected and published, as the <i>Opinions +of Lord Holland</i> (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln’s Inn. In 1800 +he was authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807 +he signed himself Vassall Holland, though the name was no part +of his title. In 1800 Lord and Lady Holland went abroad and +remained in France and Spain till 1805, visiting Paris during +the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by Napoleon. +Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of +Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall, +and he left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord +Holland took a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities. +He was appointed to negotiate with the American envoys, +Monroe and W. Pinkney, was admitted to the privy council on the +27th of August 1806, and on the 15th of October entered the +cabinet “of all the talents” as lord privy seal, retiring with +the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the opposition +to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the “orders in +council” and other strong measures of the government taken +to counteract Napoleon’s Berlin decrees. He was in fact in +politics a consistent Whig, and in that character he denounced +the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which bound England to consent +to the forcible union of Norway, and he resisted the bill of 1816 +for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His loyalty as a Whig +secured recognition when his party triumphed in the struggle +for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of +the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord +Melbourne, and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd +of October 1840. Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> +insignificant political career, but as a patron of literature, as +a writer on his own account, and because his house was the +centre and the headquarters of the Whig political and literary +world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on the 16th +of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in +London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century +by the society ladies who kept “salons.” Lord Holland’s +<i>Foreign Reminiscences</i> (1850) contain much amusing gossip +from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. His <i>Memoirs of +the Whig Party</i> (1852) is an important contemporary authority. +His small work on <i>Lope de Vega</i> (1806) is still of some value. +Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800, +and Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this +peer died in December 1859 the title became extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland</i>, edited by the earl of +Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, <i>The Holland House Circle</i> +(1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1819-1881), American author +and editor, was born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the +24th of July 1819. He graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire +Medical College (no longer in existence) at Pittsfield, Mass., +and after practising medicine in 1844-1847, and making an +unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson (1818-1894), +later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a hospital +for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia, +and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi. +In 1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles, +and three years later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts) +<i>Republican</i>, with which he retained his connexion +until 1867. He then travelled for some time in Europe, and +in 1870 removed to New York, where he helped to establish +and became editor and one-third owner of <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i> (the +title of which was changed in 1881 to <i>The Century</i>), which +absorbed the periodicals <i>Hours at Home</i>, <i>Putnam’s Magazine</i> +and the <i>Riverside Magazine</i>. He remained editor of this +magazine until his death. Dr Holland’s books long enjoyed +a wide popularity. The earlier ones were published over the +pseudonym “Timothy Titcomb.” His writings fall into four +classes: history and biography, represented by a <i>History of +Western Massachusetts</i> (1855), and a <i>Life of Abraham Lincoln</i> +(1865); fiction, of which <i>Miss Gilbert’s Career</i> (1860) and <i>The +Story of Sevenoaks</i> (1875) remain faithful pictures of village +life in eastern United States; poetry, of which <i>Bitter-Sweet</i> +(1858) and <i>Kathrina, Her Life and Mine</i> (1867) were widely +read; and a series of homely essays on the art of living, of +which the most characteristic were <i>Letters to Young People, +Single and Married</i> (1858), <i>Gold Foil, hammered from Popular +Proverbs</i> (1859), <i>Letters to the Jonses</i> (1863), and <i>Every-Day +Topics</i> (2 series, 1876 and 1882). While a resident of New +York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881, he identified +himself with measures for good government and school reform, +and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was +president of the Board of Education.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mrs H. M. Plunkett’s <i>Josiah Gilbert Holland</i> (New York, +1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, PHILEMON<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1552-1637), English scholar, “the +translator-general in his age,” was born at Chelmsford in Essex. +He was the son of a clergyman, John Holland, who had been +obliged to take refuge in Germany and Denmark with Miles +Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having become a +fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of +M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having +subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a +doctor in Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations. +In 1628 he was appointed headmaster of the free school, but, +owing probably to advancing age, he held office for only eleven +months. His latter days were oppressed by poverty, partly +relieved by the generosity of the common council of Coventry, +which in 1632 assigned him £3, 6s. 8d. for three years, “if he +should live so long.” He died on the 9th of February, 1636-1637. +His fame is due solely to his translations, which included +Livy, Pliny’s <i>Natural History</i>, Plutarch’s <i>Morals</i>, Suetonius, +Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon’s <i>Cyropaedia</i>. He +published also an English version, with additions, of Camden’s +<i>Britannia</i>. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon’s <i>Pharmacopaea</i> +and his <i>Regimen sanitatis Salerni</i> were published after +his death by his son, <span class="sc">Henry Holland</span> (1583-?1650), who +became a London bookseller, and is known to bibliographers +for his <i>Baziliωlogia; a Booke of Kings, beeing the true and liuely +Effigies of all our English Kings from the Conquest</i> (1618), and +his <i>Herωologia Anglica</i> (1620).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, RICHARD,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Richard de Holande</span> (fl. 1450), +Scottish writer, author of the <i>Buke of the Howlat</i>, was secretary +or chaplain to the earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk, +near Thurso. He was afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch +Ness, and later held a chantry in the cathedral of Norway. +He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and on their overthrow +retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was employed +by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through +Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general +pardon granted by James III. to those who would renounce +their fealty to the Douglases.</p> + +<p>The poem, entitled the <i>Buke of the Howlat</i>, written about +1450, shows his devotion to the house of Douglas:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“On ilk beugh till embrace</p> +<p class="i05">Writtin in a bill was</p> +<p class="i05">O Dowglass, O Dowglass</p> +<p class="i05">Tender and trewe!”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="author1 f90">(ii. 400-403).</div> + +<p class="noind">and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,</p> +<p class="i05">Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that +house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott’s judgment that the +<i>Buke</i> is “a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever +to local or natural politics” is certainly the most reasonable. +The poem, which extends to 1001 lines written in the irregular +alliterative rhymed stanza, is a bird-allegory, of the type familiar +in the <i>Parlement of Foules</i>. It has the incidental interest of +showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the antipathy of the +“Inglis-speaking Scot” to the “Scots-speaking Gael” of the +west, as is also shown in Dunbar’s <i>Flyting with Kennedy</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne +MSS. Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition, +discovered by D. Laing, are reproduced in the <i>Adversaria</i> of the +Bannatyne Club. The poem has been frequently reprinted, by +Pinkerton, in his <i>Scottish Poems</i> (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne +Club 1823; reprinted in “New Club” series, Paisley, 1882); by the +Hunterian Club in their edition of the Bannatyne MS., and by A. +Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest edition is that by F. J. Amours +in <i>Scottish Alliterative Poems</i> (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81. +(See also Introduction pp. xx.-xxxiv.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> officially the kingdom of the Netherlands +(<i>Koningrijk der Nederlanden</i>), a maritime country in the north-west +of Europe. The name Holland is that of the former countship, +which forms part of the political, as well as the geographical +centre of the kingdom (see the next article).</p> + +<p><i>Topography.</i>—Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany, +on the S. by Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and +at the N.E. corner by the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward +to the extreme corner of Limburg the boundary line is +formed by the river Maas or Meuse.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the east a natural +geographical boundary was formed by the long line of marshy +fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and +Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53° 32′ 21″ (Groningen +Cape on Rottum Island) to 50° 45′ 49″ N. (Mesch in the +province of Limburg), and from 3° 23′ 27″ (Sluis in the province +of Zeeland) to 7° 12′ 20″ E. (Langakkerschans in the province +of Groningen). The greatest length from north to south, viz. +that from Rottum Island to Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m., +and the greatest breadth from south-west to north-east, or from +Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel, 144 m. The area is subject +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span> +to perpetual variation owing, on the one hand, to the erosion +of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of land by means +of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total area +was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee +and the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the +Dollart (23 sq. m.), 14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has +the character of the territory exercised so great an influence on +the inhabitants as in the Netherlands; and, on the other hand, +no people has so extensively modified the condition of its territory +as the Dutch. The greatest importance attaches therefore to +the physical conformation of the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to north-east, +and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length, fringed +by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into +the sea. In the north and south, however, this line is +<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span> +broken by the inlets of the sea which form the Frisian and the South +Holland and Zeeland islands respectively; but the dunes themselves +are found continued along the seaward side of these islands, thus +indicating the original continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of +the dunes naturally varies greatly, the maximum width of about +4375 yds. being found at Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The +average height of the individual dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but +attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the High Blinkert, near Haarlem. +The steepness of the dunes on the side towards the sea is caused by +the continual erosion, probably traceable, in part at least, to the +channel current (which at mean tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in. +per second), and to the strong west or north-west winds which carry +off large quantities of material. This alteration of coast-line appears +at Loosduinen, where the moor or fenland formerly developed +behind the dunes now crops out on the shore amid the sand, being +pressed to the compactness of lignite by the weight of the sand +drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman camp Brittenburg +or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the dunes and, after +being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were, in 1694, 1600 +paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides Katwijk itself, +several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg, Scheveningen, +Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency of the +dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the planting +of bent-grass (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>), whose long roots serve to bind the +sand together. It must be further remarked that both the “dune-pans,” +or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their +defective drainage, and the <i>geest</i> grounds—that is, the grounds along +the foot of the downs—have been in various places either planted +with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the +numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to +the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set +by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having +been readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &c.</p> + +<p>As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a +series of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The +principal sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and +the Vlie, which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the +large inland sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or +“shallows,” which extend along the shores of Friesland and +Groningen as far as the Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The +inland sea-board thus formed consists of low coasts of sea-clay +protected by dikes, and of some high diluvial strata which rise far +enough above the level of the sea to make dikes unnecessary, as in +the case of the Gooi hills between Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe +hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland +between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren. The Dollart was formed +in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin, more than thirty villages +being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and the bay in the Frisian +coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually came into existence +in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms forming the South +Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West Scheldt, the +East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer +and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by +the Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were +formerly of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing +up owing to the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have +the same freedom of communication with one another. At the head +of the Hollandsch Diep is the celebrated railway bridge of the +Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds. in length; and above this bridge lies +the Biesbosch (“reed forest”), a group of marshy islands formed by +a disastrous inundation in 1421, when seventy-two villages and +upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.</p> + +<p>Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern +half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen, +the hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe +region in Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and +<span class="sidenote">Relief and levels.</span> +east of Overysel and the Hondsrug range in Drente. +The remainder of the country is flat, and shows a regular +downward slope from south-east to north-west, in which direction +the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface of the country +ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near Vaals in the +farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the Amsterdam zero<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +in some of the drained lands in the western half of the country. In +fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of the provinces +of North and South Holland, the western portion of Utrecht as +far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part of Zeeland-Flanders, +and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies below the +Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all that +part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and +Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would +be submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes. +This difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland +has its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The +western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a +monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in +regular lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over +with windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and +poplar which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of +the eastern division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists +mainly of sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of +waste heaths and patches of wood, while here and there fertile +meadows extend along the banks of the streams, and the land is laid +out in the highly regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drente</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three +principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt +(Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the +country, whilst the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland, +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +giving its name to the two broad inlets of the sea which bound the +Zeeland islands. The Rhine in its course through Holland is merely +the parent stream of several important branches, splitting up into +Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel, Crooked Rhine and Lek (which +takes two-thirds of the waters), and at Utrecht into Old Rhine and +Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the sluices at Katwijk as +little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and the Vecht flow to +the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea. The Maas, +whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine, follows in a wide +curve the general slope of the country, receiving the Roer, the Mark +and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their way into all +the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago. The main +stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as the +Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the +North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the +junction of the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New +Merwede (constructed in the second half of the 19th century) extends +between dykes through the marshes of the Biesbosch to the +Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers render very important service +as waterways. The mean velocity of their flow seldom exceeds 4.9 +ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is high. In the lower reaches of +the streams the velocity and slope are of course affected by the tides. +In the Waal ordinary high water is perceptible as far up as Zalt +Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the maximum limits or ordinary +and spring tides are at Vianen and Kuilenburg respectively, in the +Ysel above the Katerveer at the junction of the Willemsvaart and +past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and Deventer; and in the Maas +near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into the Zuider Zee there +also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its tributary the Vecht, +and the Eem. The total length of navigable channels is about +1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not infrequently impede the +shipping traffic at low water during the summer. The smaller +streams are often of great importance. Except where they rise in +the fens they call into life a strip of fertile grassland in the midst +of the barren sand, and are responsible for the existence of many +villages along their banks. Following the example of the great +Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is also +practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in +North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams, +canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the +same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers, +being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as +sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also +turned to account in connexion with the canal system—the Dommel, +Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne, +Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the +numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important +in this respect.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy +lakes which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are +connected with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland +are of note for the abundance of their fish and their beauty +<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span> +of situation, on which last account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is +also celebrated. The Rockanje Lake near Brielle is remarkable for +the strong salty solution which covers even the growing reeds with a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span> +hard crust. Many of the lakes are nothing more than deep pits or +marshes from which the peat has been extracted.</p> +</div> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:1136px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img588a.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img588b.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Dikes.</i>—The circumstance that so much of Holland is below +the sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence +on the drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the +country, as well as on its defence by means of inundation. The +endiking of low lands against the sea which had been quietly +proceeding during the first eleven centuries of the Christian era, +received a fresh impetus in the 12th and 13th centuries from the +fact that the level of the sea then became higher in relation to +that of the land. This fact is illustrated by the broadening of +river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the beginning of +the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking was +the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers, +sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated +on the spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin +of Amsterdam, and the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But +Holland’s chief protection against inundation is its long line of +sand dunes, in which only two real breaches have been effected +during the centuries of erosion. These are represented by the +famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and the Hondsbossche +Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun respectively +in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The first +extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages +of Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the +second is about 4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin +to near Petten, whence it is continued for another 1100 yds. +by the Pettemer dike. These two sea dikes were reconstructed +by the state at great expense between the year 1860 and 1884, +having consisted before that time of little more than a protected +sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and +by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by <i>zinkstukken</i> +(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with +stones, and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of +which the current is to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle +dike, 12,468 ft. long, has a seaward slope of 300 ft., and +is protected by rows of piles and basalt blocks. On its ridge, +39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a service railway. +The cost of its upkeep is more than £6000 a year, and of the +Hondsbossche Zeewering £2000 a year. When it is remembered +that the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (<i>Teredo navalis</i>), +the ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and +expense incurred in the construction and maintenance of the +sea dikes now existing may be imagined. In other parts of the +coast the dunes, though not pierced through, have become so +wasted by erosion as to require artificial strengthening. This +is afforded, either by means of a so-called sleeping dike (<i>slaperdyk</i>) +behind the weak spot, as, for instance, between Kadzand +and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again between ’s Gravenzande +and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or breakwaters +(<i>hoofden</i>, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and composed +of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such breakwaters +was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island of +Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water. +Similar constructions are to be found on the seaward side of +the islands of Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between ’s +Gravenzande and Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk. +Owing to the obstruction which they offer to drifting sands, +artificial dunes are in course of time formed about them, and +in this way they become at once more effective and less costly +to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run from +Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards +to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617) +and Koegras (1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to +Nieuwediep the dunes are replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall. +The shores of the Zuider Zee and the Wadden, and the +Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially protected by +dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been repeatedly +extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the work +of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon +layer of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until +a new fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses +grasses begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (<i>kwelders</i>) horses, +cattle and sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in +course of time they are in turn endiked.</p> + +<p>River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks +being found only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing +to the unsuitability of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually +marked by a great width, which at the crown varies between +13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike ranges to 40 in. above +high water-level. Between the dikes and the stream lie “forelands” +(<i>interwaarden</i>), which are usually submerged in winter, +and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country +within the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time +an opportunity for endiking and reclamation. In this way +the towns of Rotterdam, Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis +have all gradually extended over the Maas dike in order to +keep in touch with the river, and the small town of Delftshaven +is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Impoldering.</i>—The first step in the reclamation of land is to “impolder” +it, or convert it into a “polder” (<i>i.e.</i> a section of artificially +drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for the two-fold +purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from outside and +of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for its own +sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means of +drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century +new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to +the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the +masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been +carried on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands, +and also that a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the +fertile sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make +the subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of +peat from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.</p> + +<p><i>Drainage.</i>—It has been shown that the western provinces of +Holland may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact +the surface of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11½ to 16½ ft. +below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively +very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption +proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder, +as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is +intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other, +the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area +to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced +windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless +hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by +the advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The +power of the pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per +1000 hectares for every metre that the water has to be raised, or +stated in another form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly +9 ℔ of water through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches, +or canals, afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level +at which it is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes +the unit of water measurement for the polder, and is called the +polder’s <i>zomer peil</i> (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders +(<i>koepolders</i>) Z.P. is 1 to 1½ ft. below the level of the polder, +and in agricultural polders 2½ to 3½ ft. below. Owing to the shrinkage +of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands which have been +drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of the polder are +often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by means of small +dams or sluices to make separate water-tight compartments +(<i>afpolderingen</i>), each having its own unit of measurement. Some +polders also have a winter peil as a precaution against the increased +fall of water in that season. The summer water-level of the pasture +polders south of the former Y is about 4 to 8 ft. below the Amsterdam +zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the north, it reaches 10½ ft. below +A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and in reclaimed lands (<i>droogmakerijen</i>) +may be still lower, thus in the Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is +21¼ ft. below.</p> + +<p>The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial +means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders +of Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into +the sea at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used. +But in North Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder +water has generally to be raised. In some deep polders and drained +lands where the water cannot be brought to the required height +at once, windmills are found at two or even three different levels. +The final removal of polder water, however, is only truly effected +upon its discharge into the “outer waters” of the country, that is, +the sea itself or the large rivers freely communicating with it; and +this happens with but a small proportion of Dutch polders, such +as those of Zeeland, the Holland Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.</p> + +<p>As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers +were gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through +which they flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they +communicated. Their level ranges from about 1½ to 4 ft. above +that of the pasture polders. In addition, various kinds of canals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span> +and endiked or embanked lakes had come into existence, forming +altogether a vast network of more or less stagnant waters. These waters +are utilized as the temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder +water, each system of reservoirs being termed a <i>boezem</i> (bosom or +basin), and all lands watering into the same boezem being considered +as belonging to it. The largest boezem is that of Friesland, which +embraces nearly the whole province. It sometimes happens that +a polder is not in direct contact with the boezem to which it belongs, +but first drains into an adjacent polder, from which the water is +afterwards removed. In the same way, some boezems discharge +first into others, which then discharge into the sea or rivers. This +is usually the case where there is a great difference in height between +the surface of the boezem and the outer waters, and may be illustrated +by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte boezems in the provinces +of South and North Holland respectively. In time of drought +the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run back into the +polders, and so serve a double purpose as water-reservoirs. Boezems, +like polders, have a standard water-level which may hot be exceeded, +and as in the polder this level may vary in the different +parts of an extended boezem. The height of the <i>boezem peil</i> ranges +<span class="correction" title="amended from beween">between</span> 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft. above to 1<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> ft. below the Amsterdam zero, though +the average is about 1 to 1<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft. below. Some boezems, again, which +are less easily controlled, have a “danger water-level” at which +they refuse to receive any more water from the surrounding polders. +The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is of this kind, +and such a boezem is termed <i>besloten</i> or “sequestered,” in contradistinction +to a “free” boezem. A third kind of boezem is the +reserve or <i>berg-boezem</i>, which in summer may be made dry and used +for agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The +centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this +complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation +are better imagined than described, and even at the present +day the evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of +Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed +by Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered +by recent deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep +borings have revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the +“Crags” of East Anglia. They are divided into the <i>Diestien</i>, +corresponding in part with the English Coralline Crag, the <i>Scaldisien</i> +and <i>Poederlien</i> corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the +<i>Amstelien</i> corresponding with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the +south of Holland the total thickness of the Pliocene series is only +about 200 ft., and they are covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary +deposits; but towards the north the beds sink down and at the +same time increase considerably in thickness, so that at Utrecht a +deep boring reached the top of the Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft. +and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the bottom. At Amsterdam +the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the surface, but the boring, +1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the uppermost division of the +Pliocene, viz. the <i>Amstelien</i>. Eastward and westward of Amsterdam, +as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise slowly to the surface, +and gradually decrease in thickness. They were laid down in a +broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly the whole +of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is +evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the +deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to +England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of +northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series indicates +the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift containing +Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east of the +Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of +alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Situated in the temperate zone between 50° and 53° N. +the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and +night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a correspondingly +wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the +region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean +annual temperature was 49.8° Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9° Fahr.; +the minimum, -5.8° Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is +29.93 in.; the mean annual moisture, 81%; the mean annual +rainfall, 27.99 in. The mean annual number of days with rain is +204, with snow 19, and with thunder-storms 18. The increased +rainfall from July to December (the summer and autumn rains), and +the increased evaporation in spring and summer (5.2 in. more than +the rainfall), are of importance as regards “poldering” and draining +operations. The prevalence of south-west winds during nine +months of the year and of north-west during three (April-June) has +a strong influence on the temperature and rainfall, tides, river +mouths and outlets, and also, geologically, on dunes and sand drifts, +and on fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast. The west +winds of course increase the moisture, and moderate both the winter +cold and the summer heat, while the east winds blowing over the +continent have an opposite influence. It cannot be said that the +climate is particularly good, owing to the changeableness of the +weather, which may alter completely within a single day. The +heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living within doors +or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an influence on the +character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of certain +districts, however, can it be said that they are positively unhealthy; +to this category belong some parts of the Holland provinces, Zeeland, +and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations +from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often burdened +with sea-fogs.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive +forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter, +martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals, +and the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common. +In the 18th century wolves still roamed the country in such large +numbers that hunting parties were organized against them; now +they are unknown. Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state +in Gelderland and Overysel, foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded +regions on the borders of the country, and hares and rabbits in the +dunes and other sandy stretches. Among birds may be reckoned +about two hundred and forty different kinds which are regular +inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of these are migratory. +The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel, magpie, jay, raven, +various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested wren, tufted lark +and titmouse are among the birds which breed here. Birds of +passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of various kinds, +golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale. Storks are +plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most +characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four +physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, +the heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (<i>Erica +tetralix</i>) and ling (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>) cover all the waste sandy regions +in the eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the +meadow-lands is monotonous. In the more damp and marshy +places the bottom is covered with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth +equisetum, and rush. In the ditches and pools common yellow and +white water-lilies are seen, as well as water-soldier (<i>Stratiotes aloides</i>), +great and lesser reed-mace, sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant +forms of the dunes are stunted and meagre as compared with the +same forms elsewhere. The most common plant here is the stiff +sand-reed (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>), called sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, +where it is much used for making mats. Like the sand-reed, +the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the buckthorn (<i>Hippophae +rhamnoides</i>) perform a useful service in helping to bind the sand +together. Furze and the common juniper are regular dune plants, +and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel and +Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (<i>Rosa pimpinellifolia</i>) +also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (<i>Sedum acre</i>), field +fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep’s fescue grass, +the pretty Solomon-seal (<i>Polygonatum officinale</i>), and the broad-leaved +or marsh orchis (<i>Orchis latifolia</i>). The sea-plants which +flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly assist +the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated in places. +Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and Groningen, the +Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer the shore +to sandspurry (<i>Spergularia</i>), or sea-poa or floating meadow grass +(<i>Glyceria maritima</i>), which grows up to the dikes, and affords pasture +for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the Biesbosch +lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable quantities +for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (<i>Zostera +marina</i>) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider +Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of +June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along +the rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the +sand and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The following table shows the area and population +in the eleven provinces of the Netherlands:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Province</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density per<br />sq. m. in<br />1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Brabant</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">509,628</td> <td class="tcr rb">553,842</td> <td class="tcc rb">280</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gelderland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">512,202</td> <td class="tcr rb">566,549</td> <td class="tcc rb">288</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">949,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,144,448</td> <td class="tcc rb">981</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">829,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">968,131</td> <td class="tcc rb">905</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Zeeland</td> <td class="tcr rb">690</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,234</td> <td class="tcr rb">216,295</td> <td class="tcc rb">313</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Utrecht</td> <td class="tcr rb">534</td> <td class="tcr rb">221,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,034</td> <td class="tcc rb">470</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Friesland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">335,558</td> <td class="tcr rb">340,262</td> <td class="tcc rb">265</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Overysel</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">295,445</td> <td class="tcr rb">333,338</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Groningen</td> <td class="tcr rb">790</td> <td class="tcr rb">272,786</td> <td class="tcr rb">299,602</td> <td class="tcc rb">379</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drente</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,544</td> <td class="tcc rb">144</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">850</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,721</td> <td class="tcr rb">281,934</td> <td class="tcc rb">332</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">   Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,648</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,511,415</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,104,137*</td> <td class="tcc allb">404</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="5">* This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span></p> + +<p>The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces +of North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and +Drente on the other. This divergence is partly explained by +the difference of soil—which in Drente comprises the maximum +of waste lands, and in South Holland the minimum—and partly +also by the greater facilities which the seaward provinces enjoy +of earning a subsistence, and the greater variety of their industries. +The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, +Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen, +Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht, +Leeuwarden, Zwolle, Delft, ’s Hertogenbosch, Schiedam, +Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn, Helder, Enschedé, Gouda, Zaandam, +Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing, Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen +and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns, such as Assen, +Enschedé, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen, Zaandam, +Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy +fact that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an +equal share in the general increase of population. This, taken +in conjunction with the advance in trade and shipping, the +diminution in emigration, and the prosperity of the savings +banks, points to a favourable state in the condition of the people.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The roads are divided into national or royal +roads, placed directly under the control of the <i>water-staat</i> and supported +by the state; provincial roads, under the direct +<span class="sidenote">Roads.</span> +control of the states of the provinces, and almost all +supported by the provincial treasuries; communal and polder +roads, maintained by the communal authorities and the polder +boards; and finally, private roads. The system of national roads, +mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827, but still in process of +extension, brings into connexion nearly all the towns.</p> + +<p>The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends +into every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost +a maritime appearance. The united length of the canals +exceeds 1500 m. As a matter of course the smaller +<span class="sidenote">Canals.</span> +streams have been largely utilized in their formation, while the +necessity for a comprehensive drainage system has also contributed +in no small degree. During the years 1815-1830 a large part of the +extensive scheme of construction inaugurated by King William I. +was carried out, the following canals, among others, coming into +existence in that period: the North Holland ship canal (depth, +16½ ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the Grift canal between +Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting Zwolle with +the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William’s canal (6½ ft.), +from ’s Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the Ternuzen-Ghent ship +canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again taken up by the +state, which alone or in conjunction with the provincial authorities +constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal (1859-1869), the drainage +canals of the “Peel” marsh in North Brabant, and of the eastern +provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892) from the Maas to +Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel (1884-1888) +canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and the +Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals +in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and +Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to +Delfzyl, and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen +by way of Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship +canals to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, called the New Waterway +and the North Sea canal respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872 +and 1865-1876 at a cost of 2½ and 3 million pounds sterling, the +former by widening the channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg, +and cutting across the Hook of Holland, the latter by utilizing the +bed of the Y and cutting through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876 +an agreement was arrived at with Germany for connecting the +important drainage canals in Overysel, Drente and Groningen with +the Ems canal system, as a result of which the Almelo-Noordhorn +(1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.</p> + +<p>The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In +Zeeland they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the +river mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere +and Flushing (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from +Zierikzee also to the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866) +canal connects the East and West Scheldt; similarly in South +Holland the Voorne canal unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas, +which does not allow the passage of large vessels above Brielle; +whilst owing lo the banks and shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis +the New Waterway was cut to Rotterdam. Of another character +is the Zederik canal, which unites the principal river of central +Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the Linge with the Merwede +at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek and the Zederik +canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine (1881-1893; +depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character belongs to the +canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of Holland +where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only waterways +which render possible the drainage of the fens and the export of +peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in +Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart +connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt; +in Drente the Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen +with Meppel, and receives on the eastern side the drainage canals +of the Drente fens, namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen +Vaart (1850-1860; 1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the +Lauwers Zee by the Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten +and the Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it +into connexion with the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the +province and in Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal +from Harlingen to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden +to the Lemmer, whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam; +and the Caspar Robles or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep +connect it with Groningen.</p> + +<p>The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly accomplished. +The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem, +opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (<i>Hollandsch +Yzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij</i>). In 1845 the state undertook +<span class="sidenote">Railways.</span> +to develop the railway system, and a company of private +individuals was formed to administer it under the title of the +<i>Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatspoorwegen</i>. In 1860, however, +the total length of railways was only 208 m., and in that year +a parliamentary bill embodying a comprehensive scheme of construction +was adopted. By 1872 this programme was nearly completed, +and 542 m. of new railway had been added. In 1873 and +1875 a second and a third bill provided for the extension of the +railway system at the cost of the state, and, in 1876, 1882 and 1890 +laws were introduced readjusting the control of the various lines, +some of which were transferred to the Holland railway. The state +railway system was completed in 1892, and since that time the +utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new undertakings. +These include various local lines such as the line Alkmaar-Hoorn +(1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschedé-Ahaus in Germany +(1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the +line Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg) Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl, +connecting all the fen countries on the eastern +borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was opened +in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch +railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from +north and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The +two longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem +(1862-1867),<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877) +to Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company, +and the State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870) +(junction at Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)—Arnhem (1865)—Nijmwegen +(1879)—Venlo (1883)—Maastricht (1865). The four +transverse lines belong to the State and Holland railways alternately +and are, beginning with the State railway: (1) the line +Flushing (1872)—Rozendaal (1860)—Tilburg (1863)—Bokstel +(whence there is a branch line belonging to the North Brabant and +Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany, opened +in 1873)—Eindhoven—Venlo and across Prussian border (1866); +(2) the line Hook of Holland—Rotterdam (1893)—Dordrecht (1872-1877)—Elst +(1882-1885)—Nijmwegen (1879)—Cleves, Germany +(1865); (3) the line Rotterdam—Utrecht (1866-1869) and Amsterdam—Utrecht—Arnhem +(1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856): +this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company, +but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line +Amsterdam—Hilversum—Amersfoort—Apeldoorn (1875), whence it +is continued (<i>a</i>) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen, +Germany (1865); (<i>b</i>) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschedé (1866) +to Gronau, Germany; (<i>c</i>) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk +(1878). Of these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental +routes in connexion with the steamboat service to England (ports +of Queenborough and Harwich respectively). Two other lines of +railway, both belonging to the state, also traverse the country west +to east, namely, the line Rozendaal—’s Hertogenbosch (1890)—Nijmwegen, +and in the extreme north, the line from Harlingen +through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen (1866) to the border at +Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected with the German +railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces are further +connected by the lines Amsterdam—Zaandam (1878)—Enkhuizen +(1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the Zuider Zee to +Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to Leeuwarden (1883-1885); +the Netherlands Central railway, Utrecht—Amersfoort—Zwoole—Kampen +(1863); and the line Utrecht—’s Hertogenbosch +(1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by the +lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely, +via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt. +In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in +the post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean +Amsterdam time.</p> + +<p>Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented +by steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or +across the country on special embankments, while one of them is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span> +carried across the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge. +<span class="sidenote">Tramways.</span> +The state first began to encourage the construction of these local +light railways by means of subsidies in 1893, since when +some of the most prominent lines have come into existence, +such as Purmerend—Alkmaar (1898), Zutphen—Emmerich +(1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902), from +’s Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in +Belgium (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland +and Zeeland islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam +and Numansdorp on the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda +or Bergen-op-Zoom, via Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee +and Brouwershaven (1900). An electric tramway connects Haarlem +and Zandvoort. The number of passengers carried by the steam-tramways +is relatively higher than that of the railways. The value +of the goods traffic is not so high, owing, principally, to the want of +intercommunication between the various lines on account of differences +in the width of the gauge.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren +stretches of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland +and North Brabant. They formerly served to support large +flocks of sheep and some cattle, but are gradually transformed +by the planting of woods, as well as by strenuous efforts at +cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two principal +agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North +Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products +of cultivation on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat, +and on the sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax +and beetroot are also cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco, +hemp, hops, colza and chicory form special cultures. With the +possible exception of oats, the cereals do not suffice for home +consumption, and maize is imported in large quantities for +cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and breweries. +Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and +flourish especially on the low fen soil and <i>geest</i> grounds along the +foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland. +The principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions, +asparagus, gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal +flowers are hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other +bulbous plants, the total export of which is estimated at over +£200,000. Fruit is everywhere grown, and there is a special +cultivation of grapes and figs in the Westland of South Holland. +The woods, or rather the plantations, covering 6%, consist +of (1) the so-called forest timber (<i>opgaandhout</i>; Fr. <i>arbres +de haute futaie</i>), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar, birch, +ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood +(<i>akkermaal</i> or <i>hakhout</i>), embracing the elder, willow, beech, +oak, &c. This forms no unimportant branch of the national +wealth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under +permanent pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic +industries of the country. The provinces of +Friesland, North and South Holland, and Utrecht take +<span class="sidenote">Livestock.</span> +the lead as regards both quality and numbers. A smaller, +hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep are kept upon +the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also favour the +rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most important +in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of horse +commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous +in Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are +generally kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably +improved under the care of the government (state and provincial), +which grants subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the +importation of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of +factories for dairy produce, schools, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Fisheries.</i>—The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said +to have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the +following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery +how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland +fisherman. It steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries, +however, but again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century. +The fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas, +namely, the “deep-sea” fishery of the North Sea, and the “inner” +(<i>binnengaatsch</i>) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the +South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be +farther divided into the so-called “great” or “salt-herring” fishery, +mainly carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer +and autumn, and the “fresh-herring” fishery, chiefly pursued at +Scheveningen, Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring +fisheries is enhanced by the careful methods of smoking and salting, +the export of salted fish being considerable. In the winter the +largest boats are laid up and the remainder take to line-fishing. +Middelharnis, Pernis and Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch +of fishery, which yields halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl +fisheries of the coast yield sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of +which a large part is brought alive to the market. In the Zuider +Zee small herring, flat fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught, +the chief fishing centres being the islands of Texel, Urk and +Wieringen, and the coast towns of Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen, +Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk, Vollenhove. The +anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and July sometimes +yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are obtained +on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while +salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the +New Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in +the hands of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large +quantities of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not +only supply the great local demand, but allow of large exports.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Manufacturing Industries.</i>—The mineral resources of Holland +give no encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception +of the coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a +few furnaces in Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and +gravel in the making of dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks +and potteries, the quarrying of stone at St Pietersberg, +&c. Nevertheless the industry of the country has developed +in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium. +The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which +flourishes especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where +jute is also worked into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen +and linen goods Tilburg ranks first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht +and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens is best developed at +Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry include +carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin +and liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and +beer-brewing in most of the principal towns; shoe-making and +leather-tanning in the Langstraat district of North Brabant; +paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the Zaan, and in Limburg; +the manufacture of earthenware and faïence at Maastricht, +the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and +Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine +at Osch; chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting +and broom-making at Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting +and the manufacture of quinine at Amsterdam; and +the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven, Amsterdam, +Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance +in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller +towns along the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding +yards are at Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing, +where there is a government dockyard for building warships.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Trade and Shipping.</i>—To obtain a correct idea of the trade of +Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of +other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible +to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be +formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in +the rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to +the public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large +fleet of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are +becoming more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine +transport trade have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the +commercial business at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and +transit trade. The other principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen +(for Belgium), Harlingen, Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam, +Groningen, den Helder, Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the +national mail steamship services are the lines to the East and West +Indies, Africa and the United States. An examination of its lists +of exports and imports will show that Holland receives from its +colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, cinnamon; +from England and Belgium its manufactured goods and coals; +petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United States; grain +from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of the Black +Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn from +England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore +from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to +Germany, its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish +to Belgium and Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and +Hamburg, as well as England. The bulk of trade is carried on with +Germany and England; then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the +United States, &c. In the last half of the 19th century the total +value of the foreign commerce was more than trebled.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>—The government of the Netherlands +is regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848 +and 1887, under which the sovereign’s person is inviolable and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span> +the ministers are responsible. The age of majority of the +sovereign is eighteen. The crown is hereditary in both the +male and the female line according to primogeniture; but it +is only in default of male heirs that females can come to the +throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first subject +of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange. The +sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the +ultimate direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war +and peace, to make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one +or both chambers of parliament, the supreme command of the +army and navy, the supreme administration of the state finances +and of the colonies and other possessions of the kingdom, and +the prerogative of mercy. By the provisions of the same constitution +he establishes the ministerial departments, and shares +the legislative power with the first and second chambers of +parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at +the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial +executive functions are entrusted are eight in number—ministers +respectively of the interior, of “water-staat,” trade and industry +(that is, of public works, including railways, post-office, &c.), +of justice, of finance, of war, of marine, of the colonies and +of foreign affairs. There is a department of agriculture, but +without a minister at its head. The heads of departments are +appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign, usually +determined, however, as in all constitutional states, by the +will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.</p> + +<p>The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South +Holland sending 10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and +Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4, Overysel, Limburg and Groningen +each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each 2. According to +the fundamental law (<i>Grondwet</i>) of 1887, they are chosen by +the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear +the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but +also from amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank. +Those deputies who are not resident in the Hague are entitled +to receive 16s. 8d. a day during the session. The duration of +parliament is nine years, a third of the members retiring every +three years. The retiring members are eligible for re-election. +The members of the second chamber are chosen in the electoral +districts by all capable male citizens not under 23 years of age, +who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum of +one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of +members is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the +Hague 3, Groningen and Utrecht 2 members each. Members must +be at least thirty years old, and receive an annual allowance +of £166, besides travelling expenses. They only, and the government, +have the right of initiating business, and of proposing +amendments. Their term is four years, but they are re-eligible. +All communications from the sovereign to the states-general +and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures +relating to internal administration or to foreign possessions, +are first submitted to the consideration of the council of state, +which consists of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who +is the president. The state council also has the right of making +suggestions to the sovereign in regard to subjects of legislation +and administration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial +states, which are returned by direct election by the same electors +as vote for the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half +of the members retire every three years subject to re-election +or renewal. The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner +for the province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in +the year, they name a committee of deputy-states which manages +current general business, and at the same time exercises the right +of control over the affairs of the communes. At the head of every +commune stands a communal council, whose members must be not +under 23 years of age. They are elected for six years (one-third of +the council retiring every two years) by the same voters as for the +provincial states. Communal franchise is further restricted, however, +to those electors who pay a certain sum to the communal rates. +The number of councillors varies according to the population between +7 and 45. One of the special duties of the council is the supervision +of education. The president of the communal council is the +burgomaster, who is named by the sovereign in every instance for +six years, and receives a salary varying from £40 to over £600. +Provision is made for paying the councillors a certain fee—called +“presence-money”—when required. The burgomaster has the +power to suspend any of the council’s decrees for 30 days. The +executive power is vested in a college formed by the burgomaster +and two, three or four magistrates (<i>wethouders</i>) to be chosen by and +from the members of the council. The provinces are eleven in +number.</p> + +<p><i>National Defence.</i>—The home defence system of Holland is a +militia with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in +the “militia” or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7. +Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called +up for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace +strength under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half +are permanent cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the +year’s contingent were trained for eight months and more, and +5200 for four months. The war strength of the militia is 105,000, +that of the second line or reserve 70,000. The defence of the country +is based on the historic principle of concentrating the people and +their resources in the heart of the country, covered by a wide belt +of inundations. The chosen line of defence is marked by a series +of forts which control the sluices, extending from Amsterdam, +through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and through Utrecht to +Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues thence by +the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast also +is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about 26,000, +all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily enlisted +European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was £2,331,255. +The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists (1909) of +9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels, manned by +8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines. Recruiting +is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of +conscription amongst the maritime population.</p> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the +high council (<i>hooge raad</i>) at the Hague, the supreme court of the +whole kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials +and for the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts +of justice established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden +and ’s Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each +arrondissement; (4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of +communes, whose jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount +(under 200 guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who +at the same time look after the interest of minors. The high council +is composed of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three +advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were +formerly divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement +tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal +code of 1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement +courts, which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal +courts.</p> + +<p>Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle +at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for +drunkards and beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen +in Drente, which were brought from the Society of Charity +(<i>Maatschappij van Weldadigkeid</i>) in 1859. The inmates practise +agriculture, as well as various industries for supplying all the requirements +of the colony. The objection raised against these +establishments is that the prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage +of the country, but a class of more or less voluntary inmates. +Children under 16 years of age are placed in the three state reformatories, +and there is an institution for vagabond women at +Rotterdam.</p> + +<p><i>Charitable and other Institutions.</i>—Private charities have always +occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the +principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is, +that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All +private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they +can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are +organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities. +At the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural +colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drente</a></span>). Of the +numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and +the fine arts, the following are strictly national—the Royal Academy +of Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute +(1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School +of Music, the National Archives, besides various other national +collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at +Middelburg, Utrecht, ’s Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there +are private and municipal associations, institutions and collections +in a large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general +utility are the Society for Public Welfare (<i>Maatschappij tot nut +van’t algemeen</i>, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction +of educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam +(1873); Teyler’s Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and +the societies for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences +(1752) in the same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography +and Ethnology of the Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society +at the Hague, the Royal Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the +Association for the Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic +traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of +independent religious congregations. The bond between church +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> +and state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618) +and the organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (<i>Nederlandsche +Hervormde Kerk</i>) as the national Protestant church, practically +came to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision +of the Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality +of all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present +organization of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed +by a general assembly or “synod” of deputies from the principal +judicatures, sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into +“classes,” and the classes again into “circles” (<i>ringen</i>), each circle +comprising from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being +governed by a “church council” or session. The provincial synods +are composed of ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and +these are composed of the ministers belonging to the particular class +and an equal number of elders appointed by the local sessions. The +meetings of the circles have no administrative character, but are +mere brotherly conferences. The financial management in each +congregation is entrusted to a special court (<i>kerk-voogdij</i>) composed +of “notables” and church wardens. In every province there is +besides, in the case of the Reformed Church, a provincial committee +of supervision for the ecclesiastical administration. For the +whole kingdom this supervision is entrusted to a common “collegium” +or committee of supervision, which meets at the Hague, +and consists of 11 members named by the provincial committee and +3 named by the synod. Some congregations have withdrawn from +provincial supervision, and have thus free control of their own +financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox Church +is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most liberal +thought in the country, and have their own training college at +Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the +Christian Reformed Church (<i>Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk</i>) arose as +a protest against the government and the modern tendencies of the +Reformed Church; and for the same reason those who had founded +the Free University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886 +into an independent body called the <i>Nederlandsche Gereformeerde +Kerk</i>. In 1892 these two churches united under the name of the +Reformed Churches (<i>Gereformeerde Kerken</i>) with the doctrine and +discipline of Dort. They have a theological seminary at Kampen. +Other Protestant bodies are the Walloons, who, though possessing +an independent church government, are attached to the Low-Dutch +Reformed Church; the Lutherans, divided into the main body of +Evangelical Lutherans and a smaller division calling themselves +the Re-established or Old Lutherans (<i>Herstelde Lutherschen</i>) who +separated in 1791 in order to keep more strictly to the Augsburg +confession; the Mennonites founded by Menno Simons of Friesland, +about the beginning of the 16th century; the Baptists, whose only +central authority is the General Baptist Society founded at Amsterdam +in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of Hernhutters +or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and +Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague. +There are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague, +Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the +Hague (1857) and Rotterdam (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic +Church, which before had been a mission in the hands of papal +legates and vicars, was raised into an independent ecclesiastical +province with five dioceses, namely, the archbishopric of Utrecht, +and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem, Breda, ’s Hertogenbosch +and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side by side with +the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the Old +Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (<i>Oud Bisschoppelijke Clerezie</i>), +and the Jansenists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jansenism</a></span>). The Old Catholics, with whom +the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th century. +Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have bishops +at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort. +They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Utrecht</a></span>). The large +Jewish population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx +of Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in +the beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized +under the central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church, +and divided into head and “ring” synagogues and associated +churches. The Roman Catholic element preponderates in the +southern provinces of Limburg, and North Brabant, but in Friesland, +Groningen and Drente the Baptists and Christian Reformed are +most numerous.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under +the control and supervision of the state, being administered by a +special department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889 +the state recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900 +passed a law of compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are +generally in the hands of private societies or the municipal authorities, +are not interfered with by the state. According to the law of +1889 primary education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation +schools for boys and girls (co-education having been long +in vogue). These schools are established in every commune, the +state contributing aid at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure. +The age of admission is six; and the course is for six years, 7-13 +being the legal age limits; the fee, from which poverty exempts, +is almost nominal. Nature-study, continued in the secondary +schools, is an essential part in the curriculum of these schools, and +elementary general history, English, French and German are among +the optional subjects. While the boys are instructed in woodwork, +needlework is taught to the girls, its introduction in 1889 having +been the first recognition of practical instruction in any form. +Continuation schools (<i>herhalingsscholen</i>) must be organized wherever +required, and are generally open for six months in winter, pupils +of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending. Secondary schools were +established by the law of 1863 and must be provided by every +commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the Burgher-Day-and-Evening +schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The first +named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in industrial +or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell into +disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two years, +but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the instruction, +though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special local industries; +the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling per annum. +Special mention must be made in this connexion of the school of +engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic Arts +at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or +a five years’ course, and the fees vary from £2, 10s. to £5 a year. +The instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific. +In both schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course, +that of the higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science +and medical branches of university education, a supplementary +examination in Greek and Latin being required for other branches. +The gymnasia, or classical schools, fall legally speaking under the +head of higher education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000 +inhabitants, unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium. +A large proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to +the extent of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and +philological, but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in +favour of scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary +from £5 to £8 a year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and +bursaries, are sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher +schools. Among the schools which give specialized instruction, +mention must be made of the admirable trade schools +(<i>ambachtsscholen</i>) established in 1861, and the corresponding industrial +schools for girls; the fishery schools and schools of navigation; +the many private schools of domestic science, and of +commerce and industry, among which the municipal school at +Enschedé (1886) deserves special mention; and the school of social +work, “Das Huis,” at Amsterdam (1900). For the education of +medical practitioners, civil and military, the more important institutions +are the National Obstetrical College at Amsterdam, the +National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National College for +Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at Utrecht +for the training of military apothecaries for the East and West +Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the state +is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture for +every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several +cases), “winter schools” of agriculture and horticulture, and a +state agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in +home and colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including +board and lodging, are about £50 a year. According to the +law of 1898, the state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or +testing-stations. Other schools of the same class are the Gerard +Adriaan van Swieten schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry +in Drente, the school of instruction in butter and cheese making +(<i>zuivelbereiding</i>) at Bolsward and the state veterinary college at +Utrecht.</p> + +<p>There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden +(1575), Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums +of Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in +1811, but that of Amsterdam was converted into a municipal +university in 1877. In each of these universities there are five +faculties, namely, law, theology, medicine, science and mathematics, +and literature and philosophy, the courses for which are +respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven years for the two +last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (£16, 13s. 4d.) per +annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of degrees are +conferred, namely, the ordinary (<i>candidaats</i>) and the “doctor’s” +degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only eligible +for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university at Amsterdam +founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of conferring +degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science. +The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of engineering +in all its branches, architecture and naval construction, +has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of “engineer.” +The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as at +the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at +Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the +Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same +nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The +centre of Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the +students’ corps, at the head of which is a “senate,” elected annually +from among the students of four years’ standing. Membership of +the corps is gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only +passport to the various social and sports societies.</p> + +<p>All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession +by examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in +the state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span> +denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private +state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this +class of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years. +In the last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary +“practice” school attached to each college, and students are also +taught to make models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction +after the manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slöjd) system. +Assistant-teachers wishing to qualify as head-teachers must have +had two years’ practical experience. Pupil-teachers can only give +instruction under the supervision of a certificated teacher. The +minimum salary of teachers is determined by law. The teaching, +which follows the so-called “Heuristic” method, and the equipment +of schools of every description, are admirable.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The following statement shows the revenue and +expenditure of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and +1905:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Source.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Excise</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,678,075</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,042,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,514,998</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct taxation</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,300,865</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,135,665</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Indirect taxation</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,004,745</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,805,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,946,666</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Post Office</td> <td class="tcr rb">539,405</td> <td class="tcr rb">865,750</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,103,333</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Government telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">187,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">211,333</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Export and Import duties</td> <td class="tcr rb">440,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">801,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">930,912</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">State domains</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,186</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilot dues</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,079</td> <td class="tcr rb">191,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">State lotteries</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,666</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Game and Fisheries</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,750</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Railways</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">361,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">349,011</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Part paid by East Indies on account of</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   interest and redemption of public debt</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,916</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherland Bank contribution</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,500</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  Total*</td> <td class="tcr allb">9,475,337</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,394,220</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,017,079</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">* Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Object.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">National Debt</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,727,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,906,214</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,899,770</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of War</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,708,698</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,893,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,474,011</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Waterstaat</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,790,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,448,339</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,869,951</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Finance</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,537,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,092,343</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,297,180</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Marine</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,038,536</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,388,141</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,396,137</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Interior</td> <td class="tcr rb">815,188</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,330,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,613,134</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Justice</td> <td class="tcr rb">426,343</td> <td class="tcr rb">529,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">592,073</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Colonies</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,829</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,768</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dept. of Foreign Affairs</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,312</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,101</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,403</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Royal Household</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,666</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Superior Authorities of the State</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,792</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,251</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Unforeseen Expenditure</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,745</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,166</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  Total*</td> <td class="tcr allb">10,393,579</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,896,289</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,907,781</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">* Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment of<br /> +  annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway extension, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The total debt in 1905 amounted to £96,764,266, the annual +interest amounted to £3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905, +£27,416,651 has been devoted to the redemption of the public debt. +The total wealth of the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling. +The various provinces and communes have separate budgets. The +following table gives a statement of the provincial and communal +finances:—</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr rb">722,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">718,199</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Communal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,132,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,311,666</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,750,083</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr rb">740,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">702,718</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Communal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,683,800</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,503,250</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,085,250</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Colonies.</i>—The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have +an area of 600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000, +among which are 35,000 Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000 +Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant Asiatics. The West Indian +possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or the government +of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of Curaçoa +and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of +St Martin, Curaçoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000 +sq. m., with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are +Europeans, and the rest negroes and other people of colour, +and Chinese.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The chief place is due to the following geographical +publications:—Dr H. Blink, <i>Nederland en zijne Bewoners</i> +(Amsterdam, 1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography; +<i>Tegenwoordige Staat van Nederland</i> (Amsterdam, 1897); R. +Schuiling, <i>Aardrijkskunde van Nederland</i> (Zwolle, 1884); A. A. +Beekman, <i>De Strijd om het Bestaan</i> (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on +the characteristic hydrography of the Netherlands; and E. Reclus’ +<i>Nouvelle géographie universelle</i> (1879; vol. iv.). The <i>Gedenboek +uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk +Instituut van Ingenieurs</i>, 1847-1897 (’s Gravenhage, 1898), is an +excellent aid in studying technically the remarkable works on +Dutch rivers, canals, sluices, railways and harbours, and drainage +and irrigation works. The <i>Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van +Nederland</i>, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem, 1895), is a complete gazetteer +with historical notes, and <i>Nomina Geographica Neerlandica</i>, published +by the Netherlands Geographical Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.), +contains a history of geographical names. <i>Geschiedenis van den +Boereastand en den landbouw in Nederland</i>, H. Blink (Groningen, +1902), and the report on agriculture, published at the Hague by the +Royal Commission appointed in 1896, furnish special information +in connexion with this subject. Of more general interest are: <i>Eene +halve Eeuw, 1848-1898</i>, edited by Dr P. H. Ritter (Amsterdam, +1898), containing a series of articles on all subjects connected with +the kingdom during the second half of the 19th century, written by +specialists; and <i>Les Pays Bas</i> (Leiden, 1899), and <i>La Hollande +géographique, ethnologique, politique, &c.</i> (Paris, 1900), both works +of the same class as the preceding.</p> + +<p>Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as +well as literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to +Edmondo de Amicis (<i>Holland</i>, translated from the Italian, London, +1883); H. Havard, <i>Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c.</i> (translated from +the French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, <i>Holland and the +Hollanders</i> (London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also +be made of <i>Old Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee</i>, by W. J. +Tuyn (translated from the Dutch, London, 1901), <i>Nieuwe <span class="correction" title="amended from Wanderlingen">Wandelingen</span> +door Nederland</i>, by J. Craandijk and P. A. <span class="correction" title="amended from Schipperns">Schipperus</span> +(Haarlem, 1888); <i>Friesland Meres and through the Netherlands</i>, +by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); <i>On Dutch Waterways</i>, by G. C. +Davis (London, 1887); <i>Hollande et hollandais</i>, by H. Durand +(Paris, 1893); and <i>Holland and Belgium</i> by Professor N. G. van +Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860), the last three +being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations. Works of +historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are <i>Merkwaardige +Kasteelen in Nederland</i>, by J. van Lennep and W. J. Hofdyk (Leiden, +1881-1884); <i>Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden</i>, by G. van Arkel and +A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society (Amsterdam, +1891); and <i>Oud Holland</i>, edited by A. D. de Vries and N. +de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous contributions +to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters. +Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the +Royal Zoological Society “Natura Artis Magistra” at Amsterdam, +and the <i>Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland</i> (Haarlem, 1856-1863) +written by specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military +and naval defence may be studied in <i>De vesting Holland</i>, by A. L. W. +Seijffardt (Utrecht, 1887), and the <i>Handbook of the Dutch Army</i>, +by Major W. L. White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history +in <i>The Church in the Netherlands</i>, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893); +and education in vol. viii. of the <i>Special Reports on Educational +Subjects</i> issued by the Board of Education, London. Statistics are +furnished by the annual publication of the Society for Statistics in +the Netherlands, Amsterdam.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">History from 1579 to Modern Times</span><a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed +from its immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the +Union of Brussels and the Perpetual Edict, in its +permanence. The confederacy of the northern provinces +<span class="sidenote">Consequences of the Union of Utrecht.</span> +of the Netherlands which was effected (29th +of January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau, +was destined to be the beginning of a new national +life. The foundation was laid on which the Republic of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span> +United Netherlands was to be raised. Its immediate results +were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon +provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause +threatened it with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal +influence and indefatigable labours of the prince of Orange +stood in the way of a more general defection. Everywhere, +save in staunch and steadfast Holland and Zeeland, a feeling +of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the land. +In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere +his aims and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood. +He saw that unaided the patriotic party could not hope +to resist the power of Philip II., and he had therefore resolved +to gain the support of France by the offer of the sovereignty +<span class="sidenote">Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou.<br /> +The Ban against William of Orange.<br /> +The Act of Abjuration.<br /> +The Apology.</span> +of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But Anjou +was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Protestants +a feeling that they were being betrayed. +But the prince persisted in the policy he felt to be a +necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was concluded +with the duke, by which he, under certain +conditions, agreed to accept the sovereignty of the <span class="correction" title="amended from Netherland">Netherlands</span> +provinces, except Holland and Zeeland. These two provinces +were unwilling to have any sovereign but William +himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed +to become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt +that he was justified in taking this step because of the +Ban which Philip had published on the 15th of March +1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and +miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his +life. His practical answer to the king was the act +of Abjuration, by which at his persuasion the representatives +of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, +Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled +at the Hague, declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty +over them, and that they held themselves henceforth absolved +from their allegiance to him. In a written defence, +the famous <i>Apology</i>, published later in the year, William +replied at great length to the charges that had been +brought against him, and carrying the war into the enemy’s +camp, endeavoured to prove that the course he had pursued +was justified by the crimes and tyranny of the king.</p> + +<p>The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of +Brabant (February 1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of +Gelderland, count of Flanders and lord of Friesland. +<span class="sidenote">Attempt on the Life of Orange by Jean Jaureguy.</span> +William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in +order to give the French prince his strongest personal +support, and while there a serious attempt was made +upon his life (March 18th) by a youth named Jean +Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his +head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left +jaw. It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Meanwhile +Anjou soon grew tired of his dependent position and of +the limitations placed upon his sovereignty. He resolved by +a secret and sudden attack (17th of January 1583) to make +himself master of Antwerp and of the person of Orange. +<span class="sidenote">The French Fury.</span> +The assault was made, but it proved an utter failure. +The citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and +the French were routed with heavy loss. The “French +Fury” as it was called, rendered the position of Anjou in the +Netherlands impossible, and made William himself unpopular +in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the midst +of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize +resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and +Spanish influence under the able leadership of Alexander of +Parma. Antwerp, with St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was +still in the hands of the patriots and barred the way to the sea, +and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never for one moment did +William lose heart or relax his efforts and vigilance; he felt that +with the two maritime provinces secure the national cause need +not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn to their +end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic +zealot, by name Balthazar Gérard, from attempting to assassinate +the man whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of +God and the king. Under the pretext of seeking a passport, +<span class="sidenote">Assassination of William the Silent.</span> +Gérard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at Delft, and +firing point blank at William as he left the dining +hall, mortally wounded him (10th of July 1584). +Amidst general lamentations “the Father of his +Country,” as he was called, was buried with great state in the +Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge.</p> + +<p>But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or +worked in vain. The situation was critical, but there was no +panic. Throughout the revolted provinces there was a general +determination to continue the struggle to the bitter end. To +make head, however, against the victorious advance of Parma, +before whose arms all the chief towns of Brabant and Flanders, +Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly—after a valiant defence—Antwerp +itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for the protection +of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the commanding +personal influence of William was no more, was without +any central authority which could claim obedience. The States-General +were but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces, +<span class="sidenote">Maurice of Nassau.</span> +and amongst these Holland by its size and wealth (after +the occupation by the Spaniards of Brabant and +Flanders) was predominant. Maurice of Nassau, +William’s second son, had indeed on his father’s death +been appointed captain and admiral-general of the +Union, president of the Council of State, and stadholder of +Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only seventeen, +to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the +command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two +devoted adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate +<span class="sidenote">The Sovereignty offered to Henry III. and declined.</span> +of Holland, and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, pensionary +of Rotterdam, were the statesmen who at this difficult +juncture took the foremost part in directing the policy +of the confederacy. They turned first to France. +The sovereignty of the provinces was offered to Henry +III., but the king, harassed by civil discords in his +own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585). Repelled +in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to +England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish +arms, and especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refusing +the sovereignty, she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and +1000 horse to the aid of the Provinces under the command +of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being +<span class="sidenote">Leicester Governor-general.</span> +guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns +of Flushing, Brill and Rammekens as pledges (10th +of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in Holland, was in the +presence of the States-General and of Maurice of Nassau invested +with the title of governor-general and practically sovereign +powers (February 1586).</p> + +<p>The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He +knew nothing of the language or the character of the people he +was called upon to govern; his own abilities both as +general and statesman were mediocre; and he was +<span class="sidenote">Failure and withdrawal of Leicester.</span> +hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness +and changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying +to consolidate the forces of the Provinces for united action and +to centralize its government, he undoubtedly did his best, +according to his lights, for the national cause. But he was too +hasty and overbearing. His edict prohibiting all commercial +intercourse with the enemy at once aroused against him the +bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and Zeeland, who +thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council of +State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal +adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial +states of Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position +impossible. The traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen +by their English governors, Stanley and York, both Catholics, +rendered all Englishmen suspect. The States of Holland under +the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, took up an attitude +of resolute hostility to him, and the States of Holland dominated +the States-General. In the midst of these divided councils the +important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly discredited, +Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span> +in which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned +to England.</p> + +<p>Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States +at the beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all +probability he would have crushed out the revolt +and reconquered the northern Netherlands. But the +<span class="sidenote">Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.</span> +attention of the Spanish king was at this time concentrated +upon the success of the Invincible Armada. +The army of Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of +England, and the United Provinces had a respite. They were +fortunately able to avail themselves of it. The commanding +abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of Holland, gradually +gathered into his hands the entire administration of the Republic. +He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more and +more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency +of purpose. At the same time Maurice of +<span class="sidenote">Maurice of Nassau.</span> +Nassau, now grown to man’s estate, began to display +those military talents which were to gain for him the +fame of being the first general of his time. But +Maurice was no politician. He had implicit trust in the +advocate, his father’s faithful friend and counsellor, and for +many years to come the statesman and the soldier worked in +harmony together for the best interests of their country (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oldenbarneveldt</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurice</a></span>, prince of Orange). At the +side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis, +stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander +in the field.</p> + +<p>After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied +with campaigns on the southern frontier against the French, +and the Netherlanders had been content to stand on +guard against attack. The surprise of Breda by a +<span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1591.</span> +stratagem (8th of March 1590) was the only military +event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had +not wasted the time. The States’ forces had been reorganized +and brought to a high state of military discipline and training. +In 1591 the States-General, after considerable hesitation, were +persuaded by Maurice to sanction an offensive campaign. It +was attended by marvellous success. Zutphen was captured +on the 20th of May, Deventer on the 20th of June. Parma, +who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to retire +with loss. Hulst fell after a three days’ investment, and finally +Nymegen was taken on the 21st of October. The fame of +Maurice, a consummate general at the early age of twenty-four, +was on all men’s lips. The following campaign was signalized +<span class="sidenote">Death of Parma.<br /> +New province of Stadt en Landen.</span> +by the capture of Steenwyk and Koevorden. On the +8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States +were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary. +In 1593 the leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice’s +reputation as an invincible besieger. The town fell after an +investment of three months. Groningen was the +chief fruit of the campaign of 1594. With its dependent +district it was formed into a new province under the +name of Stadt en Landen. William Louis became +the stadholder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groningen</a></span>). The soil of the northern +Netherlands was at last practically free from the presence of +Spanish garrisons.</p> + +<p>The growing importance of the new state was signalized by +the conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England, +France and the United Provinces. It was of short +duration and purchased by hard conditions, but it +<span class="sidenote">Triple Alliance of France, England and the United Provinces.</span> +implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth +of the States-General, as a sovereign power, with +whom treaties could be concluded. Such a recognition +was justified by the brilliant successes of the campaign +of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish +force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any +loss to the victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg, +Meurs, Groenlo, Bredevoort, Enschedé, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal +and Lingen fell into the hands of Maurice.</p> + +<p>The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 completely +changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved +to marry his elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia, +to her cousin, the Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who +<span class="sidenote">Albert and Isabel, Sovereigns of the Netherlands.</span> +had been governor-general of the Netherlands since 1596, +and to erect the Provinces into an independent sovereignty +under their joint rule. The instrument was +executed in May; Philip died in September; the +marriage took place in November. In case the marriage +should have no issue, the sovereignty of the +Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The +archdukes (such was their official title) did not make their +<i>joyeuse entrée</i> into Brussels until the close of 1599. The step +was taken too late to effect a reconciliation with the rebel +provinces. Peace overtures were made, but the conditions +were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously considered +the question of giving in their submission to the new +sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven +mightily by the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East +and West Indies, and were to be found in every sea. The year +1600 saw the foundation of the Chartered East India Company +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch East India Company</a></span>). The question of freedom +of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to the Dutch +people than freedom of religious worship. To both these concessions +Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed.</p> + +<p>Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch +commerce, was made the objective of a daring offensive campaign +in 1600 by the orders of the States-General under the +influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the teeth of the opposition +<span class="sidenote">The Battle of Nieuport.</span> +of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis. +By a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached +Nieuport on the 1st of July, and proceeded to invest it. The +archduke Albert, however, followed hard on his steps with an +army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his communications +cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate combat +took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and +valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare +for Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand +Spaniards were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred +and five standards. To have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish +infantry in open fight was a great triumph for the States troops +and their general, but it was barren of results. Maurice refused +to run further risks and led back his army to Holland. For the +following three years all the energies alike of the archdukes and +<span class="sidenote">Siege of Ostend.</span> +the States-General were concentrated on the siege +of Ostend (15th of July 1601-20th of Sept. 1604), the +solitary possession of the Dutch in Flanders. The +heroic obstinacy of the defence was equalled by the perseverance +of the attack, and there was a vast expenditure, especially on +the side of the Spaniards, of blood and treasure. At last when +reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before the resolution of +Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the command +of the besiegers had been entrusted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinola</a></span>). A month +before the surrender, however, another and more commodious +seaport, Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army +under Maurice, and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted.</p> + +<p>Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the +campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel +of skill between him and Maurice without much advantage +accruing to either side. But the archdukes’ +<span class="sidenote">Negotiations for Peace.</span> +treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted; +both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotiations +for peace were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards +to make concessions was further quickened by the destruction +of their fleet at Gibraltar by the Dutch admiral Heemskerk, +(April 1607). But there were many difficulties in the way. +The peace party in the United Provinces headed by Oldenbarneveldt +was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William +Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers, +the Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The +Spaniards on their side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom +of trade in the Indies and of freedom of religious worship. At +last, after the negotiations had been repeatedly on the point of +breaking off, a compromise was effected by the mediation of +the envoys of France and England. On the 9th of April 1609 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span> +a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the +Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with +<span class="sidenote">The Twelve Years’ Truce.</span> +the Provinces, “in the quality of free States over +whom the archdukes made no pretentions.” The <i>uti +possidetis</i> as regards territorial possession was recognized. +Neither the granting of freedom of worship +to Roman Catholics nor the word “Indies” was mentioned, +but in a secret treaty King Philip undertook to place no hindrance +in the way of Dutch trade, wherever carried on.</p> + +<p>One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was +the increase of Oldenbarneveldt’s influence and authority in the +government of the Republic. But though Maurice +and his other opponents had reluctantly yielded to +<span class="sidenote">Theological strife in Holland.</span> +the advocate’s skilful diplomacy and persuasive +arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman +and the stadholder which was destined never to be healed. The +country was no sooner relieved from the pressure of external +war than it was torn by internal discords. After a brief interference +in the affairs of Germany, where the intricate question +of the Cleves-Jülich succession was already preparing the way +for the Thirty Years’ War, the United Provinces became immersed +in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were +<span class="sidenote">Arminius and Gomarus.</span> +mixed up important political issues. The province +of Holland was the arena in which it was fought out. +Two professors of theology at Leiden, Jacobus Arminius +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arminius</a></span>) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the +leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon +certain tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination. +Gomarus supported the orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius +assailed it. The Arminians appealed to the States of Holland +(1610) in a Remonstrance in which their theological position +was defined. They were henceforth known as “Remonstrants”; +<span class="sidenote">Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.</span> +their opponents were styled “Contra-Remonstrants.” +The advocate and the States of +Holland took sides with the Remonstrants, Maurice +and the majority of the States-General (four provinces +out of seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became +a question of the extent of the rights of sovereign princes under +the Union. The States-General wished to summon a national +synod, the States of Holland refused their assent, and made +levies of local militia (<i>waard-gelders</i>) for the maintenance of order. +The States-General (9th of July 1618) took up the challenge, +and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was placed at the +head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht, which +supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of +<span class="sidenote">Waard-gelders.</span> +Holland to insist on the disbanding of the <i>waard-gelders</i>. +On the side of Maurice, whom the army +obeyed, was the power of the sword. The opposition +collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged; and +the leaders of the party of state rights—the advocate himself, +Hugo de Groot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grotius</a></span>), pensionary of Rotterdam, and +Hoogerbeets, pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown +into prison. The whole proceedings were illegal, and the illegality +was consummated by the prisoners being brought before a +<span class="sidenote">Oldenbarneveldt executed.</span> +special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly all of whom were +personal enemies of the accused. The trial was +merely a preliminary to condemnation. The advocate +was sentenced to death, and executed (13th of May +1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences of Grotius +and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had +met at Dort on the 13th of November 1618. One hundred +members, many of them foreign divines, composed +<span class="sidenote">Synod of Dort.</span> +this great assembly, who after 154 sittings gave their +seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and +the Heidelberg Catechism. The Arminians were condemned, +their preachers deprived, and the Remonstrant party placed +under a ban (6th of May 1619).</p> + +<p>In 1621 the Twelve Years’ Truce came to an end, and war +broke out once more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of +Oldenbarneveldt, was supreme in the land, but he missed +sorely the wise counsels of the old statesman whose tragic end +<span class="sidenote">Renewal of the war.<br /> +Death of Maurice.</span> +he had been so largely instrumental in bringing about. He +and Spinola found themselves once more at the head +of the armies in the field, but the health of the stadholder +was undermined, and his military genius was +under a cloud. Deeply mortified by his failure to relieve Breda, +which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice fell seriously +ill, and died on the 23rd of April 1625. He was +succeeded in his dignities by his younger brother +Frederick Henry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick Henry</a></span>, prince of Orange), +who was appointed stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, +Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general of the +Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as +a general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able statesman. +The moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper +did much to heal the wounds left by civil and religious strife, +and during his time the power and influence of the stadholderate +<span class="sidenote">The period of Frederick Henry.</span> +attained their highest point. Such was his popularity +and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great +offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of +his five-year-old son, by the <i>Acte de Survivance</i>. He +did much to justify the trust placed in him, for the period of +Frederick Henry is the most brilliant in the history of the Dutch +Republic. During his time the East India Company, which had +founded the town of Batavia in Java as their administrative +<span class="sidenote">The East and West India Companies.</span> +capital, under a succession of able governor-generals +almost monopolized the trade of the entire +Orient, made many conquests and established a network +of factories and trade posts stretching from the Cape of +Good Hope to Japan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch East India Company</a></span>). The +West India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the +same model, aimed rather at waging war on the enemies’ commerce +than in developing their own. Their fleets for some years +brought vast booty into the company’s coffers. The Mexican +treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn, the boldest of +their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send armies +across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a +flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see Dutch West +India Company). The operations of these two great chartered +companies occupy a place among memorable events of Frederick +Henry’s stadholderate; they are therefore mentioned here, but +for further details the special articles must be consulted.</p> + +<p>When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother’s place, he +found the United Provinces in a position of great danger and of +critical importance. The Protestants of Germany +were on the point of being crushed by the forces of the +<span class="sidenote">Policy of Frederick Henry.</span> +Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League. It lay +with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour +of their co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish +Habsburgs fully occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed +to imperialist attack from the east, was a task involving grave +risks and possible disaster. In these circumstances, Frederick +Henry saw the necessity of securing French aid. It was secured +by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van Aarssens (q.v.) but +on hard conditions. Richelieu required the assistance of the +Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance of the +Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder, +despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence +induced the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus +obtain the French alliance on which the safety of the republic +depended.</p> + +<p>The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in +1629. His capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto +supposed to be impregnable, after a siege of five +months was a triumph of engineering skill. Wesel +<span class="sidenote">Sieges of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht.</span> +also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a +large Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000 +soldiers, for the invasion of Zeeland, was completely +destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the troops made +prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made +memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier +town lying on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the +prince of Orange in the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span> +and Imperialist, whose united forces were far larger than his own. +This brilliant feat of arms was the prelude to peace negotiations, +<span class="sidenote">Death of the Infanta Isabel.</span> +which led to a lengthy exchange of diplomatic notes. +No agreement, however, was reached. The death of +the Infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion +of the Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king +of Spain, rendered all efforts to end the war, for the time being, +fruitless.</p> + +<p>At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed +to the prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had +to contend against a strong peace party in Holland +headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with the aid of +<span class="sidenote">Alliance with France.</span> +the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was +overcome. Pauw was replaced as pensionary by +Jacob Cats, and the objections of Richelieu were met and +satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance with France was +concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and each +party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the +assent of the other. A large French force was sent into the +Netherlands and placed under the command of the prince of +Orange. The military results of the alliance were during the +first two campaigns inconsiderable. The Cardinal Infant +Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the Netherlands, +and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were +dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder +was able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities. +His failure to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice. +<span class="sidenote">Capture of Breda.</span> +It fell in 1625 into the hands of Spinola after a blockade +of eleven months; it was now retaken by Frederick +Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of +immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland, +and of Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies +caused the campaigns of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defensive +and dilatory. An attempted attack on Antwerp was foiled +by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A body of 6000 men +under Count William of Nassau were surprised and utterly +cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive +negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had +been much hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however, +without a signal triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be +on sea and not on land. A magnificent Spanish armada consisting +of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000 soldiers and sailors under the +command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to the Channel in +September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow +seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by +<span class="sidenote">Battle of the Downs.</span> +a small Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp, +the Spaniards sheltered themselves under the English +Downs by the side of an English squadron. Tromp +kept watch over them until he had received large +reinforcements, and then (21st of October) boldly attacked them +as they lay in English waters. Oquendo himself with seven +vessels escaped under cover of a fog; all the rest of the fleet +was destroyed. This crushing victory assured to the Dutch +the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The naval +power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow.</p> + +<p>The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public +feeling in England. The circumstances under which the battle +of the Downs was won were galling to the pride of +the English people, and intensified the growing +<span class="sidenote">English and Dutch Commercial Rivalry.<br /> +Marriage of William and Mary.</span> +unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom +possessed and the other claimed supremacy upon +the seas. The prosperity of the world-wide Dutch +commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across the +Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between +Dutch and English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere, +and the seeds were already sown of that stern rivalry which was +to issue in a series of fiercely contested wars. But in +1639-1640 civil discords in England stood in the way +of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens +was able so “to sweeten the bitterness of the pill” +as to bring King Charles not merely to “overlook the scandal +of the Downs,” but to consent to the marriage of the princess +royal with William, the only son of the stadholder. The wedding +of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and 10 years) +took place on the 12th of May 1641 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II., prince +of Orange</a></span>). This royal alliance gave added influence and +position to the house of Orange-Nassau.</p> + +<p>About this time various causes brought about a change in +the feelings which had hitherto prevented any possibility of +peace between Spain and the United Netherlands. +The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened +<span class="sidenote">Changed relations of the United Provinces with France and Spain.</span> +the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of +the Portuguese colonies. But it was in the Portuguese +colonies that the conquests of the Dutch East and +West India Companies had been made, and the +question of the Indies as between Netherlander and +Spaniard assumed henceforth quite a different complexion. +Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the French alliance, passed +away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed by those of +Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Condé at Rocroy +opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French +conquest of the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health +growing enfeebled, the prince became anxious before his death +to obtain peace and security for his country by means of an +accommodation with Spain. In 1643 negotiations were opened +which, after many delays and in the face of countless difficulties, +were at length, four years later, to terminate successfully.</p> + +<p>The course of the <i>pourparlers</i> would doubtless have run +more smoothly but for the infirm health and finally the death +of the prince of Orange himself. Frederick Henry +expired on the 14th of March 1647, and was buried +<span class="sidenote">Death of Frederick Henry—his last campaigns.</span> +by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In +his last campaigns he had completed with signal +success the task which, as a military commander, he +had set himself,—of giving to the United Provinces a thoroughly +defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In 1644 he captured +Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders which +skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the possession +of the States, and with it the complete control of all the +waterways to the sea.</p> + +<p>The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay +the carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart, +of concluding a separate peace with Spain behind the +back of France, notwithstanding the compact of 1635 +<span class="sidenote">The Peace of Münster.</span> +with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had +already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick +Henry, and afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the +new prince of Orange (who, under the <i>Acte de Survivance</i>, had +inherited all his father’s offices and dignities) and of two of the +provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht, the negotiations were by the +powerful support of the States of Holland and of the majority +of the States-General, quickly brought to a successful issue. The +treaty was signed at Münster on the 30th of January 1648. It +was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and involved +a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so +<span class="sidenote">Complete triumph of the Dutch.</span> +long fought. The United Provinces were recognized +as free and independent, and Spain dropped all her +claims; the <i>uti possidetis</i> basis was adopted in respect +to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely +closed—a clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit +of Amsterdam; the right to trade in the East and West Indies +was granted, and all the conquests made by the Dutch from +the Portuguese were ceded to them; the two contracting parties +agreed to respect and keep clear of each other’s trading grounds; +each was to pay in the ports of the other only such tolls as natives +paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces, the eighty +years’ war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the +United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its +prosperity and greatness.</p> + +<p>No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose +between the provincial States of Holland and the prince of +Orange, supported by the other six provinces, upon the question +of the disbanding of the military forces. William was a young +<span class="sidenote">The form of Government in the United Provinces.</span> +man (he was twenty-one at the time of his father’s death) of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span> +the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He was totally +opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about +a speedy resumption of the war. With this view he +entered into secret negotiations for a French alliance +which, as far as can be gathered from extant records, +had for its objects the conquest and partition by the +allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in +England on behalf of Charles II. As a preliminary +step William aimed at a centralization of the powers of government +in the United Provinces in his own person. He saw clearly +the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he wished +to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times +almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates, +the stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces, +each of which had different historical traditions and a different +form of government, and one of which—Holland—in wealth and +importance outweighed the other six taken together. Between +the States of Holland and the States-General there was constant +<span class="sidenote">The position of Holland and Amsterdam.</span> +jealousy and friction. And yet strangely enough +the States of Holland themselves were not really +representative of the people of that province, but only +of the limited, self-coopting burgher aristocracies of +certain towns, each of which with its rights and liberties +had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost among +these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich +burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the +authority of the States-General, the stadholder and even of the +States of Holland themselves.</p> + +<p>The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the +truce of 1609, measured their strength with that of the States-General, +but the issue had been decided conclusively +in favour of the federal authority by the sword of +<span class="sidenote">The position in 1650.</span> +Maurice. The party and the principles of Oldenbarneveldt, +however, though crushed, were not extinguished, +and though Frederick Henry by his personal influence +and prudent statesmanship had been able to surmount the +difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter at times +strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct +both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion +of the peace of Münster and the death of the veteran stadholder +the struggle for predominance in the Union between the Orange-federalist +and the Hollander States-rights parties was certain +to be renewed. The moment seemed to be favourable for the +assertion of provincial sovereignty because of the youth and +inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But William II., +though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular +capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon +ambitious projects, the scope of which has been already indicated. +The collision came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-General +<span class="sidenote">The question of disbanding the forces.</span> +in the disbanding of the forces wished to +retain the <i>cadres</i> of the regiments complete in case of a +renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected, +and, although the army was a federal force, gave orders +for the general disbanding of the troops in the pay of +the province. The officers refused to obey any orders but those +of the council of State of the Union. The provincial states, on +their part, threatened them with loss of pay. At this juncture +the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a commission headed +by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland, and +provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the +Union. Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province +by refusing its quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality +by dealing with individual towns instead of with the states of +the province. The visitation was a failure. The town councils, +though most of them willing to receive William in his capacity +as stadholder, declined to give a hearing to the commission. +<span class="sidenote">The Prisoners of Loevenstein.</span> +Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either stadholder +or commission. In these circumstances William +resolved upon strong measures. Six leading members +of the States of Holland were seized (30th of +July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and troops +under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Friesland, +were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council +had been warned, and the gates were shut and guarded. The +<i>coup d’état</i> nevertheless was completely successful. The anti-Orange +party, remembering the fate of Oldenbarneveldt, were +stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their leaders. The +States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in +their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks +were rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for +“his great trouble, care and prudence.” William appeared to +be master of the situation but his plans for future action were +<span class="sidenote">Sudden Death of William II.</span> +never to be carried into effect. Busily engaged in +secret negotiations with France, he had retired to his +hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox +on the 27th of October. A few days later he expired +at the Hague (6th of November), aged but twenty-four years. +A week after his death, his widow, the princess Mary of England, +gave birth to a son who, as William III., was to give added lustre +to the house of Orange.</p> + +<p>The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered +decisive defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of +Holland a Grand Assembly was summoned, consisting +of delegates from all the provinces, to consider the +<span class="sidenote">The Grand Assembly.</span> +state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at +the Hague on the 18th of January 1651. The conclusions +arrived at were that all sovereign powers resided in the +provinces, and that to them severally, each within its own +borders, belonged the control of the military forces and of +religion. There was to be no captain-general of the Union. All +the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which remained +true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the +office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the establishment +of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the +handing over of the control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies +who formed the town councils of that province.</p> + +<p>Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact +that with the revival of the political principles of Oldenbarneveldt, +there was found a statesman of commanding +ability to fill the office in which the famous advocate +<span class="sidenote">The office of Grand Pensionary.</span> +of Holland had for so many years been “minister of +all affairs” in the forming state. The title of advocate +had indeed been replaced by that of grand pensionary (<i>Raad +Pensionaris</i>), but the duties assigned to the office remained the +same, the only change of importance being that the advocate +was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a term of five +years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant +of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit +a man of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to +exercise control in all departments of policy and of government. +All correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all +despatches, conducted the debates over which he presided, kept +the minutes, drafted the resolutions, and was <i>ex officio</i> the +leader and spokesman of the delegates who represented the +Province of Holland in the States-General. Such was the +<span class="sidenote">John de Witt.</span> +position to which John de Witt, a young man of +twenty-eight years of age, belonging to one of the +most influential patrician families of Dordrecht (his +father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the prisoners of Loevenstein) +was appointed in 1653. From that date until 1672 it was his +brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United Netherlands. +He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland +was dominant in the States-General (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John de Witt</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the +very highest point of commercial prosperity, based upon an +almost universal carrying trade, and the strictest +system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had +<span class="sidenote">Disputes between English and Dutch Traders.</span> +frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English +traders in different parts of the world, and especially +in the East Indies, culminating in the so-called +“Massacre of Amboyna”; and the strained relations between +the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England, +have probably led to active hostilities during the reign of +Charles I. With the accession of Cromwell to power the breach +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span> +was widened. A strong party in the Provinces were unfriendly +to the Commonwealth, and insults were offered in the Hague +to the English envoys. The parliament replied by passing the +memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a deadly +blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that +struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after +<span class="sidenote">Naval struggle with England.</span> +three great wars, in the defeat of the weaker country. +The first English war lasted from May 1652 to April +1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights took +place, which were desperately contested and with +varying success. The leaders on both sides—the Netherlanders +Tromp (killed in action on the 10th of August 1653) and de +Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and Monk—covered themselves +with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade were so serious +that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the burgher party +of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Westminster.</span> +was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on +the 5th of April 1654. The Dutch conceded the +striking of the flag and compensation for English +claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and elsewhere. +The act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of +Orange from holding the office of stadholder and of captain-general, +had been one of the conditions on which Cromwell had +insisted. The consent of the States-General was refused, but by +a secret treaty Holland, under the influence of de +<span class="sidenote">Act of Seclusion.</span> +Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign +province. The popular feeling throughout the United +Provinces was strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion, +by which at the dictation of a foreign power a ban of exclusion +was pronounced against the house of Orange-Nassau, to which +the republic owed its independence.</p> + +<p>In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from +Charles Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was +concluded between France, England and the United +Provinces with a view to the settlement of the Dano-Swedish +<span class="sidenote">War with Sweden.</span> +question, which ended in securing a northern +peace in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade. +The foreign affairs of the republic were throughout these years +ably conducted by de Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial +expansion in the Eastern seas made secure and firm. An +advantageous peace with Portugal was made in 1662.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed +in 1660 by the restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the +new king the act of Seclusion was repealed, and the +education of the young prince of Orange was undertaken +<span class="sidenote">Second English war.</span> +by the States of Holland under the superintendence +of de Witt. But Charles owed a grudge +against Holland, and he was determined to gratify it. The +Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances revived, and +finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in time +of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New +York. War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of +terrific battles. On the 13th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral +Obdam was completely defeated by the English under the +duke of York. The four days’ fight (11th-14th of June 1666) +ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but later +in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue +and forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his +revenge, for on the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under +de Ruyter and Cornelius de Witt made their way up the Medway +as far as Chatham and burnt the English fleet as it lay at anchor. +Negotiations between the two countries were already in progress +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Breda.<br /> +The Triple Alliance.</span> +and this event hastened a settlement. The peace of +Breda was signed (31st of July 1667) on terms on +the whole favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland +was retained by England in exchange for Suriname. In the +following year by the efforts of Sir William Temple the much +vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between Great +Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check +the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. The instability +of Charles II., who sold himself to Louis by the treaty +of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no effect, and left the +United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of the French +king.</p> + +<p>From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch, +and so well had his diplomacy served him that they were left without +a friend in Europe. In 1672 the storm broke: the +English without a declaration of war tried, unsuccessfully, +<span class="sidenote">The French invasion.</span> +to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet; +and the French at the same time set forth in apparently +irresistible strength to overcome the despised traders of Holland. +The States were ill-prepared on land though their fleet was +strong and ready; party spirit had become intensely bitter as +the prince of Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>) grew to man’s estate, +and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the +popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely +neglected their land forces. Town after town fell before the +French armies, and to de Witt and his supporters there seemed +to be nothing left but to make submission and accept the best +terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The young prince alone +rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face against such +<span class="sidenote">William III. Stadholder and Captain-general.<br /> +The third English war.<br /> +Murder of the Brothers de Witt.</span> +cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support +of the great majority of the people. Amidst general +acclamation William was elected stadholder, first of +Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed captain-general +of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the +fleet under de Ruyter had encountered a combined English +and French force in Solebay (7th of June), and after a +desperate fight, in which the French had but slackly supported +their allies, had more then held its own. William, +in his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet +the French in the open field, was able to persuade +his countrymen to open the dikes and by flooding +the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage +and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired +the people to make heroic sacrifices for their independence, +but unfortunately such was the revulsion of +feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself +and his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated +mob at the Hague (20th of August).</p> + +<p>William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling +with chequered success against the superior forces of the +French, strove by his diplomacy, and not in vain, to +gain allies for the republic. The growing power of +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Westminster.</span> +France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden, +Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear +to the persuasions of the stadholder and were ready to aid his +efforts to curb the ambition of Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter, +in a series of fiercely contested battles, successfully maintained +his strenuous and dogged conflict against the united English +and French fleets. In England the war was exceedingly unpopular, +and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude peace. +The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests +should be restored, was signed on the 14th of February 1674. +The French now found themselves threatened on many sides, +<span class="sidenote">The war with France.<br /> +Death of de Ruyter.<br /> +Peace of Nymwegen.</span> +and were reduced to the defensive. The prince, however, +suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in 1674 +prevented from invading France. The war, nevertheless, +during the following years was on the whole +advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a Dutch squadron fought +two hard but indecisive battles with a superior French force, +off Stromboli (8th of January) and off Messina (22nd of April). +In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly +wounded and died (29th of April). In 1677 negotiations +for peace went on, and were forwarded by the +marriage, at the close of the year, of William of Orange with +his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York. +At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nymwegen +by which the Dutch secured the integrity +and independence of their country. All the conquests +made by the French were given up.</p> + +<p>The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed +the peace of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations +of the famous confederacy which changed the whole aspect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span> +of European politics. The league of Augsburg (1686), which +<span class="sidenote">League of Augsburg.</span> +followed the revocation of the edict of Nantes, placed Orange +at the head of the resistance to French domination. +The league was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden, +the United Provinces and by several German states. +In England William and Mary were looked upon as the natural +successors to the throne on the death of James II., and William +kept up close relations with the malcontents in Church and +State, who disliked the arbitrary and papistical policy of his +father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince of Wales the +situation was changed, and William determined to intervene +actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis +XIV., having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the +Palatinate. The opposition of Amsterdam to an English +<span class="sidenote">Revolution of 1688.</span> +expedition, in the absence of danger from the side of +France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688 +ensued, and England became, under William’s strong +rule, the chief member of the Great Coalition against +French aggression. In the Grand Alliance of 1689-1690 he was +accused of sacrificing Dutch to English interests, but there +can be no doubt that William loved his native country better +than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the United +Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations +<span class="sidenote">The Grand Alliance.</span> +with and subordination to Great Britain during a +long series of years, it was due not to the policy of +William, but to the fact that the territory of the +republic was small, open to attack by great military +powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder’s +authority and popularity continued unimpaired, despite of +his frequent absences in England. He had to contend, like his +predecessors, with the perennial hostility of the burgher aristocracy +of Amsterdam, and at times with other refractory town +councils, but his power in the States during his life was almost +autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the influence and +ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland, +<span class="sidenote">William and Heinsius.</span> +a wise and prudent statesman, whose tact and moderation +in dealing with the details and difficulties of internal +administration were conspicuous. The stadholder +gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and the pensionary on +his part loyally supported William’s policy and placed his +services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heinsius</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful. +In 1690 (July 1st) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at +Fleurus; and the Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely +handled by Tourville (10th July) off Beachy Head +<span class="sidenote">War with France.</span> +that for two years the command of the sea remained +in the possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la +Hogue (29th of May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to +the allies. On land the combined armies fared ill. In 1691 +the French took Mons, and in 1692 Namur, in which year after +a hard-fought battle William was defeated at Steenkirk and in +1693 at Neerwinden. But William’s military genius never shone +so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was +to be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real +triumph of skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations, +exhaustion compelled the French king to sign the peace of +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Ryswick.<br /> +Death of William III.</span> +Ryswick in 1697, in which William was recognized +by France as king of England, the Dutch obtaining +a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to +garrison the Netherland barrier towns. This peace, however, did +no more than afford a breathing space during which Louis XIV. +prepared for a renewal of the struggle. The great question of +the Spanish succession was looming in all men’s eyes, and +though partition treaties between the interested +powers were concluded in 1698 and 1700, it is practically +certain that the French king held himself little bound +by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch troops +out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing +James III. on the death of his father; and it was clear +that another war was imminent when William III. died in +1702.</p> + +<p>In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made +hereditary in the family of the prince of Orange, but William +died childless, and the republican burgher party was strong +enough to prevent the posts being filled up. William +<span class="sidenote">Stadholderless Government.</span> +had wished that his cousin, Count John William +Friso of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Groningen, +should succeed him, but his extreme youth and +the jealousy of Holland against a “Frisian” stood in the way +of his election. The result was a want of unity in counsel and +action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing +aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay +for their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the +bulk of the charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity +in the policy of the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining, +until his death in 1720, in the capable and tried hands of the +grand pensionary Heinsius, who had at his side a number of +exceptionally experienced and wise counsellors—among these +Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years (1680-1725) secretary +of the council of state, and afterwards grand pensionary of +Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his +father in 1699 as recorder (<i>Griffier</i>) of the States-General, and +held that important office for fifty years. The tradition of +William III. was thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm +hand and strong personality of that great ruler the United +Provinces were relegated to a subordinate place in the councils +of the nations, and with the gradual decadence of its navy +the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be reckoned +with.</p> + +<p>In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702, +Dutch troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and +Eugene, and had their share in winning the great +victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde +<span class="sidenote">War of the Spanish Succession.</span> +(1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of +Utrecht, concluded in 1713, the interests of the +Netherlands were but half-heartedly supported by +the English plenipotentiaries, and the French were able to obtain +far more favourable terms than they had the power to exact. +But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the Spanish +Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United +Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a +satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor, +<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Utrecht.</span> +and be known henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands. +The peace of Utrecht taught the Dutch that the great +powers around them, while ready to use their resources for +war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted +peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear +of all foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the +United Netherlands upon European politics comes almost to +an end.</p> + +<p>The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing +George I. on the throne of England; and they succeeded in +coming to an agreement both with France and with +Austria over the difficulties connected with the barrier +<span class="sidenote">Peace policy.</span> +towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate +their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under +the close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled +all offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which +the influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their +turn exercised predominance in the States-General, became more +and more an assembly of “shopkeepers” whose policy was to +maintain peace for the sake of the commerce on which they +thrived. For thirty years after the peace of Utrecht the Provinces +kept themselves free from entanglement in the quarrels of +<span class="sidenote">Ostend East India Company.</span> +their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East +India Company (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostend Company</a></span>), however, +by the emperor Joseph II. in 1723, at once aroused +the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants +who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm, +and declared that the Ostend Company had been set up in +contravention to the terms of Article V. of the treaty of Münster. +In maintaining this position the States had the support of +England, but it was not until 1731 that they succeeded in +obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span> +guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This +step led in 1743 to their being involved in the War of the +<span class="sidenote">War of the Austrian Succession.<br /> +Revolution of 1747.<br /> +William IV.</span> +Austrian Succession, and thus being drawn into hostilities +with France, which invaded the barrier country. +In 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and +Saxony, a Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent +of troops in the field. The Dutch took an active part in the +campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily at Fontenoy, after which +battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian Netherlands. The +French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747 +entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest. +The United Provinces, as in 1672, seemed to lie at the +mercy of their enemies, and as in that eventful year, +popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher +oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the +saviour of the state. John William Friso had died +young in 1711, leaving a posthumous son, William +Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected stadholder +by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were +always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though +with very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other +provinces, however, under pressure from Holland, bound themselves +not to elect stadholders, and they refused to revive the +office of captain-general of the Union. By the conquest of +Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and the states of that +province, in which there were always many Orange partisans, +elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and +admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious, +and was followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and +Overysel. Finally the States-General (May 4) appointed the +prince, who was the first member of his family to be stadholder +of all the seven provinces, captain and admiral-general of +the Union, and a little later these offices were declared hereditary +in both the male and female lines.</p> + +<p>William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely +anxious to do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace, +and the development of the resources and commercial +prosperity of the country, and his powerful dynastic +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.</span> +connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter +of George II.) gave him weight in the councils of +Europe. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the +influence of Great Britain was exerted on behalf of the States, +though it nominally restored the old condition of things, left +the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low from their old +position among the nations. At first the stadholder’s efforts +to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered +by the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strongholds +<span class="sidenote">Death of William IV.<br /> +Anne of England Regent.</span> +of anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good +intentions were becoming more generally recognized, +William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October +1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son, +William V., heir to his dignities. The princess Anne of England +became regent, but she had a difficult part to play, and on the +outbreak of the Seven Years’ War in which the +Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality, +her English leanings brought much unpopularity upon +her. She died in 1759, and for the next seven years +the regency passed into the hands of the States, and the +government was practically stadholderless.</p> + +<p>In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession +to power was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak +man, without energy or resolution, and he allowed +himself to be entirely led by his old guardian the +<span class="sidenote">William V.</span> +duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina +of Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely +deferred. In the American War of Independence William’s +sympathies were strongly on the English side, while those +of the majority of the Dutch people were with the revolted +colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have driven +the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing +attitude of the British government with regard to the right of +neutral shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained +by Dutch commerce at the hands of British privateers. The +<span class="sidenote">The Armed Neutrality.</span> +famous agreement, known as the “Armed Neutrality,” with +which in 1780 the States of the continent at the +instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the +maritime claims put forward by Great Britain drew the +Provinces once more into the arena of European politics. +Every effort was made by the English to prevent the Dutch +from joining the league, and in this they were assisted by the +stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only by the +bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to +throw in their lot with the opponents of England. +<span class="sidenote">War with England.</span> +Nothing could have been more unfortunate, for the +country was not ready for war, and party spirit was too +strong for united action to be taken or vigorous preparations +to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was +destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the +English fleet without the possibility of a blow being struck in +their defence. An indecisive, but bravely fought action with +Admiral Parker at the Dogger Bank showed, however, that the +Dutch seamen had lost none of their old dogged courage, and did +much to soothe the national sense of humiliation. In the negotiations +<span class="sidenote">Peace of Paris.</span> +of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch found +themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled +to accept the disadvantageous but not ungenerous +terms accorded to them by Great Britain. They had to sacrifice +some of their East Indian possessions and to concede to the +English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas.</p> + +<p>One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the +strengthening of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents, +who had now arrogated to themselves the name of +“patriots.” It was they, and not the stadholder, who +<span class="sidenote">The “Patriot” Party.<br /> +Intervention of the King of Prussia.<br /> +Difficulty with the Emperor.</span> +had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining +“the Armed Neutrality,” but the consequences of the +war, in which this act had involved them, was largely visited +upon the prince of Orange. The “patriot” party did their +utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and harass him with petty +insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged to +interfere to save his niece, who was even more unpopular +than her weak husband, from being driven +from the country. In 1784 the emperor Joseph II. +took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to +raise the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself +was, however, no more prepared for attack than the Republic +for defence, but the Dutch had already sunk so low, +that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to induce +the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to +enforce. To hold the mouth of the Scheldt and +prevent at all costs a revival of Antwerp as a commercial port +had been for two centuries a cardinal point of Dutch policy. +This difficulty removed, the agitation of the “patriots” against +the stadholderate form of government increased in violence, and +William speedily found his position untenable. An insult offered +<span class="sidenote">Prussian Invasion.<br /> +Restoration to power of William V.</span> +to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion +of the country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam +capitulated, the country was occupied, and the patriot +leaders declared incapable of holding any office. The Orange +party was completely triumphant, and William V., under the +protection of Prussia and England, with which states +the United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves, +was restored to power. It was, however, impossible +to make the complicated and creaking machinery of +the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United Netherlands +work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been +within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy, +had not the cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away +from its path, never to be revived.</p> + +<p>When war broke out between the French revolutionary +government and the coalition of kings, the Provinces +remained neutral as long as they could. It was not till +Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian Netherlands +<span class="sidenote">The French invade the Netherlands.</span> +in 1792, and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt, +that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span> +the French, but for various reasons the conquest of the +country was delayed until 1795. In the closing months +of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a large and victorious army, +invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost of that winter gave +his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and low-lying +lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied +<span class="sidenote">Overthrow of the Stadholderate.<br /> +Flight of William V.<br /> +The Batavian Republic.<br /> +Changes of Government.</span> +Amsterdam, and crossing the ice with his cavalry +took the Dutch fleet, as it lay frost-bound at the +Texel. The stadholder and his family fled to England, +and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under +the duke of York retreated into Germany. The “patriots,” as +the anti-Orange republicans still styled themselves, +received the French with open arms and public rejoicings, +and the government was reorganized so as +to bring it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stadholderate, +the offices of captain and admiral-general, and all the +ancient organization of the United Netherlands were abolished, +and were transformed into the Batavian Republic, in close +alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon cause +to regret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance +meant French domination, and participation in the +wars of the Revolution. Its consequences were the +total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of all the Dutch +colonies by the English. Internally one change of government +succeeded another; after the States-General came a +national convention; then in 1798 a constituent +assembly with an executive directory; then chambers +of representatives; then a return to the earlier systems +under the names of the eight provincial and one central Commissions +(1801). These changes were the outcome of a gradual +reaction in a conservative direction.</p> + +<p>The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the +Dutch got back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian +colonies; it was, however, but the brief and deceptive +interlude between two storms; when war began +<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1805.</span> +again England once more took possession of all she +had restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon +Bonaparte imposed upon them a new constitution, and Rutger +Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was made, under the +ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the government. +In the next year the French emperor added Holland, +as the United Provinces were now named, to the ring of +dependent sovereignties, by means of which he sought to +build up a universal empire, and he forced his brother Louis +to be the unwilling king of an unwilling people. The new +<span class="sidenote">Louis Bonaparte King of Holland.</span> +king was a man of excellent intentions and did his +best to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding +himself unable to protect them from the despotic +overlordship of his brother, after a four years’ reign, +Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by decree +of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had +to bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of +taxation. The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a +general revolt in the Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son +<span class="sidenote">The Sovereign Prince.<br /> +Creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.<br /> +The Hundred Days.</span> +of William V.) was recalled, and amidst general +rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the +sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. 1, 1813), +with the title of sovereign prince. On the downfall +of Napoleon the great powers determined to create in the Low +Countries a powerful state, and by the treaty of London (June +14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch +provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, +which was also to include the bishopric of Liège and +the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince of Orange was +placed upon the throne on the 15th of March 1815 as +William I., king of the Netherlands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William I.</a></span>, +king of the Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the +House of Nassau were exchanged for Luxemburg, of which +territory King William in his personal capacity +became grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty +was delayed by the Hundred Days’ campaign, +which for a short time threatened its very existence. The +daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the Dutch and +Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to fight +side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange, +eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by +his gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where +<span class="sidenote">William I. crowned at Brussels.<br /> +Constitution of the Netherlands.</span> +he was wounded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II.</a></span>, king of the Netherlands). +The Congress of Vienna confirmed the +arrangements made by the treaty of London, and +William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at +Brussels on the 27th of September 1815. Under the constitution +the king, as hereditary sovereign, possessed full executive +powers, and the initiative in proposing laws. He had +the power of appointing his own council of state. +The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of +States-General, and was divided into an Upper +Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower Chamber +elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the +press, and political equality were principles of the constitution, +guaranteed to all.</p> + +<p>The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many +of the territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was +an attempt to create a strong state out of diverse +and jarring elements. It was an artificial union, +<span class="sidenote">Difference between the Dutch and Belgic provinces.</span> +which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship +could have rendered permanent and solid. North +and south were divided from one another by religious +belief, by laws and usages, by material interests, and +by two centuries and a half of widely severed national +life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic +Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring +people, with interests in distant lands and colonial +possessions; the Belgians were agriculturists, except where +their abundance of minerals made them manufacturers. The +national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German and English, +the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and +French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of +which a really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion +and racial difficulties might have gradually built up a Netherland +nation able to hold from its population and resources +a considerable place among European powers. For it must not +be forgotten that some two-thirds of the Belgian people are by +origin and language of the same race as the Dutch. But when +difficulties and differences arose between North and South, as +they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The +king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch +prejudices, and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The +<span class="sidenote">The Belgian Revolution.<br /> +Reign of William II.<br /> +Accession of William III.<br /> +The Constitution of 1848.</span> +consequences were the Belgian Revolution of 1830, +which ended in the intervention of the great powers, +and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an independent +kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding +questions between the two countries was not reached till 1839 +(for an account of the Belgian Revolution, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Belgium</a></span>). King +William I. in the following year, having become unpopular +through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to +his son William II., who reigned in peace till his +death in 1849, when he was succeeded by his eldest +son William III. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>, king of the Netherlands). +His accession marked the beginning of constitutional government +in the Netherlands. William I. had been to +a large extent a personal ruler, but William II., +though for a time following in his father’s steps, had +been moved by the revolutionary outbreaks of 1848 +to concede a revision of the constitution. The fundamental +law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the States-General +should be elected by the Provincial Estates +instead of being appointed by the king, and that the +second chamber should be elected directly by all +persons paying a certain amount in taxation. Ministers +were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal +measure of self-government was also granted. During the long +reign of William III. (1849-1890) the chief struggles of parties +in the Netherlands centred round religious education. On +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span> +the one side are the liberals, divided into moderates and +progressives, the representatives to a large extent of the commercial +towns. Opposed to them is the coalition of +<span class="sidenote">Political parties in the Netherlands.</span> +the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled anti-revolutionaries, +supported by the Calvinistic peasantry, +and the Catholics, who represent about one-third of +the population and have their headquarters in Dutch Brabant, +Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There is also in the Netherlands +a small, but very strenuous socialist party, which was founded +by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor Domela-Nieuwenhuis. +It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and certain country +districts of Friesland.</p> + +<p>The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously, +but a Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay +held office from 1888 to 1891, and again a coalition +ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr Kuyper at its +<span class="sidenote">Religious education.</span> +head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate +liberals supported by a large part of the Catholic +and anti-revolutionary parties were in power. The constitution +of 1848 made it the duty of the state to provide free primary +secular education, but it allowed to members of all creeds the +liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried into +effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals +and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists. +But the long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist +coalition, and united them against the neutral schools, +and in 1889 they were able to pass a law enabling not only the +unsectarian public schools, but all private schools organized +by societies and bodies recognized by the law to receive subventions +from the state. In 1890 there were 3000 public schools +with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private schools with 195,000 +scholars.</p> + +<p>The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been +the cause of violent party strife and controversy. It was taken +in hand as early as 1872, but as a revision of the constitution +was necessary, no change was actually carried out till 1887. +The law of that year lowered the qualification of the payer of +a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to all householders +paying a certain <i>minimum</i> house duty, and to all lodgers who +had for a given time paid a <i>minimum</i> of rent, also to all who +possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose +definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing +of such a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox) +ministry of 1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted +to deal with the question, and a proposal was made by the +minister Tak van Poortvliet, which almost amounted to universal +<span class="sidenote">Extension of the suffrage.</span> +suffrage. The educational qualification was to be +able to write, the social that of not receiving charitable +relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through +all parties. It was supported by the radical left, by +a large portion of the Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper, +and by some Catholics; it had against it the moderate liberals, +the aristocratic section of the Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of +the Catholics, and a few radicals under an influential leader +van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the Takkians were +victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second ballots. +Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians, +24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed +(1894) and in 1896 carried into law what was known as the +van Houten project. It gave the right of voting to all Dutchmen +over twenty-five years of age, who paid 1 fl. in direct taxation; +were householders or lodgers as defined in 1887, or tenants of +a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the recipients of certain +salaries or had certain deposits in the public funds or savings +banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had been +raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to +<span class="sidenote">Military service.</span> +700,000. The question of universal military service +has also divided parties. The principle of personal +service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics +and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though +exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain +classes of students.</p> + +<p>The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin +have during a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch +ministries. In 1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange +for certain possessions of Holland on the coast of +<span class="sidenote">The Achin war.</span> +Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch +to occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of +Achin opposed by force of arms the efforts of the Dutch to make +their occupation effective, and has succeeded in maintaining a +vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial troops suffering severely +from the effects of the insalubrious climate. Until 1871 the +surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned into +a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the +war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries +and of cabinets.</p> + +<p>William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving +child, Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother, +the queen-dowager Emma, became regent. One +effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was the +<span class="sidenote">Queen Wilhelmina.</span> +severance of the bond between the Netherlands and +Luxemburg. The grand duchy, being hereditary +only in the male line, passed to the nearest agnate, the duke of +Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached the age of eighteen, +assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince Henry of +Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to +a strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of +their kinsmen in South Africa, and there were times during the +war, especially after President Kruger had fled from the +Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and had settled in Holland, +when it was a task of some difficulty for the Dutch government +to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the Netherlands +from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under +Dr Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of +the Boers in restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain +a correct attitude of strict neutrality. In 1903 the government +took strong measures to prevent a threatened general strike of +railway employees, the military were called out, and occupied the +stations. A bill was passed by the States-General declaring +railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905 for the Second +Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr Kuyper +accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed +by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had +not become a mother gradually caused some public concern as +to the succession; but in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national +rejoicings, gave birth to a princess.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar, +<i>Vaderlandsche historie</i>, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation +by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W. +Bilderdijk, <i>Geschiedenis der Vaderlands</i> (13 vols., 1832-1853); +Groen G. van Prinsterer, <i>Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland</i> +(6th ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema, +<i>Saken van spaet en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden +(1621-1668)</i> (15 vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van +den Bos (Lambertus Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of +Aitzema contains a large number of important diplomatic and other +documents; A. de Wicquefort, <i>Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas +depuis la paix de Munster</i> (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1719-1743); in these +volumes will be also found a rich collection of original documents; +R. Fruin, <i>Tien jaren uit den tactig jarigen oorlog</i> (<i>1588-1598</i>), (6th ed., +1905), a standard work; J. L. Motley, <i>History of the United Netherlands</i> +(<i>1584-1609</i>), (4 vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, <i>History of the +People of the Netherlands</i>, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam, +1900); <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv. +(see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, <i>Vingt années de république +parlementaire au 17me siècle. Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire +de Hollande</i> (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, <i>Histoire du royaume des +Pays-Bas 1814-1830</i> (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper, <i>Geschiedenis +van Nederland na 1830</i> (5 vols., 1873-1882); also the +following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, <i>Archives ou +correspondance inédite de la maison d’Orange-Nassau</i>, 2<span class="sp">e</span> série (1584-1688) +(5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, <i>Brieven (1652-1669)</i> (6 vols., +1723-1725); A. Kluit, <i>Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot +1795</i> (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, <i>Inleiding tot eene geschiedenis +der Nederlandsche diplomatic</i> (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C. de +Jonge, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen</i>, (6 vols., 1833-1848); +E. Luzac, <i>Holland’s Rijkdom</i> (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin, +<i>Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der Republick</i>, +edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, <i>Geschiedenis +der Nederlanders buiten Europa</i> (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span> +<i>Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde</i> (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken +Hüet, <i>Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de Nordnederlandsche +beschaving in de 17<span class="sp">e</span> eeuw</i> (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, <i>Repertorium +der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des Vaterlands +in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen</i>, 2 parts +(1905); other parts of this valuable <i>repertorium</i> are in course of +publication.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the +river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, 19th of April +1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.) +from the outer glacis of the fortress.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is +throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of +Germany, the <i>Amsterdamsch Peil</i> (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level, +and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam +at the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and +provincial “peils” are, however, also in use on some waterways.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See J. Lorié, <i>Contributions à la géologie des Pays-bas</i> (1885-1895), +<i>Archives du Mus. Teyler</i> (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 109-240, +vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and <i>Bull. soc. +belge géol.</i> vol. iii. (1889); <i>Mém.</i> pp. 409-449; F. W. Harmer, +“On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland,” &c., <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. +Soc., London</i>, vol. lii. (1896) pp. 748-781, pls. xxxiv., xxxv.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The dates indicate the period of construction of the different +sections.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy +of the northern provinces in 1579 see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF.<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span>—The first mention +of Holland in any document is found in an imperial <i>gift brief</i> +dated May 2nd, 1064. In this the phrase “<i>omnis comitatus +in Hollandt</i>” occurs, but without any further description of the +locality indicated. A comparison with other documentary +evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland with +the <i>forestum Merweda</i>, or the bush-grown fenland lying between +the Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district +surrounding the town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original +Holland was submerged by a great inundation in 1421, and its +modern appellation of Biesbosch (reed-forest) is descriptive of +what must have been the condition of the entire district in early +times. The word Holland is indeed by many authorities thought +to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so spelt by +13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest +spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it +means lowlying-land (hol = hollow), a derivation which is +equally applicable to the district in Lincolnshire which bears +the same name.</p> + +<p>The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne +by the Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about +1015) and made it his residence (see below). It was +<span class="sidenote">The first Count of Holland.</span> +not, however, till late in the 11th century that his +successors adopted the style “<i>Hollandensis comes</i>” as +their territorial designation (it is found for the first +time on a seal of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland +became gradually extended northwards to connote all the +land subject to the rule of the counts between Texel and +the Maas.</p> + +<p>The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later +Holland) centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives +its records have been preserved. In 922 Charles the +Simple gave in full possession to a count in Frisia, +<span class="sidenote">Dirk I.</span> +Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin Theodoricus), +“the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from Swithardeshage +to Kinhem.” This man, usually known as Dirk I., +died about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name. +Among the records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by +which the emperor Arnulf gave to a certain count Gerolf the +same land “between Swithardeshage and Kinhem,” afterwards +held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this Gerolf was +his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been +<span class="sidenote">Dirk II.<br /> +Extent of his dominions.<br /> +Arnulf.<br /> +Dirk III.</span> +preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was +the founder of the abbey of Egmont. His younger +son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder son Arnulf +married Liutgardis, daughter of Siegfried of Luxemburg and +sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the +emperor Otto III., with whom he was in great favour +in 983, a considerable extension of territory, that now +covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to +Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as +holding the three countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemerland +and Texla or Texel; in other words his rule extended over +the whole country from the right bank of the Maas or Meuse to +the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised authority at Ghent. +He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he was +slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was +succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the +guardianship of his mother, Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of +almost all his possessions, except Kennemerland and Maasland. +But no sooner was he arrived at man’s estate than +Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour. +He waged war, successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop +of Utrecht, and made himself master not only of his ancestral +possessions, but of the district on the Meuse known as the +Bushland of Merweda (<i>forestum Merweda</i>), hitherto subject to +the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this marshy tract, at a +point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the Waal, +<span class="sidenote">Foundation of Dordrecht.<br /> +Defeat of Godfrey of Lorraine.<br /> +Beginning of the County of Holland.</span> +he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy +tolls. Around this castle sprang up the town of Thuredrecht +or Dordrecht. The possession of this stronghold +was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel, Cologne +and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were +made by the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne +to the emperor. Henry II. took the part of the complainants +and commissioned Duke Godfrey of Lorraine to +chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey +invaded Dirk’s lands with a large army, but they were +impeded by the swampy nature of the country and +totally defeated with heavy loss (July 29, 1018). The duke +was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk was not +merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda +Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal +of the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he +conquered. This victory of 1018 is often regarded as +the true starting-point of the history of the county of +Holland. Having thus established his rule in the +south, Dirk next proceeded to bring into subjection the +Frisians in the north. He appointed his brother Siegfrid or +Sikka as governor over them. In his later years Dirk went +upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he returned in +1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039.</p> + +<p>His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his +warlike and strenuous race. He began the long strife with the +counts of Flanders, as to the lordship over Walcheren +and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel was important, +<span class="sidenote">Dirk IV.<br /> +Quarrel with Flanders about Zeeland.</span> +as dealing with the borderland between French and +German overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did +not at first break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk +and Baldwin V. of Flanders had a common danger in +the emperor Henry III., who in 1046 occupied the +lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey +the Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the +emperor, and his territory was invaded by a powerful +imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk entrenched himself +in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter came on he +surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the +enemy’s ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they +made their way amidst the marches, which impeded their +retreat. He was able to recover what he had lost and to make +peace on his own terms. Two years later he was again assailed by +a coalition headed by the archbishop of Cologne and the bishop +of Utrecht. They availed themselves of a very hard winter to +penetrate into the land over the frozen water. Dirk offered a +stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy account, +was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight (1049). +He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I.</p> + +<p>Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious. +He gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He +found a formidable adversary in the able and warlike +William, who, becoming bishop of Utrecht in 1054, +<span class="sidenote">Floris I.</span> +was determined to recover the lost possessions of his see; and +in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, Egbert, +margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liége and others, +invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the +invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they +were surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of +Guelders and Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into +the hands of Floris. The attack was renewed in 1061. In a +battle at Nederhemert Floris met with his death in the hour +of victory. He is said to have been killed as, wearied with +pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by his +<span class="sidenote">Dirk V.</span> +son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his +mother, Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems +now to have seized his opportunity and occupied all the territory +that he claimed. In this he was confirmed by two charters of +the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May 2, 1064). Among +the possessions thus assigned to him is found <i>comitatus omnis</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span> +<i>in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus</i>. An +examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk +as <i>in Westflinge et circa oras Rheni</i>, <i>i.e.</i> west of the Vlie and +around the mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear +to have withdrawn to the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving +William in undisturbed occupation of the disputed lands. +In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage with Robert, the +second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for his +adventurous career (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>). On his marriage his father +<span class="sidenote">Robert the Frisian guardian to his stepson</span> +invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage +including the islands of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the +Scheldt. He now became guardian to his stepson, +in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt. +Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was +ruler of all Frisia (Zeeland), and thus became known +among his Flemish countrymen as Robert the Frisian. The +death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil war in +Flanders, the claim of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew +Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin. +The issue was decided by the decisive victory of Robert at +Cassel (February 1071) when Arnulf was killed and Richilde +taken prisoner (see Flanders). While Robert was thus engaged +in Flanders, an effort was made to recover “the County of +Holland” and other lands now held by William of Utrecht. +The people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor +Henry IV. were speedily brought back under episcopal rule by +<span class="sidenote">Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine conquers Holland.<br /> +The Bishop of Utrecht surrenders it to Dirk V.<br /> +Floris II.<br /> +Dirk VI.</span> +an army under the command of Godfrey the Hunchback, +duke of Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the request +of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in +the Frisian borderland. At Delft, of which town +tradition makes Godfrey the founder, the duke was +treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William +of Utrecht died on the 17th of the following April. +Dirk V., now grown to man’s estate, was not slow to take +advantage of the favourable juncture. With the help of Robert +(his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged Conrad, +the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde +and took him prisoner. The bishop purchased his +liberty by surrendering all claim to the disputed lands. +Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively +known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091 +and was succeeded by his son Floris II. the Fat. This count +had a peaceful and prosperous reign of thirty-one years. +After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla of Saxony, +governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor. +The accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the +imperial throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened +her position. The East Frisian districts, Oostergoo +and Westergoo, were by Lothaire transferred from +the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the counts of Holland +(1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome subjects to +Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the leadership +of Dirk’s own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor +Conrad III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohenstaufen, +gave back these Frisian districts to the bishop; it +was in truth somewhat of an empty gift. The Frisian +peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and +were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord, +whether count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by +Floris III.</p> + +<p>Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by +allying himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted +adherent and friend of Frederick Barbarossa. He had +<span class="sidenote">Floris III.</span> +troubles with West Friesland and Groningen, and a +war with the count of Flanders concerning their +respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten. +In 1170 a great flood caused immense devastation in the north +and helped to form the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied +Frederick Barbarossa upon the third Crusade, of which he was a +distinguished leader. He died in 1190 at Antioch of +<span class="sidenote">Dirk VII.</span> +pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on +the whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West +Zeeland and with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his +brother William, ended in his favour. The brothers were +reconciled and William was made count of East Friesland. In +1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken prisoner by the +duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on humiliating terms. +He only survived his defeat a short time and died early in +1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of age. +The question of female succession thus raised was not likely +to be accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the +intention of Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter’s +rights by appointing his brother her guardian. His widow +Alida, however, an ambitious woman of strong character, as +soon as her husband was dead, hurried on a marriage between +Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted with the nobles +of Holland, who now for the first time make their appearance as +a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William had +made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle +<span class="sidenote">William I.</span> +ensued. William was supported by the Zeelanders +and Ada was forced to fly to England. William, +by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206, became +undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his +time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great +battle of Bouvines in 1214 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philip Augustus</a></span>), and was +taken prisoner. Two years later he accompanied Louis, the +eldest son of Philip Augustus, in his expedition against King +John of England. William is perhaps best known in history by +his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He distinguished himself +greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did not long +survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters +conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from +his reign—those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht +<span class="sidenote">Floris IV.</span> +(1220). His son Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded +him under the guardianship of his maternal uncle, +Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life close +relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his +quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was +murdered in 1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the +count of Clermont. Another long minority followed his death, +during which his brother Otto, bishop of Utrecht, acted as +guardian to his nephew William II.</p> + +<p>William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV., +having deposed the emperor Frederick II., after several princes +had refused to allow themselves to be nominated in +the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the young +<span class="sidenote">William II.<br /> +Elected King of the Romans.<br /> +Floris V.</span> +count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans +(1247) by an assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics. +William took Aachen in 1248 and was there crowned +king; and after Frederick’s death in 1250, he had a +considerable party in Germany. He brought a war +with Margaret of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a +successful conclusion (1253). He was on the point of proceeding +to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an expedition against +the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and armour, +through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he +left his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but +two years old on his father’s death; and he was +destined during a reign of forty years to leave a deeper +impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its +counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high +capacity, and throughout his reign he proved himself an able +and beneficent ruler. Alike in his troubles with his turbulent +subjects and in the perennial disputes with his neighbours +he pursued a strong, far-sighted and successful policy. But his +active interest in affairs was not limited to the Netherlands. +<span class="sidenote">Alliance with Edward I. of England.</span> +He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England +in his strife with France, and secured from the English +king great trading advantages for his people; the +staple of wool was placed at Dort (Dordrecht) and +the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on +the English coast. So intimate did their relations become that +Floris sent his son John to be educated at the court of Edward +with a view to his marriage with an English princess. To +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span> +balance the power of the nobles he granted charters to many of +the towns. Floris made himself master of Amstelland and +<span class="sidenote">First Charter to Amsterdam.</span> +Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the +chief commercial town of Holland, counts him the +founder of its greatness. Its earliest extant charter +dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the alliance +of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because +Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his +dynastic dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, +Floris’s nephew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>). The real motives of his policy +will, however, never be known, for shortly afterwards a conspiracy +of disaffected nobles, headed by Gijsbrecht van Amstel, +<span class="sidenote">Murder of Floris V.</span> +Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was +formed against him. He was by them basely murdered +in the castle of Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic +event has been immortalized in dramas from the pens of +Holland’s most famous writers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vondel</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hooft</a></span>). The +burghers and people, who knew him to be their best friend, +took such vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce +the power of the nobles.</p> + +<p>John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered; +he was but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was +married to Eleanor, daughter of Edward I. His +reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes, the +<span class="sidenote">John I.</span> +young count’s guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen, +who had a strong following in Zeeland. In 1299 van Borselen +was killed, and a few months later John I. died. John of +Avesnes was at once recognized as his successor by the Hollanders. +Thus with John I. ended the first line of counts, after a rule +of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps never seen +<span class="sidenote">Extinction of the first line of Counts. Their high character.</span> +an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal +descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there +is not a weak man among them. Physically handsome +and strong, model knights of the days of chivalry, +hard fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders +of men; always ready to advance the commerce of +the country, they were the supporters of the growing towns, +and likewise the pioneers in the task of converting a land +of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural territory +rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their +failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled +race.</p> + +<p>John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son +of John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of +William II. of Holland. On his succession to the +countship the Hollanders were willing to receive him, +<span class="sidenote">John II. of the House of Avesnes.</span> +but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle +ensued before his authority was generally recognized. +In 1301 Bishop William of Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but +was killed in battle. John made use of his victory to secure the +election of his brother Guy as bishop in his place. A war with +the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at first +victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at +length driven out of Holland and Zeeland In 1304. John II. died +in that year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed +the Good (1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel +<span class="sidenote">William III.</span> +with Flanders, which had during a century and a half +caused so many wars, was finally settled by the treaty +of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland +was granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in +Imperial Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam, +which had hitherto been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William, +on the death of his uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland. +This count did much to encourage civic life and to develop the +resources of the country. He had close relations through +marriage with the three principal European dynasties of his +time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the French king; +in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter +Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut, +was married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance +William III. occupied a position of much dignity and influence, +which he used to further the interests and increase the welfare +of his hereditary lands. He was in all respects a great prince +and a wise and prudent statesman. He was succeeded by his +<span class="sidenote">William IV.</span> +son, William IV., who was the ally of his brother-in-law, +Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of adventure, +and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in +disguise, and on his way took part in an expedition of the +knights of the Teutonic Order against the infidel Wends and +Lithuanians. He was killed in battle against the Frisians in +1345. He left no children, and the question as to the succession +now brought on Holland a period of violent civil commotions. +<span class="sidenote">The Empress Margaret.</span> +His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister, +the empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of +Hainaut, or in other words, by Edward III. of England. +Margaret came in person and was duly recognized +as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned +to her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest, +Louis, renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as +stadholder in her place. William was but sixteen, and disorder +and confusion soon reigned in the land. The sudden death of +the emperor in 1347 added to the difficulties of his position. +In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her sovereignty, and +<span class="sidenote">William V. of the House of Bavaria.</span> +the stadholder became count under the title of William +V. This was the time of the formation of the famous +parties in Holland, known as Kabbeljauws (Cods) +and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher party, +were the supporters of William (possibly the name was +derived from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of +arms), the latter the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted +to catch and devour the fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was +the disorder in the land that Margaret, at the request of the nobles, +came to Holland to take into her own hands the reins of government. +The struggle between the nobles and the cities broke out +into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret’s aid, winning +a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks +and their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods +at Vlaardingen—an overthrow which ruined Margaret’s cause. +Edward III. shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress +saw herself compelled (1354) to come to an understanding with +her son, he being recognized as count of Holland and Zeeland, +she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years later, leaving William, +who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in possession of the +entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His tenure +of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357 +he showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his +<span class="sidenote">Albert of Bavaria.</span> +own consent and the support of both parties, invited +Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger brother of William +V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358). +William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died +in 1404, having ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years, +first as Ruward, then as count. Despite outbreaks from time +to time of the Hook and Cod troubles, he was able to make his +authority respected, and to help forward in many ways the +social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was +steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall +into the hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the +Cod party. Opposed to them were the nobility and the lower +classes, forming the Hook party. In Albert’s latter years a +fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was caused by the count’s +espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks had the support +of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards reconciled +<span class="sidenote">William VI.<br /> +Jacqueline of Bavaria.</span> +to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404. +On his accession to power William upheld the Hooks, +and secured their ascendancy. His reign was much +troubled with civil discords, but he was a brave soldier, and was +generally successful in his enterprises. He died in 1417, leaving +an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba), +who had in her early youth been married to John, +heir to the throne of France. At a gathering held at +the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles and representatives +of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at +William’s request to support his daughter’s claims to the succession. +But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span> +about a month later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at +17 years of age face to face with a difficult situation. She +was at first welcomed in Holland and Zeeland, but found +her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria, supported +by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have +expected help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John +IV. of Brabant, her third husband Humphrey of Gloucester, +her cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, all behaved shamefully +to her. Her romantic and sad life has rendered the courageous +and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque figure in +the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her +powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end +of her life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found +repose with Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth +husband. Him Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily +seized; and thereby in 1433 the Duchess Jacqueline was compelled +to cede her rights over the counties of Holland and +Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no +<span class="sidenote">Accession of the Burgundian Dynasty.<br /> +Philip the Good.<br /> +Flourishing state of Holland.</span> +children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed +possession of her lands. He had already acquired by +inheritance, purchase or force almost all the other +Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of +the Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have +an independent existence and became an outlying province +of the growing Burgundian power (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>). During +the years that followed the accession to the sovereignty +of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant +part. It was governed by a stadholder, and but +small respect was shown for its chartered rights and privileges. +The quarrels between the Hook and Cod factions still continued, +but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly repressed by the +strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time contented +herself with growing material prosperity. Her +herring fishery, rendered more valuable by the curing +process discovered or introduced by Benkelszoon, +brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen +were already laying the foundations of her future maritime +greatness. It was in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz +Koster of Haarlem contributed his share to the discovery of +printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold (1467-1477) +<span class="sidenote">Charles the Bold.<br /> +Mary of Burgundy.</span> +the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike +prince, suffered much from the burden of taxation +An outbreak at Hoorn was by Charles sternly repressed. +The Hollanders were much aggrieved by the establishment +of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands at Mechlin. +(1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their privileges. +The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the granting +to Holland as to the other provinces of the Netherlands, +of the Great Privilege of March 1477, which +restored the most important of their ancient rights and liberties +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). A high court of justice was established +for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the native +language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles +again disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at +Leiden and Dordrecht and had to be repressed by armed +force.</p> + +<p>By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her possessions, +including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son +Philip, under the guardianship of his father the Archduke +Maximilian of Austria. Thus the Burgundian +<span class="sidenote">Maximilian of Austria.<br /> +Philip II. the Fair.</span> +dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs. +During the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of +the Hooks caused much strife and unrest in Holland. Their +leaders. Francis of Brederode and John of Naaldwijk, seized +Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally ended +the strife between Hooks and Cods. The “Bread +and Cheese War,” an uprising of the peasants in +North Holland caused by famine, is a proof of the +misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In +1494, Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was +declared of age. His assumption of the government was greeted +with joy in Holland, and in his reign the province enjoyed rest +and its fisheries benefited from the commercial treaty concluded +<span class="sidenote">The Emperor Charles V. (Charles III.).<br /> +Philip III.<br /> +William of Orange Stadholder.<br /> +The revolt of the Netherlands.<br /> +Union of Utrecht.<br /> +Abjuration of Philip’s Sovereignty.</span> +with England. The story of Holland during +the long reign of his son and successor Charles III. +(1506-1555), better known as the emperor Charles V., +belongs to the general history of the Netherlands +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). On the abdication of Charles, his +son Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the +ruler whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about +the revolt of the Netherlands. His appointment of +William, prince of Orange, as stadholder of Holland +and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the +future of those provinces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William the Silent</a></span>). The +capture of Brill and of Flushing in 1572 by the Sea-Beggars +led to the submission of the greater part of +Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince +of Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states +of Holland to meet at Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of +Dutch independence. From this time forward William made +Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the +Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the +resistance to Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem, +Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland from being +overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed +the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between +Holland and Zeeland brought about by the influence +of William was the germ of the larger union of Utrecht +between the seven northern provinces in 1579. But +within the larger union the inner and closer union between +Holland and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the +sovereignty of the Netherlands was offered to the +duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces refused +to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title +of count of Holland and Zeeland. In the following +year William in the name of the two provinces +solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July 24). +After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of +Holland was never revived.</p> + +<p>In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain, +which followed the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict +fell upon Holland. More than half the burden of the charges +of the war fell upon this one province; and with Zeeland it +furnished the fleets which formed the chief defence of the country. +Hence the importance attached to the vote of Holland in the +assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by deputies +at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called +the grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to, +and the spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which +met at the Hague in the same building as the States-General, +consisted of representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents) +of the principal towns, together with representatives of the +nobles, who possessed one vote only. The advocate was the +<span class="sidenote">Government of Holland.<br /> +Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.</span> +paid minister of the states. He presided over their +meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all +correspondence, and, as stated above, was their +spokesman in the States-General. The advocate (or +grand pensionary) of Holland therefore, if an able man, had +opportunities for exercising a very considerable influence, +becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was this +influence as exerted by the successive advocates of +Holland, Paul Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, +which rendered abortive the well-meant efforts of the +earl of Leicester to centralize the government of the +United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of +Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman +of the struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions +gave to the advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details +of administration, and for thirty years the conduct of affairs +remained in his hands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oldenbarneveldt</a></span>). This meant +the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the federation, in other +words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the town corporations +of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This +authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span> +by the extensive powers with which the stadholder princes +of Orange were invested; and the chief crises in the internal +<span class="sidenote">Contest between the Principles of National and Provincial Sovereignty.</span> +history of the Dutch republic are to be found in +the struggles for supremacy between two, in reality, +different principles of government. On the one side +the principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to +the voice of Holland a preponderating weight that was +decisive; on the other side the principle of national +sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to +whom the States-General and the provincial states +delegated executive powers that were little less than monarchical.</p> + +<p>The conclusion of the twelve years’ truce in 1609 was a triumph +for Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the +opposition of Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the +outbreak of the religious dispute between the Remonstrant +<span class="sidenote">Maurice Prince of Orange and John of Oldenbarneveldt.<br /> +Frederick Henry Prince of Orange.<br /> +William II. Prince of Orange.</span> +and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a +life and death struggle between the sovereign province +of Holland and the States-General of the union. The +sword of Maurice decided the issue in favour of the +States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown +and the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619). +The stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh +monarchical authority (1625-1647), but even he at the +height of his power and popularity had always to +reckon with the opposition of the states of Holland +and of Amsterdam, and many of his plans of campaign +were thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies. +His son William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding +to the stadholdership, and the states of Holland were +sufficiently powerful to carry through the negotiations +for the peace of Münster (1648) in spite of his opposition. +A life and death conflict again ensued, and once +more in 1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the +opposition of the Hollanders. The sudden death of William in +the hour of his triumph caused a complete revolution in the +government of the republic. He left no heir but a posthumous +infant, and the party of the burgher regents of Holland was +<span class="sidenote">John de Witt.</span> +once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder +was abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary +(<i>Raad-Pensionaris</i>) of Holland, for two decades held +in his hands all the threads of administration, and occupied the +same position of undisputed authority in the councils of the land +as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning of the century. +Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of the +United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was +carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded +with Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed +to exclude for ever the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder +of Holland or captain-general of the union. In 1672 +<span class="sidenote">William III. Prince of Orange.</span> +another revolution took place. John de Witt was +murdered, and William III. was called to fill the office +of dignity and authority which had been held by his +ancestors of the house of Orange, and the stadholdership +was declared to be hereditary in his family. But William +died without issue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>) and a stadholderless period, +during which the province of Holland was supreme in the union, +followed till 1737. This change was effected smoothly, for +though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had +in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary +of Holland from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom +he thoroughly trusted, who worked with him in the furtherance +of his policy during life and who continued to carry out that +policy after his death. In 1737 there was once more a reversion +<span class="sidenote">William IV. Prince of Orange.</span> +to the stadholdership in the person of William IV., +whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary +both in the male and female line in 1747. But +until the final destruction of the federal republic by +the French armies, the perennial struggle went on between the +Holland or federal party (<i>Staatsgesinden</i>) centred at Amsterdam—out +of which grew the patriot party under William V.—and the +Orange or unionist party (<i>Oranjegesinden</i>), which was strong in +the smaller provinces and had much popular support among +the lower classes. The French conquest swept away the old +condition of things never to reappear; but allegiance to the +Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813 became the rallying +point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the leading +part played by the province of Holland in the history of the +republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over +by the sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly, +and often officially, known as Holland.</p> + +<p>The full title of the states of Holland in the 17th and 18th +centuries was: <i>de Edele Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van +Holland en Westfriesland</i>. After 1608 this assembly +consisted of nineteen members, one representing the +<span class="sidenote">Constitution of the States of Holland.</span> +nobility (<i>ridderschap</i>), and eighteen, the towns. The +member for the nobles had precedence and voted first. +The interests of the country districts (<i>het platte land</i>) +were the peculiar charges of the member for the nobles. +The nobles also retained the right of appointing representatives +to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors, in certain +colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of +the East India Company, and to various public offices. The +following eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter—(1) +Dordrecht, (2) Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam, +(6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam, (8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10) +Schoonhoven, (11) Brill; North Quarter:—(12) Alkmaar, +(13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16) Monnikendam, +(17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the +nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the +nineteen members had only one vote each. Each town’s deputation +was headed by its pensionary, who was the spokesman +on behalf of the representatives. Certain questions such as +peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition of taxation, +changes in the mode of government, &c., required unanimity +of votes. The grand pensionary (<i>Raad-Pensionaris</i>) +<span class="sidenote">The Grand Pensionary.</span> +was at once the president and chief administrative +officer of the states. He presided over all meetings, +conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was +charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the +execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence. +Nor were his functions only provincial. He was the head and +the spokesman of the deputation of the states to the States-General +of the union; and in the stadholderless period the +influence of such grand pensionaries of Holland as John de Witt +and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and intricate +machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign +and semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head +of the state, to work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable +unity of policy. This was secured by the indisputable +predominance in the union of the province of Holland. The +policy of the states of Holland swayed the policy of the generality, +and historical circumstances decreed that the policy of the +states of Holland during long and critical periods should be +controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office +of grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in +the months of March, July, September and November. During +the periods of prorogation the continuous oversight of the business +and interests of the province was, however, never neglected. +<span class="sidenote">College of Deputed Councillors.</span> +This duty was confided to a body called the College +of Deputed Councillors (<i>het Kollegie der Gekommitteerde +Raden</i>), which was itself divided into two sections, +one for the south quarter, another for the north +quarter. The more important—that for the south quarter—consisted +of ten members, (1) the senior member of the +nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives (for periods of three +years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leiden, +Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth +member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam, +Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary +presided over the meetings of the college, which had the general +charge of the whole provincial administration, especially of +finance, the carrying out of the resolutions of the states, the +maintenance of defences, and the upholding of the privileges +and liberties of the land. With particular regard to this last-named +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span> +duty the college deputed two of its members to attend +all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and +report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary +to the interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province +of Holland. The institution of the College of Deputed Councillors +might thus be described as a vigilance committee of the states in +perpetual session. The existence of the college, with its many +weighty and important functions, must never be lost sight of +by students who desire to have a clear understanding of the +remarkable part played by the province of Holland in the history +of the United Netherlands.</p> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on +Macatawa Bay (formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan, +and 25 m. W.S.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900) +7790, of whom a large portion were of Dutch descent; (1904) 8966; +(1910) 10,490. It is served by the Père Marquette Railroad, +by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake ports, and by +electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck, and the +neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa +Beach, Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle +Park and Waukezoo. In the city itself are Hope College +(co-educational; founded in 1851 and incorporated as a college +in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch) Reformed Church in +America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869; +suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a +grain and fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures +are furniture, leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles, +shoes, beet sugar, gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and +steam launches, and pianos. In 1908 seven weekly, one daily, +and two monthly papers (four denominational) were published +at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The municipality owns its +water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland was founded +in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev. +A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871 +much of it was destroyed by a forest fire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> a cloth so called from the country where it was +first made. It was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish +colour—unbleached flax. Several varieties are now made: +hollands, pale hollands and fine hollands. They are used for +aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLAR, WENZEL<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> or <b>WENCESLAUS</b> [<span class="sc">Vaclaf Holar</span>] (1607-1677), +Bohemian etcher, was born at Prague on the 13th of July +1607, and died in London, being buried at St Margaret’s church, +Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677. His family was +ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years’ War, and +young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined +to become an artist. The earliest of his works that have come +down to us are dated 1625 and 1626; they are small plates, +and one of them is a copy of a Virgin and Child by Dürer, whose +influence upon Hollar’s work was always great. In 1627 he was +at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an etcher and +engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633, +to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the +famous amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy +to the imperial court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna +and Prague, and finally came in 1637 to England, destined to +be his home for many years. Though he lived in the household +of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not exclusively for +him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers which was +afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year in +England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent +View of Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty +shillings for the plate,—perhaps a twentieth part of what would +now be paid for a single good impression. Afterwards we hear +of his fixing the price of his work at fourpence an hour, and +measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil War had its effect +on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord Arundel left +England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the +duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With +other royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he +stood the long and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we +have some hundred plates from his hand dated during the years +1643 and 1644 he must have turned his enforced leisure to good +purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was released, and joined +Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight years, +the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates +of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous “muffs” and +“shells,” and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652 +he returned to London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the +engraver near Temple Bar. During the following years were +published many books which he illustrated:—Ogilby’s <i>Virgil</i> +and <i>Homer</i>, Stapylton’s <i>Juvenal</i>, and Dugdale’s <i>Warwickshire</i>, +<i>St Paul’s</i> and <i>Monasticon</i> (part i.). The booksellers continued +to impose on the simple-minded foreigner, pretending to decline +his work that he might still further reduce the wretched price +he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his position. +The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost +his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father +as an artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous +“Views of London”; and it may have been the success of these +plates which induced the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier, +to draw the town and forts. During his return to England +occurred the desperate and successful engagement fought by his +ship the “Mary Rose,” under Captain Kempthorne, against +seven Algerine men-of-war,—a brilliant affair which Hollar +etched for Ogilby’s <i>Africa</i>. He lived eight years after his +return, still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end +his wonderful powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh +(dated 1670), one of the greatest of his works. He died in extreme +poverty, his last recorded words being a request to the bailiffs +that they would not carry away the bed on which he was dying.</p> + +<p>Hollar’s variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740, +and include views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic +subjects, landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms. +No one that ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells, +or a butterfly’s wing as he has done. His architectural drawings, +such as those of Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his +views of towns, are mathematically exact, but they are pictures +as well. He could reproduce the decorative works of other +artists quite faultlessly, as in the famous chalice after Mantegna’s +drawing. His <i>Theatrum mulierum</i> and similar collections +reproduce for us with literal truth the outward aspects of the +people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in which +he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement +and power.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Almost complete collections of Hollar’s works exist in the British +Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable +catalogues of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (2nd ed. 1759) +by George Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, published +at Berlin, is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1599-1680), English +statesman and writer, second son of John Holles, 1st earl of +Clare (<i>c.</i> 1564-1637), by Anne, daughter of Sir Thomas Stanhope, +was born on the 31st of October 1599. The favourite son of his +father and endowed with great natural abilities, Denzil Holles +grew up under advantageous circumstances. Destined to +become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King +Charles’s arbitrary government, he was in early youth that +prince’s playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare +was, however, no friend to the Stuart administration, being +especially hostile to the duke of Buckingham; and on the +accession of Charles to the throne the king’s offers of favour +were rejected. In 1624 Holles was returned to parliament for +Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had from +the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the +foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his +brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely +censures Buckingham’s conduct of the expedition to the Isle +of Rhé; “since England was England,” the declared, “it +received not so dishonourable a blow”; and he joined in the +demand for Buckingham’s impeachment in 1628. To these +discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king’s +arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when +Sir John Finch, the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot’s +Protestations and was about to adjourn the House by the king’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span> +command, Holles with another member thrust him back into +the chair and swore “he should sit still till it pleased them to +rise.” Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to read +the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the +usher of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance, +and the king had sent for the guard. But Holles, declaring that +he could not render the king or his country better service, put +the Protestations to the House from memory, all the members +rising to their feet and applauding. In consequence a warrant +was issued for his arrest with others on the following day. +They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and subsequently +in the King’s Bench. When brought upon his <i>habeas corpus</i> +before the latter court Holles offered with the rest to give bail, +but refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the +court had no jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been +committed in parliament. On his refusal to plead he was +sentenced to a fine of 1000 marks and to imprisonment during +the king’s pleasure. Holles had at first been committed and +remained for some time a close prisoner in the Tower of London. +The “close” confinement, however, was soon changed to a +“safe” one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and +exercise, but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense. +On the 29th of October Holles, with Eliot and Valentine, was +transferred to the Marshalsea. His resistance to the king’s +tyranny did not prove so stout as that of some of his comrades +in misfortune. Among the papers of the secretary Sir John +Coke is a petition of Holles, couched in humble and submissive +terms, to be restored to the king’s favour;<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> having given the +security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated +early in 1630, and on the 30th of October was allowed bail. +Being still banished from London he retired to the country, +paying his fine in 1637 or 1638. The fine was repaid by the +parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was revised on a +writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding +his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county +of the resistance to ship money, though it would appear that +he subsequently made submission.</p> + +<p>Holles was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments +assembled in 1640. According to Laud he was now “one of the +great leading men in the House of Commons,” and in Clarendon’s +opinion he was “a man of more accomplished parts than any +of his party” and of most authority. He was not, however, +in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was at +first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Strafford, +Holles had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud +he held out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use +his influence with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl +refused, and Holles advised Charles that Strafford should demand +a short respite, of which he would take advantage to procure +a commutation of the death sentence. In the debate on the +attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford’s family, and later +obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son. +In all other matters in parliament Holles took a principal part. +He was one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd +of May 1641, which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to +give it their approval. Although, according to Clarendon, +he did not wish to change the government of the church, he +showed himself at this time decidedly hostile to the bishops. +He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House of Peers, +supported the Londoners’ petition for the abolition of episcopacy +and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the +bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late +canons should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy +in the affairs of Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported +strongly the independence and purity of the judicial bench, +and opposed toleration of the Roman Catholics. On the 9th +of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on behalf of the queen of +Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and royal family +and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant religion +everywhere. Together with Pym, Holles drew up the Grand +Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on +the 22nd of November 1641, in which he argued for the right +of one House to make a declaration, and asserted: “If kings +are misled by their counsellors we may, we must tell them of +it.” On the 15th of December he was a teller in the division +in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the militia +he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges’ Militia Bill +of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 31st of December he +took up to the king the Commons’ demand for a guard under +the command of Essex. “Holles’s force and reputation,” +said Sir Ralph Verney, “are the two things that give the success +to all actions.” After the failure of the attempt by the court +to gain over Holles and others by offering them posts in the +administration, he was one of the “five members” impeached +by the king.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Holles at once grasped the full significance of the +king’s action, and after the triumphant return to the House +of the five members, on the 11th of January, threw himself +into still more pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy +of the crown. He demanded that before anything further was +done the members should be cleared of their impeachment; +was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of Richmond; +and on the 31st of January, when taking up the militia petition +to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the +same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed +starving artificers of London, congregated round the House. +On the 15th of June he carried up the impeachment of the nine +Lords who had deserted the parliament; and he was one of +the committee of safety appointed on the 4th of July.</p> + +<p>On the outbreak of the Civil War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>) +Holles, who had been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent +with Bedford to the west against the marquess of Hertford, +and took part in the unsuccessful siege of the latter at Sherborne +Castle. He was present at Edgehill, where his regiment of +Puritans recruited in London was one of the few which stood +firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the 13th of +November his men were surprised at Brentford during his +absence, and routed after a stout resistance. In December +he was proposed for the command of the forces in the west, +an appointment which he appears to have refused. Notwithstanding +his activity in the field for the cause of the parliament, +the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holles from the +first. As early as September he surprised the House by the +marked abatement of his former “violent and fiery spirit,” +and his changed attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies, +who attributed it scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to +his new wife. He probably foresaw that, to whichever side +victory fell, the struggle could only terminate in the suppression +of the constitution and of the moderate party on which all his +hopes were based. His feelings and political opinions, too, +were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with horror the +transference of the government of the state from the king and +the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now +advocated peace and a settlement of the disputes by concessions +on both sides; a proposal full of danger because impracticable, +and one therefore which could only weaken the parliamentary +resistance and prolong the struggle. He warmly supported +the peace negotiations on the 21st of November and the 22nd +of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the +more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of +complicity in Waller’s plot, but swore to his innocency; and +his arrest with others of the peace party was even proposed +in August, when Holles applied for a pass to leave the country. +The king’s successes, however, for the moment put a stop to +all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holles addressed the +citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them “to +join with their purses, their persons, and their prayers together” +to support the army of Essex. In November Holles and Whitelocke +headed the commission appointed to treat with the king +at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince the royalists of the +necessity of yielding in time, before the “new party of hot men” +should gain the upper hand. Holles and Whitelocke had a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span> +private meeting with the king, when at Charles’s request they +drew up the answer which they advised him to return to the +parliament. This interview was not communicated to the other +commissioners or to parliament, and though doubtless their +motives were thoroughly patriotic, their action was scarcely +compatible with their position as trustees of the parliamentary +cause. Holles was also appointed a commissioner at Uxbridge +in January 1645 and endeavoured to overcome the crucial +difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion altogether. +As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holles now +came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army +faction. “They hated one another equally”; and Holles +would not allow any merit in Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice +and attributing his successes to chance and good fortune. +With the support of Essex and the Scottish commissioners +Holles endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell’s +impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and +“passionately” opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return +Holles was charged with having held secret communications +with the king at Oxford and with a correspondence with Lord +Digby; but after a long examination by the House he was +pronounced innocent on the 19th of July 1645. Determined +on Cromwell’s destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent +counsels of Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell +was too strong to be resisted or provoked, and on the 29th of +March 1647 drew up in parliament a hasty proclamation declaring +the promoters of the army petition enemies to the state; in +April challenging Ireton to a duel.</p> + +<p>The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against +Holles. “They were resolved one way or other to be rid of +him,” says Clarendon. On the 16th of June 1647 eleven members +including Holles were charged by the army with various offences +against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh demands for +their impeachment and for their suspension, which was refused. +On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence, +asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against +them was handed into the House on the 19th of July, and on +the 20th Holles took leave of the House in <i>A grave and learned +speech...</i>. After the riot of the apprentices on the 26th, for +which Holles disclaimed any responsibility, the eleven members +were again (30th of July) recalled to their seats, and Holles was +one of the committee of safety appointed. On the flight of the +speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the army, and +the advance of the latter to London, Holles, whose party and +policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of +August for Sainte-Mère <span class="correction" title="amended from Eglide">Eglise</span> in Normandy. On the 26th of +January 1648 the eleven members, who had not appeared +when summoned to answer the charges against them, were +expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of June, +these proceedings were annulled; and Holles, who had then +returned and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the +eleven members, was discharged. He returned to his seat on +the 14th of August.</p> + +<p>Holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with +the king at Newport on the 18th of September 1648. Aware +of the plans of the extreme party, Holles threw himself at the +king’s feet and implored him not to waste time in useless negotiations, +and he was one of those who stayed behind the rest in +order to urge Charles to compliance. On the 1st of December +he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride’s +Purge on the 6th of December Holles absented himself and +escaped again to France. From his retirement there he wrote +to Charles II. in 1651, advising him to come to terms with the +Scots as the only means of effecting a restoration; but after +the alliance he refused Charles’s offer of the secretaryship of +state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in alarm at the plots being +formed against him was attempting to reconcile some of his +opponents to his government, sent Holles a pass “with notable +circumstances of kindness and esteem.” His subsequent movements +and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in +1656 Cromwell’s resentment was again excited against him as +the supposed author of a tract, really written by Clarendon. +He appears to have been imprisoned, for his release was ordered +by the council on the 2nd of September 1659.</p> + +<p>Holles took part in the conference with Monk at Northumberland +House, when the Restoration was directly proposed, and +with the secluded members took his seat again in parliament on +the 21st of February 1660. On the 23rd of February he was +chosen one of the council to carry on the government during +the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed against +him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on +the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He +took a leading part in bringing about the Restoration, was +chairman of the committee of seven appointed to prepare an +answer to the king’s letter, and as one of the deputed Lords +and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation to Charles +to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his +reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the 5th of June. +He was one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try +the regicides in September and October. On the 20th of April +1661 he was created Baron Holles of Ifield in Sussex, and became +henceforth one of the leading members of the Upper House.</p> + +<p>Holles, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador +to France on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously +English, and a zealous upholder of the national honour and +interests; but his position was rendered difficult by the absence +of home support. On the 27th of January 1666 war was declared, +but Holles was not recalled till May. Pepys remarks on the +14th of November: “Sir G. Cartaret tells me that just now my +Lord Holles had been with him and wept to think in what a +condition we are fallen.” Soon afterwards he was employed +on another disagreeable mission in which the national honour +was again at stake, being sent to Breda to make a peace with +Holland in May 1667. He accomplished his task successfully, +the articles being signed on the 21st of June.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon’s +banishment and was nearly put out of the council in consequence. +In 1668 he was manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner’s +case, in which his knowledge of precedents was of great service, +and on which occasion he published the tract <i>The Grand +Question concerning the Judicature of the House of Peeres</i> (1669). +Holles, who was honourably distinguished by Charles as a “stiff +and sullen man,” and as one who would not yield to solicitation, +now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the +resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court. +Together with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle +Act of 1670 and the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the +latter being chiefly founded on the invasion of the privileges +of the peers which it involved; and he defended with vigour +the right of the Peers to record their protests. On the 7th of +January 1676 Holles with Halifax was summarily dismissed +from the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning +the king in favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holles addressed +a Letter to Van Beuninghen at Amsterdam on “Love to our +Country and Hatred of a Common Enemy,” enlarging upon the +necessity of uniting in a common defence against French aggression +and in support of the Protestant religion. “The People +are strong but the Government is weak,” he declares; and he +attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power +from the nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak +princes. “Save what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken +one true step nor struck one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth.” +He endeavoured to embarrass the government this year in his +tract on <i>Some Considerations upon the Question whether the +parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15 months</i>. It was +held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while for +publishing another pamphlet written by Holles entitled <i>The +Grand Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament</i> +(otherwise <i>The Long Parliament dissolved</i>) the corrector of the +proof sheets was committed to the Tower and fined £1000. +In order to bring about the downfall of Danby (afterwards duke +of Leeds) and the disbanding of the army, which he believed +to be intended for the suppression of the national liberties, Holles +at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many others, in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span> +dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French envoys, +and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter’s presents on +the ground that he was a member of the council, having been +appointed to Sir William Temple’s new modelled cabinet in +1679. Barillon described him as at this period in his old age +“the man of all England for whom the different cabals have the +most consideration,” and as firmly opposed to the arbitrary +designs of the court. He showed moderation in the Popish +Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax +rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed +by his death on the 17th of February 1680.</p> + +<p>The character of Holles has been drawn by Burnet, with whom +he was on terms of friendship. “Hollis was a man of great +courage and of as great pride.... He was faithful and firm to his +side and never changed through the whole course of his life.... +He argued well but too vehemently; for he could not bear +contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn Roman +in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe +but fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a +man of an unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment +when it was not biased by passion.”<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Holles was essentially +an aristocrat and a Whig in feeling, making Cromwell’s supposed +hatred of “Lords” a special charge against him; regarding the +civil wars rather as a social than as a political revolution, and +attributing all the evils of his time to the transference of political +power from the governing families to the “meanest of men.” +He was an authority on the history and practice of parliament +and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already mentioned +was the author of <i>The Case Stated concerning the Judicature +of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals</i> (1675); <i>The Case +Stated of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of +Impositions</i> (1676); <i>Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing +that the Bishops are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital</i> +(1679); <i>Lord Holles his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend +concerning the judicature of the Bishops in Parliament...</i>.<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> He +also published <i>A True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain +French gentlemen</i> (1671), an account of Holles’s intercession on +their behalf and of his dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling; +and he left <i>Memoirs</i>, written in exile in 1649, and dedicated +“to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver St John ... and Mr +Oliver Cromwell....” published in 1699 and reprinted in Baron +Maseres’s <i>Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars</i>, i. 189. Several +speeches of Holles were printed and are extant, and his Letter +to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted.</p> + +<p>Holles married (1) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of +Sir Francis Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of +Sir John Shirley of Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter +Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and (3) in 1666 Esther, daughter +and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of Columbiers in Normandy, +widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left one son, Francis, +who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by his +other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of +his grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holles, in 1694, the estates +devolving on John Holles (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke +of Newcastle.</p> + +<p>Holles’s brother, <span class="sc">John Holles</span>, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666), +was member of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments +before succeeding to the peerage in 1637. He took some part in +the Civil War, but “he was very often of both parties, and never +advantaged either.” The earldom of Clare, which had been +granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John Holles, in return +for the payment of £5000, became merged in the dukedom of +Newcastle in 1694, when John Holles, the 4th earl, was created +duke of Newcastle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Holles’s Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dictionary +of National Biography</i>; by Horace Walpole in <i>Royal and Noble +Authors</i>, ii. 28; by Guizot in <i>Monk’s Contemporaries</i> (Eng. trans., +1851); and by A. Collins in <i>Historical Collections of Noble Families</i> +(1752), and in the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>. See also S. R. Gardiner, +<i>History of England</i> (1883-1884), and <i>History of the Great Civil War</i> +(1893); Lord Clarendon, <i>History of the Rebellion</i>, edited by W. D. +Macray; G. Burnet, <i>History of His Own Time</i> (1833); and B. Whitelock, +<i>Memorials</i> (1732).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Earl Cowper</i>, i. 422.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in +<i>Thomason Tracts</i>, E 199 (55), is a forgery.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Burnet’s <i>History of His Own Times</i>, vi. 257, 268.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The rough draft, apparently in Holles’s handwriting, is in <i>Egerton +MSS.</i> ff. 136-149.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLOWAY, THOMAS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1800-1883), English patent-medicine +vendor and philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd +of September 1800, of humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth +year he lived at Penzance, where he assisted his mother and +brother in the baker’s shop which his father, once a warrant +officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his death. On +coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo, +an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment +which was to carry his name all over the world. The secret of +his enormous success in business was due almost entirely to +advertisement, in the efficacy of which he had great faith. He +soon added the sale of pills to that of the ointment, and began +to devote the larger part of his profits to advertising. Holloway’s +first newspaper announcement appeared on the 15th of October +1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had reached +the sum of £5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing +as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of £50,000 +per annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly +by the two princely foundations—the Sanatorium and the +College for Women at Egham (q.v.), endowed by Holloway +towards the close of his life—that his name will be perpetuated, +more than a million sterling having been set apart by him for the +erection and permanent endowment of these institutions. In +the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who +died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide +what he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university +for women. The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric +donor (he had an unconcealed prejudice against doctors, lawyers +and parsons) died of congestion of the lungs at Sunninghill on +the 26th of December 1883.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLY<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>Ilex Aquifolium</i>), the European representative of a +large genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae, +containing about 170 species. The genus finds its chief development +in Central and South America; is well developed in Asia, +especially the Chinese-Japanese area, and has but few species +in Europe, Africa and Australia. In Europe, where <i>I. Aquifolium</i> +is the sole surviving species, the genus was richly represented +during the Miocene period by forms at first South American and +Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper, <i>Paléont. +végét.</i> iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and +evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly +dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules, +and have a persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate +four- or rarely five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five +stamens adherent to its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous +in the female flowers, and a two- to twelve-celled ovary; the +fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid, and usually red drupe, +containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:389px; height:510px" src="images/img615.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Ilex Aquifolium.</i> Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about ½ nat. size.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. Flower with abortive stamens.</p> +<p>2. Flower with abortive pistil.</p> +<p>3. Floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>4. Fruit.</p> +<p>5. Fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the <span class="grk" title="kêlastros">κήλαστρος</span> of +Theophrastus;<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ang.-Sax. <i>holen</i> or <i>holegn</i>; Mid. Eng. <i>holyn</i> or +<i>holin</i>, whence <i>holm</i> and <i>holmtree</i>;<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Welsh, <i>celyn</i>; Ger. <i>Stechpalme</i>, +<i>Hulse</i>, <i>Hulst</i>; O. Fr. <i>houx</i>; and Fr. <i>houlx</i>),<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>I. Aquifolium</i>, +is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth, ash-coloured +bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3 in. +long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or, +as commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire—a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span> +peculiarity alluded to by Southey in his poem <i>The Holly +Tree</i>. The flowers, which appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious, +as in all the best of the cultivated varieties in nurseries (<i>Gard. +Chron.</i>, 1877, i. 149). Darwin (<i>Diff. Forms of Flow.</i>, 1877, p. +297) says of the holly: “During several years I have examined +many plants, but have never found one that was really hermaphrodite.” +Shirley Hibberd, however (<i>Gard. Chron.</i>, 1877, +ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of “flowers bearing globose +anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries.” +In his opinion, <i>I. Aquifolium</i> changes its sex from male to female +with age. In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of +pollen, though but slightly or not at all shorter than in the male +flowers; the latter are more numerous than the female, and have +a smaller ovary and a larger corolla, to which the filaments +adhere for a greater length. The corolla in male plants falls +off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken into separate +segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly occurs +in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and +southern Europe, from as high as 62° N. lat. in Norway to Turkey +and the Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally +in forest glades or in hedges, and does not flourish under the +shade of other trees. In England it is usually small, probably +on account of its destruction for timber, but it may attain to +60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions one tree at Claremont, +in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak Hill, Shropshire, +are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance from the +ground (<i>N. and Q.</i>, 5th ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant in +France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil +not absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist +sandy loam. Beckmann (<i>Hist. of Invent.</i>, 1846, i. 193) says that +the plant which first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in +Italy was the holly, which is there still considered to indicate +that its habitat is aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by +means of the seeds, which do not normally germinate until their +second year, by whip-grafting and budding, and by cuttings of +the matured summer shoots, which, placed in sandy soil and +kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations, generally +strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in +damp weather in September and October, or, according to some +writers, in spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be +taken that the roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is +rarely injured by frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright +red berries in winter render it a valuable ornamental tree. The +yield of berries has been noticed to be less when a warm spring, +following on a wet winter season, has promoted excess of growth. +There are numerous varieties of the holly. Some trees have +yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In the fruitless +variety <i>laurifolia</i>, “the most floriferous of all hollies” (Hibberd), +the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as <i>femina</i> is, +on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its berries. +The leaves in the unarmed varieties <i>aureo-marginata</i> and <i>albo-marginata</i> +are of great beauty, and in <i>ferox</i> they are studded with +sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant, +and is patient of clipping, which is best performed by the knife. +Evelyn’s holly hedge at Say’s Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long, +9 ft. high and 5 ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn +recommends the employment of seedlings from woods, the +plants should be 9 to 12 in. in height, with plenty of small +fibrous roots, and require to be set 1 to 1½ ft. apart, in well-manured +and weeded ground and thoroughly watered.</p> + +<p>The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially +when from the heartwood of large trees, and almost as white +as ivory, except near the centre of old trunks, where it is brownish. +It is employed in inlaying and turning, and, since it stains well, +in the place of ebony, as for teapot handles. For engraving it +is inferior to box. When dry it weighs about 47½ ℔ per cub. ft. +From the bark of the holly bird-lime is manufactured. From +the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named <i>ilixanthin</i>, +<i>ilicic acid</i>, and a bitter principle, <i>ilicin</i>, which has been variously +described by different analytical chemists. They are eaten by +sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder +for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and +purging, but are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other +birds. The larvae of the moths <i>Sphinx ligustri</i> and <i>Phoxopteryx +naevana</i> have been met with on holly. The leaves are mined +by the larva of a fly, <i>Phytomyza ilicis</i>, and both on them and +the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse <i>Aphis ilicis</i> +(Kaltenbach, <i>Pflanzenfeinde</i>, 1874, p. 427). The custom of +employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at +Christmas is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded +as a survival of the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old +Teutonic practice of hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens +as a refuge for sylvan spirits from the inclemency of +winter. A Border proverb defines an habitual story-teller as +one that “lees never but when the hollen is green.” Several +popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In the county +of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house +before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly +and non-prickly kinds are distinguished as “he” and “she” +holly; and in Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according +as the holly brought at Christmas into a house is smooth or +rough, the wife or the husband will be master. Holly that has +adorned churches at that season is in Worcestershire and Herefordshire +much esteemed and cherished, the possession of a +small branch with berries being supposed to bring a lucky year; +and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly prevalent +in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a door +are a protection against thunder.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the North American species of <i>Ilex</i> are <i>I. opaca</i>, which +resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, <i>I.</i> (<i>Prinos</i>) <i>glabra</i>, and +the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, <i>I.</i> (<i>Prinos</i>) <i>verticillata</i>. +Hooker (<i>Fl. of Brit. India</i>, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four Indian +species of <i>Ilex</i>. The Japanese <i>I. crenata</i>, and <i>I. latifolia</i>, a remarkably +hardy plant, and the North American <i>I. Cassine</i>, are among +the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of several species of +<i>Ilex</i> are used by dyers. The member of the genus most important +economically is <i>I. paraguariensis</i>, the prepared leaves of which constitute +Paraguay tea, or <span class="sc">Maté</span> (q.v.). Knee holly is <i>Ruscus aculeatus</i>, +or butcher’s broom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Broom</a></span>); sea holly, <i>Eryngium maritimum</i>, +an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly of America, <i>Nemopanthes +canadensis</i>, also a member of the order Ilicineae.</p> + +<p>Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, <i>Arboretum</i>, ii. +506 (1844).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. Plant.</i> i. 9. 3, iii. 3. 1, and 4. 6, <i>et passim</i>. On the <i>aquifolium</i> +or <i>aquifolia</i> of Latin authors, commonly regarded as the +holly, see A. de Grandsagne, <i>Hist. Nat. de Pline</i>, bk. xvi., “Notes,” +pp. 199, 206.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The term “holm,” as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is +stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain. +From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree <i>Quercus Ilex</i>, +the evergreen oak, received the appellation of “holm-oak.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Skeat (<i>Etymolog. Dict.</i>, 1879) with reference to the word holly +remarks: “The form of the base <span class="sc">Kul</span> (= Teutonic <span class="sc">Hul</span>) is probably +connected with Lat. <i>culmen</i>, a peak, <i>culmus</i>, a stalk; perhaps +because the leaves are ‘pointed.’” Grimm (<i>Deut. Wörterb.</i> Bd. iv.) +suggests that the term <i>Hulst</i>, as the O.H.G. <i>Hulis</i>, applied to the +butcher’s broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for hedges, +may have reference to the holly as a protecting (<i>hüllender</i>) plant.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLYHOCK<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (from M.E. <i>holi</i>—doubtless because brought +from the Holy Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.)—and A.-S. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span> +<i>hoc</i>, a mallow), <i>Althaea rosea</i>, a perennial plant of the natural +order <i>Malvaceae</i>, a native of the East, which has been cultivated +in Great Britain for about three centuries. The ordinary +hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the florists’ varieties have +all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose, purple, violet and +other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in its prime +about August, but by careful management examples may be +obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Hollyhocks +are propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or +by planting out in rich sandy soil, in a close frame, with a gentle +bottom heat, single eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from +outgrowths of the old stock or of the lateral offsets of the spike. +The seed may be sown in October under cover, the plants +obtained being potted in November, and kept under glass till +the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or June, +in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best +removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants +are not disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance +about April and May. Seedlings may also be raised in February +or March, by the aid of a gentle heat, in a light and rich moist +soil; they should not be watered till they have made their +second leaves, and when large enough for handling should be +pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently transferred +to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched +and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be +staked; and water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure +should be liberally supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition +require the side growths to be pinched out; and it is recommended, +in cold, bleak or northerly localities, when the flowering +is over, and the stalks have been cut off 4 to 6 in. above the soil, +to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the finest double-flowered +kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland. +The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation. +The forms now grown are due to the careful selection and +crossing of varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties +may be raised with certainty from plants growing near together.</p> + +<p>The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the +attacks of slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, <i>Puccinia +malvacearum</i>, which is a native of Chile, attained notoriety +in the Australian colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in +1869, threatened the extermination of the hollyhock, the soft +parts of the leaves of which it destroys, leaving the venation +only remaining. It has been found especially hurtful to the +plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on the wild mallows. +The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard pale-brown +pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a resting-period, +but when produced late in the season may last as resting-spores +until next spring. Spraying early in the season with +Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means +of treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs +of being attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants +such as mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-spider +injures the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay +by syringing the plants frequently with plenty of clean water.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLLY SPRINGS,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Marshall +county, Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m. +S.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559 +negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs is served by the Illinois +Central and the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (Frisco +System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded streets, +and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat +of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal +institution for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College +(1905; Presbyterian), for white girls; and of the North Mississippi +Agricultural Experiment Station. The principal industries +are the ginning, compressing and shipping of cotton, and the +manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city also manufactures +pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity, and has +an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The municipality +owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting +plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered +as a city in 1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant +established here a large depot of supplies designed for the use +of the Federal army while on its march toward Vicksburg, but +General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of cavalry, surprised +the post at daylight on the 20th of this month, burned the supplies +and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home and is +the burial-place of Edward Cary Walthall (1831-1898), a Democratic +member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and +in 1895-1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLMAN, JAMES<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1786-1857), known as the “Blind +Traveller,” was born at Exeter on the 15th of October 1786. +He entered the British navy in 1798 as first-class volunteer, and +was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In 1810 he was invalided +by an illness which resulted in total loss of sight. In consideration +of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812 appointed one +of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such a +life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests +that he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819, +1820 and 1821 journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland, +the parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the +Netherlands. On his return he published <i>The Narrative of a +Journey through France</i>, &c. (London, 1822). He again set out +in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of the world, but +after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was suspected +of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate +1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the +frontiers of Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia +and Hanover. He now issued <i>Travels through Russia, Siberia</i>, +&c. (London, 1825). Shortly afterwards he again set out to +accomplish by a somewhat different method the design which +had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an account +of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes +in 1834-1835, under the title of <i>A Voyage round the World, +including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &c., +from 1827 to 1832</i>. His last journeys were through Spain, +Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro, Syria and Turkey; and he +was engaged in preparing an account of this tour when he died +in London on the 29th of July 1857.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1809-1894), American writer +and physician, was born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge, +Mass. His father, Abiel Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist +clergyman, the writer of a useful history, <i>Annals of America</i>, +and of much very dull poetry. His mother (the second wife of +Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New York family. +Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas +Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her +he derived his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic +humour and wit. From Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered +Harvard in the “famous class of ’29,” made further illustrious +by the charming lyrics which he wrote for the anniversary +dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching “After +the Curfew.” After graduation he studied law perfunctorily +for a year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by +a spirited lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old +frigate <i>Constitution</i>. These verses were sung all over the land, +and induced the Navy Department to revoke its order and save +the old ship. Turning next to medicine, and convinced by a +brief experience in Boston that he liked it, he went to Paris in +March 1833. He studied industriously under Louis and other +famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his vacations +visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy. Returning +to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high professional +ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only +moderate success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer +of gay little poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not sufficiently +serious. He won prizes, however, for professional papers, +and lectured on anatomy at Dartmouth College. He wrote +two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked with trenchant +wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New England. +In 1843 he published his essay on the <i>Contagiousness of Puerperal +Fever</i>, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon +him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position +with dignity, temper and judgment; and in time he was honoured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span> +as the discoverer of a beneficent truth. The volume of his +medical essays holds some of his most sparkling wit, his shrewdest +observation, his kindliest humanity. In 1840 he married Amelia +Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles Jackson (1775-1855), +formerly associate justice of the State supreme judicial court, +a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She died in +the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell +Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench +on which his grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed +professor of anatomy and physiology In the Medical School +of Harvard University, the duties involving the giving of instruction +also in kindred departments, so that, as he said, he +occupied “not a chair, but a settee in the school.” He delivered +the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later years +these were his only link with the medical profession. They were +fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at +the end of the day, when they were fagged, because he alone +could keep them awake. In later years he made few finished +contributions to medical knowledge; his eager and impetuous +temperament caused him to leave more patient investigators +to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by his +fertile and imaginative mind.</p> + +<p>In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at +Harvard University, he published his first volume of <i>Poems</i>, +which afterwards reached a second edition. Among these earlier +lyrics was “The Last Leaf,” one of the most delicate combinations +of pathos and humour in literature. His collected poetry +fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a Boston publishing house +(Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James Russell Lowell to +edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on condition that +he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this urgent +invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for +heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of +Cambridge and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once +threw himself into the enterprise with zeal. He christened it +<i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>; and, as Mr Howells afterwards said, he +“not only named but made” it, for in each number of its first +volume there appeared one of the papers of the <i>Autocrat of the +Breakfast Table</i>. The opening of the <i>Autocrat</i>—“I was just +going to say when I was interrupted”—is explained by the fact +that in the old <i>New England Magazine</i> (1831 to 1833) the Doctor +had published two <i>Autocrat</i> papers, which, by his wish, have +never been reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new +magazine would inevitably have failed had it not been for these +fascinating essays. Their originality of conception, their wit +and humour, their suggestions of what then seemed bold ideas, +and their expression of New Englandism, all combined to make +them so popular that the most harassed merchant in that gloomy +winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus Dr +Holmes made <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, which in return made +him. A success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest +of his career; he ceased to be a physician and became an author. +These twelve papers were immediately (1858) published as a +volume. No sooner was the <i>Autocrat</i> silent than the <i>Professor</i> +(1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table. The <i>Professor</i> +was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has hardly +been so widely popular as the <i>Autocrat</i>. Its theology, which +seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict +and old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day +it seems mild enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady +had another boarder, who took the vacant chair—the <i>Poet</i> +(published 1872). But here Holmes fell a little short. In these +three books, especially in the <i>Autocrat</i> and the <i>Professor</i>, the +Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner table in Boston, +but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused him. The +dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston’s proudest +traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes’s life. +There he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner, +Agassiz, Motley, and many other charming talkers, and among +them all he was admitted to be the best.</p> + +<p>There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in +the <i>Autocrat</i> and the <i>Professor</i>. Holmes had an ambition for +more sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, <i>Elsie Venner</i>, at +first called <i>The Professor’s Story</i>, was published. The book +was illuminated throughout by admirable pictures of character +and society in the typical New England town. But the rattlesnake +element was unduly extravagant, and in other respects +the book was open to criticism as a work of art. It was written +with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of the +Doctor’s literary work, and which had already been scented +and nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity +the Doctor was a theologian; no other topic enchained him +more than did the stern and merciless dogmas of his Calvinist +forefathers. His humanity revolted against them, his reason condemned +them, and he set himself to their destruction as his task +in literature. The religious world of his time was still so largely +under the control of old ideas that he was assailed as a freethinker +and a subverter of Christianity; though before his death opinions +had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon him +seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most +vehemently made them. None the less, undaunted and profoundly +earnest, he returned, six years later, to the same line of +thought in his second novel, <i>The Guardian Angel</i> (published +1867). This, though less well known than <i>Elsie Venner</i>, is in +many respects better. No more lifelike and charming picture +of the society of the New England country-town of the middle +third of the 19th century has ever been drawn, and every page +sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed, +still in the same line, by <i>A Mortal Antipathy</i>, a production +inferior to its predecessors.</p> + +<p>Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from +those “causes” of temperance, abolition and woman’s rights +which enthralled most of his contemporaries in New England. +The Civil War, however, aroused him for the time; finding him +first a strenuous Unionist, it quickly converted him into an +ardent advocate of emancipation. His interest was enhanced +by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below), who was three +times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of lieut.-colonel +in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war +lyrics, and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in +Boston, which showed a masterly appreciation of the stirring +public questions of the day. In 1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir +of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an affectionate tribute to +one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he contributed the +life of Emerson to the American “Men of Letters” series. He +admired the “Sage of Concord,” but was not quite in intellectual +sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in +widely different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume +proved very popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he +happily christened <i>Over the Tea Cups</i>. As a <i>tour de force</i> on the +part of a man of nearly fourscore years they are very remarkable.</p> + +<p>After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston, +with summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and +occasional trips to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then +undertook a four months’ journey in Europe, and in England +had a sort of triumphal progress. On his return he wrote <i>Our +Hundred Days in Europe</i> (1887), a courteous recognition of the +hospitality and praise which had been accorded to him. During +this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters, +Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford +University made him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880, +Harvard University had made him Doctor of Laws. He died +on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried from King’s Chapel, +Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn.</p> + +<p>His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from +Harvard in 1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the +army as brevet lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of +law and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1866. He was +for some years editor of the <i>American Law Review</i>, and after +being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was appointed +in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court, +rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge +of the United States Supreme Court. His work on <i>The Common +Law</i> (1881) and his edition (1873) of Kent’s <i>Commentaries</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span> +are his principal publications; and he became widely recognized +as one of the great jurists of his day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Holmes’s <i>Complete Works</i>, in 13 volumes, were +published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, <i>Life and Letters of Oliver +Wendell Holmes</i> (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, <i>Bibliography</i> (Boston, +1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley’s <i>American Authors</i> +(Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to the +“Golden Treasury” edition (1903) of <i>The Autocrat of the Breakfast +Table</i>. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy +(Boston, 1882); Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. Mo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLMFIRTH,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on +and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m. S. of Huddersfield, and on the +Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 8977. The +valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In 1852 great +destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a reservoir +in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed in +woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLOCAUST<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="holokauston">ὁλοκαυστον</span>, or <span class="grk" title="holokauton">ὁλόκαυτον</span>, wholly burnt), +strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the sacrifices +of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as “whole burnt +offerings” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>). The term is now often applied to a +catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a +massacre or slaughter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLOCENE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="holos">ὅλος</span>, whole, <span class="grk" title="kainos">καινός</span>, recent), in geology, +the time division which embraces the youngest of all the formations; +it is equivalent to the “Recent” of some authors. The +name was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits +that may be included are those containing neolithic implements; +deposits of historic times should also be grouped here; presumably +the youngest are those to be chronicled by the last man. +The Holocene formations obviously include all the varieties of +deposits which are accumulating at the present day: the gravels +and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and fluvio-glacial +deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the seas, +and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust +and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline +waters; peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes; +coral, algal and shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud, +lava and dust deposits of volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt +and pitch; to all these must be added the works of man.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1861-  ), British artist, was +born in Leeds on the 9th of April 1861. He received his art +education under Professor Legros at the Slade School, University +College, London, where he had a distinguished career. After +passing six months at Newlyn, where he painted his first picture +exhibited in the Royal Academy, “Fishermen Mending a Sail” +(1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied for two +years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At his +return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years +assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself +to painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned +“The Death of Torrigiano” (1886), “The Satyr King” (1889), +“The Supper at Emmaus,” and, perhaps his best picture, “Pan +and Peasants” (1893). For the church of Aveley, Essex, he +painted a triptych altarpiece, “The Adoration of the Shepherds,” +with wings representing “St Michael” and “St Gabriel,” and +designed as well the window, “The Resurrection.” His portraits, +such as that of “G. F. Watts, R.A.,” in the Legros manner, show +much dignity and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his +chief reputation as an etcher of exceptional ability, combining +strength with delicacy, and a profound technical knowledge of +the art. Among the best known are the “Monte Oliveto” +series, the “Icarus” series, the “Monte Subasio” series, and +the “Eve” series, together with the plates, “The Flight into +Egypt,” “The Prodigal Son,” “A Barn on Tadworth Common” +(etched in the open air), and “The Storm.” His etched +heads of “Professor Legros,” “Lord Courtney” and “Night,” +are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness. His principal +dry-point is “The Bather.” In all his work Holroyd displays +an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and of +style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was +appointed the first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art +(Tate Gallery), and on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter +in 1906 he received the directorship of the National Gallery. +He was knighted in 1903. His <i>Michael Angelo Buonarotti</i> +(London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly work of real value.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1837-1909), German statesman, +for more than thirty years head of the political department +of the German Foreign Office. Holstein’s importance began +with the dismissal of Bismarck in 1890. The new chancellor, +Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and Holstein, as the +repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became indispensable. +This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been ascribed to the +part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair, which +had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due +to a shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness +of his position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately +responsible. He protested against the despatch of the “Kruger +telegram,” but protested in vain. On the other hand, where +his ideas were acceptable, he was generally able to realize them. +Thus it was almost entirely due to him that Germany acquired +Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and the acquisition +of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and pertinacity +with which Holstein carried through his plans in these matters +was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired +Bismarck’s faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences. +This is true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the +Morocco crisis. The emperor William II.’s journey to Tangier +was undertaken on his advice, as a protest against the supposed +attempt at the isolation of Germany; but of the later developments +of German policy in the Morocco question he did not +approve, on the ground that the result would merely be to +strengthen the Anglo-French <i>entente</i>; and from the 12th of +March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To +the last he believed that the position of Germany would remain +unsafe until an understanding had been arrived at with Great +Britain, and it was this belief that determined his attitude +towards the question of the fleet, “beside which,” he wrote in +February 1909, “all other questions are of lesser account.” +His views on this question were summarized in a memorandum +of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a <i>résumé</i>. +He objected to the programme of the German Navy League on +three main grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in +South Germany, (2) the inevitable dislocation of the finances +through the huge additional charges involved, (3) the suspicion +of Germany’s motives in foreign countries, which would bind +Great Britain still closer to France. As for the idea that +Germany’s power would be increased, this—he wrote in reply +to a letter from Admiral Galster—was “a simple question of +arithmetic”; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively +increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built +two? Herr von Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince +Bülow, and died on the 8th of May 1909.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hermann von Rath, “Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein” +in the <i>Deutsche Revue</i> for October 1909. He is also frequently +mentioned <i>passim</i> in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe’s <i>Memoirs</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEIN,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110 +the county of Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and +it was made a duchy in 1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled +by members of the house of Oldenburg, some of whom were also +kings of Denmark. It is now the southern part of the Prussian +province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein</a></span>, and +for history <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1825-1897), German +theologian, was born at Güstrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of +March 1825, and educated at Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock, +where in 1852 he became a teacher of religion in the Gymnasium. +In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New Testament studies, +passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he remained until +his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an adherent +of the Tübingen school, and held to Baur’s views on the alleged +antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his writings are <i>Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus</i> +(1867); <i>Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt</i> (1880); <i>Die synoptischen +Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts</i> (1886).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> the Latinized name of Luc Holste +(1596-1661), German humanist, geographer and theological +writer, was born at Hamburg. He studied at Leiden university, +where he became intimate with the most famous scholars of the +age—J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius, whom he +accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed +at his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native +town, he left Germany for good. Having spent two years in +Oxford and London, he went to Paris. Here he obtained the +patronage of N. de Peiresc, who recommended him to Cardinal +Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the possessor of the most +important private library in Rome. On the cardinal’s return +in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his palace and +made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman Catholicism +in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by +strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the +Congregation of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the +Vatican by Innocent X., and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander +VII. to receive Queen Christina’s abjuration of Protestantism. +He died in Rome on the 2nd of February 1661. Holstenius was +a man of unwearied industry and immense learning, but he +lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he +had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier’s <i>Italia +antiqua</i> (1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630), +with a dissertation on his life and writings, described as a model +of its kind; notes on Eusebius <i>Against Hierocles</i> (1628), on +the Sayings of the later Pythagoreans (1638), and the <i>De diis +et mundo</i> of the neo-Platonist Sallustius (1638); <i>Notae et +castigationes in Stephani Bysantini ethnica</i> (first published in +1684); and <i>Codex regularum, Collection of the Early Rules of the +Monastic Orders</i> (1661). His correspondence (<i>Epistolae ad +diversos</i>, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable source of +information on the literary history of his time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Wilckens, <i>Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii</i> (Hamburg, +1723); Johann Moller, <i>Cimbria literata</i>, iii. (1744).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLSTER,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman +and properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn +in the belt. The same word appears in Dutch, from which the +English word probably directly derives. The root is <i>hel</i>- or <i>hul</i>- to +cover, and is seen in the O. Eng. <i>heolster</i>, a place of shelter or +concealment, and in “hull” a sheath or covering. The German +word for the same object, <i>holfter</i>, is, according to the New +<i>English Dictionary</i>, from a different root.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLT, SIR JOHN<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England, +was born at Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642. +His father, Sir Thomas Holt, possessed a small patrimonial +estate, but in order to supplement his income had adopted the +profession of law, in which he was not very successful, although +he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his political +services to the “Tories” was rewarded with knighthood. After +attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon, +of which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year +entered Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very +dissipated youth, and even to have been in the habit of taking +purses on the highway, but after entering Gray’s Inn about 1660 +he applied himself with exemplary diligence to the study of law. +He was called to the bar in 1663. An ardent supporter of civil +and religious liberty, he distinguished himself in the state trials +which were then so common by the able and courageous manner in +which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In 1685-1686 +he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time +he was made king’s sergeant and received the honour of knighthood. +His giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the +king to exercise martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal +from the office of recorder, but he was continued in the office +of king’s sergeant in order to prevent him from becoming counsel +for accused persons. Having been one of the judges who acted +as assessors to the peers in the Convention parliament, he took +a leading part in arranging the constitutional change by which +William III. was called to the throne, and after his accession he +was appointed lord chief justice of the King’s Bench. His merits +as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable +when contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors +in office. In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness +of statement and unbending integrity he has had few if +any superiors on the English bench. Over the civil rights of his +countrymen he exercised a jealous watchfulness, more especially +when presiding at the trial of state prosecutions, and he was +especially careful that all accused persons should be treated with +fairness and respect. He is, however, best known for the firmness +with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the +authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several occasions +his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme +tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police +to help the soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger +that if any of the people were shot he would have the soldiers +hanged, and proceeding himself to the scene of riot he was +successful in preventing bloodshed. While steadfast in his +sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained on the bench +entire political impartiality, and always held himself aloof from +political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the chancellorship +in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it. +His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710. +He was buried in the chancel of Redgrave church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt</i> (1681-1710) appeared +at London in 1738; and <i>The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby +v. White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed +from original MSS.</i>, at London (1837). See Burnet’s <i>Own Times</i>; +<i>Tatler</i>, No. xiv.; a <i>Life</i>, published in 1764; Welsby, <i>Lives of Eminent +English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries</i> (1846); Campbell’s +<i>Lives of the Lord Chief Justices</i>; and Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1798-1880), German poet +and actor, was born at Breslau on the 24th of January 1798, +the son of an officer of Hussars. Having served in the Prussian +army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly afterwards entered the +university of Breslau as a student of law; but, attracted by +the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his début +in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller’s <i>Maria Stuart</i>. +He led a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less +on the stage as an actor than as a reciter of his own poems. +In 1821 he married the actress Luise Rogée (1800-1825), and +was appointed theatre-poet to the Breslau stage. He next +removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an engagement at +the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the +vaudevilles <i>Die Wiener in Berlin</i> (1824), and <i>Die Berliner in Wien</i> +(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour. +In 1825 his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an +engagement at the Königsstädter theatre in Berlin, when he +wrote a number of plays, notably <i>Lenore</i> (1829) and <i>Der alte +Feldherr</i> (1829). In 1830 he married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839), +an actress engaged at the same theatre, and with her +played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831 he wrote +for the composer Franz Gläser (1798-1861) the text of the opera +<i>Des Adlers Horst</i> (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama, +<i>Der dumme Peter</i> (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the +stage and toured with his wife to various important cities, +Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Vienna. In the last +his declamatory powers as a reciter, particularly of Shakespeare’s +plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor was given the appointment +of manager of the Josefstädter theatre in the last-named +city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and reciter, +Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the +theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering +through Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement +at Breslau, he settled in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself +to a literary life and produced the novels <i>Die Vagabunden</i> (1851), +<i>Christian Lammfell</i> (1853) and <i>Der letzte Komödiant</i> (1863). +The last years of his life were spent at Breslau, where being in +poor circumstances he found a home in the <i>Kloster der barmherzigen +Brüder</i>, and here he died on the 12th of February 1880.</p> + +<p>As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the +“vaudeville” into Germany; as an actor, although remaining +behind the greater artists of his time, he contrived to fascinate +his audience by the dramatic force of his exposition of character; +as a reciter, especially of Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span> +Lewald said of Holtei that by the energy of his poetic conception +and plastic force he brought his audience round to his own ideas; +and he added, “an eloquence such as his I have never met with +in any other German.”</p> + +<p>Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great +charm. Notable among such productions are <i>Schlesische +Gedichte</i> (1830; 20th ed., 1893), <i>Gedichte</i> (5th ed., 1861), <i>Stimmen +des Waldes</i> (2nd ed., 1854). Mention ought also to be made +of Holtei’s interesting autobiography, <i>Vierzig Jahre</i> (8 vols., +1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with the supplementary volume +<i>Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien</i> (1864).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Holtei’s <i>Theater</i> appeared in 6 vols. (1867); his <i>Erzählende Schriften</i>, +39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, <i>Karl von Holtei, ein +Lebensbild</i> (1880); F. Wehl, <i>Zeit und Menschen</i> (1889); O. Storch, +<i>K. von Holtei</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1748-1776), +German poet, was born on the 21st of December 1748 at the +village of Mariensee in Hanover, where his father was pastor. +In 1769 he went to study theology at Göttingen. Here he formed +a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H. Boie, the +brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders +of the famous society of young poets known as the <i>Göttinger +Dichterbund</i> or <i>Hain</i>. When in 1774 he left the university he +had abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he +was not destined to enter any other profession. He died of +consumption on the 1st of September 1776 at Hanover. Hölty +was the most gifted lyric poet of the Göttingen circle. He was +influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his love for the +Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the +artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other. +A strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads +are the pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models, +which sprang up in Germany during the next few years. Among +his most familiar poems may be mentioned <i>Üb’ immer Treu’ und +Redlichkeit</i>, <i>Tanzt dem schönen Mai entgegen</i>, <i>Rosen auf dem +Weg gestreut</i>, and <i>Wer wollte sich mit Grillen plagen?</i></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hölty’s <i>Gedichte</i> were published by his friends Count Friedrich +Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition, +enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but +still imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first +complete edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had +access to MSS. not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, <i>Hölty, sein Leben +und Dichten</i> (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, <i>Der Göttinger Dichterbund</i>, +vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Hölty’s +poetry will be found.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> +(1829-1889), German jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in +the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th of October 1829, was +descended from a family of the old nobility. He was educated +at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the universities +of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of +1848 inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained +for the rest of his life a strong advocate of political liberty. +In 1852 he graduated LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a +Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was nominated a professor extraordinary. +The predominant party in Prussia regarded his +political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an +ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided +to accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he +passed the last nineteen years of his life. During the thirty +years that he was professor he successively taught several +branches of jurisprudence, but he was chiefly distinguished as +an authority on criminal and international law. He was +especially well fitted for organizing collective work, and he has +associated his name with a series of publications of the first +value. While acting as editor he often reserved for himself, +among the independent monographs of which the work was +composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators +on account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among +the compilations which he superintended may be mentioned +his <i>Encyclopädie der Rechtswissenschaft</i> (Leipzig, 1870-1871, +2 vols.); his <i>Handbuch des deutschen Strafrechts</i> (Berlin, 1871-1877, +4 vols.), and his <i>Handbuch des Völkerrechts auf Grundlage +europäischer Staatspraxis</i> (Berlin, 1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among +his many independent works may be mentioned: <i>Das irische +Gefängnissystem</i> (Leipzig, 1859), <i>Französische Rechtszustände</i> +(Leipzig, 1859), <i>Die Deportation als Strafmittel</i> (Leipzig, 1859), +<i>Die Kürzungsfähigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen</i> (Leipzig, 1861), <i>Die +Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland</i> (Berlin, 1864), +<i>Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft</i> (Berlin, 1865), <i>Die +Principien der Politik</i> (Berlin, 1869), <i>Das Verbrechen des Mordes +und die Todesstrafe</i> (Berlin, 1875), <i>Rumäniens Uferrechte an +der Donau</i> (Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also +edited or assisted in editing a number of periodical publications +on legal subjects. From 1866 to the time of his death he was +associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow in editing <i>Sammlung +gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge</i> (Berlin). +Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of February 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1832-  ), German +Protestant theologian, son of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877), +was born on the 17th of May 1832 at Karlsruhe, where +his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme +consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) was +appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately +liberal theologian, he became best known as a New Testament +critic and exegete, being the author of the Commentary on the +Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed., 1901), the Johannine books (1890; +2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the Apostles (1901), in the series +<i>Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament</i>. On the question of +the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in his +early work, <i>Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und +geschichtlicher Charakter</i> (1863), presents a view which has been +widely accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving +Matthew in its present form from Mark and from Matthew’s +earlier “collection of Sayings,” the Logia of Papias, and Luke +from Matthew and Mark in the form in which we have them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Other noteworthy works are the <i>Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen +Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i> (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the +<i>Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (2 vols., 1896-1897). He +also collaborated with R. Zöpffel in the preparation of a small +<i>Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen</i> (1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in +1893 became editor of the <i>Theol. Jahresbericht</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLUB, EMIL<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central +Africa, was born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the +7th of October 1847. He was educated at Prague University, +where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went to the Kimberley +diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his practice +as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal, +Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria +Falls, making extensive natural history collections, which he +brought to Europe in 1879 and distributed among over a hundred +museums and schools. In 1883 he went back to South Africa +with his wife, intending to cross the continent to Egypt. In +June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of the Victoria +Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between +that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the +Kafue the camp was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and +Holub was obliged to retrace his steps. He returned to Austria +in 1887 with a collection of great scientific interest, of over +13,000 objects, now in various museums. Holub died at Vienna +on the 21st of February 1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are: <i>Eine Culturskizze des Marutse-Mambunda-reichs</i> +(Vienna, 1879); <i>Sieben Jahre in Südafrika</i>, &c. (2 vols., +Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation appeared; <i>Die +Colonisation Afrikas</i> (Vienna, 1882); and <i>Von der Kapstadt ins Land +der Maschukulumbe</i> (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLY,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or +observance; a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection +and sinlessness of the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of +human worship and reverence, and hence transferred to those +human persons who, either by their devotion to a spiritual +ascetic life or by their approximation to moral perfection, +are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old English +was <i>hálig</i>, and is common to other Teutonic languages; +cf. Ger. and Dutch <i>heilig</i>, Swed. <i>helig</i>, Dan. <i>hellig</i>. It is +derived from <i>hál</i>, hale, whole, and cognate with “health.” +The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests that the sense-development +may be from “whole,” <i>i.e.</i> inviolate, from “health, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span> +well-being,” or from “good-omen,” “augury.” It is impossible +to get behind the Christian uses, in which from the earliest +times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin <i>sacer</i> and +<i>sanctus</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLY ALLIANCE, THE.<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> The famous treaty, or declaration, +known by this name was signed in the first instance by Alexander +I., emperor of Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and +Frederick William III., king of Prussia, on the 26th of September +1815, and was proclaimed by the emperor Alexander the same +day at a great review of the allied troops held on the Champ +des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text is as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia.</i></p> + +<p>Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and +the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events +which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and +especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to +shower down upon those States which place their confidence and +their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the +necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their +reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion +of our Saviour teaches;</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Government and Political Relations.</i></p> + +<p>They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object +than to publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, +both in the administration of their respective States, and in their +political relations with every other Government, to take for their +sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts +of Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being +applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate +influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being +the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying +their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed +on the following Articles:—</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Principles of the Christian Religion.</i></p> + +<p>Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which +command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting +Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and +indissoluble fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen, +they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid +and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects +and armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same +spirit of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, +Peace and Justice.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Fraternity and Affection.</i></p> + +<p>Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether +between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be +that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable +good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be +animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same +Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as +merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One +family, namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the +Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in +reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really +belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love, +science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour, +the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties +consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender +solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises +from a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen +themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise +of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Accession of Foreign Powers.</i></p> + +<p>Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the +sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall +acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too +long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the +destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will +be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.</p> +</div> + +<p>The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by +the Baroness von Krüdener (<i>q.v.</i>); in any case it was the outcome +of the tsar’s mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its +inception perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor +Francis signed willingly, the latter remarking that “if it was a +question of politics, he must refer it to his chancellor, if of +religion, to his confessor.” Metternich called it a “loud-sounding +nothing,” Castlereagh, “a piece of sublime mysticism and +nonsense.” None the less, in accordance with its last article, +the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited to the +instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being +excepted. The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on +the constitutional ground that all acts of the British crown +required the counter-signature of a minister, but he sent a letter +expressing his “entire concurrence with the principles laid down +by the ‘august sovereigns’ and stating that it would always be +his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their ‘sacred maxims.’” +With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns sooner or +later appended their names.</p> + +<p>In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language +of serious historians, the “Holy Alliance” soon became +synonymous with the combination of the great powers by whom +Europe was ruled in concert during the period of the congresses, +and associated with the policy of reaction which gradually +dominated their counsels. For the understanding of the inner +history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear distinction +must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand, +or Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was +established on definite treaties concluded for definite purposes, +of which the chief was the preservation of peace on the basis of +the territorial settlement of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a +general treaty—hardly indeed a treaty at all—which bound its +signatories to act on certain vague principles for no well-defined +end; and in its essence it was so far from necessarily reactionary +that the emperor Alexander at one time declared that it involved +the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their subjects. +Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the tsar +to make it the basis of the “universal union,” or general confederation +of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual +committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated +by the vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the +mouthpiece of the British government (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander I.</a></span> of Russia; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Londonderry, Robert Stewart, +2nd Marquis of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a +matter of fact, became effective. None the less, its principles +and the fact of its signature powerfully affected the course of +European diplomacy during the 19th century. It strongly +influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, to whom the +brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an article of +faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin (between +Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar’s intervention +in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of his +brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a +conspiracy against popular liberties was, however, a mere +accident of the point of view of those who interpreted its principles. +It was capable of other and more noble interpretations, +and it was avowedly the inspiration of the famous rescript of +the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the circular of Count +Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898), which +issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague +in 1899.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLYHEAD<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned +by Matthew Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmôn, Anglesey), +a seaport and market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on +the small Holy Island, at the western end of the county. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 10,079. Here the London and North-Western +railway has a terminus, 263½ m. from London by rail. +Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an embankment, +¾ m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the tide +flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village, +the town has since William IV.’s reign acquired importance as +the Dublin mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge +was begun in 1847 and opened in September 1873. The east +breakwater scheme, which would have covered the Platter’s +rocks—still very troublesome—and the Skinner’s, was abandoned +for buoys which mark the spots. The north breakwater is +7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). The +roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together +make a magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound +of the breakwater was very costly to the railway company, as +time after time it was swept away by storms. On it is a central +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> +wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and on the wall a promenade +sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the end of the +breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1½ million +sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to +extend the old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft., +were opened by King Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880. +These cost another half million. George IV. passed through +Holyhead in 1821 on his way to Ireland, and there is a commemorative +tablet on the old harbour pier. The church is said +to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early 7th century) +of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. The +churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the +south of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner, +of the steam packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi +rises perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at +some 2 m. from the town; it is a mass of serpentine rocks, off +which lie the North and South Stacks, each with a lighthouse +with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and 197 ft. above high +water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of British +fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman +watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding +and the Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hon. W. Stanley’s <i>Holy Island and Holyhead</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLY ISLAND,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Lindisfarne</span>, an irregularly shaped island +in the North Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in +which county it is included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to +the mainland at low water by flat sands, over which a track, +marked by wooden posts and practicable for vehicles, leads to the +island. There is a station on the North-Eastern railway at +Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island, but 1¼ m. inland. +The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1½ N. to S., extreme +distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it is sandy +and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation. +Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands, +and, with fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported. +There are several fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east +is a lake of 6 acres. At the south-west angle is the little +fishing village (formerly much larger) which is now a favourite +summer watering-place. Here is the harbour, offering good +shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its name from a +monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as a +cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still +extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott’s description +of it as a “solemn, huge and dark-red pile.” An islet, lying off +the S.W. angle, has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to +have offered a retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The +castle, situated east of the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft. +high, dates from <i>c.</i> 1500.</p> + +<p>When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach +to the Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the +site of his church and monastery, and made it the head of the +diocese which he founded in 635. For some years the see continued +in peace, numbering among its bishops St Cuthbert, +but in 793 the Danes landed on the island and burnt the settlement, +killing many of the monks. The survivors, however, +rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when, +through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland, +taking with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics. +The church and monastery were again destroyed and the bishop +and monks, on account of the exposed situation of the island, +determined not to return to it, and settled first at Chester-le-Street +and finally at Durham. With the fall of the monastery +the island appears to have become again untenanted, and +probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham +established there a cell of monks from their own house. The +inhabitants of Holy Island were governed by two bailiffs at +least as early as the 14th century, and, according to J. Raine +in his <i>History of North Durham</i> (1852), are called “burgesses +or freemen” in a private paper dated 1728. In 1323 the bailiffs +and community of Holy Island were commanded to cause all +ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell +with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under +double manning to be ready to set out on the kings service. +Towards the end of the 16th century the fort on Holy Island +was garrisoned for fear of foreign invasion by Sir William +Read, who found it very much in need of repair, the guns being +so decayed that the gunners “dare not give fire but by trayne,” +and the master gunner had been “miserably slain” in discharging +one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for +the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the +parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected +with the island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to +hold it for the Pretender.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1817-1906), English secularist +and co-operator, was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April +1817. At an early age he became an Owenite lecturer, and in +1841 was the last person convicted for blasphemy in a public +lecture, though this had no theological character and the incriminating +words were merely a reply to a question addressed +to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent +six months’ imprisonment, and upon his release invented +the inoffensive term “secularism” as descriptive of his opinions, +and established the <i>Reasoner</i> in their support. He was also +the last person indicted for publishing an unstamped newspaper, +but the prosecution dropped upon the repeal of the tax. His +later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the co-operative +movement among the working classes. He wrote +the history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), <i>The History of +Co-operation in England</i> (1875; revised ed., 1906), and <i>The +Co-operative Movement of To-day</i> (1891). He also published +(1892) his autobiography, under the title of <i>Sixty Years of an +Agitator’s Life</i>, and in 1905 two volumes of reminiscences, +<i>Bygones worth Remembering</i>. He died at Brighton on the 22nd +of January 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. McCabe, <i>Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake</i> (2 vols., 1908); +C. W. F. Goss, <i>Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J. +Holyoake</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLYOKE,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., in a bend of the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N. +of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915; (1890) 35,637; (1900) +45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total population in +1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991 French-Canadians, +5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626 were +of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including +12,370 of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The +city’s area is about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston +& Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, +and by an interurban line. Holyoke is characteristically an +industrial and mercantile city; it has some handsome public +buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded in 1870, +being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke +is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley, +about 4 m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with +South Hadley by an electric line. Just above Holyoke the +Connecticut leaves the rugged highlands through a rift between +Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a mountain-railway from +Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a meandering +valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume some +60 ft. in about 1½ m. The water-power was unutilized until +1849, when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which +enabled vast power to be developed along a series of canals +laid out from the river. This was, in its day, a colossal undertaking; +and its success transformed Holyoke from a farming +village into a great manufacturing centre—in 1900 and 1905 +the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam +(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was +completed at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures +first, and later paper products were chief in importance, and +Holyoke now leads all the cities in the United States in the +manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total value of all factory +products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or 34.6% of +the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton +goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding +and blank books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +products. Silk and worsted goods are other important manufactures. +Opposite Holyoke, in Hampshire county, is South +Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and operates the gas +and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the water-supply +being derived from natural ponds, some of which are +outside the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York, +New Haven & Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.) +to Westfield, Mass. Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield, +and after 1774 of West Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated +as a township, and in 1873 was chartered as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLYSTONE,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for +scrubbing and cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word +is doubtful. Some authorities hold that it arose from the general +practice of scrubbing the decks for Sunday service; while others +think the name arises from the fact that the stone so employed +is naturally porous and full of holes. A small flint or stone having +a natural hole in it, and worn as a charm, is also called a holystone.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLY WATER,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> technically the water with which Christian +believers sign the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving +church. The edict of Gratian lays down that it should be +exorcized and blessed by the priest and sprinkled with exorcized +salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian, Gregorian and other +sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed once a +month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday. +In the 4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on +entering the church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ablution</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for +baptisms and other lustrations. “Water,” says Tertullian in +his tract on baptism, “was the abode at the first of the divine +Spirit, being more acceptable then (to God) than the other +elements.” He pictures the world in the beginning: “total +darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars, the melancholy +abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The liquid +alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own +right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God.” Water was +similarly pure in itself in the old Persian religion.</p> + +<p>The <i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>, or Egyptian church order, of about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250, give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact +that “at cock crow the baptismal party shall take their stand +near waving water, pure, prepared, sacred, of the sea.” The +<i>Teaching of the Apostles</i>, <i>c.</i> 100, merely insists on “living,” +that is, clear and running water. The ancient feeling, especially +Jewish, was that in lustrations the same water must not pass +twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless. Bubbling +waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.</p> + +<p>Either because running water was not always at hand, or +as part of the growing tendency of the church to multiply +ceremonies, rituals arose late in the 3rd century for consecrating +water. The sacramentary of Serapion, <i>c.</i> 350, provides a prayer +asking that the divine Word may descend into the water and +hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan. In the Roman order +of baptism the priest prays that “the font may receive the grace +of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and that the latter +may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this water +prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man +through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb +of the divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a +new creature.” The water is then exorcized and evil spirits +warned off, and lastly blessed. During the prayer the priest +twice signs the water with the cross, and once blows upon it.</p> + +<p>The first mention of a special consecration of water for other +ends than baptism is in the <i>Acts of Thomas</i> (? <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200); it is +for the purgation of a youth already baptized who had killed +his mistress because she would not live chastely with him. The +apostle prays: “Fountain sent unto us from Rest, Power of +Salvation from that Power proceeding which overcomes and +subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these waters, +that the <i>Charisma</i> (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully perfected +through them.” The youth then washes his hands, which on +touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.</p> + +<p>The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy +Spirit is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense +in water, just as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and +carried away by it. So Tertullian writes: “The water which +carried the Spirit of God (probably regarded as a shadow or +reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that which was carried +upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb and +take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially +does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate +and settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance.”</p> + +<p>“Water,” he continues, “was generically hallowed by the +Spirit of God brooding over it at creation, and therefore all +special waters are holy, and at once obtain the sacrament of +sanctification when God is invoked (over them.) For the Spirit +from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon the waters, hallowing +them out of itself, and being so hallowed they drink up a +power of hallowing.”</p> + +<p>What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated +in the unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice +and fraud are not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt. +“The waters are medicated in a manner through the intervention +of the angel, and the Spirit is corporeally washed in the water +and the flesh is spiritually purified in the same.”</p> + +<p>Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God +was invoked, like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As +regards rival Isiac and Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their +waters are destitute of divine power; nay, are rather tenanted +by the devil who in this matter sets himself to rival God. “Without +any religious rite at all,” he urges, “unclean spirits brood +upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial gestation of the +divine Spirit.” And he instances the “darkling springs and +lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful +spirit.” In the sequel he defines the rôle of the angel of baptism +who does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first; +but merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures +their being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the +rite of confirmation which immediately follows. “The devil +who till now ruled over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the +water.”</p> + +<p>From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us—akin to +the folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and +water-worship in general—was to Tertullian and to the generations +of believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions +and beliefs of the church, nothing less than grim reality and +unquestionable fact.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, <i>The Blessing +of the Waters</i> (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i> +(London, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLY WEEK<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="hebdomas megalê, hagia">ἑβδομὰς μεγάλη, ἁγία</span> or <span class="grk" title="tôn hagiôn, xêrophagias, +apraktos">τῶν ἁγίων, ξηροφαγίας, ἄπρακτος</span>, +also <span class="grk" title="hêmerai pathêmatôn, hêmerai staurôsimai">ἡμέραι παθημάτων, ἡμέραι σταυρώσιμαι</span>: <i>hebdomas</i> +[or <i>septimana</i>] <i>major</i>, <i>sancta</i>, <i>authentica</i> [<i>i.e.</i> <i>canonizata</i>, du +Cange], <i>ultima</i>, <i>poenosa</i>, <i>luctuosa</i>, <i>nigra</i>, <i>inofficiosa</i>, <i>muta</i>, <i>crucis</i>, +<i>lamentationum</i>, <i>indulgentiae</i>), in the Christian ecclesiastical year +the week immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion +to the custom of marking this week as a whole with special +observances is to be found in the <i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> +(v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +Abstinence from wine and flesh is there commanded for all the +days, while for the Friday and Saturday an absolute fast is +enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical epistle +(260 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), refers to the six fasting days (<span class="grk" title="hex tôn nêsteiôn hêmerai">ἕξ τῶν νηστειῶν ἡμέραι</span>) +in a manner which implies that the observance of them had +already become an established usage in his time. There is +some doubt about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed +to Constantine, in which abstinence from public business was +enforced for the seven days immediately preceding Easter +Sunday, and also for the seven which followed it; the <i>Codex +Theodosianus</i>, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions +at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law be closed +during those fifteen days (l. ii. tit. viii.). Of the particular days +of the “great week” the earliest to emerge into special prominence +was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum +Magnum (Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span> +in the early church was associated with an expectation that the +second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic +Church during this week, reference must be made to the <i>Missal</i> and +<i>Breviary</i>. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar +practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Easter</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Good Friday</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maundy Thursday</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palm Sunday</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Passion Week</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLYWELL<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>Tre’ffynnon</i>, well-town), a market town and +contributory parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales, +situated on a height near the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m. +from London by the London & North-Western railway (the +station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban district (1901) 2652. +The parish church (1769) has some columns of an earlier building, +interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The remains of +Basingwerk Abbey (<i>Maes glas</i>, green field), partly Saxon and +partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain +origin but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131 +Ranulph, 2nd earl of Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In +1535, when Its revenues were £150, 7s. 3d., it was dissolved, but +revived under Mary I. and used as a Roman Catholic burial +place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of Basingwerk castle, +an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the 19th century, +Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries, +lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory, +copper, brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and +mineral water, flannel and cement works. St Winifred’s holy +well, one of the wonders of Wales, sends up water at the rate +of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying temperature, +higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative +powers many crutches and <i>ex voto</i> objects, hung round the well, +as in the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the +bottom are slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances. +The well itself is covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have +been erected by Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother +of Henry VII., with some portions of earlier date. The chapel +(restored) is used for public service. Catholics and others visit +it in great numbers. There are swimming baths for general use. +In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims was erected. Other public +buildings are St Winifred’s (Catholic) church and a convent, +a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is expedited +by quays on the Dee.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLYWOOD,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east +shore of Belfast Lough, 4½ m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast +& County Down railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a +favourite residential locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast. +There was a religious settlement here from the 7th century, which +subsequently became a Franciscan monastery. The old church +dating from the late 12th or early 13th century marks its site. +A Solemn League and Covenant was signed here in 1644 for the +defence of the kingdom, and the document is preserved at Belfast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOLZMINDEN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, +on the right bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger +Mountains, at the junction of the railways Scherfede-Holzminden +and Soest-Börssum, 56 m. S.W. of Brunswick. Pop. +(1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic +church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of +engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on +agriculture and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of +chemicals, but weaving and the making of pottery are also +carried on, and there are baryta mills and polishing-mills for +sandstone. By means of the Weser it carries on a lively trade. +Holzminden obtained municipal rights from Count Otto of +Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession of +Brunswick.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:62px" src="images/img624.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">HOLZTROMPETE<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument somewhat +resembling the Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed +by Richard Wagner for representing the natural pipe of the +peasant in <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>. This instrument is not unlike +the cor anglais in rough outline, being a conical tube of approximately +the same length, terminating in a small globular bell, +but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a cup-shaped +mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in +the key of C; the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby +the upper partials from the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A +single piston placed at a third of the distance from the mouthpiece +to the bell gives the notes D and F. Wagner inserted a +note in the score concerning the +cor anglais for which the part +was originally scored, and advised +the use of oboe or clarinet to +reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful +natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural +scale be specially made for the part, which would be preferable. +The Holztrompete was used at Munich for the first performance +of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>, and was still in use there in 1897. At +Bayreuth it was also used for the Tristan performances at the +festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W. Heckel’s clarina, +an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and clarinet, +was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained +ever since, having been found more effective.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMAGE<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (from <i>homo</i>, through the Low Lat. <i>hominaticum</i>, +which occurs in a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used +in the granting of a fief, and indicating the submission of a +vassal to his lord. It could be received only by the suzerain +in person. With head uncovered the vassal humbly requested +to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he then laid +aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling before +his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between +the hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: “I become +your man from this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold +faith to you for the lands I claim to hold of you.” The oath of +fealty, which could be received by proxy, followed the act of +homage; then came the ceremony of investiture, either directly +on the ground or by the delivery of a turf, a handful of earth, a +stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was done not +only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but +by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they +were not granted absolutely but only on condition of military +and other service. An infant might do homage, but he did not +thus enter into full possession of his lands. The ceremony was +of a preliminary nature, securing that the fief would not be +alienated; but the vassal had to take the oath of fealty, and +to be formally invested, when he reached his majority. The +obligations involved in the act of homage were more general +than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided +a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They +essentially resembled the obligations undertaken towards a +Teutonic chief by the members of his “comitatus” or “gefolge,” +one of the institutions from which feudalism directly sprang. +Besides <i>homagium ligeum</i>, there was a kind of homage which +imposed no feudal duty; this was <i>homagium per paragium</i>, +such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of France, +and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of +Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not +interfere with the vassal’s allegiance as a subject to his sovereign, +or with his duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold +lands.</p> + +<p>The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a +manorial court, or of the court in a court baron (consisting of +the tenants that do homage and make inquiries and presentments, +termed a <i>homage jury</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMBERG, WILHELM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1652-1715), Dutch natural philosopher, +was the son of an officer of the Dutch East India Company, +and was born at Batavia (Java) on the 8th of January 1652. +Coming to Europe with his family in 1670, he studied law at +Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate at Magdeburg. +In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von Guericke, +and under his influence determined to devote himself to natural +science. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for +study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled +in Paris in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician +at Rome; then returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a +member of the Academy of Sciences and appointed director of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +its chemical laboratory. Subsequently he became teacher of +physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician (1705) to +the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th of +September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical +tendencies, but he made many solid contributions to chemical +and physical knowledge, recording observations on the preparation +of Kunkel’s phosphorus, on the green colour produced in +flames by copper, on the crystallization of common salt, on the +salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by acids, on the freezing +of water and its evaporation <i>in vacuo</i>, &c. Much of his work +was published in the <i>Recueil de l’Académie des Sciences</i> from +1692 to 1714. The <i>Sal Sedativum Hombergi</i> is boracic acid, +which he discovered in 1702, and “Homberg’s phosphorus” +is prepared by fusing sal-ammoniac with quick lime.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a town and watering-place +of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily +situated at the south-east foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m. +N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which it is connected by rail. +Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old and a new +town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg +Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides +the palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral +water-cure, there are churches of various denominations, +Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Russian-Greek and Anglican, +schools and benevolent institutions. On a neighbouring hill +stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in 1680 and +subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower, +183 ft. in height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly +existed under the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in +the 12th century. The palace is surrounded by extensive +grounds, laid out in the manner of an English park. The eight +mineral springs which form the attraction of the town to +strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates +and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime. +Their use is beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines, +and externally, for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The +establishments connected with the springs are arranged on a +scale of great magnificence, and include the Kurhaus (built +1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser Wilhelmsbad and the +Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park which +also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various recreations, +such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The +industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture +of leather and hats, but they are comparatively unimportant, +the prosperity of the town being almost entirely +due to the annual influx of visitors, which during the season +from May to October inclusive averages 12,000. In the beautiful +neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of Saalburg, +which can be reached by an electric tramway.</p> + +<p>Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834, +and owing to its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after, +it rapidly became one of the favourite and most fashionable +health-resorts of Europe. In 1849 the town was occupied by +Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing the imperial decree +against gambling establishments, but immediately on their +withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued +unchecked until 1872, when the Prussian government refused +to renew the lease for gambling purposes, which then expired. +As the capital of the former landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, +the town shared the vicissitudes of that state.</p> + +<p>Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900) +4785. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, +and manufactures of iron goods. In the neighbourhood are the +ruins of the castles of Karlsberg and of Hohenburg. The family +of the counts of Homburg became extinct in the 15th century. +The town came into the possession of Zweibrücken in 1755 +and later into that of Bavaria.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Supp, <i>Bad Homburg</i> (7th ed., Homburg, 1903); Baumstark, +<i>Bad Homburg und seine Heilquellen</i> (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek, +<i>Homburg und Umgebung</i> (Homburg, 1896); Will, <i>Der Kurort +Homburg, seine Mineralquellen</i> (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, <i>Bad +Homburg und sein Heilapparat</i> (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-Davies, +<i>Homburg and its Waters</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOME, EARLS OF.<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> Alexander Home or Hume, 1st earl of +Home (<i>c.</i> 1566-1619), was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Home +(d. 1575), who fought against Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry +Hill and at Langside, but was afterwards one of her most stalwart +supporters, being taken prisoner when defending Edinburgh +castle in her interests in 1573 and probably dying in captivity. +He belonged to an old and famous border family, an early member +of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of Verneuil +in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander +Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the +family fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491), +was created a lord of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being +one of the band of nobles who defeated the forces of King James +III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488. Other distinguished +members of the family were: the first lord’s grandson and +successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain +of Scotland; and the latter’s son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home +(d. 1516), a person of great importance during the reign of +James IV., whom he served as chamberlain. He fought at +Flodden, but before the death of the king he had led his men +away to plunder. During the minority of the new king, James +V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart, +duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September +1516 he was seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded, +his title and estates being restored to his brother George in 1522. +George, who was killed in September 1547 during a skirmish +just before the battle of Pinkie, was the father of Alexander, +the 5th lord.</p> + +<p>Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father’s death +in August 1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents +which marked the reign of James VI. He was warden of the +east marches, and was often at variance with the Hepburns, +a rival border family whose head was the earl of Bothwell; +the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old one, +and it was probably the main reason why Home’s father, the +5th lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of +her intimacy with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to +England in 1603 and was created earl of Home in 1605; he died +in April 1619.</p> + +<p>His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his +titles passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Coldingknows +(d. 1666), a descendant of the 1st Lord Home. This +earl was in the Scottish ranks at the battle of Preston and lost +his estates under the Commonwealth, but these were restored +to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the 8th earl (d. 1761) +fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his brother +Alexander, the 9th earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home +is descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the 11th earl +(1799-1881), was created a peer of the United Kingdom as +Baron Douglas, and his son Charles Alexander, the 12th earl +(b. 1834), took the additional name of Douglas. The principal +strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in Haddington +and Home castle in Berwickshire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Drummond, <i>Histories of Noble British Families</i> (1846).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 *** + +***** This file should be named 39232-h.htm or 39232-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/2/3/39232/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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